What the Buddha Taught

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Once the Buddha explained the doctrine of cause and effectto1his disciples, and they said that they saw it and understood itclearly. Then the Buddha said:'0 bhikkhus, even this view, which is so pure and soclear,ifyou cling to it, if you fondle it, if you treasure it, if you areattached to it, then you do not understand that the teaching issimilar to a raft, which is for crossing over, and not for gettinghold of.'2Elsewhere the Buddha e plains this famous simile in whic hisxhteaching is compared to a raft for crossing over, and not forgetting hold of and carrying on one's back:'0bhikkhus, a man is on a journey. He comes to a vaststretch of water. On this side the shore is dangerous, but on the,other it is safe and without danger. No boat goes to the o hertshore which is safe and without danger, nor is there any bridgefor crossing over. He says to himself: \"This sea of water is vast,and the shore on this side is full of danger; but on the o hertshore it is safe and without danger. No boat goes to the o hertside, no! is there a bridge for crossing over.Itwould be g odotherefore if I would gather grass, wood, branches and le vesato make a raft, and with the help of the raft cross over safelyto the other side, exerting m self with my hands and feet\".yThen that man, 0 bhikkhus, gathers gr ss, wood, branches andaleaves and makes a raft, and with the help of that raft crosses oversafely to the other side, exerting himself with his hands and feet.Having crossed over and got to the other side, he thinks: \" hisTraft was of great help to me. With its aid I have crossed safelyoverto this side, exerting myself with my hands and feet.Itwould begood if I carry this raft on my head or on my back wherever I o\".g'What do you think, 0 bhikkhus, if he acted in this way wouldthat man be acting properlywith regard to the raft? \"No, Sir\".In which way then would he be acting properly with regard tothe raft? Having crossed and gone over to the other side, supposethat man should think:\"This raft was a great help to me. Withits aid I have crossed safely over to this side, exertin m self withgymy hands and feet. It would be good if I beached this raft on theshore, or moored it and left it afloat, and then went on my way1In theMahtita1Jhtisankhaya-sutla,no. 38of M.2MI (PTS),p.260.11

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wherever it may be\". Acting in this way would that man actproperly with regard to that raft.'In the same manner, 0 bhikkhus, I have taught a doctrinesimilar to a raft-it is for crossing over, and not for carrying(lit.getting hold of). You,0bhikkhus, who understand that theteaching is similar to a raft, should give up even good things(dhamma);how much more then should you give up evil things(adhamma).'lFrom this parable it is quite clear that the Buddha s teaching is'meant to carry man to safety, peace, happiness, tranquillity the,attainment ofNirvafJa.The whole doctrine taught by the Buddhaleads to this end. He did not say things just to satisfyintellectualcuriosity. He was a practical teacher and taught only those thingswhich would bring peace and happiness to man.The Buddha was once sta ing in aySimsapaforest in Kos mbia(near Allahabad). He took a few leavesinto his hand, and asked hisdisciples: 'What do you think,0bhikkhus? Which is more?These few leaves in my hand or the leaves in the forestover here?''Sir, very few are the leaves in the hand of the Blessed One,.but indeed the leaves in theSimsapaforest over here are verymuch more abundant.''Even so, bhikkhus, of what I have known I have told you onlya little, what I have not told you is very much more. And whyhave I not told you (those things)? Becausethat is not useful ...not leading toNirvafJa.That is why I have not told you thosethings.'2It is futile, as some scholars vainly try to do, for us to specu-late on what the Buddha knew but did not tell us.The Buddha was not interested in discussing unnecessarymetaphysical questions which are purely speculative and w chhicreate imaginary problems. He considered them as a 'wildernessof opinions'. It seems that there were some among his owndisciples who did not appreciate this attitude of his. For, we have1M I (PTS), pp.134-135.Dhammahere, according to the Commentary means high,spiritual attainments as well as pure views and ideas Attachment even to these,.however high and pure they may be, should be given up; how much more thenshould it be with regard to evil and bad things. MA II (PTS), p.109.2S V (PTS), p. 437.IZ

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the example of one of them, Malunkyaputta by name, wh oput to the Buddha ten well known classical questions on me a--tphysical problems and demanded answers.!One dayMalunkyaputtagot up from his afternoon meditation,went to the Buddha, saluted him, sat on one side and said:'Sir, when I was all alone meditating, this thought occurred tome: There are these problems unexplained put aside and rejected,by the Blessed One. Namely,(I)is the universe eternal or(2)is it not eternal,(3)is the universe finite or(4)is it infinite,(5)is soul the same as body or(6)is soul one thing and body anotherthing,(7)does theTathagataexist after death, or(8)does he otnexist after death, or(9)does he both (at the same time) exist andnot exist after death, or(10)does he both (at the s me time) otanexist and not not-exist. These problems the Blessed One doesnot explain to me. This (attitude) does not please me, I donotappreciate it. I will go to the Blessed One and ask him about thismatter. If the Blessed One explains them to me, then I will continueto follow the holy life under him. If he does not explain them, Iwill leave the Order and go away. If the Blessed One knows thatthe universe is eternal, let him explain it to me so. If the BlessedOne knows that the universe is not eternal, let him say so. If theBlessed One does not know whether the universe is eternal ornot, etc., then for a person who does not know, it is straight-forward to say \"I do not know, I do not see\".'The Buddha's reply toMalunkyaputtashould do good to manymillions in the world today who are wasting valuable time on suchmetaphysical questions and unnecessarily disturbing their peaceof mind:'Did I ever tell you, Malunkyaputta, \"Come, Malunkyaputta,lead the holy life under me, I will explain these questions to you?\",'No, Sir.''Then, Malunkyaputta, even you, did you tell me: \"Sir, I willlead the holy life under the Blessed One, and the Blessed One willexplain these questions to me\"?''No, Sir.''Even now, Malunkyaputta, I do not tell you: \"Come and leadthe holy life under me, I will explain these questions to you\".lClila-Malunkya-SIItla,no.63ofM.13

And you do not tell me either: \"Sir, I will lead the holy life underthe Blessed One, and he will explain these questionsto me\".Under these circumstances,you foolish one, who refuseswhom Pi'Malunkyaputta,if anyone says: \"I will not lead the holy lifeunder the Blessed One until he explains these questions,\"he maydie with these questionsunansweredby theTathagata.SupposeMalunkyaputta, a man is wounded by a poisoned arrow, and hisfriends and relatives bring him to a surgeon. Suppose the manshould then say:\"Iwill not let this arrow be taken out until knowIwho shot me; whether he is a Ksatriya (of the v.arrior caste) or aBrahmana (of the priestly caste) or a Vaisya (of the trading andagricultural caste) or a Siidra (of the low caste); what his nameand family may be; whether he is tall, short, or of medium stature;whether his complexion is black, brown, or golden; from whichvillage, town or city he comes.Iwill not let this arrow be takenout untilIknow the kind of bow with whichIwas shot; thekind of bowstring used; the type of arrow; what sort of featherwas used on the arrow and with what kind of material the point of,the arrow was made.\" Malunkyaputta, that man would die withoutknowing any of these things. Even so, Malunkyaputta, if anyonesays:\"Iwill not follow the holy life under the Blessed One until heanswers these questions such as whether the universe is eternalor not, etc.,\" he would die with these questions unanswered bythe Tathagata.'Then the Buddha explains to Malunkyaputta that the holy lifedoes not depend on these views. Whatever opinion one may haveabout these problems, there is birth, old age, decay, death, sorrow,lamentation, pain, grief, distress, \"the Cessation of which (i.e.NirvaIJa)I declare in this very life.\"'Therefore, Malunkyaputta, bear in mind what I have explainedas explained, and what I have not explained as unexplained. Whatare the things that I have not explained? Whether the universe iseternal or not, etc., (those10opinions) I have not explained.Why, Malunkyaputta, have I not explained them? Because it isnot useful, it is not fundamentally connected with the spiritualholy life, is not conducive to aversion, detachment, cessation,tranquillity, deep penetration, full realization,NirvaIJa.That iswhy I have not told you about them.Ii.e. both are free and neither is under obligation to the other.,14

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'Then, what, Malunkyaputta, have I explained? I have explaineddukkha,the arising ofdukkha,the cessation ofdtlkkha,and the wayleading to the cessation ofd ukkha.1Why, Malunkyaputta, have Iexplained them? Because it is useful, is fundamentally connectedwith the spiritual holy life, is conducive to aversion, detachment,cessation, tranquillity, deep penetration, full realization, Nirv na.aTherefore I have explained them.'2Let us now examine the Four Noble Truths which the Buddhatold Malunkyaputta he had explained.1These Four Noble Truths are e plained in the next four chapters.x2It seems that this advice of the Buddha had the desired effect on Malunkyaputta,because elsewhere he is reported to have approached the Buddha again for ins ruc-ttion, following which he became an Arahant. A (Colombo, 1929), pp.345-346;S IV (PTS),p.72ff.15

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CHAPTERIIThe Four Noble TruthsTHEFIRSTNOBLETRUTH:DUKKHAThe heart of the Buddha's teaching lies in the Four Noble Truths(Callari Ariyasaccani)which he expounded in his very firstsermon1to his old colleagues, the five ascetics, at Isipatana(modern Sarnath) near Benares. In this sermon, as we have it in theoriginal texts, these four Truths are given briefly. But there areinnumerable places in the early Buddhist scriptures where theyare explained again and again, with greater detail and in differentways. If we study the Four Noble Truths with the help of thesereferences and explanations, we get a fairly good and accurateaccount of the essential teachings of the Buddha according o thetoriginal texts.The Four Noble Truths are:I.Dukkha22.Samudaya,the arising or origin ofdukkha,3. Nirodha,the cessation ofdukkha,4.Magga,the way leading to the cessation ofdukkha.THE FIRSTNOBLETRUTH:DUKKHAThe First Noble Truth(Dukkha-ariyasacca)is generally trans-lated by almost all scholars as 'The Noble Truth of Suffering', andit is interpreted to mean that lifeaccording to Buddhism is nothingbut suffering and pain. Both translation and interpretation arehighly unsatisfactory and misleading.Itis because of this limited,free and easy translation, and its superficial interpretation, thatmany people have been misled into regarding Buddhism aspessimistic.1Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta'Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth'. Mhvg.(Alutgama,192.2),p.9ff;SV(PTS).p.42.0ff.21do not wish to give an equivalentin English for this term for reasonsgivenbelow.

ICItJfIfi19~dh'IJ€l-:JV'l1~li11lJrh6'l€l'U'IJ€l-:JV'l1~VfVlli~~1€l~~€l1tJ~';ij~(,r{P){P)7~f)~mrvv7'{J).\"11'UU~lJ~'Vl~'U1 ~B~UI'!'U~ (6'l11'U1f11'UU\"il\"ilU'U)1fl~~iJ€l-:JV'l111ru~1'Uf111bU11?l(;)~.rl~~~~rltJ€lUUf1~lflV'l1~€l-:JrlV'l1~li11lJ~ 'Vl~'U1d ~-:J~U11flf11 'UI~ lJ.n1~-:J~~lJ ~~6'lI?l-:J/'Jqd.JdJId.J\",,a~\"il~V1-:J~€l~1-:J €l ~~I'!'UrllJ.fl 1V'l'Vlli~16'l'U1';i'U 1fl:UlJ1tl'1uruntJVlmuuvI-:J';ij'U'lJU1lJ ~d'UVi:u••\"\"oVo.c:::::l!.lQq0IQJ!UcftJ~1~~~d~1€lfll?ldtJ11tJ~~~€ltJl?l~~~~~mf111'U1~6'l'U€l1'!1-:J'lnufI1~11~fl~1s:bl?ltJ€ll~tJVI~ fl~l'Ue)l-:JB-:J~~~~r'1€l5U1tJ'lJtJ1tJrld1lJ~VI~ld~11';ij~1~r'1€l5U1 tJ~€l-:J~~n'Ur'16'l€l'U'IJ€l-:JV'l1~V'l'Vlli~~ll'!llJ~fl~ld111.'UrllJ.fH~-:J ~~lJ•..Q.IdIeJ1tJ6'l\"il~ rl€l(9).'I1n\"v'(\",\"IV.c::::.cf~I.c::::.I(f'~. mmCff111~fll?l'IJ'UVl1€lUmfll?l~~VI-:J'I1n\"ll,,sn,u[ 'jvV'l1~oQV'lV'l1'Uct.JJ'j'jfJ'Vl1-:JU~U~~'t111 U~V'l1~oQV'lV'l1'Ue)'Ub'lJ'Uli11lJ~tJ'U~~u1 u~~vI-:Jfib~6'le)'U..<(VII'!~fll?l'IJ€l-:J'Vlfl'IJ••VI~m1tJm~lJ6111'11m)nn\"llfl'JJ'l1Cf'I1n\"lluf'iv 'I1n\"lluf'iVfJ7iHjtiliti'l17I.,.,.,.,.,d.JQQ,f.c::itfv\"Rla\"il'VIG)\"V/nffB1tJ~';ij~(9)(YJn\"llf}~mrv) ~tJ'Ur'1~'lJfll\"ll1f111~n€lUl1flrl'Ub~U~ ~tJ'U.f11~1e)-:Jflt]~11'm7:Jv~oJef'liti'j::m~1Jh~JCffJJ7JJ'I1n';''ua~~rld1lJl1V'l1~V'l'Vlli~16'l'U1 ~i1'U~11'!11:U~~v)-d3,\"lJVlfl~~~~~rld1lJ~ ~UUdl?l ~-:Jr'1~~Um~~~f111~rld1lJ1-U1lJ1~ ~~~~6'l~1-:Jrld1lJ~-U11\"il~1?l,, ~-:J ~V'l11~f111~bUm~UUrlU~~rlU ~tl16'l~l?llfll'!llJh~b~~f111~m1lJeJ~1-:J~1~~'U~\"Il'Udiml11~rl'U\"il1'Ul'UVlti-:Jb~11';ij1Ul1 V'l1~V'l'Vlli~16'l'U1~tJ'U~16'l'U1~lJeJ b~fl1 'Ub~~~ltJ-:J•'fJ~1~n~~m 1A li11i ~:U'VI · AtJi :u:l.l I 'ci oc?UfJu{]n U'I17J'i'iFJ ff fJ7FJUfjj'irJFJRfJnmti U[(j) -(j)bQl]'VIU1l!Joc-L lJciCi)~ff~C/(I)(I)jjn7fJff'iJ'iJ ~ (I)ff C/[(j)O~(j)]'VIU1boG'))I' 1.J li Jm 1hm il 'l!l ei'~n'l'l!l~dm'VI e.JIil 1;1I))~'iJ~Mn Tl~BhJci

Phra Buddhajinarajof Wat Phra Sriratana Mahatat is said to be oneof the most beautiful Buddha images in Thailand.(Iihcentury B.E. or12thcentury A.D.)'VfH~~Vl5~hJ11\"IJ 1(;l~1~f'l1~~~'Uut'f151m1lJVI11V111~€l1~ ·.hLU'U~1~~Vl51tl~-!l(;l·:n:!..I'\"\"q'Ud<d1 .11d\"\"\"\"<dVlG'f(;l€l-!lflVl'U-!l'Uu1~LVlf'l1VIti (~Vl5f'l1m11~VI(9)rn/Vl1€lfl1G'f~f'l1m11~VI(9)!:»),,

Colossal stone stature at Gal-vihara, Polnnaruva, Sri Lanka'l S~'r' 'I\"I'V1D'j'll;;;'Urun~ lvm-dje:J~1'll1~'U'U1'jl~'ll'j~b'V1I\"1I\"1~~~m,'J,

First of all, Buddhism is neither pessimistic nor optimistic.Ifanything at all, it is realistic, for it takes a realistic view of lifeand of the world. It looks at things objectively(yathabhiita'!l).It does not falsely lull you into living in a fool's paradise, nordoes it frighten and agonize you with all kinds of imaginary fearsand sins. It tells you exactly and objectively what you are and whatthe world around you is, and shows you the way to.perfectfreedom, peace, tranquillity and happiness.One physician may gravely exaggerate an illness and give uphope altogether. Another may ignorantly declare that there is noillness and that no treatment is necessary,thus deceiving the patientwith a false consolation. You may call the first one pessimisticand the second optimistic. Both are equally dangerous. But aIthird physician diagnoses the symptoms correctly, understands theIcause and the nature of the illness, sees clearlythat it can be cured,)and courageously administers a course of treatment, thus savinghis patient. The Buddha is like the last physician. He is the wiseand scientific doctor for the ills of the world(BhisakkaorBhai[a}ya-guru).It is true that the Pali worddukkha(or Sanskritdubkha)inordinary usage means 'suffering', 'pain', 'sorrow' or 'misery', asopposed to the wordsukhameaning 'happiness', 'comfort' or'ease'. But the termdukkhaas the First Noble Truth, which re-presents the Buddha's view of life and the world, has a deeperphilosophical meaning and connotes enormously wider senses.It is admitted that the termdukkhain the First Noble Truth con-tains, quite obviously, the ordinary meaning of 'suffering', but inaddition it also includes deeper ideas such as 'imperfection','impermanence', 'emptiness', 'insubstantiality'.Itis difficultthere-fore to find one word to embrace the whole conception of thetermdukkhaas the First Noble Truth, and so it is better to eavelit untranslated, than to give an inadequate and wrong idea of itby conveniently translating it as 'suffering' or 'pain'.The Buddha does not deny happiness in life when he says thereis suffering. On the contrary he admits different forms of happiness,both material and spiritual, for laymen as well as for monks. In»,theAnguttara-nikaya,one of the five original Collections in Pali.containing the Buddha's discourses, there is a list of happinesses(sukhani),such as the happiness of family life and the happiness of17

fe.~~'U'U1~~flbb~ 'Vr~~'VfVl'B1\"116'f'WllJ'¬ ll-:j16'lml6'l~~i~~llJ~lUtl''il1-:j 'Vr~~'I\"l'V1'B1\"116'f'Wl?l~-:j~1-:j61,~JI'i)~l-:j~l1'WlU'W(EJfJ7fJr;J.J)hJ1~flci'¬ lllJ~fl'Wb~iJ~i~l'Vlii'¬ ll'W'¬ llEJ'1'W6'fl11r1\"ll'¬ ll-:jfl'Wl\"llmll6'l~~vJJft'h.n~v'11~~fl'W'I\"l~'W'I\"l~-:j'Vl~'¬ ll'V1fl\"l1'V11lJ1'W~1EJfll1lJfl~1 ll6'l~~lEJU1tJ~1-:j61b'W~'W~'W1 1f11~,II .rstt:Vf~~YfVlliI\"116'f'W1'¬ ll5U1EJ'¬ ll~1-:j~1-:j'1 ll6'l~~llJ~1-:j11fl'Wl11lU'W'¬ ll~b ll6'l~16'lm'¬ llu1 ~ 1~'i)'i)~11 ll6'l~~'V11-:j1tJ?ffll1lJl U'WB6'f1~ fll1lJ6'f-:jU 1\"11'W&ill6'l~fll1lJ6'f\"ll~6'flJU1rulluu~,~))tll'l\"l'V1~fl'W'Vl.cr-:jm~~~\"llmm~'¬ ll-:jf111l~U'LhEJ~'Wln'W~1-:j1tJ'¬ ll~1-:jlJlml6'l~v'11~~thEJ~vv,~tJ·v,.r-:j'¬ ll~l-:j~'Wl\"B-:j~flfl'WVl'U-:jm~~~llt16'l-:j'¬ ll~l-:j1~111 ~tJ1EJ1~1~tJlml6'l~hj-oJ1lU'W~'i)~~f1'I~n ~-:jlU'Wf111'Vl6'l'¬ llfl~tJ1EJ1~'Vl6'l-:j6'fU1EJhvll'Wm~~~U'¬ llfl11ll'l\"l'V1~fl'Wll1fllJ'¬ ll-:j.'~1\"~fl1tJ~l~~lml6'l~ll'l\"l'V1~fl'W~6'f'¬ ll-:jlJ'¬ ll-:j16'lflb'Wll~~ ~-:j6'f'¬ ll-:jfl'We1'Wm1EJ'I\"l'¬ lltl'W ll~ll'l\"l'V1~1fltJ~6'l1lJiij~,rEJmf111\"ll'¬ ll-:j11fl'¬ ll~1-:j~fl<Xm l·ih h~-:j6'f~!l)i1'Wll6'l~'B11lJ\"lJ1&i\"ll'¬ ll-:jf111l~Uu1m~tJ'¬ ll~1-:j-U?ll~'W11'rm~nl~ ll6'l~~llij'Wf111l~EJlm'¬ ll~1-:jfl~1'Vl1ru~-:j'lhEJ~thEJ1~v EJnw~~1fle:nf111l~UthEJ 1~ 'I\"l1~'I\"l'V1'Bl~1'V11-:jlU'WtJ1~?l~ll 'I\"l'V1tlfl'W'Vl~-:j'V11-:jlU'Wll'I\"l'V1tl~1-u,,1$'lCJ11\"116'1~ill6'l~Ururu1l~mhU?l1m~lfll lJ1l~U'lhEJ\"ll'¬ ll-:jIan(ljff'nn:;'Vl '¬ ll~1m1\"lfEJrJ\"i)-.QJV,,~1-:j'¬ ll~nmfmlJ~1-U~1611tJ'VllJ1EJ~-:j'rJ77u6i7u7n''trmu~U'I.}7~''rJ77U~ ,I[nn''Vl~'¬ ll'rJ77UEJ7nLVm'~1-:j-U1W1Urh11Wlf~-:j'VllJ1EJ~-:j'rJJ7U~U\"iUF1' rJJ7Uff:;~7n''.,,1~'i)'m7UffU7EJ'll~~'I\"lvi11nn-v1'W'¬ ll1mr~~<9le)'WlU'WY(I\"1'W~\"lJ'¬ ll-:j'l\"l1~'I\"l'V1'Bb~1~'¬ ll16'lfl-,~.9.q~L~~~i~iJ fll1lJ'VllJ1 EJl\"B-:jtJ1\"lJru 1~ ~ fl~-:jfll1,r'Wua ~ ~'¬ llfll1lJ'VllJ1 EJ~fl11-:jlJVl11\"1 6'l1'\"l .,~ !hJ~lEJ'¬ ll~l-:jllth.J'¬ ll'Wll~'W'¬ llfl~lflfll1lJVllJ1EJdll~1iJ-:j11lJ~-:jfll1lJf1?l~~flfl11~lEJl 'W\"ll!FJ'J7JJhJffUU\"iru' 'rJJ7u13.l\"v1m''rJJ7U717.JL'I.}~'7 rJJ7U13.liJUn'Uf(7)' ''~-:j,r'W~-:jEJ1 ~fl~~~\"vtlf.h'Vl.cr-:jrh~fl1'¬ llUfl6'llJll'Wlf1?l~-:jVllJ?l\"lJ'¬ ll-:j~'I\"lvi 1'W'¬ ll1mr~~nn-v<9l1~ ~-:jlU'Wf111,,.~[dl~~~fl-:j~'I\"lvidll1?lEJ1~lltJmu'Wil1~1e1-:jflll~ll'V1'W~~~~'¬ llfll1lJ'VllJ1EJ~?l1ll6'l~bJfl'j'U~1'W1~mltJ6'l~lEJ'111'rJ77u6i7u7n'Vl~'¬ ll'rJ77UL~U'I.}7~'ld'¬ ll'l\"l1~~'V1'Bl~1~16'fl1iJfll1lJVlfloU 'I\"l1~'¬ ll-:jfl1~1~'V11-:jtJl]l6'f'Bfll1lJ~\"ll 1'W~ ~i,'(Jl'j~ntJ\"lfllJ'V11-:j1Uffll1lJ~\"ll1'W~tJllUU~1-:j '1~-:jfld1lJ~\"ll'V11-:jl~~ll6'l~'V11-:j~~1~ fld1lJ~\"ll\"u

the life of a recluse,the happiness of sense ple sures andathehappiness of renunciation, the happiness of attachment andthehappiness of detachment, physical happiness and mental happinessetc.!But all these are included indukkha.Even the very purespiritual states ofdh) ana(recueillement'or trance) attained by thepractice of higher meditation, free from even a shadow of suffer-inginthe accepted sense of the word, states which may bedescribed as unmixed happiness, as well as the state ofdhyanawhich is free from sensations both pleasant(sukha)and unpleasant(dukkha)and isonlypure equanimity and awareness-eventhesevery high spiritual states are included indukkha.In one of thesuttasof theMajjhima-nikaya,(again one of the five originalCollections), after praising the spiritual happiness of thesedbydnas,the Buddha saysthat they are 'impermanent,dukkha,and subject tochange'(aniccadukkha viparif}amadhamma).2Notice that the worddukkhais explicitly used. It isd kkha,unot becausethere is 'suffering'in the ordinary sense of the word, but because 'whatever i imper-smanent isdukkha' (yad a iccamtam dukkha~n).nThe Buddha was realistic and objective. He says, with regard tolife and the enjoyment of sense-pleasures, that one shouldclearly understand thr e things:e(1)attraction or enjoyment'(assada),(2)evil consequence or danger or unsatisfactoriness(adinava),and (3) freedom or liberation(nissara1}a).3When you,see a pleasant, charming and beautiful person, you like him (orher), you are attracted,you enjoy seeing that person a ain andgagain, you derive pleasure and satisfaction from that person. Thisis enjoyment(assada).It is a fact of experience. But this enjoyment'is not permanent, just as that person and all his (or her) attractionsare not permanent either. When the situation changes, when youcannot see that person, when you are deprived of this enjoyment,you become sad, you may become unreasonableand un-balanced, you may even behave foolishly. This is the evil, unsatis-factory and dangerous side of the picture(adinava).This, too, is afact of experience Now if you have no attachment to the person,.if you are completely detached, that is freedom, liberation!'lA (Colombo, 19 9) p. 49.2,2Mahtidukkhakkhandha-sutta,M I (PTS), p. 90•3M I (PTS), p. 85ff;S III (PTS), p. 27ff.

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1MI (PTS), p.87.2Vism (PTS),p.499; Abhisamuc,p.38.(nissarafJa).These three things are true with regard to all enjoy-ment in life.From this it is evident that it is no question of pessimism oroptimism, but that we must take account of the pleasures of lifeas well as of its pains and sorrows, and also of freedom from them,in order to understand life completely and objectively. Only thenis true liberation possible. Regarding this question the Buddhasays:'0 bhikkhus, if any recluses or brahmanas do not understandobjectively in this way that the enjoyment of sense-pleasures isienjoyment, that their unsatisfactoriness is unsatisfactorines , thatslliberation from them is liberation, thenitis not possible that they:themselves will certainly understand the desire for sense-pleasurescompletely, or that they will be able to instruct another person to•that end, or that the person following their instruction will comp-letely understand the desire for sense-pleasures.But, 0 bhikkhus, if'any recluses or brahmanas understand objectively in this way that'the enjoyment of sense-pleasures is enjoyment, that their unsatis-factoriness is unsatisfactoriness, that liberation from them is libera-,tion, then it is possible that they themselves will certainly under-:stand the desire for sense-pleasures completely, and that they will,be able to instruct another person to that end, and that that personfollowing their instruction w ll completely understand the desireifor sense-pleasures.'!The conception ofdukkhamay be viewed from three as ects:p(I)dukkhaas ordinary suffering(dukkha-dukkha),(2)dukkhaasproduced by change(viparilJama-dukkha)and (3)dukkhaa con-sditioned states(sa'!lkhara-dukkha).2All kinds of suffering in life like birth, old age, sickness, death,association with unpleasant persons and conditions, separation>from beloved ones and pleasant conditions, not getting wh t onea;desires, grief, lamentation, distress-allsuch forms of physical: Iand mental suffering, which are universally accepted as sufferingor pam, are included indukkhaas ordinary suffering(d kkha-uIdukkha).19

\"tIII\"IVL~tl'ULvh,jJ'Yifn';jVf~Wl'l;''UVim~f'il~,r~~d ~i~h.J1~ Lntntl uils ~L~'UtJ '1\"1';i~,\\lV15L~1.,~,\"I'I-1~1'ijvh1VlL~'U1~i~L 'il'Ul1 1:wihb~ L~'UL~eJ m1';il.JeJ-:]bt'lfl1'ULL~~lcJVf~eJl.JeJ-:]bt'lfl,'1-1111LL~11b';i1~eJ-:]-r'U~~i~\"lJeJ-:]L';i1,ff Vfl.J~,ff-:]Lb~rl111.J6'l\"lJLbt'l~rl111.JL-:]~U'th~bP1flbP1~l~.'\",(iln'fJuii m~rJ-J Ufl7 EJ t UfI'7 ff3.1ftJ:fu'ffJ W'r7U3.1rue./111f-IJ~WJ73.1fl?7J.U vUv ~-Js;J-Jfltuv99.JlU9VUflftJ['YI'I1\"l1eNn73.1[(?JEJfl?73.1tVU[YJ'11tm nnfftf(?JeJeJnGj-Jn73.1:f[(?JEJ, IIV21'suIcl cIiQ.l II:t/Q..IIJ/Q..IR/..:::!JIfJfJnfJCJ7-J'YInfl7?U w?nUUU:fu'rfJvn'reJU'rn73.1'YI-JUfl7CJ(?J EJVJUW-J?U'rfJ?7'II,Z mVUeJcJ7-J~Ntf.nU~utf?'reJufn73.1.Jvufl7EJIIIveJmlltVUff7U:f~v iJ:flU~lU~uiin'l1.Jvuf17EJfi?'lJLUfI' ff3.1ftJ:fu'feJ W'r7U3.1ruNf-IJ(?JVJ73.1fl 73.1tVUv7?~ Gj-J -J ftJ\"lIfJ-Jfl,'II'U9VUfltu['YI'I1\"l1fJ-Jn73.1[(?JEJfl?7J.UVU ['YI'I1usennfftf(?JfJeJnGj-Jn73.1[(?JEJfl?73.1,1l <:'-::r-::olr.l'n'1fJfJn eJcJ7-J~n6Y'7?ifW? nJuUU :ffI UUeJ rJ'nseu n 73.1.JvUfl7 EJ ? EJVJUW-JfIlIII'II117Niw rtfJZ mVUeJcJ7-J~Ntf.nU~U ?tf'reJu nf73.1.JvUfl7EJIIIveJffi VUff7U .;i:f'IIlUd.JlU~~P1'U~b~cntl'U'YIn'lleJ1'ill.JeJ-:]1~btJ'U6'l11.J~m~ru~~eJ((9))'YIn'l11'U~l'U~~btJ'Url111.J,,~ttl('YIn\"ll'YInv)(Iv)'YInv1'U~1'U~~LtJ'U~t'l~Lfi~'il1flfl1';iLtl~CJ'U1tl( tf ftJ73.1? ~\",d.9LL~~(~) 'YInVhJ~1'U~~btJ'U6'l.fl11~~~fltl';i-:]bb -:]~( -J\"lIn'YInvflt',d.!IJ'I,f111lJVlfl.u~-:]tl1-:]1'U~i~ L\"li'Url111.JL ~ 111.JLbnm11.JL 'Um1lJmCJ fl1';itl';i~6'l'Ufi rl~,f1f1~bb~~~-:]~hiU1'1\"1eJ1'il fl1 ';i'l\"l~~'1\"1';i1fl'il1 'Urlrlt'l~-rflflLL~~~-:]e)'UL 'U~'I\"IeJ1'iltJ••UI ~1? mYmr (jf!(1)'iU[(j)lrlol'VItl1(j)~O (j)~(j)-<ilbvU'YJ~mrvlljj'YJmfl[ctm~l.fI/j(jm.ml/lI~lj~b ~eJ 'milU1Jm :I1e)~fl~~:a1'l

A happy feeling, a happy condition in life, is not permanent, noteverlasting.Itchanges sooner or later. When it changes,it pro-duces pain, suffering, unhappiness. This vicissitude is included indukkhaas suffering produced by change(vipariIJtima-dukkha).Itis easy to understand the two forms of suffering(dukkha)mentioned above. No one will dispute them. This aspect ofthe'First Noble Truth is more popularly known because it is easy to,understand.Itis common experience in our daily life.But the third form ofdukkhaas conditioned states(sa1!1khara-dukkha)is the most important philosophical aspect of the FirstNoble Truth, and it requires some analytical explanation of whatwe consider as a 'being', as an 'individual', or as'!,.What we call a 'being', or an 'individual', or'!',according toBuddhist philosophy, is only a combination of ever-changing'physical and mental forces or energies, which may be divided intofive groups or aggregates(pancakkhandha).The Buddha says: 'Inshort these five aggregates of attachment aredttkkha'.1Elsewherehe distinctly definesdttkkhaas the five aggregates: '0 bhikkhus,what isdukkha?It should be said that it is the five aggregates ofiarrachment'.s Here it should be clearly understood thatdukkhaand\"the five aggregates are not two different things; the five aggre-gates themselves aredukkha.We will understand this point betterwhen we have some notion of the five aggregates which constitutethe so-called 'being'. Now, what are these five?The Five AggregatesThe first is the Aggregate of Matter(Rupakkhandha).In this term''Aggregate of Matter' are included the traditional Four GreatElements(cattari mahabhutani),namely, solidity, fluidity, heat andmotion, and also the Derivatives(ttpadaya-rupa)of the Four GreatElements.s In the term 'Derivatives of Four Great Elements' areIincluded our five material sense-organs, i.e., the faculties ofeye, ear, nose, tongue, and body, and their correspondingobjects in the external world, i.e., visible form, sound, odou , taste,rlSa1flkhittenapancupiidiinakkhandhiidukkhii.S V (PTS), p.421.2S III (PTS), p.158.3S III (PTS),p.59.2.0L

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I,lAbhisamuc,p.4. Vibh.p.7 2•Dhs.p.133 § 594·2S III (PTS),p.59.and tangible things, and also some thoughts or ideas or concep-tions which are in the sphere of mind-objects(dharmayatana)1.Thusthe whole realm of matter, both internal and external, is includedin the Aggregate of Matter.The second is the Aggregate of Sensations(Vedanakkhandha).Inthis group are included all our sensations, pleasant or unplea-sant or neutral, experienced through the contact of physica andlmental organs with theexternal:world. They are of six kinds:the sensations experienced through the contact of the eye withvisible forms, ear with sounds, nose with odour, tongue withtaste, body with tangible objects, and mind (which is the sixthfaculty in Buddhist Philosophy) with mind-objects or thoughts orideas.>All our physical and mental sensations are included in thisgroup.A word about what is meant by the term 'Mind'(manas)inBuddhist philosophy may be useful here. It should clearly beunderstood that mind is not spirit as opposed to matter. It shouldalways be remembered that Buddhism does not recognize a spiritopposed to matter, as is accepted by most other systems ofphilosophies and religions. Mind is only a faculty or organ(indriya)like the eye or the ear.Itcan be controlled and developedlike any other faculty, and the Buddha speaks quite often of thevalue of controlling and disciplining these six faculties. Thedifference between the eye and the mind as faculties is that theformer senses the world of colours and visible forms, while thelatter senses the world of ideas and thoughts and mental objects.We experience different fields of the world with different senses.We cannot hear colours, but we can see them. Nor can we seesounds, but we can hear them. Thus with our five physical sense-organs--eye, ear, nose, tongue, body-weexperience only theworld of visible forms, sounds, odours, tastes and tangibleobjects. But these represent only a part of the world, not the wholeworld. What of ideas and thoughts? They are also a part of theworld. But they cannot be sensed, they cannot be conceived bythe faculty of the eye, ear, nose, tongue or body. Yet they can beconceived by another faculty, which is mind. Now ideas andZI

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thoughts are not independent of the world experienced by thesefive physical sense faculties. In fact they depend on, and areconditioned by, physical experiences. Hence a person born blindcannot have ideas of colour, except through the analogy of soundsor some other things experienced through his other faculties.Ideas and thoughtswhich form a part of the world are thusproduced and conditioned by physical experiences and are con-ceived by the mind. Hence mind(manas)is considered a sensefaculty or organ(indrrya),like the eye or the ear.'The third is the Aggregate of Perceptions(Saiiiiakkhandha).Like sensations, perceptions also are of six kinds, in relation to sixinternal faculties and the corresponding six external objects. Likesensations, they are produced through the contact of our sixfaculties with the external world.Itis the perceptions that recog-nize objects whether physical or mental.\"The fourth is the Aggregate of Mental Formations-(Sa'!Jkharak-khandha).In this group are included all volitional activities bothgood and bad. What is generally known askarma(orkamma)comes under this group. The Buddha's own definition ofkarmashould be remembered here: '0 bhikkhus, itisvolition(celana)that I callkarma.Having willed, one acts through body, speechand mind.'3 Volition is 'mental construction,mental activity.Its functionisto direct the mind in the sphere of good, bad orneutral activities.t+ Just like sensations and perceptions, volitionis of six kinds, connected with the six internal faculties and thecorresponding six objects (both physical and mental) in the externalworld.s Sensations and perceptions are not volitional actions.They do not produce karmic effects. Itisonly volitional actions-such as attention(manasikara),will(chanda),determination(adhimokkha),confidence(saddha),concentration(samadhi),wisdom(panna),energy(virrya),desire(raga),repugnance or hate(pafigha)1S III (PTS),p.60.2'Mental Formations'is a term now generally used to represent the wide meaningof the wordsaf!1kharain the list of Five Aggregates.Saf!1kharain other con exts maytmean anything conditioned,anything in the world, in which sense all the FiveAggregates aresaf!1khora.3A (Colombo,1929), p.590-Celano'haf!1 bhikkhave kammaf!1 vadiimi. Cetayitvakammaf!1karoH kiiyena vocomanasd,4Abhisamuc, p. 6.oS III (PTS), p.60.1.1.

llJilfl?i1?l b~tJltlU~1~bl'Ubb~~1'Ufl1~b t.l~tJUbVltJUtlU b~tJ~Vl1eJ~~~'U1~b\"IJ1'Vl~~~'U1~1ilJil'U'Vl~~~~btJ'U?i1'UVI.cr~\"lJeJ~Ian ~~bnl?l~Wil1flll'ltl~t.l1i''IJtJ'Uu~'<iltJuae1t.lneJ~l~'U 1'UhtK~,r'U ~I'l (l!'lJfT) ~~UU11 btJ'UeJ1tJl'l'U~Vl1eJ-n'U6fleJ~~~llJ~eJflWW7VU5~ruru1-rr'U6nb \"li'Ub~tJdtlUbd'Vl'U1-rr'U6~mbu~btJ'U'coCI.IIVVQJ1'Ub~eJ~\"lJeJ~eJ1tJl'l'U~.f11tJ1'U bb~~eJ1tJl'l'U~.fl1tJ'UeJfl'co'co~m~tl'Ubb~d'h\"li'Ub~tJd1e)'Ubnl?l~'U~1flfl1~fl~~'VlU tl'U\"lJeJ~fl1tJ b~1tlUla nrntJ'UeJfl~ ~btJ'U~t.lbb~~'U1lJ1~(j)-rr'U6fleJ~~~~eJflJV71vuff\"-rr'U6fleJ~.nt.l~~fleJU1t.l~1 tJfl1~m~vh~1ib~I'l'U1~~VllJl?ltw'S7::~711 'lJfJfJ69~JrJ7n1'SJJn7Jn7CJJ7117U69::711''''b~I'l'U1btJ'U{r;}'\"JrfUff7u.~n~\"lJeJ~b~I'l'U1~ml1~1'l1t.l1'U~1tJ~bU 'Ufl~~ bU'UeJfl~~ bb~~btr'Ue)'V'ltJ1fll'l~«••'coVllJ11?lb\"li'Ub~tJ1 tlU bd'Vl'U1bb~~~ruru1~m~moUeJ~tlUB 1tJl'l'U~.fl1 tJIuua ~v v~'U~.f11tJ'UBfl'co~1'l~~tl'U (~~~t.lbb~~'U1lJ)<tb1'Vl'U1bb~~~ruru1hj1\"lifl1~fl~~vl1'J,IVV~1m~I'l'U1~~hj?l~1~1U1fl(~~\"lJeJ~m~lJ)fl1~fl~~vl1~t.l~~fleJU~lm~I'l'U1b\"li'UJJUfln71(fl1~ 1?11~)QUn::(fll lJ\"tlBU1h)fJ5TJJmJ(fl11lJ~I?l~'UeJ1~lJru)(m1lJb~mt'U1'U~~~~~llJ)fTJJ75(fl11lJ~~~'Ubbvl~~I'l)UfJjfJj7(fll1lJi)?~CJ::V1tJ~)17fJ::(fl11w11V1UI?l)uQfJ::(fl11lJ~~b~tJl?l fl11lJbbri''Ub~eJ~)

ignorance(avijja),conceit(mana),idea of self(sakkaya-di/!hi)etc.-thatcan produce karmic effects. There are50such mentalactivities which constitute the Aggregate of Mental Formations.The fifth is the Aggregate of Consciousness(Vifjfja~akkhandha).1Consciousness is a reaction or response which has one of the sixfaculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind) as its basis, andone of the six corresponding external phenomena (visible form,'sound, odour, taste, tangible things and mind-objects, i.e., anidea or thought) as its object. For instance, visual conscious-ness(cakkhu-vififia~a)has the eye as its basis and a visible form asits object. Mental consciousness(mano-vifiiza~a)has the mind(manas)as its basis and a mental object, i.e., an idea or thought(dhamma)as its object. So consciousness is connected with otherfaculties. Thus, like sensation, perception and volition, conscious-ness also is of six kinds, in relation to six internal faculties andcorresponding six externalobjects.sIt should be clearly understood that consciousness does notrecognize an object.Itis only a sort of awareness-awarenessof.the presence of an object. When the eye comes in contact with acolour, for instance blue, visual consciousness arises which simplyis awareness of the presence of a colour; but it does not recognizethat it is blue. There is no recognition at this stage. It is perception(the third Aggregate discussed above) that recognizes that it isblue. The term 'visual consciousness' is a philosophical expressiondenoting the same idea as is conveyed by the ordinary word'seeing'. Seeing does not mean recognizing. So are the otherforms of consciousness.Itmust be repeated here that according to Buddhist philosophythere is no permanent, unchanging spirit which can be considered'Self', or 'Soul', or 'Ego', as opposed to matter, and that con-sciousness(viiifia~a)should not be taken as 'spirit' in opposition tomatter. This point has to be particularly emphasized, because awrong notion that consciousness is a sort of Self or Soul1According to Mahayana Buddhist philosophy the Aggregate of'-AIl l\".-lUU;)lII;;~~.·has three aspects:citta, manasandvijiiana,and theAlaya-vijiiiina(popularlyas 'Store-Consciousness')finds its place in this Aggregate. A detailed and comparatrve;study of this subjectwillbe found in a forthcoming work on Buddhistphilosophtby the present writer.2S III (PTS), p. 61.

1I:1·'/~'t,1i5fleJ-:J~vh~eJ?fJjfJj7fl.1VUtf>ltytylrubU'UtllJn~CJ1'V1~eJfl1'al'leJ'U?l'UeJ-:J~ii~'UVl~~th-:Jl~ (I'll1\"illJfl ~'Urnubb~~h)bU'U~l'U bb~~iitl'alfl!lfl1'aru.mtJ'UeJfl('jtl b~tJ-:Jfl~'U 'j?l G1':uer?lbb~~li'a'a:Ul'j:Uru) bU'UeJ1'j:Uru (?)leJ~l-:Jb-U'U:Vn\"lJ?flfflJ7fl.1ClJ9IVCVqjlru~-:Jb~m-rreJ-:Jb~eJ:U1tJ-:Jn'U~'UVl~~~'U1~lm'VI~dltytylrunb-U'Ub~mn'U'lVl'U1G1qjqj1 bb~~G1'-:J\"lJl'j~eJiib'VI:Ul~~l:UeJ1tJl'l'U~.flltJl'Ubn'UeJltJl'l'U~.flltJ'UeJfl'VI~eJb~~'j-:Jn'U\",.eJ-:JeJ1'j:UrubneJl'llfl'j~Vlun'U~b-U'U~Jlb~'U ~fl\"lJlrurulrubn~~'U~-:JbU'Ub'~tJ-:J,OJOJ~f111:uiieJ~\"lJeJ-:J~ bb~llJl~,h 1~11 bU'U~Jlb~'UllJiifl1'a\"i111~'VI:UltJ-r.ff'Udbb~bu'U'IJ'J'JftCYCY1(-rr'U5fleJ-:J~Q1)~\"i111~11bU'U~Jlb~'Ur1111':Vm/?fJjfJj7fl.1'bU'UrlleJ5'Ulm~-:J'll~'1lqj1~LL?l~-:Jf111:U~~b~mn'Un'U~~eJf111:U~ltJrll?llJJtyl1'n7'idfu'fl1'jL,:1'UllJl~l'12J1tJm1:Ul1\"i111~ ltytylru~b'VI~flniit!tJvh'Ufl-:J L~tJl n'U\"i11v1eJ-:JJ111'ru~dl11'U'VI~flf1~\"lJfl-:JV'l'j~V'lVl5~1?l'U11lJii~l'llrurulru~b~tJ-:JbbVi',OJOJ'bktJ~mJLLtI~-:J ~eJ1\"ilL~CJfll~11'tpJ'J(1JU''8(1J(1J'],'ih::'~LU'U~l-:J'VIlfl\"illmtl~fl~-:J'IJ· '.m~l l\".~rl I> 'Wl~ '_''VlR;l'I\"mJ'VI1EJ1'lJ \"~'lJl 'l U il'l i\" 5sn~1'lJ AflfillJ(IJ:fuurrL l'IL :!?qJqj7flJFhh€J7f1 ?qjqJ7flJ£J( 1~fl~J1l1)'l11Je~\"tJi1'~'II1'joU 5d n1'lPi ~'Um lL tJ1EJ'ULYiEJ'U1l1EJ :: ~EJl1 L~fl~ fl~1l'I L1 'Ud'lJ 1~ 'U-¬ ~'U flltJ'lJfl ~L 'li~EJ'lJl1vl1EJ~VHiU'lJ'lJlb .~tJ~mutJr?D!J1f11l1[tn>]'VItil~ o?-/

continues as a permanent substance through life, has persistedfrom the earliest time to the present day.One of the Buddha's own disciples, Sati by name, held that theMaster taught: 'It is the same consciousness that transmigratesand wanders about.' The Buddha asked him what he meant by'consciousness'. Sati's reply is classical: 'It is that which expresses,which feels, which experiences the results of good and ba deedsdhere and there'.'To whomever, you stupid one', remonstrated the Master, 'haveyou heard me expounding the doctrine in this manner? Haven'tIinmany ways explained consciousness as arising out of condi-tions: that there is no arising of consciousness without con-ditions.' Then the Buddha went on to explain consciousnessindetail: 'Conciousness is named according to whatever con-dition through which it arises: on account of the eye and visibleforms arises a consciousness, and it is called visual consciousness;on account of the ear and sounds arises a consciousness, and it iscalled auditory consciousness; on account of the no e andsodours arises a consciousness, and it is called olfactory con-sciousness; on account of the tongue and tastes arises a conscious-ness, and it is called gustatory consciousness; on account of thebody and tangible objects arises a consciousness, and it is calledtactile consciousness; on account of the mind and mind-objects(ideas and thoughts) arises a consciousness, and it is called mentalconsciousness. 'Then the Buddha explained it further by an illustration: Afire is named according to the material on account of which itburns.Afire may burn on account of wood, and it is calle wood-dfire. It may bum on account of straw, and then it is calle straw-dfire. So consciousness is named according to the condition throughwhich it arises.!Dwelling on this point, Buddhaghosa, the great commentator,explains: '. . . a fire that burns on account of wood bums only.when there is a supply, but dies down in that very place whenit(the supply) is no longer there, because then the condition haschanged, but (the fire) does not cross over to splinters, etc., andIMahalat.zhasa1?lkhaya-sutla.M I (PTS). p.256ff.

L~el1~ ~ ~~~'W n(i,:jfl11'l1'UlJn:lJb~m1.!~~€J 1~€J1l\"i'tJ1lJ~~~'Wn(i,:jfl11'l1'ul11 ~1lJ1~m~tJVlf[1~~~'W n(i,:jfl11'l1'ul11~Vlf[1 ~'Ul~ 1'1J'1J1ru€J1~tJtJ~~tJl~ ~ bfi~~'Un(i,:jfl1~,rul1i'1J'1J1ru~1lJtJ~~mr'U~ o'U,!'U\"1'Uth~b~'Ud~1~~'VI51~~1~11~~1~€J11t1nm~11~~~,:jlVlru€J5U1tJl1'...lrl,'Jwf1 F1CJlu~.J~nrw~.J tiJeJtimY.JiJncY.J~n1'tJIumJ tiJeJtieJhiiJntieJJJ~ulrytiLu~.Juduw.J99'IJ'Itw'i'7:JflfJ7J:;ttidcJ'lJlti IrllJ1nJ:;r~~ltil'tJ/Jjf,ff'l1lu\"1~\"1U~:;G'l11mtJVl~,:j\"lJ€J,:j~1~~'VI5b~1'U1lJl1ff'708~~'Wl1~1~U1lJfI!16'1~1V11,:jbb6'l~,:j511lJ'J,~ h'?WW'7flJifdUU'tJI~:;tieJJJ'I;jeJ.JtvfcnItltmul tlIJJLieJti'7.Jdu''~1~~'VI5b~1~~6'lmlJl1v...,'?ryry7nJ'~n~11(i,:j,r'UbU'W€J~1,:j11 rl1~€JU\"lJ€J,:j6'l1~i1n~bu'U1ilenuuuUilUU111'1J'1J1ru'Rf)fli)'7J:;~WrJlrj'rufl~m'Jc/ju7n\"lfeJ.JnJJmf.J'tJI~7Cl~fl'JU~~fl\";J'/.J1i'JLu~.Ju6\")'IJ'IJIt?Uv'7nUv:vmffClfJJ7JJtnrJiuu'IIi.J?ww7flJniJlJ11~ ~.Jifmi'tJI1eJ'~mJ1fl,r'U~1~~'VI5b~1......,Vl ~bLG'I~,:j511l.d1vlltJi'1J'1J1ru1~tJrl~bBtJ~~'?fJjfJj7flJeJ7nCluv:VClLrJ/tnrJiu nif.Jnnuu?'71fjJflj7flJ(PJ7JJUv:VCl.JU/ ?fJjfJj'7flJeJ7nCl:vn1:fu~:;JtltnrJiu nif.Jnnuuh:Vm/?fJjfJj7flJ'7fjJfjJ'7a1eJ7nClrff(PJ:;U~:;tffm tnrJiu nif.Jn JUU'J'7rff(PJ?fJjfJj77tu?fJjfJj7tue'7nClfJJ7U:;U~:;~',Q,J't:t.clIVI~.c::.,Q./Q.q.J't:J&:IflftWnmJ'/.J nfNnnUUJ7~7U'JfJjfJj7flJ'JfJjfJj7flJeJ7ffCl\"lf\"'J'tJI7U~:;JmnrJ\"lfUnasrn:utn'i3'J'tJI7?fJjfJj7flJ?fJjfJj7flJeJ7nCln7ClU~:;rNtJ!WW:;tn~iu nif.Jn7JUU'J'7n7Cl?fJjfJj7flJ~fJ1fjJ'7flJeJ7nClJJU:;U~:;EiJJJJ7JJJrJtnrJiu nif.Jn7 JUU'J'7JJU?fJjfJj7ltu'~€J~1n,r'U ~1~~'VI5b~1'V11,:j€J5U1tJvlltJfl11tJfl~1€J~1,:jl1btJ1tJUbVllJ€J'U1~€J1l\"i'tJ,, II

become a splinter-fire and so on; even so the consciousness thatarises on account of the eye and visible forms arises in that gateof sense organ (i.e., in the eye), only when there is the condition ofthe eye, visible forms, light and attention, but ceases then andthere when it (the condition) is no more there, because then thecondition has changed, but (the consciousness) does not crossover to the ear, etc. and become auditory consciousness and so,on ...'1The Buddha declared in unequivocal terms that consciousnessdepends on matter, sensation, perception and mental formations,and that it cannot exist independently of them. He says:'Consciousness may existhaving matter asits means(riiptlpifyafJI),matter as its object(riiparammalJafp),matter as its support(riipa-pati!!hafJI),and seeking delight it may grow, increase and develop;or consciousness may exist having sensation as its means . ..orperception as its means . . . or mental formations as its means,mental formations as its object, mental formations as its support,and seeking delight it may grow, increase and develop.'Were a man to say: I shall show the coming, the going, thepassing away, the arising, the growth, the increase or thedevelopment of consciousness apart from matter, sensation,perception and mental formations, he would be speaking of some-thing that does not exist.'>Very briefly these are the five Aggregates. What we call a'being', or an 'individual', or'1',is only a convenient name or alabel given to the combination of these five groups. They are allimpermanent, all constantly changing. 'Whatever is imperm nentaisdttkkha' (Yad aniccas: tafJIdukkha1?J).This is the true meaning ofthe Buddha's words: 'In brief the five Aggregates of Attachmentaredtlkkha.'They are not the same for two consecutive moments.Here A is not equal to A They are in a flux of momentary a sing.riand disappearing.'0 Brahmans, it isjust likeamountain river, flowing far and swift,taking everything along with it; there is no moment, no in tant,sno second when it stops flowing, but it goes on flowing andIMA II (PT5), pp 306-307..25 III (PT5), p.S8.25

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continuing. SoBrahmans,is human life, like a mountainriver.'lAs the Buddha told Ratthapala: 'The world is in continuous fluxand is impermanent.'One thing disappears, conditioning the appearance of the nextina series of cause and effect. There is no unchanging substancein them. There is nothing behind them that can be called a per-manent Self(Atman),individuality, or anything that can in realitybe called'!'. Everyone will agree that neither matter, nor sensa-tion, nor perception, nor anyone of those mental activities, norconsciousness can reallybe called'1'.2But when these five p ysicalhand mental aggregates which are interdependent are workingtogether in combination as a physio-psychologicalmachine.swe get the idea ofT.But this is only a falseidea, a mental orma-ftion, which is nothing but one of those50mental formationsof the fourth Aggregate which we have just discussed, namely,it is the idea of self(sakkqya-di!!hi).These rive Aggregates together, which we popularly call a'being', aredukkhaitself(sa1!lkhara-dttkkha).There is no other'being' or'!', standing behind these five aggregates, who experi-encesdtlkkha.As Buddhaghosa says:'Mere suffering exists, but no sufferer is found;The deeds are, but no doer is found.'4There is no unmoving mover behind the movement.Itis onlymovement. It is not correct to say that life is moving, but life ismovement itself. Life and movement are not two different things.In other words, there is no thinker behind the thought. Thoughtitself is the thinker. If you remove the thought, there is no thinkerto be found. Here we cannot fail to notice how this Buddhist viewis diametrically opposed to the Cartesiancogito ergosum:'I think,therefore I am.'Now a question may be raised whether life has a beginning.lA (Colombo,1929),p.700.These words are attributed by the Buddha to aTeacher(Sallha)named Araka who was free from desires and who lived in the dimpast. It is interesting to remember here the doctrine of Heraclitus (about500B.C.)that everything is in a state of flux, and his famous statement : 'You cannot st p twiceeinto the same river, for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you.'2The doctrine of Anatta 'No-Self' will be discussed in Chapter VI.3In fact Buddhaghosa compares a 'being' to a wooden mechanism(daruyanta).Vism. (PTS), pp.594-595.4Vism. (PTS), p.513.2.6

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According to the Buddha's teaching the beginning of the life-stream of living beings is unthinkable. The believer in the creationof life by God may be astonished at this reply. But if you were toask him 'What is the beginning of God?'he would answer withouthesitation 'God has no beginning', and he is not astonished at hisown reply. The Buddha says: '0 bhikkhus, this cycleof continuity(sa!!lsdra)is without a visible end, and the first beginning of beingswandering and running round, envelopedinignoranceCavy/d)Iand bound down by the fetters of thirst desire,Cta1}hd)is not to beperceived.' And further, referring to ignorance which is he main1tcause of the continuity of life the Buddha states: 'The first begin-ning of ignoranceCavij/d)is not to be perceived in such a way as topostulate that there was no ignorance beyond a certain point.'2Thus it is not possible to say that there was no life beyond acertain definite point.This in short is the meaning of the Noble Truth ofDukkha.It is extremely important to understand this First Nob e Truthlclearly because, as the Buddha says, 'he who seesdukkhasees alsothe arising ofdukkha,sees also the cessation ofdukkha,and seesalso the path leading to the cessation ofdukkha.'3This does not at all make the life of a Buddhist melancholy orsorrowful, as some people wrongly imagine. On the contrary,a true Buddhist is the happiest of beings. He has no fears oranxieties. He is always calm and serene, and cannot be upset or'dismayed by changes or calamities, because he sees things as theyare. The Buddha was never melancholy or gloomy. He wasdescribed by his contemporariesas 'ever-smiling'Cmihita-pubbatpgama).In Buddhist painting and sculpture the Buddha isalways represented with a countenance happy, serene, contentedand compassionate. Never a trace of suffering or agony or painIis to beseen.sBuddhist art and architecture, Buddhist templesIS II (PTS), pp.178-179;III pp.149, 151·2AV (PTS), p.1I3.3S V (PTS), p.437.In fact the Buddha says that he who sees anyone of the FourNoble Truths sees the other three as well. These Four Noble Truths are inter-connected.4There is a statue from Gandhara, and also one from Fou-Kien, China, depictingGotama as an ascetic, emaciated, with all his ribs showing. But this was before hisEnlightenment, when he was submitting himself to the rigorous ascetic practiceswhich he condemned after he became Buddha.

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- ,never give the impression of gloom or sorrow, but produceatmosphere of calm and serene joy.Although there is suffering in life, a Buddhist should notbegloomy over it, should not be angry or impatient at it. O e ofnprincipal evils in life, according to Buddhism, is 'repugnance'hatred. Repugnance(pratigha)is explained as 'ill will with-.L\"'~,\"'.LUto living beings, with regard to suffering and with regard otpertaining to suffering Its function is to produce a basis for.happy states and bad conduct '! Thus it is wrong to be impatientat.suffering. Being impatient or angry at suffering does not removeit.On the contrary, it adds a little more to one's troubles, a d aggra-nvates and exacerbates a situation already disagreeable What is.necessary is not anger or impatience but the understanding,ofthe question of suffering, how it comes about, and how to getrid of it, and then to work accordingly with patience,_U .L••_ellis:'~.LJ.\"\"\"':determination and energy.There are two ancient Buddhist texts called theTheragathiiandTherigiithiiwhich are full of the joyful utterances of the Buddha'sdisciples, both male and female, who found peace and happinessin life through his teaching. The king of Kosala once told theBuddha that unlike many a disciple of other religious systems wholooked haggard, coarse, pale, emaciated and unpreposse sing,shisdisciples were 'joyful and elated(ha!!ha-pahattha),jubilant andexultant(udaggudagga),enjoying the spiritual life(abhiratariipa),with faculties pleased(pitJitindriya),free from anxiety(appossukka)serene(pannaloma),peaceful(paradavtltta)and living with agazelle's mind(migabhiitena cetasii),i.e., light hearted.' The king-added that he believed that this healthy disposition was due to thefact that 'these venerable ones had certainly realized he greattand full significance of the Blessed One's teaching '2.Buddhism is quite opposed to the melancholic, sorrowful,penitent and gloomy attitude of mind which is considered ahindrance to the realization of Truth. On the other hand, it isinteresting to remember here that joy(pili)is one of the sevenBojjha'l'gasor 'Factors of Enlightenment', the essential qualities tobe cultivated for the realization ofNirva1)a.3lAbhisamuc, p. 7.2MII (PTS), p.121.3For these Seven Factors of Enlightenment see Chapter on Meditation, p. 75·

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CHAPTERIIITHESECONDNOBLETRUTH:SAMU DAY A:'The Arising ofDukkha'The Second Noble Truth is that of the arising or origin ofdukkha(Dukkhasamudaya-ariyasacca).The most popular and well-knowndefinition of the Second Truth as found in innumerable places inthe original texts runs as follows:'It is this \"thirst\" (craving,ta1}ha)which produces re-existenceand re-becoming(ponobhavika),and which is bound up withpassionate greed(nandiragasahagata),and which finds freshdelightnow here and now there(tatratatrabhinandini),namely, (I) thirstfor sense-pleasures(kama-ta1}ha),(2)thirst for existence and be-coming(bhava-ta1}ha)and (3) thirst for non-existence (self-annihilation,vibhava-ta1}ha).'1It is this 'thirst', desire, greed, craving, manifesting itself invarious ways, that gives rise to all forms of suffering and thecontinuity of beings. But it should not be taken as the first cause,for there is no first cause possible as, according to Budd-hism, everything is relative and inter-dependent.Even this'thirst' ,ta1}ha,which is considered as the cause or origin ofdukkha,depends for its arising(samudaya)on something else,which is sensation(vedana),2and sensation arises depending on con-tact(phassa),and so on and so forth goes on the circle which isknown as Conditioned Genesis(Pa!icca-samuppada),which we willdiscusslater.eSota1}ha,'thirst', is not the first or the only cause of the arisingofdukkha.But it is the most palpable and immediate cause, the'principal thing' and the 'all-pervading thing'.4Hence in certainIMhvg. (Alutgama,1922),p. 9; S V (PTS), p.421andpassim.2Vedaniisamudayii latzhiisamudayo.M (PTS), p. 5II.3Seep.53.4Abhisamuc, p.43,priidhiiny rlha, sar alragiirlha.iiv29

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places of the original Pali texts themselves the definition ofsamudayaor the origin ofdukkhaincludes other defilements andimpurities(kilesa, sasava dhamma),in addition totaIJha'thirst'which is always given the first place.! Within the necessarilylimited space of our discussion, it will be sufficientif we rememberthat this 'thirst' has as its centre the falseidea of self arising out of19norance.Here the term 'thirst' includesnot only desirefor, and attachmentto, sense-pleasures, wealth and power, but also desire for, andattachment to, ideas and ideals, views, opinions, theories, concep-tions and beliefs(dhamma-taIJha).2According to the Buddha'sanalysis, all the troubles and strife in the world, from littlepersonal quarrels in families to great wars between nations andcountries, arise out of this selfish 'thirst'.3From this point ofview, all economic, political and social problems are rooted in thisselfish 'thirst'. Great statesmen who try to settle internationaldisputes and talk of war and peace only in economic and politicalterms touch the superficialities, and never go deep into thereal root of the problem. As the Buddha told Rattapala : 'Theworld lacks and hankers, and is enslaved to \"thirst\"(taIJhadaso).'Everyone will admit that all the evils in the world are producedby selfishdesire. This is not difficult to understand. But how thisdesire, 'thirst', can produce re-existence and re-becoming(pono-bhavika)is a problem not so easy to grasp. It is here that we haveto discuss the deeper philosophical side of the SecondNoble Truthcorresponding to the philosophical side of the First Noble Truth.Here we must have some idea about the theory ofkarmaandrebirth.There are four Nutriments(ahara)in the sense of 'cause' or'condition' necessary for the existence and continuity of beings:(1)ordinary material food(kabalilikarahara),(2)contact of oursense-organs (including mind) with the external world(phassahara),(3) consciousness(viiiiiaIJahara)and(4)mental volition orwill(manosaiicetanahara).430lSee Vihh. (PTS), p.106ff.2M I (PTS),p.51; S IIp.72; Vihh.p.380.3MI,p.86.4ibid.,p. 48.

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Of these four, the last mentioned 'mental volition' is the willto live, to exist, to re-exist, to continue, to become more andmore.!Itcreates the root of existence and continuity,strivingforward by way of good and bad actions(kusalakusalakamma).2jItis the same as 'Volition'(cetana).3We have seen earlier+that'volition is karma, as the Buddha himself has definedit. Referringto 'Mental volition' just mentioned above the Buddha says:1'When one understands thenutrimentof mental volition oneunderstands the three forms of 'thirst'(tatlha).'5Thus the terms'thirst', 'volition', 'mental volition' and 'karma' all denote thesame thing: they denote the desire, the will to be, to exist, tore-exist, to become more and more, to grow more and more, toaccumulate more and more. This is the cause of the rising ofadukkha,and this is found within the Ag regate of Mental For-gmations, one of the Five Aggregates which constitute a being.\"Here is one of the most important and essential points in theBuddha's teaching. We must therefore clearly and caref lly markuIand remember that the cause, the germ, of the arisin ofgdukkhais withindukkhaitself, and not outside; and we mu t equallyswell remember that the cause,the germ, of the cessationofdukkha,of the destruction ofdukkha,is also withind kkhattitself and not,outside. This is what is meant by the well- nown formulakoften found in original Pali texts:Yatjl kind samuday dhammatjlasabbamIalpnirodbadbammam'Whatever is of the nature of arising,allthat is of the nature of cessation. A being, a thing, or a system,'7if it has within itself the nature of arising, the nature of cominginto being, has also within itself the nature, the germ, of its owncessation and destruction. Thusdukkha(Five Aggregates) haswithin itself the nature of its own arising, and has al o withinslIt is interesting to compare this mental volition with 'libido' in modern psychol-''ogy.2MA I (PTS), p.210 .3Manosa elana'iicticetand e av uuccati.MA I (PTS , p).209.4See above p.22.5S II (PTS), p.100.The three forms of 'thirst' are:(I)Thirst for sense-pleasures,(2.)Thirst for e istence and becoming and (3) Thirst for non-existence, as given inx,the definition ofsamuda ay'arising ofdukkha'above.6See above p.22 .7MIII (PTS), p.280;S IV, pp. 47 107; V, p,.423andpassim.3 1

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itself the nature of its own cessation. This point will be taken upagain in the discussion of the Third Noble Truth,Nirodha.Now, the Pali wordkammaor the Sanskrit wordkarma(fromthe rootkrto do) literally means 'action', 'doing'. But in the Budd-hist theory of karma it has a specific meaning: it means only'volitional action', not all action. Nor does it mean the result ofkarma as many people wrongly and loosely use it. In Buddhistterminology karma never means its effect;its effectis known asthe'fruit' or the 'result' of karma(kamma-phalaorkamma-vipaka).Volition may relatively be good or bad, just as a desire mayrelatively be good or bad. So karma may be good or bad rela-tively. Good karma(kusala)produces good effects, and bad'karma(aktlsala)produces bad effects. 'Thirst', volition, karma,whether good or bad, has one force as its effect: force to con-tinue-tocontinue in a good or bad direction. Whether good orbad it is relative, and is within the cycle of continuity(saJ?1sara).An Arahant, though he acts, does not accumulate karma, becauseIhe is free from the false idea of self, free from the 'thirst' forcontinuity and becoming, free from all other defilements and'impurities(kilesa, sasava dhamma).For him there is no rebirth.The theory of karma should not be confusedwith so-called'moraljustice' or 'reward and punishment'. The idea of moral justice,or reward and punishment, arisesout ofthe conception of asupremebeing, a God, who sits in judgment, who is a law-giver and whodecides what is right and wrong. The term 'justice' is ambiguousand dangerous, and in its name more harm than good is done tohumanity. The theory of karma is the theory of cause and effect,of action and reaction; it is a natural law, which has nothing todo with the idea of justice or reward and punishment. Everyvolitional action produces its effects or results If a good action.produces good effectsand a bad action bad effects,it is not justice,or reward, or punishment meted out by anybody or any powersitting in judgment on your action, but this is in virtue of its ownnature, its ownlaw,This is not difficultto understand. But what isdifficult is that, according to the karma theory, the effects of avolitional action may continue to manifest themselves even in a lifeafter death. Here we have to explain what death is according toBuddhism.We have seen earlier that a being is nothing but a combination

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of physical and mental forces or energies. What we call death is thetotal non-functioning of the physicalbody. Do all these forces andenergies stop altogether with the non-functioning of the body?Buddhism says 'No'. Will, volition, desire, thirst to exist, tocontinue, to become more and more, is a tremendous force thatmoves whole lives, whole existences, that even moves thewhole world. This is the greatest force, the greatest energy in theworld. According to Buddhism, this force does not stop with thenon-functioning of the body, which is death; but it continuesmanifesting itself in another form, producing re-existence whichis called rebirth.Now, another question arises: If there is no permanent, un-Ichanging entity or substance like Self or Soul(iitman),what is itthat can re-exist or be reborn after death? Before we go on tolife after death, let us consider what this life is, and how it con-tinues now. What we call life, as we have so often repeated, isthe combination of the Five Aggregates, a combination of physicaland mental energies. These are constantly changing; they do notremain the same for two consecutive moments. Every momentthey are born and they die. 'When the Aggregates arise, decay anddie, 0 bhikkhu, every moment you are born, decay and die.'lThus, even now during this life time, every moment we are bornand die, but we continue.Ifwe can understand that in this life wecan continue without a permanent, unchanging substance likeSelfor Soul, why can't we understand that those forces themselvescan continue without a Self or a Soul behind them after the non-functioning of the body?When this physical body is no more capable of functioning,energies do not die with it, but continue to take some other shapeor form, which we call another life.Ina child all the physical,mental and intellectual facultiesare tender and weak, but they havewithin them the potentiality of producing a full grown man.Physical and mental energies which constitute the so-called beinghave within themselves the power to take a new form, and growgradually and gather force to the full.IPrmj. I (PTS),p.78.'Khandhesu 4. amonesujiyamonesu miyamonesu cakhatJ kha1;letva1flj yebhjkkhujoyase cajiyasecomiyase ca.'This is quoted in theParamatlhajolikoCommentaryas the Buddha's own words. So far I have not been able to trace this passage backto its original text.33I

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