What the Buddha Taught

mg.rthen-thisiro-mal1ofssa-.on-ticcaand:nceer.2I taselnnedhistand1 ISanyIledoISnedute.lorWillLUseor:omnee,tantina(9)0.b'\\4~1~.ll'\\4bth.J1lO)~CJ~-!l~\"lJ1~VnUvvCJ7\"lf7~)(9)(9).b'\\4~1~\"lJ1~bth..Ju'o)~CJ~-!l~(9)v)\"lJ~1 lJ~ru~ l?1fl~ '.J~bVld~ Vlfl\"ll\"1~\"1( 7~\"lf,VvvCJ7\"If'S7:JJ'StUoJ. ). .~f)€l15~:g1I'lbil~lJ1~l~-!l€l~bb~~~lbth.JIPl€lhJt11~?1m~lb~'o)m~mJnl~lJn'o)~v~v~~1~-!l'o)~fl1~~'U 1'.J\"1J€l-!lm~'UTUfl1~ ~-!ld b'\\4~1 €ll\"lJ\"lJ1~'Uhj~~TUb~Vl~€l ~-!l~ ~-!l\"1J1~1~'U,b'\\4~1~~-!l\"1J1~~'U~-!l~'Ul(1j(1j1rul~. . b'\\4~1~\"lJ1~~'U ~-!l~'U\"lJ~1 lJ~ru::; l?1fl::;.\"1 \"1 ~~ 1~-!l\"ihll11€l-!lrl'.J~::;fl€l'Ubb ~::;9)'dbU'UU'o)~CJlPl(tlilvWfJ{UUUU )::l'UVllJd~6~~lJ11~d CJtlilvvffJ/tlU7'Yt'b'\\4~l~u::;CJdoV€lbU'UU'o)~CJ-!l'lJ€l-!ln'Ubb~~n'U 1lJ~€l-!lrl'lh::;fl€l'U9)'d l~~?1:w'U~rul 'U9)'db€l-!lVl~mU'Ub€lfl bVlf31~ ,1'U~-!l1lJ~-!l'IJtJjilJ bVl~1'U'\\4~::;'1Vl6f311?1'U1~-!l~1~mhd 1'.Jbb~d\"bb~::;l\"n~rhi1-:11l~dCJ11'.J~'o)\"il?1~'.J'U1VlbiJ'Ul!l!l~llJl~b ~€llJ lCJ-:ln'Ubb'U'U?11CJ16il'\"I\"ld1lJi1flf1~~?1~::; bU'UhVlcJ~I\"l~€l-!ll\"ld1lJ~lrl(1j1'Ul\"ld lJf1~ bb~::;'.J1\"lJ(1j1 'U'U1'l~1'U1u~flVl111 'U~~'U'Uf1~ 'U'U'\\4Vl6 ~€lf1~l'lllJVI~fl'.Jn'o)\"il?1lJ'.J'U1Vl r'lmlJv11'U€l-:ldhJ~ubuae,6..J,mlJ1~t11.ll'\\4\"lJ1~biJ'U~-!l\"1J1'l6~~lJf)€l~-:I~bil~'o)1flfl1~'.J~-:I bblPl-:lb~€llJ lCJ-:I~lJ~'U bb~::;en~CJ5,fl'U I\"ld1lJUflf1~~?1~~'o)~m#l€l~1-!l1 ~1'Ubd€ll\"ld1lJUflf1~,1'UbiJ'U~d'UVl~-!l\"1J -:l-U'U5~€lcs::( oJ lJ7'S-VU6)ff \"~€l-:lbil~';hlJn'U'U1lJ-U'U5~'U~miJ'UU'o)~CJVl~-!l(tlilvvffJ/tluuu )::~-!l~b~CJfl11 m~J77w'1'Ul~fldllJb?1~m~'b'\\4~l::;i1U'o)~CJ'.J~-:lbblPl-!l'rrnJ.j'rJn~0~f{'S::'( I'lfll\"il1~ru)1,~bU'U~-!l\"1J1'l6~~lJi1€l ~1#l bblPlllJi11'U€l~-:I\"1J1'l6~~lJ ~€l~-:I\"il~-!l Vl?1lJ'U~ru~'.J~1f31\"il1 fl fl1 ~u'IJ'IJtJ~-!lbblPl-:lllJ~€l~ 1~~bU'U~?1~::;€l~l-!l?1lJ'U~rul'Ul~fldllJ11'o)::;biJ'U~'.JVl~€l'U1lJb'\\4~l::;~-!l,'IJ'IJ~1-:1'l~d'Ui1U'o)~CJ'.J~-!lbblPl-!lbU'U~-!l\"1JI'l~ 1lJ~l\"ld1:WUflf1~~?1~::;~VllJ1CJ~-!ll\"ld1lJUflf1~~1lJ~€l-!len~mVl~,y 'o)~CJIPl1-!l~ l'Ufl1~bil~~'UI\"ld1lJf1~Vl~€l~-!l~'Ul'Uvh'U€l-!lb~CJdn'Ubil~~'UlJ11~CJ1lJ~bVlI'l,y'o)~CJ'.J~-!lbb~llJl~ l'Ubd€ll\"ld1:W~l\"ld1lJbU'U~-!l'.Jd-!l€l1~CJfn~'.J~-!lbb~~-!lbn~,,'• f/'Yl76ln'if'71iJiT/iJfj/fj/7{]iJU'YlL'Ylff[';)(j)UIi]I>~\"I-IU1l!:lli.;r1~~\"Jv.f010~..1 '~01-3~01~V!3• ..~~<~<d';-..•V11 Yi\"JYI\"J1nVl lJeJ1\"J\"J tlt'iU1fJt'i \"ilJYl11 i'lqjYlG1V1\"J~ n1\"iflm:m u\"ifJU LYlfJULL\"l:fJ\"J~l:\"i1Vln1\"i1Li'l\"i1l:\"I-I1 n1:lLm\"itl~\"I.I~VlfJ\"l:LtlfJVl'ilEJ1\"J(:,J\"~W)1~1fJYiYlt'itl-r\"!Jflt1'U'N~L~fJ\"J~fi1~ \"Jl: ~lJW~~'I•\"t:'U

is conditioned and relative? Here again, the idea of Free Will isbasically connected with the ideas of God, Soul, justice, rewardand punishment. Not only so-called free will is not free, buteven the very idea of Free Will is not free from conditions.According to the doctrine of Conditioned Genesis, as well asaccording to the analysis of being into Five Aggregates, the idea, Iof an abiding, immortal substance in man or outside, whether itis calledAlman,'1', Soul, Self, or Ego, is considered only a falsebelief, a mental projection. This is the Buddhist doctrine ofAnatta,No-Soul or No-Self.In order to avoid a confusion it should be mentioned here thatthere are two kinds of truths: conventional truth(sammuli-sacca,Skt.saf!1Vrli-satya)and ultimate truth(paramattha-sacca,Skt.paramdrlha-satya).lWhen we use such expressions in our dailylife as'!', 'you', 'being', 'individual', etc., we do not lie becausethere is no self or being as such, but we speak a truth conformingto the convention of the world. But the ultimate truth is that thereis no'1'or 'being' in reality. As theMahaydna-siilrdlankdrasays:'A person(pudgala)should be mentioned as existing only indesignation(prajnapli)(i.e., conventionally there is a being),but not in reality (or substancedravya),.2'The negation of an imperishableAlmanis the commoncharacteristic of all dogmatic systems of the Lesser as well as theGreat Vehicle, and, there is, therefore, no reason to assume thatBuddhist tradition which is in complete agreement on this pointhas deviated from the Buddha's original teaching.'3Itis therefore curious that recently there should have been avain attempt by a few scholars+to smuggle the idea of selfinto theteaching of the Buddha, quite contrary to the spirit of Buddhism.These scholars respect, admire, and venerate the Buddha and histeaching. They look up to Buddhism. But they cannot imaginethat the Buddha, whom they consider the most clear and profoundthinker, could have denied the existence of anAlmanor Selfwhich they need so much. They unconsciously seek the support ofthe Buddha for this need for eternal existence-of course not in aISaratthaII(PTS), p.77.2Mh.siitralankara, XVIII 92.3H. von Glasenapp, in an article 'Vedanta and Buddhism' on the question ofAnatta,The Middle JPay,February,1957,p.154·4The late Mrs. Rbys Davids and others. See Mrs. Rhys Davids'Gotama the Man,Stikya or Buddhist Origins, A Manual of Buddhism, What was the Original Buddhism,etc.55_P

Will iseward~,butIS.'ellas~ideaherit.falseie of!thatsacca,Skt.dailycauserrungtheresays:.yIning),monithethatointen aItheIsm.IhisgmeundSelf:tofman ofMan,etc.~nb ~'I.Jfi''U f)1l~~~1'Ub~€J-:)f)1l~Ufl~~B?l1~n~'U b~€J-:)~1~lfl~'Uf)Jl~~~ lii~1~lb~ 1irurulruf)1l:WCJ~hi11:Wfl111Vff)rubbr.1~ Vl~ 1~bv:lCJ-:)bbl'iml:wufl~~B?l1~~~ hm?l1~bVh,r'U1IV V1\"q~l floV 511:w\"hvl1 CJtlli~ '<il?l~tI'U1Vl€Iua~oV€J511:W~bbCJnuu~~~i1r.1fl€I€IfibU'U-n'U5 ~fldl:W~~lliiuriuuVi~bu'U€J:W~~~11-:)€JtlmCJ1'U'VI~€JfllCJ'U€Jfl~1\"IJm~'U hJll~~b1CJfllleJf9wn'II'l'J7' ~~1~~1~'U VI~€J\"lb~ i11'Ubbl'ibU'Uf)1l:Wb~€J~~~ bU'Ubv:lCJ-:)fl11~~1tlb€J-:)tifleJ511:W\"IJ€J-:)'lJ1Trm5llvl1CJenYIPWJ7ml:w1:w1~~11\"1l~'U,b~eJ1:w1Vfbfl~ml:W~'UG'f'U \"IJ€Jfl~1111ru ~dllf)1l:W'<il1-:)ii?l€J-:)eJtll-:)fl€JfYlflf~ff1111::(ml:W~1-:)~~'U~fl'U)fl'U'l.hUIPJ6Jff1111::(ml:W~1-:)?l-:)?l~)'\"b~€J1offrll~~ 1'U~1~tl1~\"ihl'UJ'J\"'J,n 'rVD lfftJeJlPJIPJ7'~hJilru7dtfJlffY~TCJl Vu~n'l:1ru::iJlf'VfJ.:jJviJ7CJUUCJ7UU~::1Iv/7CJ7Ufj\"hiill'IIIlPJtJ6r~11::ffu{J'I:1~7uJ'7'111~ntJTw'VfJ\"6ff7J'WVJfJyjl (Juri( fJ\"lPJ nul u'r\",...,'I.h::l~'/../dLOml uu V117Im47fYfJ'/../~l~lf'VfJ\"'W'r::'WVJfJl-if7\" n,~-:),r'U~-:)bU'Ub~eJ-:)OU1'UtN'U~b~€Jb~J1dii'fltl11OU~'Ul-:)f)'tt~VW1CJ1:W~~~?l€J~unsnfl1l:W~~b~eJ-:)~1~'UboVl1til'Urll?l€J'U\"lJeJ-:)~1~~Vl5b~1~-:)\"I ~b'iJ'Ub~€J-:)~~1-:)fl'UoVl:Wfl'Ubdmb Vf\"IJ€J-:)~1~~Vl5l\"11?f'U1 bbl'ihJ1vl ~r.1 'l1fltl11OUru bVI~ldbf)11~ii''U~mbr.1~?l11b?l~ru,vv~~~~~tllib?l5f)1l~iieJ~\"IJ€J-:)eJIPJ1PJ7V1~€J~1~'U~~1n~'U~lbU'U~€J-:)iifin1bb~1~-:):W€J-:)Vl1rll?f€J'U\"IJ€J-:)~1~~Vl5 b~1~~~?l'U €J-:)~€J'Uf)1l:wtl11 1t;1'Ulb~€J-:)?lfll1 ~~ bu'U'W~'U~1,•,n1(1/{)t}t}mfiiJ(~L:a~tl'l ifIIlU1Jm 1ei~n'l~)'~•JjYl7lJ7tJ fj(1}'i7-Mm1(~L:a~tl'l'i(lIlU1Jm~1ei~n'l~)• H. von Glasenapp1'tJ1JY1m1l.J~\"'Vedanta and Buddhism'';h~\"WL~.,~.,i(l1mThe MiddleW y a~l.Jm~'tJl5

petty individual self with small s, but in the big Selfwith a capitalS.Itis better to say frankly that one believes in anAlmanor Self.Or one may even say that the Buddha was totally wrong in deny-ing the existence of anAtman.But certainly it will not do for anyone to try to introduce into Buddhism an idea which the Buddhanever accepted, as far as we can see from the extant original texts.Religions which believein God and Soul make no secret of thesetwo ideas; on the contrary, they proclaim them, constantly andrepeatedly, in the most eloquent terms. If the Buddha had acceptedthese two ideas, so important in all religions, he certainly wouldhave declared them publicly, as he had spoken about other things,and would not have left them hidden to be discovered only25centuries after his death.People become nervous at the idea that through the Buddha'steaching ofAnatta,the self they imagine they have is going to bedestroyed. The Buddha was not unaware of this.A bhikkhu once asked him: 'Sir, is there a case where one istormented when something permanent within oneself is notfound?''Yes, bhikkhu, there is,' answered the Buddha. 'A man has thefollowing view: \"The universe is thatAlman,I shall be thatafter death, permanent, abiding, ever-lasting, unchan ing, and Igshall exist as such for eternity\". He hears the Tathagata or adisciple of his, preaching the doctrine aiming at the completedestruction of all speculative views ... aiming at the extinction of\"thirst\", aiming at detachment, cessation, Nirvana. Then thatman thinks: \"I will be annihilated, I will be destroyed, I will beno more.\" So he mourns, worries himself, laments, weeps, beatinghis breast, and becomes bewildered. Thus, 0 bhikkhu, there is acase where one is tormented when something permanent withinoneself is not found.'1Elsewhere the Buddha says: '0 bhikkhus, this idea that I maynot be, I may not have, is frightening to the uninstructed world-lin'2g.Those who want to find a 'Self' in Buddhism argue as follows:Itis true that the Buddha analyses being into matter, sensation,1MI (PTS),pp.136-137.2Quoted in MA II (PTS), p.112.

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perception, mental formations, and consciousness, and says thatnone of these things is self. But he does not say that there is noself at all in man or anywhere else, apart from these aggregates.This position is untenable for two reasons:One is that, according to the Buddha's teaching, a being iscomposed only of these Five Aggregates, and nothing more.Nowhere has he said that there was anything more than theseFive Aggregates in a being.The second reason is that the Buddha denied categorically, inunequivocal terms, in more than one place, the existence ofA/man,Soul, Self, or Ego within man or without, or anywhereelse in the universe. Let us take some examples.In theDhammapadathere are three verses extremely importantand essential in the Buddha's teaching. They are nos. 5, 6 and 7 ofchapter XX (or verses277, 278, 279)'The first two verses say:'All conditioned things are impermanent'(Sabbe SA~.fKI-IARAanicca),and 'All conditioned things aredtlkkha' (Sabbe SAJy.f-KHARAdtlkkha).The third verse says:'Alldhammasare without self'(Sabbe DHAMMAa al/a).n1Here it should be carefully observed that in the first two versesthe wordsa,!lkhara'conditioned things' is used. But in its placein the third verse the worddhammais used. Why didn't thethird verse use the wordsa,!Jkhara'conditioned things' as theprevious two verses, and why did it use the termdbammdinstead?Here lies the crux of the whole matter.The termsa?!1khara2denotes the Five Aggregates, all con-ditioned, interdependent, relative things and states, both physicaland mental. If the third verse said: 'Allsa,!Jkhara(conditionedthings) are without self', then one might think that, althoughconditioned things are without self, yet there may be a Selfoutside conditioned things, outside the Five Aggregates. It is iniF.L.Woodward's translation of the worddhammahereby 'All states compounded'is quite wrong. (The Buddha'sPath of Virtue,Adyar, Madras, India, 19 9, p. 69·)2'All states compounded' means onlysaf!1khara,but notdhamma.2Saf!1kharain the list of the Five Aggregates means 'Mental Formations' or 'MentalActivities' producing karmic effects. But here it means all conditioned or com-pounded things, including all the Five Aggregates. The termsaf!1kharahas differentconnotations in different contexts.57

that~ruru1 i1'1\"lJ1'~ LL~~iruru1ruLL~~9l-r6'l\"h oU'ULhVl~htl1l.lih)'Ul(il~L'lJ'Ue)9l9l1IV\"CVv1~1~9l-r6'l111l.liJe)9l9l11'UlJ'UW8V1~eJ1'U~~'U 'UeJflLVlUeJhJ\"iJ1floUtH5ct•; noites.glSore.lesef,In:ofrereL~l,r'U 1l.liJeJ~ 11~'UlJ1fl1 'I..Irrhtl1l.l1~Vl116'leJ'U1'Uvfl(il 1 LmJ111 'Ui19l1~f1f1~iJ~I~'U l(illnfl1 'I..Ird1oUw5ct'1..11~fl11~6'leJI ~eJ Yl1~~Vl5L{)lVl11'1..1l)L6'l5eJcJ1 i(ilL\"iJ'U~dtJtlmJrl1~1l.liJ 1'1fl(ilLtJ'U1VlvcJ11~'Ul'U~~11 1lJ1flfll1V1t11LLvllrhhjiJeJIPJ1PJ7iqjqj1ru~d9l'U VI~eJib~ hI11i11tJl'UVl1eJi11tJ'UeJfl~df1'UVI~eJ1'U~~'U l(ill 'U~md1~lJ1(il~deJcJ11~eJ 1'I..I.Q'lJtant7of1'Ur5~~lI'Un (\"l1'l1nnUn7EJ)iJf11m~~lri'ru~ILL~~LtJ'ULLri'Urll6'leJ'U\"lJeJlYl1~YlVl5L{)1,...q1'U~f1f1d11f1 (f11mIvmJmJ IvmJ~ IvmJ )~f11~16'leJlf11~lU1flfl~ld11'ffWlWff':}V1~1 eJUUU1'(i11\"lJ11~I'I..Idl1l.lL~tJI) LL~~'ffWLW ff':}V1~1 nmn',(~I\"lJ11~I'I..IdlLtJ'UVlfl-U)•RAIM-rseslacethethead?f11m~Q1fl~ldl1'ffWLW53J3.11mJ1PJ1PJ1'511lJ~I'I..IdlLtJ'Umr9lmOl1'U~.Q ~li1 Lfl9leJcJ111eJ'Uf1eJ'..d16'leJlf11mLL1fll-il'rl1111ir'J\"lJ7~ 'ii'J~VlmEJiJuv-J'EJtJ'J'JLlIPJ''JJLL9lb'Uf11m~Q1l-il'rl111r5~~1ILVI9l1(ill'Uf11m~Q1~l1lJb-il'rl111ir'J\"lJ71L\"li'U,.:on-icalnedughSelfSIn\"\"\"'o.J'UVIlVllJ(ilrl111ir'J\"lJ71'VllJ1tJt;iloUW5ct~I~d'UiJU\"iJ~tJ'I..I1'1LL~I eJ1l\"i'tJfl'ULL~~n'U i1m~'tJ5•n'U ~I~LtJ'U1'1..1LL~~'U1lJ tl1f11m~Q1-U11~'Ufl~ldl1'ffWLW ff':}V1~1 mJ1PJ1PJ1'neJ1\"iJ'lJ~~'Vh1~fl(ill '..111LLif11~I~iiu\"iJ~tJ'I..I11 LL~'1LtJ'UeJU9lmLL~neJ1\"iJ\"iJ~iJe)9l9l1eJcJ~l1V11fl\"iJ1fl•'lJded'69·)!ntal:om-:rent•LBvl L B\"'.L.~1l i 1'l LL 1LU\"'I'1'Wl'1~JJJJ7' ;h' .fl1'l:: n h~'''''l m ~'''lJ'i'llJn\"U'iJ 'Wml'll'l('Io111 eJ~~Th Buddha se'P th f irtu ,ao VeAd ar Madras Indiay ,,,(9) Iv~~,'101141 t>~''''.fl1'l::V1n€l~1~~'''lJ'i'llJn\"U''Io1lJ1V~~floJ'II7'i7LvhJu1lJ1~~JJJJ7.•v10-1,c:I....IIV~!:)dII\"'\"ildod~IV.dId....fW 7'i71lULUCY1 U1i 'Io1lJ1V()~ 1111111\"'~'U1 'lo1'im1111.,nVl\"''i1~n'i'ilJL '''::'lU1n'U'iLL lllUVlUL'Io1lJ1V()~\"'~'UI'l-1i'i'i 'Io1 eJ1i lJ lJlJ'i'i'i VlU\"il~VU1~LL~~~~'Io1lJ1l'i'llJ~~-UU5~~ct:~'lV~h h:fl.J'II7'i7iif'l'l1lJ'Io1lJ V~ ~nu1uu~UVl ~1~n11vlu

order to avoid misunderstanding that the termdhammais used inthe third verse.The termdhammais much wider thansa1?Jkhara.There is noterm in Buddhist terminology wider thandhamma.It includes notonly the conditioned things and states, but also the non-condi-tioned, the Absolute, Nirvana, There is nothing in the universe oroutside, good or bad, conditioned or non-conditioned, relativeor absolute, which is not included in this term. Therefore, it isquite clear that, according to this statement: 'Alldhammasarewithout Self\", there is no Self, noAtman,not only in the FiveAggregates, but nowhere else too outside them or apart fromthem.!This means, according to the Theravada teaching, that thereis no self either in the individual(pttggala)or indhammas.TheMahayana Buddhist philosophy maintains exactly the same posi-tion, without the slightest difference, on this point, puttingemphasis ondharma-nairatmyaas well as onpudgala-nairatmya.In theAlagaddupama-suttaof theMtljjhima-nikiiya,addressinghis disciples, the Buddha said: '0bhikkhus, accept a soul-theory(Attavada)in the acceptance of which there would notarise grief, lamentation, suffering, distress and tribulation. But,do you see, 0 bhikkhus, such a soul-theory in the acceptance ofwhich there would not arise grief, lamentation, suffer ng, distressiand tribulation?'.'Certainly not, Sir.''Good, 0 bhikkhus. I, too, 0 bhikkhus, do not see a soul-theory, in the acceptance of which there would not arise grief,lamentation, suffering, distress and tribulation.'2If there had been any soul-theory which the Buddha hadaccepted, he would certainly have explained it here, because heasked the bhikkhus to accept that soul-theory which did notproduce suffering. But in the Buddha's view, there is no suchsoul theory, and any soul-theory, whatever it may be, howeversubtle and sublime, is false and imaginary, creatingall kinds ofproblems, producing in its train grief, lamentation,suffering,distress, tribulation and trouble.ICf. alsoSabbe saf\"khiiriianiccd'All conditionedthings are impermanent',Sabbedhammii anattii'Alldbammasare without self'. MI(PTS , p. 228; S)IIIpp. 132,133.2MI(PTS), p. 137.58

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Continuing the discourse the Buddha said in the samesutta:'0 bhikkhus, when neither self nor anything pertaining to selfcan truly and really be found, this speculative view: \"Theuniverse is thatAtman(Soul); I shall be that after death, per-manent, abiding, ever-lasting, unchanging, and I shall exist assuch for eternity\"-isit not wholly and completely foolish?'lHere the Buddha explicitly states that anAtman,or Soul, orSelf, is nowhere to be found in reality, and it is foolish to believethat there is such a thing.Those who seek a self in the Buddha's teaching quote a fewexampleswhich they first translate wrongly, and then misinterpret.One of them is the well-known lineAtta hi attano nathofrom theDhammapada(XII,4,or verse160),which is translated as 'Selfis the lord of self', and then interpreted to mean that the big Selfis the lord of the small self.First of all, this translation is incorrect.Altahere does not meanself in the sense of soul. In Pali the wordaltais generally usedas a reflexive or indefinite pronoun, except in a few caseswhere it specificallyand philosophically refers to the soul-theory,as we have seen above. But in general usage, as in the XIIchapter in theDhammapadawhere this line occurs, and in manyother places, it is used as a reflexiveor indefinite pronoun meaning'myself', 'yourself', 'himself', 'one', 'oneself',etc.sNext, the wordnathodoes not mean 'lord', but 'refuge','support', 'help','protection'.sTherefore,Alta hiattano natholIbid.,p.138.Referring to this passage, S. Radhakrishnan(Ind an Ph lo ophy,ii sVol. I, London,1940,p.485),says: 'It is the false view that clamours for theperpetual continuance of the small self that Buddha refutes'. ~ e cannot agree with'this remark. On the contrary, the Buddha, in fact refutes here the Universal,Atmanor soul. As we saw just now, in the earlier passage, the Buddha did not accept anyself, great or small. In his view, all theories of.Abnanwere false, mental projections.2In his article 'Vedanta and Buddhism' (The Middle Way, February,1957),H.von Glasenapp explains this point clearly.3The commentary on the Dhp. says:Natho'tipatillhci \"Nathemeans support,(refuge, help, protection),' (Dhp. A III (PTS), p.148.)The old Sinha eselSannayaofthe Dhp. paraphrases the wordndtboasp hz a vanneyai j'is a support (refuge, help)'.(DhammapadaPurdnasannaya,Colombo,1926,p. 77). If we take the negative formofndtbo,this meaning becomes further confirmed:Aniithadoes not mean 'withouta lord' or 'lord less', but it means 'helpless', 'supportless', 'unprotected','poor'.Even the PTS Pali Dictionary explains the wordniithaas 'protector','refuge','help', but not as 'lord'. The translation of the wordLokaniitha(s.v.) by 'Saviour ofthe world', just using a popular Christian expression, is not quite correct, because theBuddhaisnot a saviour. This epithet really means 'Refuge of the World'.59

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really means 'One is one's own refuge' or 'One is one's own help'or 'support'. It has nothing to do with any metaphysical soul orself. It simply means that you have to rely on yourself, and not onothers.Another example of the attempt to introduce the idea of selfintothe Buddha's teaching is in the well-known wordsAttadipauibaratba,attasarandanaiiiiasaraIJa,which are taken out of contextin theNlahaparinibbana-stltta.1This phrase literally means: 'Dwellmaking yourselves your island (support), making yourselves yourrefuge, and not anyone else as your refuge.'2 Those who wish tosee a self in Buddhism interpret the wordsattadipdandattasarand'taking self as a lamp', 'taking self as a refuge'.»We cannot understand the full meaning and significance of theadvice of the Buddha to Ananda, unless we take into considera-tion the background and the context in which these words werespoken.The Buddha was at the time staying at a village called Beluva.It was just three months before his death,Parinirudna.At this timehe was eighty years old, and was suffering from a very seriousillness, almost dying(maraIJantika).But he thought it was notproper for him to die without breaking it to his disciples who werenear and dear to him. So with courage and determination he boreall his pains, got the better of his illness, and recovered. But hishealth was still poor. After his recovery, he was seated one day inthe shade outside his residence. Ananda, the most devoted atten-dant of the Buddha, went to his beloved Master, sat near him, andsaid: 'Sir, I have looked after the health of the Blessed One, Ihave looked after him in his illness. But at the sight of the illnessof the Blessed One the horizon became dim to me, and myfaculties were no longer clear. Yet there was one little consolation:ID II (Colombo, 1929), p. 62.2Rhys Davids(Digha-nikayaTranslation II, p. 108) 'Be ye lamps unto yourselves.Be ye a refuge to yourselves. Betake yourselves to no external refuge.'3Dipahere does not mean lamp, but it definitely means 'island'. TheDigha-nikiiyaCommentary (DA Colombo ed. p. 380), commentingon the worddipahere says:Mahiisamuddagata1?1 dipa1?1viya attana1?1dipa1?1patillha1?1 katvauibaratba,'Dwell makingyourselves an island, a support (resting place) even as an island in the great ocean.'Sa1?1sara,the continuityof existence, is usually compared to an ocean,samsdra-sagara,and what is required in the ocean for safety is an island, a solid land, and nota lamp.60

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I thought that the Blessed One would not pass away until he hadleft instructions touching the Order of the Sangha.'Then the Buddha, full of compassion and human feeling,gently spoke to his devoted and beloved attend n : 'An nd a,a tawhat does the Order of the Sangha expect from me? I h ve t u htaa gtheDhamma(Truth) without making any distinction as exotericand esoteric. With regard to the truth, the T thagata has nothingalike the closed fist of a teacher(a ariya mc- utthi).Surel , Ananda,yifthereisanyone who thinks that he will lead theSa gn ha, ndathat the Sangha should depend on him, let him set down hisinstructions. But the T thagata has no such idea. Why should heathen leave instructions concerning the Sangha? I m now old,aAnanda, eighty years old. As a worn-out cart has to be kept goingby repairs, so, it seems to me, the body of the Tathag ta can onlyabe kept going by repairs.Therefore,Ananda, dwell making ours lvesyeYOllr island (s pport), making yo rselves, not any n else o r ref e;uuo e,y uugmaking the Dhamma your island (support), the Dhamm yo r refuge,aunothingelseyour refuge.'!What the Buddha wanted to convey to Ananda is quite clear.The latter was sad and depressed. He thought that theywould allbe lonely, helpless, without a refuge, without a leader fter theiragreat Teacher's death. So the Buddha gave himconsolation,courage, and confidence, saying that they should depend on them-selves, and on theDhammahe taught, and not on anyone else or,on anything else. Here the question of a metaphysicalAlman,orSelf, is quite beside the point.Further, the Buddha explained to Ananda how o e could benone's own island or refuge, how one could make theDhammaone's own island or refuge: through the cultivation of mindful-ness or awareness of the body, sensations, mind and mind-objects(the fourSatipatthanas).2There is no talk at all here about anAtmanor Self.Another reference, oft-quoted, is used by those who try tofindAlmanin the Buddha's teaching. The Buddha was onceseated under a treeina forest on the way to U uvela fromrBenares. On that day, thirty friends all of them young princes,IDII (Colombo,1929),pp.61-62.Only the last sentence is lite ally translated.rThe rest of the story is given briefly according to theMahaparinibbana-sutta.2Ibid.,p.62.ForSalipallhanasee Chapter VII on Med tation.iIlI

he hadfeeling,manda,:taughtxotericiothingmanda,ha,and,wn hisould he)wold,tgoingan onlysurselues,refuge;. refuge)e clear.ould allertheirilation,1them-else,or'nan,oriuld be)hammaundful-objectslout antry toL Sonceafrommnces,ranslated.la.V7W1::eJJF}~whw1::eJiJw1:m7FJ' -;J'7v::t1JlJ.ilfv-UUt5U1UWW7'tJ vun'hv::YJ1JU1::YJ7UtJWYJt5WvUeJEhJL~eJEhJ'tI/'dJL ~eJJ,rtcnnVffJf1W','V'l1tYfV15b~1~Vl1.:J'lbtflel'U~ltJ'V'l1t:uvnmrul1~:n'V'l1t~h~?lel~1.:Je)m.JLtJ'U~el'V'lVlLiIIcuII..~U!J3ilfll1'r:ideJUeJ7uun nuwrfnm1ffvf1v::t1JJJ7'V1-JJeJ::lJ!WJ7Uht5JJJJ 'J7nUff~Jwf'JYl7vulJJ1'1%iJfJ7ClLUlJJ1'1%iJrl7ClUeJn(lliiJff'Ju~NmrvtJ~UJ sdeJW UffeJU!'I%WW7::1VFJFJfi]r77jjeJ\"lJeJJeJ7vnc1(eJ7v1CJJ![}j) LUt5JJJJ#V'VImClrnliiJff7'V1-JV(1}fl7 Jr:ideJueJ7uunmu1~v::WJiJFJ'J7JJC;}71'J'7'\"lJ7~nV1'V17Jf{Jf1Ufi ffvf1FJnv::;jJ'\"lJ7::'\"lJ7eJJuv::wJnd7Jf11tJtJeJV7JL~eJV7J'VIi1JUUUeJU U(1}'(1}fJ7FJ(1}iJl1fiJFJJ7JJC;}71'\"liuJu ''VI(1)L~~JFJ'JJnfi7JeJV7JL~',aV7v'VIi1J!W~eJJ,rtCl'JnVffvf1,d7 'J7nud,~ha7uun-JCl\"lJeJJ'J7(fClUJJ7nvcsof),uf'J,njClwd7t1Jv::L\"lfi,ul1flh WJ7::n nsdeJJJuG?fJJifu!~ n7Cl\"lJeJJ(1}fJ7FJ(1}17ifwiw 'VIjja unu~deJUeJ7uun mJ7::u::Jwmfi::'t5eJ#V'VIfi7Cl1NiJ(1}WtJwn7:: iJ(1}WtJu~;jv eJv7iJiJdu'vu~;jJ ~avJiJt5JJJJ' tJwn7:: iJt5JJJJ'tJu~;jJ aV7iJiJdw tJu~;jJavnwfi~Hi>tJ~.:J~'V'l1t'V'lVl ~lVl1.:Jbb?l~.:Jbb 'V'l1tel1'U'Uvli~ L\"il'U:U1fl 'V'l1tel1'U'Uvlf11~.:JLI\"111LI\"1flLibrl,b~tJh bb~t~~11'U11m?l.:J~?l11fl\"iltl~~b~tJ1 HVI'UVll.:J llJ:n~.w.:JuaellJ:n~11V1~.:J\"illfl'IJ~'V'l1t'U1:U1\"11?l~1'lJel.:J'V'llfl~'U~'U-rr'ULitl~il'V'l'V'l1'U'V'l1t'V'lVlLiL~1~.:JVl1.:Jtl1tVll'Ul\"lltl~el'U,1~nl~.:J 1\"il bb~tI\"l11:U~'Uh1~tJ~~?l\"hnm~?l.:J~~.:J.w.:J~'Ubel.:Jbb~t.w.:J'V'l1 Li11:U~Vl1.:Jbb?l~.:Jt,l1bb~1 Lb~tllJ.w.:J'UI\"lI\"l~~'UVI~el~.:J~'U1~~1.:JduruVllb~el.:Je)(1}(1}7V1~el~1~'Ubb'U'Uel.ntl~\"1Jru1,vvQd~bU'UL1el.:J'Uelfltl1::;b~'Uuemn fl~'U'V'l1::;'V'lVlLib~11~Vl1 reJ5'Ul mbrl'V'l1ten'U'Uvl~ ell tlil.:J 5~I\"l'UL 11\"ilt Lu'U,1,bfl1::;bU'U?l1ru::;'lJel.:J~'U15~\"ilt'Vht5JJJJ1~bU'Ubfl1::;bU'U?l1rut ~elfl11b\"il~qj?l~HJ!J3i1'Uc(~el fl1tJ1WJ?l?l'Ulb1Vl'Ul'UU?l?l'Ul ~~~l'UU?l?l'Ulbb~tLi11:Ul'UU ?l'Ul?ll!J~1.:Jdtl1lJ:n\",II,IdQ.I4Q.Jfl11fl~11~.:JeJ(1}(1}7V11el~1~'UL~tJBm~el.:JVI~.:J~'U11~1~'V'lm m:UVl1e)(1}(1}71'Ul\"ll?lel'U'lJel,,:j'V'l1::;'V'lVlLib~1~ ml1:U 11-Ubu'U'IJ,-um)l,,:j~,,:j ~el 1\"l~.:JVI~.:J'V'l1t~:n'V'l1t.flll\"lb~ltl1::;Vi''Uli,,:jru 11\"l'UldJ~'UVI .:J1'U1'V'l1?lrusv1bb'lA.:J~'IJVI~,,:j'lJru::;L?l~\"il\"ill~flltll~tJ:U111\"l1€i''U''il::;1tlcJ,,:j~1'U~el1L m1\"illfl'U1\"l1'V'l11 ru~ 1'Ul'U~'U1, ,~ 117 1U W73JtiWI1fll1J'i[mb<>:: mb<t-]'VI,J1m<>::o-m<>::l!:lu':d£J \" 11I'l il1mvi1'~ ~ LU\"(I)'l~l1il ~ 'VI~mtJ1.Im'l fi'lJ1'l11lJtil£J~aJ LLLv,~1n3J117ti uWW7I1fl1l1J'iv~3JYl7ti1 WW7I1fjl1J'iU[mb<t]'VI,J1m..:l!:l~1'V1 'lJ-rfl~iJ{)ff711~'lJVI~vi1)7 117 7

went out on a picnic with their young wives into the same forest.One of the princes who was unmarried brought a prostitute withhim. While the others were amusing themselves, she purloinedsome objects of value and disappeared. In their search for her inthe forest, they saw the Buddha seated under a tree and askedhim whether he had seen a woman. He enquired what was thematter. X'hen they explained, the Buddha asked them: 'What doyou think, young men? Which is better for you? To search aftera woman, or to search after yourselves ?'lHere again it is a simple and natural question, and there is nojustification for introducing far-fetched ideas of a met physicalaAlmanor Self into the business. They answered th t it wasabetter for them to search after themselves. The Buddha thenasked them to sit down and explained theDhammato them. Inthe available account, in the original text of what he preached tothem, not a word is mentioned about anA'man.Much has been written on the subject of the Buddha's silencewhen a certain Parivrajaka (Wanderer) named Vacchagotta askedhim whether there was anAlmanor not. The story is as follows:Vacchagotta comes to the Buddha and asks:, I'Venerable Gotama, is there anAlman?'IThe Buddha is silent.'Then Venerable Gotama, is there noAI1Jlan?'Again the Buddha is silent.Vacchagotta gets up and goes away.After the Parivrajaka had left, Ananda asks the Buddha why hedid not answer Vacchagotta's question. The Buddha' xplains hisposition:'..Ananda,when asked by Vacchagotta the Wanderer: \"Is therea self?\",ifI had answered \"There is a self\", then, ..Ananda,that:would be siding with those recluses and brahmanas who hold theeternalist theory(sassala-vada).'And, ..Ananda,when asked by the Wanderer: \"Is there no self?\"if I had answered: \"There is no self\", then that would be sidingwith those recluses and brahmanas who hold the annihilationisttheory(uccheda-vada).2IMhvg., (Alutgama,1929),pp.21 22.-20n another occas on the Buddha had told this same Vacchagotta that the Tatha-igata had no theories, because he had seen the nature of th ngs. (M (PTS), p 486.)iI.Here too he does not want to associate himself with any theo sts.ri62

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,Again, Ananda, when asked by Vacchagotta:\"Is there aself?\",ifI had answered: \"There is a self\", would that be inaccordance with my knowledge thatalldhammasare wi hout selfP'!t'Surely not, Sir.''And again, Ananda, when asked by the Wanderer: \"Is thereno self?\", if I had answered: \"There is no self\", then that wouldhave been a greater confusion to the already confused Vaccha-gotta.2 For he would have thought: Formerly indeed I had anAlman(self), but now I haven't got one.'3It should now be quite clear why the Buddha was silent. But itwill be still clearer if we take into consideration the whole back-ground, and the way the Buddha treated questions and questioners-whichis altogether ignored by those who have discussed thisproblem..The Buddha was not a computing machine giving answers towhatever questions were put to him by anyone at all without any,consideration. He was a practical teacher, full of compassion andwisdom. He did not answer questions to show his knowledge andintelligence, but to help the questioner on the way to realization.He always spoke to people bearing in mind theirstandard ofdevelopment,their tendencies, their mental make-up, theircharacter, their capacity to understand a particular question.4ISabbe dhammaanattd,(Exactly the same words as in the first li e of Dhp. XX, 7nwhich we d scussed above.) Woodward s translat on of these words by 'all thingsi'iare impermanent'(K ndred SayingsiIV, p.2.82.) s completeliywrong, p obablyrdue to an oversight. But this is a very serious mistake. This, perhaps, s one of theireasons for so much unnecessary talk on the Buddha's silence. T e most importanthword in this context,anatta'without a self', has been translatedas 'impermanent'.The English translations of Pali texts contain major and minor errors of this kind-some due to carelessness or oversight, some to lack of proficiency in the orig nalilanguage. Whatever the cause may be, it is useful to mention here, with the deferencedue to those great pioneers in this field, that these errors have bee responsible for annumber of wrong deas about Buddhism among people who ha e no access to theivoriginal texts. It is good to know therefore that MissI.B. Horner, the Secretary ofthe Pali Text Society, plans to bring out revised and new translations.2In fact on another occasion, evidently earlier, when he Budd a had explained athcertain deep and subtle question-thequestion as to what happened to an Arahantafter death- Vacchagotta said: 'Venerable Gotama, he e I fall into ignorance, Irget into confusion. Whatever little faith I had at the beginning of this con ersationvwith the Venerable Gotama that too s gone now.' (M I (PTS), p.,i487). So theBuddha did not want to confuse him again.3S IV (PTS), pp.400-401•4This knowledge of the Buddha is calledIndr aparopariyal/a alJa.iynM I (PTS), p 7.0;Vibh. (PTS), p. 340.

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Accordingto the Buddha, there are four ways of treatingquestions:(I) Some should be answered directly; (2) othersshould be answered by way of analysing them; (3)yet othersshould be answered by counter-questions;(4)and lastly there are,questions which should be put aside.\"There may be several ways of putting aside a question.One isto say that a particular question is not answered or e plained, asxthe Buddha had told this very same Vacchagotta on more thanone occasion, when those famous questions whether the universeis eternal or not, etc., were put tohim.sIn the same way he hadreplied to Malunkyaputtaand others. But he could not say thesame thing with regard to the question whether there is anAtman(Self) or not, because he had always discussed andexplained it. He could not say 'there is self', because it is contraryto his knowledge that 'alldhammasare without self'. Then he didnot want to say 'there is no self', because that would unnecessarily,without any purpose, have confused and disturbed poor Vaccha-gotta who was already confused on a similar question, as he hadhimself admitted earlier.s He was not yet in a position to under-stand the idea ofAnatta.Therefore, to put aside this question bysilence was the wisest thing in this particular case.We must not forget too that the Buddha had known Vaccha-gotta quite well for a long time. This was not the first occasion onwhich this inquiring Wanderer had come to see him. The wise andcompassionate Teacher gave much thought and showed greatconsideration for this confused seeker. There are many referencesin the Pali texts to this same Vacchagotta the Wanderer his going,round quite often to see the Buddha and his disciples and puttingthe same kind of question again and again, evidently very muchworried,almost obsessed by these problems.sThe Buddha'ssilence seems to have had much more effect on Vacchagotta thanany eloquent answer or discussion.5lA(Colombo,1929),p.216.2E g.. ,S IV (PTS , pp.)393, 395;M I (PTS), p.484.3Seep,63n .2 .4E g.. ,see SIII (PTS), pp.257-263;IV pp.391f.,395f.,398f.,400; MI, pp,481f , .483f.,489f.,AVp.193.oPor, we see that after some time Vacchagotta came again to see the Buddha but,this time did not askanyquestions as usual, but said: \"It is long since I had a talk with

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e Temple of the Dawn, built in the reign of King Rama II pagodas exquisitely decorated with multicoloured porcelain.1l1~:wvnlvm V1~€l1~bb~'11~iJfl1~mru:::tlfi('1'lJ~ru1'U?I:WEJ-r'1lfl1~~®~owl'1fi~'.J~:::~'U{;lflbbl'l'l~lEJm:::bd€l'l bfl~mJVI~l fl~e:J~1'1tl~:::ru{;l'l~'11:W

Some people take 'self' to mean what is generally known as'mind' or 'consciousness'. But the Buddha says that it is better fora man to take his physical body as self rather than mind,thought,or consciousness, because the former seems to be more solid thanthe latter, because mind, thought, or consciousness(citta, mano,vifiiitilja)changes constantly day and night even faster than thebody(ktrya).lIt is the vague feeling 'I AM' that creates the idea of self whichhas no corresponding reality, and to see this truth is to realizeNirvana,which is not very easy. In theSa1?1yutta-niktrya2there is anenlightening conversation on this point between a bhikkhunamed Khemaka and a group of bhikkhus.These bhikkhus ask Khemaka whether he sees in the FiveAggregates any self or anything pertaining to a self. Khemakareplies 'No'. Then the bhikkhus say that, if so, he should be anArahant free from all impurities. But Khemaka confesses thatthough he does not find in the Five Aggregates a self, or anythingpertaining to a self,'Iam not an Arahant free from all impurities.ofriends, with regard to the Five Aggregates of Attachment,Ihave a feeling\"IAM\", butIdo not clearly see \"This isIAM\".'Then Khemaka explains that what he calls AM' is neither matter,'Isensation, perception, mental formations, nor consciousness, noranything without them. But he has the feeling'IAM' wi h regardtto the Five Aggregates, though he could not see clearly 'This isIAM'.3He says it is like the smell of a flower: it is neither the smell ofthe petals, nor of the colour, nor of the pollen, but the smell ofthe flower.the Venerable Gotama.Itwould be good if the Venerable Gotama would preach tome on good and bad(kusalakusala1!1)in brief \" The Buddha said that he would explain.to him good and bad, in brief as well as in detail; and so he did. Ultimately Vaccha-gotta became a disciple of the Buddha, and following his teaching attained Arahant-ship, realized Truth, Nirvdna, and the problems ofAlmanand other questionsobsessed him no more. (M I (PTS), pp. 489ff.)1S II (PTS),p,94. Some people think thatAlayavijiiana'Store-Consciousness'(Talhagatagarbha)of MahayanaBuddhismis somethinglike a self. But theLankavatara-sutracategorically says that it is notAtman(Lanka. p. 78-79.)2S III (PTS), pp.12.6ff.3This is what most people say about self even today.

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Khemaka further explains that even a person who has attainedthe early stages of realization still retains this feeling '1 AM' But.later on, when he progresses further, this feeling of 'I AM' alto-gether disappears, just as the chemical smell of a freshly washedcloth disappears after a time when it is kept in a box.This discussion was so useful and enlightening to them thatat the end of it, the text says, all of them, including Khemakahimself, became Arahants free from all impurities, thus finallygetting rid of 'I AM'.According to the Buddha's teaching, it is as wrong t hold theoopinion 'I have no self' (which is the annihilationist theory) as tohold the opinion 'I have self' (which is the eternali t theory),sbecause both are fetters, both arising out of the false idea 'I AM'.The correct position with regard to the question ofAnattaisnot to take hold of anyopinions or views, but to see thingsobjectively as they are without mental projections, to see that whatwe call'!', or 'being', is only a combination of physical nd mentalaaggregates, which are working together interdependentlyina fluxof momentary change within the law of cause and effect, and thatthere is nothing permanent, everlasting, unchanging and eternalinthe whole of existence.Here naturally a question arises: If there is noAtmanor Self,who gets the results of karma (actions)? No one can answer thisquestion better than the Buddha himself. When this question wasraised by a bhikkhu the Buddha said: 'I have taug th you, 0bhikkhus, to see conditionality everywhere in all things.'!The Buddha's teaching on.Anatta,No-Soul, or No-Self, shouldnot be considered as negative or annihilistic. Like Nirvana, itisTruth, Reality; and Reality cannot be negative. Iti sthe falsebeliefina non-existing imaginary selfthat is negative. The teachingonAnattadispels the darkness of false beliefs, and produces thelight of wisdom It is not negative: as Asanga very aptly says:.'There is the fact of No-selfness'(nairatmyastita).21MIII (PTS),p.19;SIll,p.103.2Abhisamuc,p.3I.66

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CHAPTERVII'MEDITATION'OR MENTALCULTURE:BHAVANAThe Buddha said: '0 bhikkhus, there are two kinds of illness.What are those two? Physical illness and mental illness. Thereseem to be people who enjoy freedom from physical illness evenfor a year or two ...even for a hundred years or more. But, 0bhikkhus, rare in this world are those who enjoy freedom frommental illness even for one moment, except those who are freefrom mental defilements' (i.e.• exceptarahantsj.!The Buddha's teaching, particularly his way of 'meditation',aims at producing a state of perfect mental health, equilibrium andtranquility. It is unfortunate that hardly any other section of theBuddha's teaching is so much misunderstood as 'meditation', bothby Buddhists and non-Buddhists. The moment the word 'medita-tion' is mentioned, one thinks of an escape from the daily activi-ties of life; assuming a particular posture, like a statue in some caveor cell in a monastery, in some remote place cut off from society;and musing on, or being absorbed in, some kind of mystic ormysterious thought or trance. True Buddhist 'meditation' does notmean this kind of escape at all. The Buddha's teaching on thissubject was so wrongly, or so little understood, that in later timesthe way of 'meditation' deteriorated and degenerated into a kindof ritual or ceremony almost technical in its routine.xMost people are interested in meditation oryogain order to gainsome spiritual or mystic powers like the 'third eye', which othersdo not possess. There was some time ago a Buddhist nuninIndia who was trying to develop a power to see through her ears,lA (Colombo, 1929), p. 276.2The Yogiivacara'sManual(edited by T. W. Rhys Davids, London, 1896), a text onmeditation written in Ceylon probably about the rSthcentury, shows how medita-tion at the time had degenerated into a ritual of reciting formulas, burning candles, etc.See also Chapter XII on the Ascetic Ideal,History of Buddbismin Ceylonby WalpolaRahula, (Colombo, 1956), pp. 199ff.

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while she was still in the possession of the 'power' of perfect eye-sight! This kind of idea is nothing but 'spiritual perversion'.Itisalways a question of desire, 'thirst' for power.The word meditation is a very poor substitute for the originaltermbhavana,which means 'culture' or 'development',i.e.,mental culture or mental development. The Buddhistbhavana,properly speaking, is mental culture in the full sense of the term.Itaims at cleansing the mind of impurities and disturbances, suchas lustful desires, hatred, ill-will, indolence, worries and restless-ness, sceptical doubts, and cultivating such qualities as concentra-tion, awareness, intelligence, will, energy, the analytical faculty,confidence, joy, tranquility, leading finally to the attainment ofhighest wisdom which sees the nature of things as they are, andrealizes the Ultimate Truth, Nirvana.There are two forms of meditation. One is the development ofmental concentration(samatbaorsamadhi),of one-pointedness ofmind(cittekaggata,Skt.cittaikagrata),by various methods pre-scribed in the texts, leading up to the highest mystic states such as'the Sphere of Nothingness' or 'the Sphere of Neither-Perception-nor-Non-Perception'. All these mystic states, according to theBuddha,aremind-created,mind-produced,conditioned(sa!J1khata).lThey have nothing to do with Reality, Truth,Nirvana. This form of meditation existed before the Buddha.Hence it is not purely Buddhist, but it is not excluded from thefield of Buddhist meditation. However it is not essential for therealization of Nirvana. The Buddha himself, before his Enlighten-ment, studied these yogic practices under different teachers andattained to the highest mystic states; but he was not satisfiedwith them, because they did not give complete liberation, theydid not give insight into the Ultimate Reality. He consideredthese mystic states only as 'happy living in this existence'(di/!hadhammasukhavihara),or 'peaceful living'(santavihara),andnothing more.2He therefore discovered the other form of 'meditation' knownasuipassand(Skt.vipafyanaorvidariana),'Insight' into the nature ofthings, leading to the complete liberation of mind, to the realiza-tion of the Ultimate Truth, Nirvana. This is essentially BuddhistlSee abovep.38.2SeeSallekha-sulla(no. 8), of M.68I

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'meditation', Buddhist mental culture.Itis an analytical methodbased on mindfulness, awareness, vigilance, observation.Itis impossible to do justice to such a vast subject in a fewpages. However an attempt is made here to give a very brief andrough idea of the true Buddhist 'meditation', mental culture ormental development, in a practical way.The most important discourse ever given by the Buddha onmental development ('meditation') is called theSatipatthana-sutta'The Setting-up of Mindfulness' (No.22of theDigha-nikaya,or No.10of theNlajjhima-nikaya).This discourse is so highly veneratedin tradition that it is regularly recited not only in Buddhistmonasteries, but also in Buddhist homes with members of thefamily sitting round and listening with deep devotion. Very oftenbhikkhus recite thissuttaby the bed-side of a dying man to purifyhis last thoughts.The ways of 'meditation' given in this discourse are not cut offfrom life, nor do they avoid life; on the contrary, they are allconnected with our life, our daily activities, our sorrows and joys,our words and thoughts, our moral and intellectual occupations.The discourse is divided into four main sections: the firstsection deals with our body(kaya),the second with our feelingsand sensations(vedana),the third with the mind(citta),and thefourth with various moral and intellectual subjects(dhamma).It should be clearly borne in mind that whatever the form of'meditation' may be, the essential thing is mindfulness or aware-ness(sati),attention or observation(anupassana).One of the most well-known, popular and practical examples of'meditation' connected with the body is called'The Mindfulness orAwarenessofin-and-out breathing'(anapanasati).Itisfor this 'medi-tation' only that a particular and definite posture is prescribed inthe text. For other forms of 'meditation' given in thissutta,youmay sit, stand, walk, or lie down, as you like. But, for cultivatingmindfulness of in-and-out breathing, one should sit, accordingto the text, 'cross-legged, keeping the body erect and mindfulnessalert'. But sitting cross-legged is not practical and easy for peopleof all countries, particularly for Westerners. Therefore, those whofind it difficult to sit cross-legged, may sit on a chair, 'keeping thebody erect and mindfulness alert'. It is very necessary for thisexercisethat the meditator should sit erect, but not stiff; his hands

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placed comfortably on his lap. Thus seated,you may close ouryeyes, or you may gaze at the tip of your nose, as it ma be con-yvenient to you.You breathe in and out all day and night, but you re neveramindful of it, you never for a second concentrate our mind on it.yNow you are going to do just this. Breathe in and out as usual,without any effort or strain. Now, bring your mind to co centratenon your breathing-in and breathing-out; let our mind watch andyobserve your breathing in and out; let your mind be aware andvigilant of your breathing in and out. When you breathe, you some-times take deep breaths, sometimes not. This does not ma ter at all.tBreathe normally and naturally. The only thing is thatwhen youtake deep breaths you should be aware that they are deep breaths,and soon. In other words, your mind should be sofullycon entratedcon your breathing that you are aware of its movements andchanges. Forget all other things, your surroundin sg , your environ-ment; do not raise your e es and look at anything. Try to do thisyfor five or ten minutes.At the beginning you will find it extremely difficult to bringyour mind to concentrate on your breathing. You will e aston-bished how your mind runs away. It does not stay. You be in togthink of various things. You hear sounds outside You mind is.rdisturbed and distracted. You may be dismayed and disappointed.Butifyou continue to practise this exercise twice daily, morningand evening, for about five or ten minutes at a time, you willgradually, by and by, begin to concentrate your mind on yourbreathing. After a certain period, you will experience just thatsplit second when your mind is fully concentrated on your breath-ing, when you will not hear even sounds nearby, when noexternal world exists for you. This slight moment is such atremendous experience for you, full of joy, happiness and tran-quility, that you would like to continue it. But still you cannot.Yetifyou go on practising this regularly, you may repeat theexperience again and again for longer and longer periods. That isthe moment when you lose yourself completely in your mindful-ness of breathing. As long as you are conscious of you self yourcan never concentrate on anything.This exercise of mindfulness of breathing, whichisone of thesimplest and easiest practices, is meant to develop concentration7 0

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leading up to very high mystic attainments(dfDlana).Besides,the power of concentration is essential for any kind of deepunderstanding, penetration, insight into the nature of things,including the realization of Nirvana.Apart from all this, this exercise on breathing gives youimmediate results. It is good for your physical health, for relaxa-tion, sound sleep, and for efficiencyin your daily work.Itmakesyou calm and tranquil. Even at moments when you are nervous orexcited, if you practise this for a couple of minutes, you will seefor yourself that you become immediately quiet and at peace. Youfeel as if you have awakened after a good rest.Another very important, practical, and useful form of'medita-tion' (mental development) is to be aware and mindful of what-ever you do, physically or verbally, during thedaily routine ofwork in your life, private, public or professional. Whether youwalk, stand, sit, lie down, or sleep, whether you stretch or bendyour limbs, whether you look around, whether you put on yourclothes, whether you talk or keep silence, whether you eat ordrink, even whether you answer the calls of nature-inthese andother activities, you should be fully aware and mindful of the actyou perform at the moment. That is to say, that you should livein the present moment, in the present action. This does not meanthat you should not think of the past or the future at all. On thecontrary, you think of them in relation to the present moment,the present action, when and where it is relevant.People do not generally live in their actions, in the presentmoment. They live in the past or in the future. Though they seemto be doing something now, here, they live somewhere elsein theirthoughts, in their imaginary problems and worries, usually in thememories of the past or in desires and speculations about thefuture. Therefore they do not live in, nor do they enjoy, what theydo at the moment. So they are unhappy and discontented with thepresent moment, with the work at hand, and naturally they cannotgive themselves fully to what they appear to be doing.Sometimes you see a man in a restaurant reading while eating-a very common sight. He gives you the impression of being a verybusy man, with no time even for eating. You wonder whetherhe eats or reads. One may say that he does both. In fact, he doesneither, he enjoys neither. He is strained, and disturbed in mind,7 1

~1tJl\"1mml\"1~tJ~VI~u1~t'lu1tJbbm~v111Vlrn'jv11n:vlmth~\"ihr'WihJ';i~~VlTI.fn'V'lv111VI~tli)u~t'I-:lUuaeb~eJfl b~'W bbdJLi1eJn-:l':l6'lhVl1eJ~'Wb~'Wt11ui)u~eJ1'W1u1'Wt'I~61fll\"1~VI~-:In\"il~'V'lu111:vti-:lbb6'l~t'I-:lu6'l-:ll~1'Wvr'WV1bU'W1\"111:U';i?ifll\"1~1tJnu111~VI~u~fl~eJ'WeJ~1-:1b~:U~'U'fJTJU7'(rn';i~9),J'W1~Vl) ~~1rlqjijU';i~ ltJ\"Ilu t'l1:Ul'j~l1l1uui)~1~hjtJ1fl€imbuuVI~-:I~eJrn';iijt'l~61:Uu-ururu~1'WVlfl~-:I~v11 ~-:lVl1-:1rnmb6'l~11:V1 'j~Vl11-:1~vlln:vu';i~1il1l'W......,.hJ~1(Jl1:J11:V~bu'Wn:V6'h'W~1Vl1eJn:vt'l161';iru~Vl1eJvllrn'j-:l1'W l:J':h:V~b~'W ~'W ,1-:1'WeJ'WVl1eJVI~U 1:J1TOJ~bVl~tJ~Vl1eJr1bb\"lJ'W\"lJ1Vl1eJ~~-:I~1-:1611:J1TOJ~t'l1:Ub~m~1'V'l~Vl1eJti-:l n'W'U'UI'UVl1eJ~:UVl1eJbbdJbb~~1tJ~:V:V1';i~Ut'lt'l11~ 1'Wn1tJ1eJ1rn';ibVl~1dbb6'l~ 1'Wn:v~'W 11\"11';i:V~~eJ-:I~6'f~61:UU-ururu~Vlfl\"lJru~~m~v1l,1'Wn~eJm';i:V~eJ~nu\"lJru~u:v:vu'WeJ~nUB1tJ1U~U:V:VU'WVVII'U'I'UII;~ 1:J1~VI:U1tJm1:u':h1:u1Vlf~i:i-:leJ~(JlVl1eJeJ'W1I\"1Vlb6'ltJ1'WVl1-:1(Jl';i-:ln'WoU1:Ub'j1m'j:v~f~i:i-:leJ~(Jlbb6'l~eJ'W11\"1(Jl1'Wbb~~61:u~'Wt5bb6'l~b~tJloUeJ-:lnu\"lJru~u:V:VU'Wbb6'l~rn';im~vh1'WU:V:VU'W,,.Vl1eJeJ'W11\"1VlbbdJ11~bVlijeJ'W:vdh~-:lv11u1-:1eJ~1-:1eJ~(Jl'j-:lffi'Wblmdbb~fl~U 1uij~lVleJ~~'U'U'U5'U1'W1\"111:uf~ b\"ll'W1UeJ ~ null ruVl1 bb6'l~1\"111:U1Vlfln-:ll6'l1 'W~'WVl'W1fl1'j~-:liJm)~ bu'W'U...f111:UVl';i-:l1il11'WeJ~VlVl1eJI\"111:u~'Wm1:U1\"11~Vll-:l1'Wl'WoU1-:1V1.wlb'V'l';i1~)~J'WI\"1'Wb';i1~-:ll:J1~~~1(JleJ~1:J1~b'V'l~~b'V'l~'Wnu~-:I~Vl'Wv11eJtJ1 'W\"lJru~J'W61~-:l1:JijI\"111:ut'l\"lJbb6'l~l:J'V'leJ1:vnu'U'UI,~~~fh~-:lv11eJ~1~'U1'WU1-:11\"1~-:Ib';ilb~'WI\"1'W~1'WVltJ-:I~eJ1U1UU';i~Vl1'WeJ1V11'j 1U1'W~1'WeJ1V111e)'WbU'Wi11'V'l~~61';i:U~1t'1liJru:U1flI\"1'WJ'W\"Ill'W1VI~~flll~-:I:v'Wm~~-:l1:JijbbdJbb~blm:V~1UU';i~Vl1'W~V'UIIeJ1V111b11eJ1:V:V~~fjl-:lll1\"1'W1 J'Wf11~-:l1UU';i~Vll'WVl1Bf11~-:I~1'WVI'l1-:1~eJn'Wbb'tleJl\"il:v~ij~UeJfl11b\"lJlv11~-:lt'leJ-:leJ~1-:11\"111:U:V1-:1bb~11\"1'W1 J'W1:J1~v1161fleJ~1-:11:J1~b~~~b 'V'l~'WnUfl11m~v1161fleJ~1-:1b~tJl ~(Jlh\"lJeJ-:I b\"lJln1~-:I bl\"1~tJ~uael:Jt'I-:lu

and he does not enjoy what he does at the moment, does not livehis life in the present moment, but unconsciously and foolishlytries to escape from life.(This does not mean, however that one,should not talk with a friend while having lunch or dinner.)You cannot escape life however you may try. As longas youlive, whether in a town or in a cave, you have to face it and live it.Real life is the present moment-notthe memories o the pastfwhich is dead and gone, nor the dre ms of the future which is notayet born. One who lives in the present moment lives th real life,eand he:is happiest.When asked whyhis disciples, who lived a simple and quietlife with only one meal a day, were so radiant, the Buddhareplied: 'They do not repent the past, nor do they brood over thefuture. They live in the present. Therefore they are r diant. By'abrooding over the future and repenting the past, fools dry uplike green reeds cut down (in the sun).\"!Mindfulness, or awareness, does not mean that you shouldthink and be conscious '1 am doing this' or '1 am doing that'. No.Just the contrary The moment you think '1 am doing this', you.become self conscious, and then you do not live in the ction, but-ayou live in the idea '1 am', and consequentl your work too isyspoilt. You should forget yourself completel , and lose ourself inyywhat you do. The moment a speaker becomes self-conscious andthinks '1 am addressing an audience', his speech is disturbed and.his trend of thought broken. But when he forgets himself in hisspeech, in his subject, then he is at his best, he speak well andsexplains things clearly. All great work-artistic,poetic, intellec-tual or spiritual-is produced at those moments when its creatorsare lost completely in their actions, when they forget themselvesaltogether, and are free from self-consciousness.This mindfulness or awareness with regard to our activities,taught by the Buddha, is to live in the present moment, to live inthe present action. (This is also the Zen way which is based pri-marily on this teaching.) Here in this form of meditation, youhaven't got to perform any particular action in order to developmindfulness, but you have only to be mindful and aware ofwhatever you may do. You haven't got to spend one second ofISI(PTS),p.5.72.

lE.mJ\"il~VI~fl'V!'U\"illf)\"liilntl~l-:J 1~ 11(P)E.Jl11i~l(tl~1-:J1 ~nlnl:W 1111#lVl:W1E.Jfll1~.r;h\"il~b~tl'U b'U~~Vll1-:J-rUth~Vll'Utl1V11~11:wf1'U)b~1111G'l1:Wl~t1\"il~Vlii\"liiln\"lltl-:JIn'Ubtl-:J11111\"il~'Vwlm:wmh-:J1~ mlUb 'Vh~b ~lEJ-:JiJ\"liilnl~\"h1'Ubiltl-:JVI~tlb 'Urll b~ln~tl-:J1-tl\"liimb6')~iJ\"lii?l\"liiln~\"il~-:JbbVf~tl\"llru~u\"il\"ilu'U l:w'1\"1i,~-:J\"ih1'Utl~In~~l-:J ltJbb~l1111\"1ifll1:w~'Ui:i-:Jtl'Ulflln~EJ-:J 111bii(p)~'U Uflfl6')~mjnu,'U?ltl~nu\"lii?l\"il~-:J61uaeitJ'UUflfl6')~iJfll1:WG'l\"ll~G'l(P)JIII\"\"b~tliJ ~ Vl6')t11:Wl1 b'V'I~1~bVIIn1(p)'V'I~~G'lll f)~-:J~1~ -:J\"lii?ltl ~ 1-:JG'l-:JUuaeb~E.Ju41 E.J'U 'U,l'rr'U6')~ttlb~m~-:Jbu~-:Ju~-:JG'l(P)1G'l'V'I~~'V'IVl6b~11n-rG'l11'nn'lj~'J)j~7EJcieJ:JJlu,,<;'''<::f.:;,,;')elrn~.q,~ ·,.IM~Ivutf\";wm;cieJ:JJluv171fJ'tnif.Ji.JiicY.Jlu:JJ7if.JcieJ:JJLtCJ.J;;;?~If\"JCJi.JQW7:flllU7 iJ'-JW11flJ\"lfeJ.Jnn'ljL 'J)f6hJuiil.JNeJ.JIffLW;n:fV17'ifJU7if.Ji.JiicY.Jlu,U~:fLW17:fLrf'r7f{'reJEJif.Ji.J~N7U l vutf?fJUL\"lf~7~1II~7EJiil.J\"lf'IJ6J(i}l V L'J)jjJeJUfP7ue)eJ'UuiuTEJuH(n~7,:}U(i}(i})\"\"f11~iJG'l~VI~m1:wuiruru~l11l#lVl:Wl E.Jfll1:wl1 b~l~-:J¥(P)bb6')~~?if)~111'L17rJ769.:}'JI]7VV'U'L'i7rJ769.J'JI]7du'1:w'1\"1itl~1-:J,1'!b6')E.Jbb~btJ'U?l~-:Jn'U-Ul:W1'U\"llru~~f(P)11'L17Ltiufi'b~lOJ...bb6')~lntl'U~'Ub~11111#lnl~-:JiJ\"lii?ltl~nuf11~m~vllbb~f)~U 1Utl~ nUfll1:wf(P)'U'U'L'i731L17Ltiu'bb6')~~6')~'V'I5n~tlfn~-:J1'Ub?iE.JVllE.Jb~lfll~\"il~~:wt1f)i:i-:J~lbtl-:Jtl~l-:J~'Ubb~~vl:WbVlnu~-:J~nl~-:Jvll1'U~'UVI~'I!f)'V'I(p)t1f)i:i-:J~lbtl-:Jbb6')~¥(P)11'L17rJ769.Jnd7Jrl7,'UeJcJW.J'rllU~1~-rE.J\"lltl-:Jb\"ll1\"il~t1mum'Ubb6')~m~bbG'lfll1:W¥(P)\"ll1(P)?ltl'Ubb~b~tl'U'U~:W~lbtl-:Jbb6')~\"il(p)~tl~rhu~l~-rE.J~b~tl-:J~nl~-:J'V'I(p) Intl'U~'U~'V'I(p)\"il~vl11#l~~G'l(P) ~tlCUICUq\"~bb6')~tl5U1E.J1#lf)~~~1-:J -:Jl'U~'Ubtlf)~-:JVl6'11E.J~-:J~6')um~:wl~~rum~:w-:Jl'Ui'IJlfn~'''il~~16')-:J1\"il~G'l~l-:JG'l~~rl~6')-:Jl'U~l'UG'l~l-:J~6')-:Jl'U~'U:Wlb 'U\"llru~~\"il(p)~tltl~nu-:Jl'U'U'U~wh1'U\"llru~~'U\"il~11-:J\"illf)fll1:W¥(P)i:i-:JIn'Ubtl-:Jtl~1-:J~'Ub\"U-:J'V'I~~'V'IVl6b~lVl~-:JG'ltl'U11fn~iJG'l~~:wuiruru~1'UfnTVlln\"il\"lltl-:JIn'U ~tl fn~iJ\"lii?ltl~qIVQJCUru~U\"il\"ilU'U tl~nUfn~m~vll1'UU\"il\"ilU'U(i~uuub6ll'UniJ~'U:Ol'U\"illf)r'1G'ltl'Udb \"Ii'Un'U)'tcuqd.!JlG'l:W15ifi.n~ \"il~~~'U1G'l~lll~ tl-:JU~U~In'Ub u'UY1 b~~bb~ mh-:Jb(P) bb~\"il~vi'tl-:JiJtJiruru~ 1'UVlf)~-:J~vll b~1111~tl-:J1-tlbd6'11e)'UiJl\"ilbb~bb~i'U1V1b~mVOJ,

your precious time on this particular 'meditation':you haveonly to cultivate mindfulness and awareness always, day and night,with regard to all activities in your usual dail life. These twoyforms of ,meditation' di cussedabove are connected with our body.sThen there is a way of practising mental development ('medita-tion') with regard to all our sensations or feelin s, whether happy,gunhappy or neutral. Let us take only one example. You experiencean unhappy, sorrowful sensation. In this st teayour mind iscloudy, hazy, not clear, it is depressed. In some cases, you do noteven see clearly why you have that unhappy f eling. First of all,eyou should learn not to be unhappy about our unhappy feeling,ynot to be worried aboutyour worries. But try to see cle rly whyathere is a sensation or afeeling of unhappiness, or worry, or sorrow.Try to examine how it arises, its cause, how it disappears, itscessation. Try to examine it as if you are observin it from outside,gwithout any subjective reaction, as a scientist observ s someeobject. Here, too, you should not look at it as 'my feelin ' or 'mygsensation' subjectively, but only look atitas 'a feeling' or 'asensation' objectivel . You should forget again the false idea ofy'1'.When you see its nature, how it arises and disappears, yourmind grows dispassionate towards that sensation, andbecomesdetached and free. It is the same with regard to all sens tions orafeelings.Now let us discuss the form of 'meditation' with regard to ourminds. You should be fully aware of the fact whenever your mindis passionate or detached, whenever it is overpowered b hatred,yill-will, jealousy, or is full of love, compassion, whenever it isdeluded or has a clear and right understanding, and so on and soforth. We must admit that very often we are afraid or ashamed tolook at our own minds So we prefer to avoid it. One should be.bold and sincere and look at one's own mind as one looks atone's face in a mirror !.Here is no attitude of criticizing or judging, or discriminatingbetween right and wrong, or good and bad. It is simply observing,watching, examining. You are not a judge, but a scientist. When.you observe your mind, and seeits true nature clearly, you becomedispassionate with regard to its emotions, sentiments and states.1MI (PTS), p.100.73

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Thus you become detached and free, so that you may see things asthey are.Let us take one example. Say you are really angry, overpowered,by anger, ill-will, hatred.Itis curious, and paradoxical, that themanwho is in anger is not really aware, not mindful that he isangry. '!'he moment he becomes aware and mindful of that state ofhis mind, the moment he seeshis anger, it becomes, asifit were,shy and ashamed, and beginStosubside. You should examine itsnature, how it arises, how it disappears. Here again it should beremembered that you should not think 'I am angry', or of 'myanger'. You should only be aware and mindful of the state of anangry mind. You are only observing and examining an angrymind objectively. This should be the attitude with regard to allsentiments, emotions, and states of mind.Then there is a form of 'meditation' on ethical, spiritual andintellectual subjects. All our studies, reading, discussions, conver-sation and deliberations on such subjects are included in this'meditation'. To read this book, and to think deeply about thesubjects discussed in it, is a form of meditation. We have seeneadier1that the conversation between Khemaka and the groupof monks was a form of meditation which led to the realization ofNirvaQ.a.So, according to this form of meditation, you may study, think,and deliberate on the Five Hindrances(Nivaratza),namely:1.lustful desires(kamacchanda),2.ill-will, hatred or anger(vyapada),;.torpor and languor(thina-middha),4.restlessness and worry(uddhacca-kukkucca),5. sceptical doubts(vicikiccha).'These five are considered as hindrances to any kind of clearunderstanding, as a matter of fact, to any kind of progress. Whenone is over-powered by them and when one does not know howtoget rid of them, then one cannot understand right and wrong, orgood and bad.One mayalso 'meditate' on the Seven Factors of Enlightenment(Bojjhanga).They are:lSee abovep.65·74

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1.Mindfulness(sati),i.e., to be aware and mindful in allactivities and movements both physical and mental, as wediscussed above.2.Investigation and research into the various problems ofdoctrine(dhamma-vicaya).Included here are all ourreligious, ethical and philosophical studies, reading,researches, discussions, conversation, evenattendinglectures relating to such doctrinal subjects.3. Energy(viriya),to work with determination till the end.4.Joy(piti),the quality quite contraryto the pessimistic,gloomy or melancholic attitude of mind.5. Relaxation(passaddhi)of both body and mind. One shouldnot be stiff physically or mentally.6. Concentration(samadhi),as discussed above.7.Equanimity( pekkha),ui.e., to be able to face fe in all itslivicissitudes with calm of mind, tranquillit , withoutydisturbance.To cultivate these qualities the most essential thing s a genuineiwish, will, or inclination. Many other material and spiritual con-ditions conducive to the development of each quality are des-cribed in the texts.One may also 'meditate' on such subjects as the Five Aggre-gates investigating the question 'What is a being?' or 'What is itthat is called I?', or on the Four Noble Truths, as we discussedabove. Study and investigation of those subjects constitute thisfourth form of meditation, which leads to the re lization ofaUltimate Truth.Apart from those we have discussed here, there are many othersubjects of meditation, traditionally forty in number, among whichmention should be made particularly of the four Sub ime States:l(Brahma-vihara):(I)extending unlimited, universallove andgood-will(metta)to all living beings without any kind of discri-mination, 'just as a mother loves her only child ;'(2)compassion(karUlJa)for all living beings who are suffering, in rouble andtaffliction; (3) sympathetic joy(mudita)in others' success, welfareand happiness; and(4)equanimity(upekkha)in all vicissitudes oflife.75

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CHAPTERVIIIWHATTHEBUDDHATAUGHTANDTHEWORLDTODAYThere are some who believe that Buddhism is so lofty and sublimea system that it cannot be practised by ordinary men and women inthis workaday world of ours, and that one has to retire from it to amonastery, or to some quiet place, if one desires to be a trueBuddhist.This is a sad misconception, due evidently to a lack of under-standing of the teaching of the Buddha. People run to such hastyand wrong conclusions as a result of their hearing, or readingcasually, something about Buddhism written by someone, who,.as he has not understood the subject in all its aspects, gives onlya partial and lopsided view of it. The Buddha's teaching is meantnot only for monks in monasteries, but also for ordinary men andwomen living at home with their families. The Noble EightfoldPath, which is the Buddhist way of life, is meant for all, withoutdistinction of any kind.The vast majority of people in the world cannot tu n monk,ror retire into caves or forests. However noble and pure Buddhismmay be, it would be useless to the masses of mankind if they couldnot follow it in their daily life in the world of today. But if youunderstand the spirit of Buddhism correctly (and no only itstletter), you can surely follow and practise it while living the lifeof an ordinary man.There may be some who find it easier and more convenient toaccept Buddhism, if they do live in a remote place, cut offfrom thesociety of others. Others may find that that kind of retirementdulls and depresses their whole being both physicallyan mentally,dand that it may not therefore be conducive to the development oftheir spiritual and intellectual life.True renunciation does not mean running away physicallyfrom the world. Sariputta, the chief disciple of the Buddha, said