Paper-3, Booklet-2, S&T-Environment Mng

INDUSTRY  Tissue engineering: Tissue engineering made remarkable progress with FOOD printing of 3D blood vessels. This was achieved 3D bio-printing HOUSING technology and biomaterials through vascularisation of hydrogel constructs.  Dentistry: Dental Implants are being made on a commercial level using 3D printing technology.  Prosthetics: 3D printing is being used to make surrogate body parts.  Artificial organ: Additive manufacturing of stem cells has also led to various possibilities in printing artificial organs, although most of the work is still in the experimental stage. 3D printing can be used to manufacture varied forms of products from car or plane parts to sport goods, toys etc. Customised products are able to be manufactured as customers can edit the digital design file and send to the manufacturer for productions. 3D printing enables fast automated and repeatable processes, freedom in design, as well as allowing large and easy variability of the cooking process which can be customized. The technology can be used for a variety of housing projects with application in custom luxury designer homes, large scale development projects, to temporary housing projects. It could also enable engineers to design and build stiffer and safer geometries for houses. Further, can also help engineers to rebuild and restore old heritage designs quickly yet accurately. IMPACT DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES  The size of objects created with 3D printers is currently limited.  3D printing is cheaper than traditional method of manufacturing. For example:  With 3D printing being an additive method China was able to able to construct 10 one (layer after layer), the materials suited for it storey houses at less than $5000 per house. are limited- ceramics, resin, plastics, etc.  Printing of the 3D object can be done  Effect on employment: Jobs in directly, differing from the traditional manufacturing will be rendered obsolete manufacturing where different components which will have a negative impact on had to be joined to form the final product. 151

 Generating prototypes with 3D printers is developing economies. much easier and faster with 3D printing  Concerns over copyright infringements: technology. There is concern over counterfeit printing of  Increased Productivity: It enables quick copyrighted or patented products. Anyone production with a high number of prototypes who gets a hold of a blueprint will be able to or a small-scale version of the real object. counterfeit products easily.  Production of dangerous items: There are  Different materials can be used in the 3D concerns over deterring or controlling people models. This makes it very easy to create from 3D printing potentially dangerous construction models or prototypes for a wide items. Example: International regimes such variety of projects within many industries. as the Nuclear Suppliers Group, Missile Technology Control Regime and the  Every item can be customized to meet a Wassenaar Agreement that control user's specific needs without impacting the technology have been concerned about manufacturing costs. proliferation of high-performance 3-D printers, which have the capability to print  Quality assurance: the technology builds parts for missile or nuclear weapon. robust products with superior functionality.  Cyber security concerns: Studies have shown that the 3-D printer connected to  Employment opportunities: The online network is vulnerable to cyberattacks. widespread use of 3D printing technology will increase the demand for engineers who are needed to design and build these printers and design blueprints of products.  Reduced wastage: AM process produces less waste in comparison with other traditional manufacturing techniques. CHALLENGES  Lack of domestic manufacturers of 3D printer: Though, there has been some attempts in producing 3D printers domestically they are not of industrial grade and industries largely depend on imports.  High cost of imports: There is a lack of clarity relating to the import of 3-D printers that attract close to 30–40% customs duty, over and above the shipping cost. The huge cost associated with importing industrial grade 3-D printers is too much for the medium and small-scale industries in India. 152

 Employment: 3D printing carries dangerous implications for employment scenario in developing nations such as India as it decreases reliance on assembly workers. It may lead to the creation of software-based design platforms in the West that distribute work orders to small manufacturing facilities, whether located in developed or developing countries, but ultimately transfer value creation towards software and design and away from physical manufacturing.  Awareness: Due to lack of awareness many business entities do not opt for design- prototyping-manufacturing assistance which largely reduces the reach of 3D printing. CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARDS India needs to accelerate research at its premier engineering schools on manufacturing machines and methods and encourage formation of product design centres so that the products built suit the Indian environment and consumers. India also would need government support to provide incentives for distributed manufacturing in smaller towns, and for the IT industry to work on creating platforms and marketplaces that connect consumer demands, product designers and manufacturers in a seamless way. Training and skilling is another important aspect which requires considerable attention. There is huge scope under the ‗Skill India‘ initiative to reach out to the many technical institutes in the country to sensitize them regarding the opportunities in 3D printing. Therefore a pinch of Indian entrepreneurship thrown in, will allow India to develop a manufacturing ecosystem that will not only allow India to compete with global manufacturing, it will also create products that are uniquely suited to Indian conditions. INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT) Internet of things is an integrated system in which devices are connected in a network of information in such a way that they can communicate with each other without any human intervention. It creates an intelligent system of systems which can manage multiple activities of human concern like traffic control, health management, optimal use of electricity and inventory management etc. 153

BENEFITS  Unprecedented connectivity- IoT data and insights from connected applications and devices empower organizations with the ability to deliver innovative new products and services faster than their competitors.  Increased efficiency- IoT networks of smart and intelligent devices provide real-time data to arm employee with the information they need to optimize their day-to-day efficiency and productivity.  Cost savings- IoT devices provide accurate data collection and automated workflows to help organizations reduce their operating costs and minimize errors.  Time savings- Connected smart devices can help organizations enhance the performance of systems and processes to save time. CHALLENGES  SECURE DEVICES: More than 7 billion devices will need to be made secure by their manufacturers before 2020. The need to secure every connected device by 2020 is ―critical‖. Everything that‘s connected to the internet can be hacked; IoT products are no exception to this unwritten rule.  PRIVACY ISSUES: If every product becomes connected then there‘s the potential for unbridled observation of users. This will create a lot of privacy issues.  DATA LEAKAGES: In today‘s tech-driven world, each and every device that an individual uses is connected via the internet. This increases the risk of any leakage of data that might be important. This is a major drawback of sharing information, as confidential information might not be safe & could be hacked by third parties easily.  GOVERNMENT SURVEILLANCE: There is growing concern about the potential for increased government surveillance and a resulting encroachment of civil rights to suppress dissent or marginalize communities. In the future, intelligence services might use the internet of things for identification, surveillance, monitoring, location tracking, and targeting for recruitment, or to gain access to networks or user credentials. 154

CONCLUSION Policy-makers, regulators, device manufacturers, supporting industries and service providers will all have to join hands in creating a safer space online. We need to upgrade our laws to appropriately account for the impact that IoT will have on our lives. The Justice Srikrishna Committee had recommended some provisions for personal data protection including a consumer‘s right to information, consent, and right to request companies to erase their data if preferred. However, it leaned heavily towards greater regulations and did not specify how to protect consumer data from unnecessary government surveillance. Despite these challenges, India must drive full speed ahead towards IoT technology for the greater good of our citizens. With effective global alliances and Indian stakeholder alignment, we can work to create more secure devices and help our citizens. CLOUD COMPUTING Cloud computing is the delivery of computing services—including servers, storage, databases, networking, software, analytics, and intelligence—over the Internet (―the cloud‖) to offer faster innovation, flexible resources, and economies of scale. 155

In general, there are three cloud computing characteristics that are common among all cloud- computing vendors- • The back-end of the application (especially hardware) is completely managed by a cloud vendor. • A user only pays for services used (memory, processing time and bandwidth, etc.). • Services are scalable- It is common to categorize cloud computing services as Infrastructure As A Service (IaaS), Platform As A Service (PaaS) or Software As A Service (SaaS). IMPACT ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS  Seamless Connectivity - ability to use  Security has always been a big concern software from any device either via a native with the cloud especially when it comes to app or a browser. As a result, users can sensitive medical records and financial carry their files and settings over to other information. devices in a completely seamless manner.  Servers maintained by cloud computing  Higher Accessibility companies may fall victim to natural disasters, internal bugs, and power  Improved Disaster Recovery outages, too.  Cost-Saving  The geographical reach of cloud computing cuts both ways: A blackout in  Companies can swap costly server California could paralyze users in New centers and IT departments for fast York, and a firm in Texas could lose its Internet connections, where employees data if something causes its Maine-based interact with the cloud online to complete provider to crash. their tasks.  With many individuals accessing and  The cloud structure allows individuals to manipulating information through single save storage space on their desktops or portal, inadvertent mistakes can transfer laptops. across an entire system.  Increased Collaboration and flexibility  Maintenance costs: While the upfront or capital cost for the cloud-based server is  Environment friendly- Cloud computing very low compared to traditional hosting, reduces a company‘s carbon footprint by the cloud server requires the same amount minimizing energy consumption and to be paid each month to maintain both carbon emissions by more than 30%. 156

servers as well as data.  Internet connectivity: For cloud-based services, consistent internet connection is important because if any one of the cloud- based service providers loses connectivity, then the company will be out of business until that internet connection returns.  Loss of control over the data. INDIANISATION OF TECHNOLOGY AGRICULTURE Extension and advisory services are relevant to smallholder farmers, who remain the bedrock of the agricultural and food supply chains in India. ICTs are very useful in agricultural extension and advisory services and in facilitating reaching out to small and marginal farmers. Extension and Advisory services play a crucial role in promoting agricultural productivity, increasing food security, improving rural livelihoods. E-Agriculture is an emerging field focusing on the enhancement of agricultural and rural development through improved information and communication processes. More specifically, e- Agriculture involves the conceptualization, design, development, evaluation and application of innovative ways to use information and communication technologies (ICT) in the rural domain, with a primary focus on agriculture. SIGNIFICANCE  Improve the wellbeing of individuals and communities. 157

 Change production systems so that they improve rural livelihoods and sustain the resource base.  Improve agriculture and the social, economic and political status of rural communities.  Improve the wellbeing of farm families.  Improve productivity and livelihoods for farmers.  Increase and improve farmers‘ incomes and productivity on a sustainable basis.  Enhance farmers‘ production.  Attain higher levels of efficiency in the farm enterprise.  Attain food security and improve rural livelihoods. APPLICATIONS 1. Land mapping- Using satellite data and remote sensing, farmers can get real time information about soil moisture, water level etc. Soil quality assessment with help of remote sensing and tools for assessing the feasibility of crops. 2. Soil and Water Testing Laboratories- These Testing Labs spreads across the country educate the farmers about various scientific tools for identifying superb soil and water for agricultural purposes 3. Land record maintenance- This can also help in the measurement of the plots, land fragmentation etc. 4. Weather information- Advanced information about adverse weather condition, so that farmers can take precautionary measures. 5. Credit and finance- Information regarding agri-finance, agri- clinics and agribusiness. Banking facilities like mobile banking, DBT of subsidies can be done easily. 6. Agri-Marketing- Real time and near real times pricing and market information. E.g.: e- NAM It is as a powerful tool when combined with price incentives, input supply, credit, seed multiplication. 7. Agri-Price Support- Market intervention scheme involving procurement through a notified agency like Commission for Agriculture Costs and Prices, Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), and Marketing Research and 158

Information Network (AGMARKNET) etc, can surely be of great help in assuring fair returns to farmers. 8. Advisory services- Agriculture Information, Awareness and Education. 9. Government Initiatives- Information dissemination about various government schemes. 10. Discussion portals- Online Farmer Communities to discuss the trends, issues etc. 11. Allied sector information- in order to help farmer sustain and increasing income through beekeeping, fishery, and animal husbandry. Recently , Mushroom farming on stubble left is being promoted through information dissemination in Punjab 12. It acts as an intermediary link between agricultural development institutions such as research institutes, universities, colleges of agriculture and target groups 13. The agricultural extension services mainly concentrated on to strengthen the agricultural system by empowering farmers in terms of health, education, livelihood and income. Key Government initiatives to promote use of ICT in agriculture include National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGP-A), various Touch Screen Kiosks, Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Kisan Call Centres, Agri-Clinics, Common Service Centers, mKisan, Kisan TV and various other applications. In India ICT applications such as Warana, Dristee, E-Chaupal, E-Seva, Lokmitra, E-Post, Gramdoot, Dyandoot, Tarahaat, Dhan, Akshaya, Honeybee, and Praja are quite successful in achieving their objectives. Organizational and social change is involved in implementing or rural ICTs. Information is essential to tackling the impacts of climate change: this is why there is a need for a shift in the agricultural sector in order to disseminate adequate understanding at the correct moment to those at the forefront of the fight: farmers in both advanced and developing nations. HEALTH Healthcare in India has been transformed over the last three decades. There are improved indices on life expectancy, infant mortality, maternal deaths and quality of outcomes. Technical advancements are revolutionizing the healthcare industry all around the globe and India is not far behind. 159

APPLICATIONS OF ICT IN HEALTH Technology has been developed and applied to practices such as diagnosis processes, treatment protocol development, drug development, personalized medicine, and patient monitoring and care. HEALTHCARE Technology has the potential to be used in planning and resource allocation ORGANISATION in health and social care services. It is also being used with the aim of improving patient experience. MEDICAL  Technology especially artificial intelligence can be used to analyse and RESEARCH identify patterns in large and complex datasets faster and more precisely than has previously been possible.  It can also be used to search the scientific literature for relevant studies, and to combine different kinds of data for example, to aid drug discovery.  Researchers have developed an AI ‘robot scientist’ called Eve which is designed to make the process of drug discovery faster and more economical. CLINICAL CARE Technologies have the potential to aid the diagnosis of disease. Using AI to analyse clinical data, research publications, and professional guidelines could also help to inform decisions about treatment. MEDICAL IMAGING  AI could reduce the cost and time involved in analyzing scans, AND DIAGNOSIS potentially allowing more scans to be taken to better target treatment. AI has shown promising results in detecting conditions such as pneumonia, breast and skin cancers, and eye diseases.  AI provides doctors the ability to interpret imaging results may allow clinicians to be aided to detect a change in an image that is minute in detail, or something that a clinician may have accidentally missed.  New technological tools are being developed that analyse speech patterns to predict psychotic episodes and identify and monitor symptoms of neurological conditions such as Parkinson‘s disease. CHRONIC  Low cost- With the development of more and more technology and 160

DISEASES artificial intelligence, healthcare can eventually be delivered at a lower PUBLIC HEALTH cost because when efficiency is increased, diagnostics will be more focused.  Save time of doctors- AI-enabled medical care plays the role of an informative assistant that enables doctors to gain an understanding of meaningful patterns from data collection and eventually can save a lot of time, effort and costs through easy access to unbiased, consistent, good-quality diagnosis and treatment.  Other technology applications are smart diagnostics, multipurpose tele-consultation kiosks, remote patient monitoring, more efficient procurement, payment technology, disease surveillance, technology driven large scale trainings etc.  Technology has the potential to be used to aid early detection of infectious disease outbreaks and sources of epidemics, such as water contamination.  Technology has also been used to predict adverse drug reactions  Managing Medical Records and Other Data- Robots collect, store, re-format, and trace data to provide faster, more consistent access.  Doing Repetitive Jobs- Analyzing tests, X-Rays, CT scans, data entry, and other mundane tasks can all be done faster and more accurately by robots.  Treatment Design- Technology systems have been created to analyze data notes and reports from a patient‘s file, external research, and clinical expertise to help select the correct, individually customized treatment path.  Digital Consultation- Apps like Babylon in the UK use technology to give medical consultation based on personal medical history and common medical knowledge.  Precision Medicine- Genetics and genomics look for mutations and links to disease from the information in DNA. With the help of new technologies body scans can spot cancer and vascular diseases early and predict the health issues people might face based on their genetics. 161

PATIENT-FACING  Tele health- The ability to monitor patients using AI, may allow for the DEVICES communication of information to physicians if possible disease activity may have occurred. Wearable health trackers – like those from Fitbit, Apple, Garmin and others – monitors heart rate and activity levels. They can send alerts to the user to get more exercise and can share this information to doctors (and AI systems) for additional data points on the needs and habits of patients. In India, Electronic Health Records (EHR) and the ability to exchange health information electronically can help the providers to extend higher quality and safer care for patients. Diagnostic accuracy, reduced waiting times, better referral management and greater satisfaction with services, will go a long way in improving our public health infrastructure. APPLICATIONS IN INDIA  India is extremely short in doctors at all levels, General Physicians to diagnose and help manage chronic conditions to specialists in Pathology and radiology. New technology especially AI can help the doctors in faster diagnosis allowing them to focus on reviewing the data given by AI algorithms and work on complicated cases that AI cannot handle.  Technology is capable of solving various healthcare challenges in India. The technological innovation is proving to be beneficial in diagnosis procedure, monitoring of chronic conditions, assisting in robotic surgery, drug discovery etc.  Tackle economic disparity- The focus of most AI-based healthcare initiatives in India has been to extend medical services to traditionally underserved populations in India such as rural areas that do not have the required infrastructure or enough primary physicians, and economically weaker sections of society who may not be able to afford certain medical facilities. Therefore, AI as it is used in healthcare in India appears to be addressing issues of economic disparity rather than widening existing gaps as feared.  Through smart adoption of technology and using emerging platforms such as Blockchain, significant improvements are possible in healthcare operations and costs. NANOTECHNOLOGY AND HEALTHCARE 162

DIAGNOSTICS o Example: Fluorescent quantum dots could improve malaria diagnosis AND SCREENING by targeting the blood cell‘s inner membrane. DRUG DELIVERY o Similarly, carbon nanotubes, and other nanoparticles such as HEALTH nanowires, have been used as biosensors to detect diseases such as MONITORING HIV and cancer. Cancer biosensors can be made, for instance, by attaching nucleic acid probes to the ends of nanowires. VACCINES o Nanotechnology could also revolutionize drug delivery by overcoming challenges such as how to sustain the release of drugs in the body and improving bioavailability — the amount of active ingredient per dose. o Some drugs can now be delivered through ‗Nano vehicles’. o For example liposomes, which can deliver the drug payload by fusing with cell membranes, have been used to encapsulate HIV drugs such as stavudine and zidovudine in vehicles ranging from 120 to 200 nanometers in size. o Nano capsules are pods that encapsulate drugs, which ensures the drugs are released more slowly and steadily in the body. o Nanotubes and nanoparticles can be used as glucose, carbon dioxide and cholesterol sensors and for in-situ monitoring of homeostasis, the process by which the body maintains metabolic equilibrium. o In developing nations, the use of nanotechnology is also being explored in the fight against infectious diseases such as HIV and TB. o Nanoparticles could also be the basis for delivering an aerosol TB vaccine. Needle-free, and therefore not requiring trained personnel to administer it, the vaccine is stable at room temperatures — important in rural areas that lack a reliable cold chain. o Nanotechnology could herald a new era in immunization by providing alternatives to injectable vaccines for diseases that affect the poor. o Injectable vaccines need to be administered by healthcare professionals, who may be scarce in developing countries, particularly in rural areas. 163

TISSUE GROWTH o Vaccines also need reliable refrigeration along the delivery chain. AND Scientists are working on an aerosol TB vaccine. REGERATIVE MEDICINE o They are also investigating a nanotechnology-based skin patch against West Nile Virus and Chikungunya virus. o Researches in tissue regenerative medicine aim at developing implants or scaffolds capable for delivering drugs, growth factors, hormones for tissue repair. o They provide sustained delivery of bioactive molecules to support survival, infiltration and proliferation of cells for tissue engineering. o The expected outcome of such treatment modality is to have complete tissue replacement and functional recovery CONCLUSION Nanotechnology offers the ability to build large numbers of products that are incredibly powerful. Nanomedicines and Nano devices are in their early stages of development. The development processes are heavily intertwined with biotechnology and information technology, making its scope very wide. Nanotechnology based products are capable of overcoming the limitations of traditional methods. But, the major challenges are yet to prevail over its toxicity, environmental hazards, production cost and accessibility to the un-reachable at far-off areas. India needs to rapidly adapt, embrace and drive change if it wishes to stay relevant in the global healthcare order. India needs to achieve a balance between technology and innovation and continue to deliver world class care, while finding efficient ways to lower the cost of care. 164

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) are legal rights, which result from intellectual invention, innovation and discovery in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These rights entitle an individual or group to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creation. By striking the right balance between the interests of innovators and wider public interest, the IP system aims to foster an environment in which creativity and innovation can flourish. The National IPR Policy (2016) is a vision document that aims to create and exploit synergies between all forms of intellectual property (IP), concerned statutes and agencies. It sets in place an institutional mechanism for implementation, monitoring and review. It aims to incorporate and adapt global best practices to the Indian scenario. GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES 1. National IPR Policy 2016 HIGHLIGHTS CRITICISM • The Policy aims to push IPRs as a  Policy is aimed at a gold rush towards IPR. A marketable financial asset, promote blind rush towards IP could be a deterrent innovation and entrepreneurship, while to innovation itself by restricting knowledge protecting public interest. flow. • In order to have strong and effective IPR  Policy recommends scientist and laws, steps would be taken — including professors to convert all their discoveries review of existing IP laws — to update and into IP which in turn has the potential to improve them or to remove anomalies and curb the free flow of knowledge. inconsistencies.  IPR policy is driven by the agenda of IP maximalism, where IP owners‘ rights will be • The policy is entirely compliant with the WTO’s agreement on TRIPS. maximized at the cost of public interest. This • Special thrust on awareness generation (policy) will influence courts and judges who and effective enforcement of IPRs, besides might consider rights of patentees above that 165

encouragement of IP commercialization on common man in certain cases. through various incentives.  Connection between patenting and • India will engage constructively in the application of patented knowledge is yet to negotiation of international treaties and be established. Hence, patenting and not agreements in consultation with applying the new invention could deter stakeholders. progress • It suggests making the DPIIT the nodal  Policy recommends criminalization of agency for all IPR issues. unauthorized copying of movies – which is just a civil wrong. • Copyrights related issues will also come under DPIIT’s ambit from that of the  Not understanding the modes of creativity Human Resource Development (HRD) and sharing in shadow economy, the policy Ministry. Films, music, industrial drawings leans towards superimposition of formal IP will be all covered by copyright. framework. • The Policy also seeks to facilitate domestic  According to USTR, Patent applicants face IPR filings, for the entire value chain from costly and time-consuming patent IPR generation to commercialization. It opposition hurdles, long timelines for aims to promote research and receiving patents, and excessive reporting development through tax benefits. requirements. 2. Cell for IPR Promotion and Management (CIPAM):  It is a professional body under the aegis of DPIIT to ensure focused action on issues related to IPRs to ensure effective implementation of the National IPR Policy.  It will assist in simplifying and streamlining of IP processes, apart from undertaking steps for furthering IPR awareness, commercialization and enforcement.  CIPAM is working towards creating public awareness about IPRs in the country, promoting the filing of IPRs through facilitation, providing inventors with a platform to commercialize their IP assets and coordinating the implementation of the National IPR Policy in collaboration with Government Ministries/Departments and other stakeholders. 166

 CIPAM has launched ‗Scheme for IPR Awareness – Creative India; Innovative India‘ under the aegis of DPIIT. It aims at raising IPR awareness among students, youth, authors, artists, budding inventors and professionals to inspire them to create, innovate and protect their creations and inventions across India including Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3 cities as well as rural areas. 3. Filing of Patents and Trademarks applications has been made online. 4. Almost all old Intellectual Property (IP) records have been digitized and new records are digitized immediately. 5. Automated Electronic modules have been adopted to process Patents and Trademarks applications which enabled achieving enhanced speed, accuracy and transparency. 6. IP office has been transformed to enhance efficiency in processing of applications, uniformity and consistency in the examination of applications, bilateral cooperation at the international level, and raising awareness level of public. 7. To increase transparency and dissemination of information, the real time status of IP applications and e-registers is now open to the public MSMEs. 8. To encourage for innovation and seek protection for their inventions, a 50 per cent fee reduction has been provided. PROBLEMS/HURDLES IN INDIA  While the IPR system in India comprises of strong Intellectual Property laws, but it has many loopholes as it lacks effective implementation, for which ―least priority given to adjudication of IP matters‖ is often quoted as a reason. Major challenge is to inform the enforcement officials and the Judiciary to take up issues of Intellectual Property rights, at par with other economic offences, by bringing them under their policy locator.  There are also many issues in having an Intellectual Property Fund, which can be utilized for further developing the IP culture in the country. 167

 Plagiarism is a major issue. It is the act of theft of another person's intellectual property which comprises of ideas, inventions, and original works of authorship, words, slogans, designs, proprietary information, and using them as own without giving credit to main author or inventor.  Enforceability on digital platforms is weak - Today, digital technologies are major tools for creating and storing information for its speed and easy access. Intellectual property rights apply on the Internet but the main issue is to make them enforceable. The ease of reproducing works if they are in digital format is low-cost and there is a near-perfect quality of copies. Publishers argue that the Internet harms their intellectual property interests by fundamentally transforming the nature and means of publications and thus making their works extremely vulnerable to Internet piracy.  Indian Copyright Act kept track of international conventions; the current copyright law has many deficits as compared to the west. As India did not sign the \"WIPO Internet Treaties\" there is no corresponding legislation in India to the US DMCA. The present Copyright Act of India does not have requirements regarding the 'technological protection measures' nor the protection of electronic rights management information. WAY FORWARD  Fostering an environment where innovation flourishes and a knowledge economy is built, is the key idea. Hence, the policy should have a balance.  It should encourage patenting and at the same time ensure that patentability of a product/process does not deter further innovation and progress.  Intellectual Property must not be about patents on paper but dearth of application in reality. The organisations such as CSIR and others must be encouraged to work upon socially useful applications of their patents.  Support for innovation has to be accompanied with instruments that guard local companies against the misuse of market power, coercive bargaining and aggressive acquisition strategies. 168

 India needs to spread awareness on IPR in public and for its traditional industries to enable fair monetization of IP Rights.  It needs to safeguard its patents, copyrights and traditional knowledge by ensuring easy IPR rules. CONCLUSION The Union Cabinet recently approved the proposal for India‘s accession to the Nice, Vienna and Locarno Agreements, that would harmonise the classification systems for examination of trademark and design applications, in line with the systems followed globally. The accession is part of the government‘s commitment to strengthen the Indian Intellectual property regime. More such steps are needed for harmonization with world laws and correcting inconsistencies in own laws. GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATORS Gegraphical Indication (or GI tag) is a sign used on agricultural or natural or manufactured goods as originating or manufactured in a particular region of a country. It denotes its origin where a specific quality, characteristic or reputation of the product is essentially attributable to that origin. Geographical Indicators in India are governed by The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999:  As a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), India enacted the Act to comply with the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).  GI is covered as element of intellectual property rights (IPRs) under Paris Convention for Protection of Industrial Property.  The Act is administered by the Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks, who is also the Registrar of Geographical Indications. ISSUES 169

 It leans heavily on Document proof: Proof of origin is a mandatory criterion for registering GIs in India whereas in many parts of India (especially tribal), provision regarding the origin are not written rather they are recited, therefore making it extremely difficult in gathering documentary evidence as proof of origin to get GI tag.  It only protects the name or indication: GI act does not protect knowledge or technology of production, which means that same product can be produced and marketed with other name, defeating the whole purpose of the act.  Ambiguity in the definition: Act does not distinguish between real producer, retailer or dealer. As a result the benefits of the registration may not reach to the real producer.  Lack of assessment by group applying for GI about the commercial prospect of a GI product in the domestic and international markets or the potential of such registration in contributing towards the future growth of the product as well as the socio-economic implication for the communities involved in the supply chain.  Other issues include: Lack of marketing and branding strategies, Lack of academic research and systematic assessment has hindered benefits accruing from GI protection. NEUTRINOS Proton, neutron, and electron are tiny particles that make up atoms. The neutrino is also a tiny elementary particle, but it is not part of the atom. Such particles are also found to exist in nature. Neutrino has a very tiny mass and no charge. It interacts very weakly with other matter particles. Neutrinos are very difficult to detect because of their extreme inertness. Neutrinos come from the sun (solar neutrinos) and other stars, cosmic rays that come from beyond the solar system, and from the Big Bang from which our Universe originated. They can also be produced in the lab. There are many other natural sources of neutrinos including exploding stars (supernovae), relic neutrinos (from the birth of the universe) and natural radioactivity. Currently, three types of neutrinos, called flavors are known: Electron Neutrino, Muon Neutrino and Tauon Neutrino. Neutrinos can change from one flavor to another as they travel. This process is called neutrino oscillation. The neutrino density of the universe is 330 per cubic centimeter. 170

APPLICATIONS OF NEUTRINO SCIENCE Basic sciences research is needed to understand the properties of particles before they can be applied. 100 years ago, when the electron was discovered, it had no foreseeable uses. Today, a world without electronics cannot be imagined.  Properties of the sun: The visible light is emitted from the surface of the sun and neutrinos, which travel close to the speed of light, are produced in the core of the sun. Studying these neutrinos can help us understand what goes on in the interior of the sun.  Constituents of the Universe: Light coming from distant stars can be studied by astronomers, for example, to detect new planets. Likewise, if the properties of neutrinos are understood better, they can be used in astronomy to discover what the universe is made up of.  Probing early Universe: Neutrinos interact very little with the matter around them, so they travel long distances uninterrupted. The extragalactic (originating outside the Milky Way galaxy) neutrinos we observe may be coming from the distant past. These undamaged messengers can give us a clue about the origin of the universe and the early stages of the infant universe, soon after the Big Bang.  Medical Imaging: Apart from direct future uses of neutrinos, there are technological applications of the detectors that will be used to study them. For instance, X-ray machines, MRI scans, etc., all came out of research into particle detectors. Hence the INO detectors may have applications in medical imaging.  Nuclear non-proliferation and detecting nuclear leakages to prevent accidents. INDIA’S NEUTRINO OBSERVATORY (INO) The India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) Project is a multi-institutional effort aimed at building a world-class underground laboratory for non-accelerator based high energy and nuclear physics research in India. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research is the nodal institution. The observatory is to be built jointly with the Department of Atomic Energy and the Department of Science and Technology. 171

Primary goal is to study the properties and interactions of weakly interacting, naturally occurring particles called neutrinos and to understand some of the unsolved mysteries of the universe. The INO will study atmospheric neutrinos only. Solar neutrinos have much lower energy than the detector can detect. Components of the INO Project:  An underground laboratory (with a rock cover of approx.1200 m) and associated surface facilities at Pottipuram in Bodi West hills of Theni District of Tamil Nadu.  Construction of an Iron Calorimeter (ICAL) detector for studying neutrino.  Setting up of National Centre for High Energy Physics at Madurai, for the operation and maintenance of the underground laboratory, human resource development and detector R&D along with its applications. ICAL detector that will be installed in the INO laboratory will be the world‘s most massive detector. Such an effort will involve INO-Industry interface in a big way, in issues related to mechanical structure, electronics and detector-related technology. It is being developed completely indigenously. Recently Principal Bench of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) has upheld the environmental clearance earlier granted to the India based Neutrino Observatory (INO) project by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC). CONCERNS/ISSUES ENVIRONMENT  Proposed location is just about 4.9 kilometers from the Mathikettan Shola National Park in Idukki district of Kerala.  The explosives used in construction are a threat to the highly sensitive ecology of the Western Ghats.  Aquifer impacts: The impact on the aquifers and underground springs is a major concern. For example: the disruption of the aquifer during the tunnelling at the time of construction of Italy‘s Gran Sasso National Laboratories (LNGS) resulted in death of several workers and a massive flood in the plains. Further, the chronic impacts on the groundwater level 172

DISASTER were more massive and irreversible. SAFETY  Proximity to Dams: There are 15 dams storing over 3 billion m of water OTHERS within radii of 5 to 70 km from the proposed site. Construction of underground observatory with deep tunnel in close proximity to dams raises concerns over reservoir triggered seismicity, change in hydro- geology and possible floods.  Blast-induced earthquakes: A massif made up of hard and brittle charnockyte rock will be blasted during the construction process which may lead to stress related problems like rock bursts. The potential damage to buildings and dams near the site of the project from rock bursts is a serious concern.  The relevant radiation safety studies for carrying out the long baseline neutrino experiment in the second phase of INO have not been done.  Concerns over radioactive emissions: Many have raised concerns about the possibility of nuclear or radioactive emissions. However, the government has said the concern is not true and INO has been involving in mass awareness exercises regarding the same.  The INO will double up the storage of nuclear waste.  Some of the concerns voiced range from radiation, structural damage to the mountain to emission of hazardous chemicals. CONCLUSION Once completed INO will be the largest basic sciences project in India and will have an impact on the emerging high energy physics scenario in the country. People trained at INO will have the expertise to contribute to other high energy and nuclear physics projects around the world. Research and development in neutrino science holds immense potential for India and urgent efforts are needed to implement the project without any further delays. However, while implementing such a 173

mega science project risk assessments and environmental impact assessments should be done to avoid any major threats to the ecology and environment. BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY Blockchain essentially is a database of record stored, linked and secured by cryptography. While it can be distributed (accessed by many), it cannot be copied or duplicated. It has timestamps that allow each user to understand edits in the various versions of the document. This system is used to protect against double spending and modification of previous transaction records where transactions are recorded and confirmed anonymously. In common words, it‘s a record of events that is shared among many parties (nodes). More importantly, once information is entered, it cannot be altered. Each full node in the network independently stores a block chain containing only blocks validated by that node. When several nodes all have the same blocks in their block chain, they are considered to be in consensus. The validation rules these nodes follow to maintain consensus are called ―consensus rules.‖ Blockchain transforms Internet of Information to Internet of Value: 174

Blockchain is the promise of completely new Internet, the Internet of Value. Blockchain‘s economic impact is projected to exceed $3 trillion in the next decade. Internet is going to transform from Internet of Information to Internet of Value. The ownership of digital assets of any type, say money, deeds, Government records, financial instruments or art can be securely stored, transacted and tracked. It is considered revolutionary for its ability to enable the secure movement of assets without intermediaries. The true value lies in creating consensus and trust between the strangers. That creates trusted transaction networks between entities that do not know or trust each other. SIGNIFICANCE AND USE GENERAL INDIA-SPECIFIC  Confidential communication of  Public blockchains offer tremendous cryptocurrency opportunity for India across four dimensions,  Safe, cost effective and fast bank transactions jobs, capital, solutions to India’s problems and global strategic positioning.  Secure legal documents, health data, notaries  Blockchain-based initial coin offerings 175

and personal documents (ICOs), when done correctly, open up a whole new channel for startup funding and  Distribution of land records and government tap into more than $20 billion raised through financial assistance the ICO route. With its strong IT ecosystem, India can become a leading blockchain  Cloud storage, digital identification, smart development hub and a major net beneficiary communication and digital voting of global capital inflows.  Blockchain removes the need for using a  Decentralized applications on public trusted third party such as a bank to make a blockchains can solve myriad Indian transaction by directly connecting the problems, such as eliminating middlemen, customers and suppliers providing data security, reducing corruption and tampering of financial  Transaction time is reduced ledgers, and improving the speed of service delivery by governments and  Blockchain‘s ability to enhance real-time corporations. visibility in the functioning of the supply chain will prevent leakages, and thereby  Can play a crucial part in health insurance increase efficiency. claims management by reducing the risk of insurance claim frauds.  It provides an opportunity for technology start-ups for developing and using the  Can also be used to prevent the sale of technology for diverse applications. spurious drugs in the country by tracking every step of the supply chain network.  AI and Internet of Things (IoT) can gain immensely from blockchain applications  Critical citizen information like land records, census data, birth and death records, business licenses, criminal records, intellectual property registry, electoral rolls could all be maintained as blockchain powered, tamper-proof public ledgers. 176

NEED FOR REGULATORY MECHANISM  The current debate in India has, unfortunately, focused too heavily on trading and speculation, looking at cryptocurrencies as an investment tool, rather than understanding the potential of core blockchain technology and the basic role of cryptocurrencies as an incentive mechanism to secure decentralized transactions.  Prevailing cyber laws in India touch almost all aspects of transactions and activities involving the internet, www and cyber space (IT Act 2000 and amended in 2008, section 463 of IPC, and section 420). But in today‘s techno-savvy environment the world is becoming more and more digitally sophisticated and so are the crimes. India‘s cyber laws are lacking in this respect.  There are sufficient global examples of countries that have taken nuanced and cautious steps in regulating the technology, and are focusing on stopping illegal activity without hurting innovation.  The government has legitimate concerns around money laundering, tax evasion and capital flight using cryptocurrencies.  Serious blockchain professionals are migrating rapidly to countries with more friendly regulations. As a result, India‘s ability to benefit from jobs, capital, local innovation and positioning is all curtailed without the talent ecosystem in place. WAY FORWARD  As core developers/shapers of this technology in India, all citizens should fully cognizant and sympathetic to government concerns of money laundering, tax evasion, investor protection and capital flight.  There should be an independent cybersecurity auditing structure.  There needs to be a minimum set of universally accepted and recognized data protection and data privacy norms.  In case of failure to comply, there should be a heavy penalty and punishment otherwise who will ensure the safety of citizens in cyberspace.  Blockchain, with all its possibilities, needs a serious look at its vulnerabilities and commerciality. 177

 Before introducing blockchain into the public sector data-handling system, we need a robust and informative data repository.  Proper regulations for the use of blockchain technology in the country are needed.  Identifying and resolving key issues and challenges in implementing this technology, the prime amongst those being data privacy.  India should effectively channel its technical human capital surplus to position itself as one of the pioneers during this upcoming wave of innovation. CRYPTOCURRENCY A cryptocurrency is a digital or virtual currency that uses cryptography for security. Hence it is difficult to counterfeit. It is not issued by any central authority, rendering it theoretically immune to government interference or manipulation. The first cryptocurrency to capture the public imagination was Bitcoin, which was launched in 2009 by an individual or group known under the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. Bitcoin's success has spawned a number of competing cryptocurrencies, such as Litecoin, Ethereum, Namecoin, PPCoin etc. ADVANTAGES  Easier to transfer funds with minimal processing fees.  Safety from hackers due to blockchain technology.  Difficult to counterfeit. DISADVANTAGES  Well-suited for illegal activities such as money laundering, tax evasion due to anonymous nature of transactions. 178

 Rate of exchange of cryptocurrencies fluctuates widely.  Digital cryptocurrency balance can be wiped out by a computer crash. Recently concerns are being raised on its immunity to hacks as well. CONCLUSION Various countries have adopted use of bitcoins with regulations such as China, South Korea, Japan etc. Some countries are also coming up with their virtual currencies such as PETRO by Venezuela, SOV (Sovereign) by Marshall Islands etc. India does not consider crypto-currencies as legal tender or coin. Instead of turning its back to emerging technologies like cryptocurrency for fear of misuse, we must rather develop robust regulatory mechanism, and build human resource along with infrastructure to make best possible use of Blockchain technology in varied domains. ROBOTICS Robotics is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and operation of robots. A robot is a machine designed to execute one or more tasks automatically with speed and precision. There are as many different types of robots as there are tasks for them to perform. The term comes from a Czech word, robota, meaning ―forced labour‖. The word ‗robotics‘ was usedfor the first time in print by Isaac Asimov. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. Today, commercial and industrial robots are in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply and with great accuracy and reliability than humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, safety and mass production of consumer and industrial goods. ISAAC ASIMOV’S THREE LAWS OF ROBOTICS  A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. 179

 A robot must obey orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.  A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law. EVOLUTION  First-generation robots date from the 1970s and consist of stationary, non-programmable, electromechanical devices without sensors.  Second-generation robots were developed in the 1980s and can contain sensors and programmable controllers.  Third-generation robots were developed between approximately 1990 and the present. These machines can be stationary or mobile, autonomous or insect type, with sophisticated programming, speech recognition and synthesis, and other advanced features.  Fourth-generation robots are in the research and development phase and include features such as artificial intelligence, self replication, self-assembly, and nanoscale size. APPLICATIONS INDUSTRY  Industrial robots are found in various locations such as the automobile and MEDICINE manufacturing industries.  Robots cut and shape fabricated parts, assemble machinery and inspect manufactured parts.  Robots perform task of load bricks, die cast, drill, fasten, forge, make glass, grind, heat treat, load/unload machines, machine parts, handle parts, measure, monitor radiation, run nuts, sort parts, clean parts, profile objects, perform quality control, rivet, sand blast, change tools and weld.  The main area of robotics applications in medicine is in surgery. Because robots are able to perform major operations while only making small incisions, patients receive many benefits. Robots are used to perform heart surgery without opening patient‘s chests.  In Prosthetics, Mechanical replacements for missing limbs and organs that can interact with the human organic system are a long-standing goal of the robotics community.  Robotic devices can also provide help to people with severe restrictions on 180

SPACE movement, in many cases allowing them at least some capability to move around UNDERWATER or nearby their homes. MILITARY AND  Rehabilitation Robots can provide exercise platforms to help restore limb SECURITY function and can monitor the condition of patients undergoing rehabilitation from the effects of injuries, stroke or other brain or nerve damage. DOMESTIC USE  Robots can perform well in space arena where it is dangerous for humans to get to space, to be in space and to return from space. But is a major challenge for experts or engineers to fit robots operating reliably.  It is easy for manipulator to restore parts, to fix the space ship and to direct the wholes space shuttle.  Robotic underwater travellers are used to reconnoitre and gather information about many aspects of marine environment. For example, robots are used for underwater cable inspection, and for telecommunications.  Military robots are self-directed or remote-controlled devices designed for military applications.  As it is well established that military is a dangerous job, but some of the tasks that soldiers are required to do are more dangerous than others. Walking through minefields, deactivating unexploded bombs or clearing out hostile buildings are some of the most dangerous tasks a person is asked to perform in the line of duty.  In military field, robots are also used to investigate hazardous and dangerous environments. In these environments robots are used for firefighting, for entering into risky areas and for removing of injured persons in natural disasters.  Other major applications of robots in security is for inspection and search for dangerous materials. In this, robots prevent the harms to humans operating it in case of something explodes during the inspection.  Robots are also used during war for mine removal and entering into risky areas where robots use guns as their manipulators.  The domestic or household robots are available in different types and serves various purposes such as robotic movers, robotic vacuum cleaners, robotic pool cleaners, toys, and floor washing robots. CRITICAL ANALYSIS 181

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES  In many instances, robots can perform  Robots can replace humans in the labour work more efficiently than humans. force. They can work seven days a week, twenty four hours a day, and thirty days a  They require a higher level of month without becoming bored or maintenance than do most existing jobs. fatigued. The quality of their work can be Therefore, they require retraining or checked and corrected immediately if replacement of the humans now found to be defective. employed in that job.  Operating costs are low, and downtime  The initial cost of robots is excessive for is minimal. small firms.  Thousands of people will be needed in  The technology is relatively untested at the future to design, repair and install this time, and downtime is expensive. robots. New jobs will be created, and new training programs will have to be  The programs need to be updated to developed to improve the use of robots. suit the changing requirements.  They can work in any environment,  In case of the breakdown, the cost of adding to their flexibility. repair may be very high, the procedure to restore lost data may be time-  Robots eliminate dangerous jobs for consuming and costly. humans because they are capable of working in hazardous environments. They can handle lifting heavy loads, toxic substances, and repetitive tasks. This has helped companies to prevent accidents and also saving time and money. ROBOTICS IN INDIA India understands the importance of robotics in numerous fields. This will also open up the possibilities in the field of Research activities, Manufacturing, Academia, Space technology, Defence industries, Medical, and Agriculture industry. Timeline vision of robotics in India (Report of National Institute of Science and Technology Policy (NISTEP), 2030): 182

 By 2013-2014 – Agricultural robots  By 2013 – 2017 - Robots that care for Elderly  By 2013-2020 – Nano Robots  By 2015 – To have one third of its fighting capacity provided by Robots  By 2017 – Medical Robots performing low invasive surgery  By 2017-2019 – Household Robots  By 2035 – To have first completely autonomous Robot soldiers on the battlefield ACHIEVEMENTS CHALLENGES FUTURE PROSPECTS  Centre for Artificial  Cost and procurement of  Robotics offers numerous Intelligence and Robotics the required hardware and opportunities for both (CAIR), Bangalore has other electronic components entrepreneurs and developed a variety of to build a robot. students. Industries across controllers and  Due to the extensive a range of sectors such as manipulators for Gantry, paperwork involved in automotive, atomic energy, SCARA and other types of importing hardware defence, space, metals, robots. These were supplied components into the textiles and manufacturing to public sector units such country, not many use Robotic technologies as HAL and DRDO labs. commercial applications are very effusively.  CAIR has gone on to ready to enter the market.  Robots are required develop a prototype  Additionally, acquiring everywhere to improve Unmanned Ground and retaining quality productivity. Vehicle (UGV) with the talent is one of the biggest  They are also being used in aim of attaining challenges, as robotics is operation theatres and autonomous capability. This multidisciplinary field. rehabilitation centres to involved in-house construction of mobile enhance the quality of life. robot platforms,  Developed countries like integration of infrared sensors with the vehicle, Japan and America are using robots for many functions.  Furthermore, robots are also 183

and development and taking over menial tasks integration of path planning such as brooming and software. mopping floors through the advent of domestic robots.  CAIR has developed Domestic robots are CHATUR robot with incredibly intuitive robotic vision sensors which can vacuum cleaners that clean pick objects in its visual your home at the push of a field. button.  The futuristic robots are  Another premier institute connected devices which where Robotics Research is can be accessed through going on is: Centre for mobile phones and AI- Robotics and powered assistants such as Mechanotronics, IIT, Google Home and Amazon Kanpur. Alexa. CONCLUSION The field of robotics has greatly advanced with several new general technological achievements. One is the rise of big data, which offers more opportunity to build programming capability into robotic systems. Another is the use of new kinds of sensors and connected devices to monitor environmental aspects like temperature, air pressure, light, motion and more. All of this serves robotics and the generation of more complex and sophisticated robots for many uses, including manufacturing, health and safety, and human assistance. The field of robotics also intersects with issues around Artificial Intelligence. Since robots are physically discrete units, they are perceived to have their own intelligence, albeit one limited by their programming and capabilities. HUMANOID ROBOTS A humanoid robot is a robot which has resemblance like human and it is based on that of the human body, allowing interaction with made-for-human tools or environments. In general, humanoid robots 184

have a torso with a head, two arms and two legs, although some forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for example, from the waist up. One important contribution to humanoid robotics was the Zero-moment point (ZMP) stability theory introduced by Miomir Vukobratovic in the 1960s. The first humanoid statically and later dynamically balanced robot, WABOT by Japan. Lately, Sophia, a social humanoid robot developed by Hong Kong based company. FEATURES OF HUMANOID ROBOTS  Self-maintenance  Autonomous learning  Avoiding, harmful situations to people, property and itself.  Safe interacting with human beings and the environment. 185

NUCLEAR SCIENCE Nuclear Science is the study of the world of atoms, the term nuclear meaning ‗of or relating to or constituting the nucleus of an atom‘. The field of particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics. Nuclear Science studies how energy is released by the nuclei of atoms when they undergo certain changes, and nuclear technology is concerned with the applications of the findings to various fields- such as agriculture, industry, medicine, etc. APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY Nuclear Weapons: A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. Even small nuclear devices can devastate a city by blast, fire and radiation. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction, and their use and control has been a major aspect of international policy since their debut. Civil Uses: 1. Nuclear Power Production: Nuclear power is a type of nuclear technology involving the controlled use of nuclear fission to release energy for work including propulsion, heat, and the generation of electricity. Nuclear energy is produced by a controlled nuclear chain reaction which creates heat—and which is used to boil water, produce steam, and drive a steam turbine. The turbine is used to generate electricity and/or to do mechanical work. All nuclear power plants use fission. Nuclear Fission: 186

 Nuclear fission is the process whereby an atomic nucleus breaks up into two or more major fragments with the emission of two or three neutrons. It is accompanied by the release of energy in the form of gamma radiation and the kinetic energy of the emitted particles.  Fission occurs spontaneously in nuclei of uranium-235, the main fuel used in nuclear reactors. However, the process can also be induced by bombarding nuclei with neutrons because a nucleus that has absorbed a neutron becomes unstable and soon splits.  The mass defect is large and appears mostly as kinetic energy of the fission fragments. These fly apart at great speed, colliding with surrounding atoms and raising their average kinetic energy, that is, their temperature. Heat is therefore produced.  The U-238 isotope would make an ideal nuclear reactor fuel because it is abundant in nature. But U-238 nuclei usually absorb free neutrons without fissioning. An absorbed neutron simply becomes part of the nucleus. The scarce uranium isotope U-235 is the only natural material that nuclear reactors can use to produce a chain reaction. Uranium with an abundant amount of U-235 is called enriched uranium. Nuclear Reactor: A nuclear reactor is the central component of a nuclear power station that generates nuclear energy under controlled conditions for use as a source of electrical power. Power reactors generally consist of three main parts. They are: 1. The reactor; 2. the core; 3. Control rods. Moderators and Coolants:  Reactor operations also depend on substances called moderators and coolants. A moderator is a substance, such as water or carbon, that slows down neutrons which pass through it. Reactors require a moderator because the neutrons released by fission are fast neutrons.  A coolant is a substance, such as water or carbon dioxide, that conducts heat well but does not easily absorb free neutrons. The coolant carries heat from the chain reaction. The coolant serves both to prevent the reactor core from melting and to produce steam. Many power reactors are light water reactors, which use light (ordinary) water as both the 187

moderator and coolant. Heavy water reactors use deuterium oxide, or heavy water, as both the moderator and the coolant. Graphite is another moderator. Indian reactors use heavy water. Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear Fusion occurs when two lightweight nuclei combine and form a nucleus of a heavier element. The products of the fusion weigh less than the combined weights of the original nuclei. The lost matter has therefore been changed into energy. Fusion reactions that produce large amounts of energy can be created only by means of extremely intense heat. Such reactions are called thermo- nuclear reactions. No man-made fusion reaction has resulted in a viable source of electricity. ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor):  It is a large scale scientific experiment intended to prove the viability of fusion as energy source.  In a noteworthy international effort, seven partners- china, the European Union, India, Japan, Korea, Russia and the United States- have got together and contributed financial and scientific resources in the effort to build the biggest fusion reactor in history.  Though ITER will not produce electricity, it will resolve critical scientific and technical issues in order to take fusion to the point where industrial applications can be designed.  Construction of the scientific facility began in 2010 on the ITER platform in Cadarache, France.  The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027- eleven years after initially anticipated. 2. Commercial and Industrial uses:  Commercial use of radiation include irradiators (machines used to kill bacteria and other pathogens in food and other items), devices that test the density of highway and 188

construction materials, emergency exit signs, pacemakers, smoke detectors, and security screening at airports and shipping ports.  In industry, beta radiation is used as tracers and for monitoring the thickness of materials. Tracers are radioactive chemicals that are used for medical imaging.  Radioisotopes provide tracers that allow for inspection and detection of pollutants, gauges that measure precise amounts for better use of raw materials, radiography techniques that identify invisible cracks before they affect bridges, pipelines or heavy equipment. 3. Research: In research, scientists use radioisotopes as tracers, to determine how chemicals act in the bodies of plants and animals. 4. Food Irradiation: Food preservation- be it drying, freezing, canning, sterilizing or irradiation- aims at killing or inactivating insect pests, reducing the level of bacterial contamination or, in case of fruits and vegetables, delaying their ripening in order to increase their shelf life. 5. Medical Field:  Radio isotopes are used in medical therapy to inhibit or kill specific malfunctioning cells. The use of radio-isotopes is part of a specialty called nuclear medicine.  Radio-isotopes used to treat cancer.  Radioactive phosphorous is used to treat abnormal cell proliferation like that occurring in polycythemia and leukemia.  Radioactive Iodine (I-131) can be used in the diagnosis of thyroid function and in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. 6. Nuclear energy in space:  A major scientific accomplishment in 2012 when the curiosity rover, fuelled by a radioisotopic thermoelectric generator, landed on Mars, was accomplished by nuclear technology. A radioisotope power system (RPS) is a nuclear technology attached to a space craft that supplies power and heating. 189

NUCLEAR WASTE AND ITS DISPOSAL In the nuclear science and technology industry, waste comes from different activities. It arises the use of radio isotopes in medicine, in research, and in agriculture; it arises as a byproduct of the generation of electricity through nuclear fuels, from the use of sources in manufacturing processes and more. Radioactivity naturally decays over time, so radioactive waste has to be isolated and confined in appropriate disposal facilities for a sufficient period until it no longer poses a threat. The time radioactive waste must be stored for depends on the type of waste and radioactive isotopes. Current approaches to managing radioactive waste have been segregation and storage for short-lived waste, near-surface disposal for low and some intermediate level waste, and deep burial or partitioning / transmutation for the high-level waste. CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE In most countries, nuclear waste is categorized as low level waste, intermediate waste, and high level waste, depending upon what the effects of the waste might be. Low-level waste: Low level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. Low-level wastes include paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, and other materials which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. Intermediate-level waste (ILW): Intermediate-level waste contains higher amounts of radioactivity and in general requires shielding, but not cooling. Intermediate-level waste includes resins, chemical sludge and metal nuclear fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. It may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. As a general rule, short-lived waste (mainly non-fuel materials from reactors) is buried in shallow repositories, while long-lived waste (from fuel and fuel reprocessing) is deposited in geological repository. High-level waste: 190

High-level waste (HLW) is produced by nuclear reactors. The exact definition of HLW differs internationally. After a nuclear fuel rod serves one fuel cycle and is removed from the core, it is considered HLW. Fuel rods contain fission products and transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. Spent fuel is highly radioactive and often hot. The ongoing controversy over high-level radioactive waste disposal is a major constraint on the nuclear power's global expansion. Most scientists agree that the main proposed long-term solution is deep geological burial, either in a mine or a deep borehole. However, almost six decades after commercial nuclear energy began, no government has succeeded in opening such a repository for civilian high-level nuclear waste Nuclear Waste Disposal in India:  Management of radioactive waste in Indian context includes all types of radioactive wastes generated from the entire nuclear fuel cycle and also from installations using radionuclides in medicine, industry and research. In the choice of processes and technologies adopted utmost emphasis is given to waste minimization and volume reduction.  Latest technology is used for disposing the nuclear waste generated during operation of nuclear power plants.  The low and intermediate level nuclear waste containing radioactive substances with short half life are generated at nuclear power plants and are processed at the site. The waste generated during operation and maintenance of nuclear power plants is segregated, its volume reduced using various technologies and solidified by fixing this in materials like cement, polymers, glass etc., to ensure that it does not move, so as to facilitate handling, transport and disposal. As the waste is fixed in cement, glass, polymer, it is immobilized and its placement in high integrity containers inside a pit ensures that the radioactive wastes is completely insulated from the environment.  Gaseous waste is treated at the source of generation. The techniques used are adsorption on activated charcoal and filtration by high efficiency particulate air filters. The treated gases are then diluted with exhaust air and discharged through a tall stack with monitoring.  Liquid waste streams are treated by various techniques, such as filtration, ion exchange, reverse osmosis etc. depending upon the nature, volume and radioactivity content. The 191

emphasis is on volume reduction and the concentrate generated therefore is immobilized in inert materials like cement. Etc.  High level waste is converted into glass through a process, called vitrification. The vitrified waste is stored in a solid storage surveillance facility with necessary surveillance facilities for some 30-40 years for natural cooling.  In 2013, a new nuclear waste management unit, called the waste immobilization plant (WIP), was inaugurated at Kalpakkam, near Chennai. This is country‘s third WIP after those at Trombay and Tarapur, and all the three units are located in proximity to their reprocessing plants. The WIP, set up by BARC, treats and stores 3 percent of radioactive waste generated after power production from pressurized heavy water reactors.  Reprocessing and waste managemt plants are currently being operated by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). The nuclear waste handling, treatment, storage and disposal is carried out as per the well laid procedures and guidelines stipulated by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB). The safety standards formulated by AERB are at par with those recommended by the international organizations such as International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). INDIA’S NUCLEAR SCIENCE PROGRAMME India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the purpose of power generation. In this direction three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s. It was envisaged to use the available uranium and vast thorium resources.  First Stage: Build natural uranium-fuelled pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) which would produce power, and plutonium as a by-product. Natural UO2 used as fuel matrix and Heavy water as moderator and coolant. 192

 Second stage: Build Plutonium-fuelled fast breeder reactors which, in addition to producing power and plutonium, would give U-238 from thorium.  Third stage: Once the size of the programme becomes large, sizable quantities of U-233 from thorium could be produced to start a series of thorium U-233 fuelled reactors. The first phase has reached the commercial stage. The second phase has commenced with the successful operation of the fast breeder test reactor at Kalpakkam. Progress has also been made in the third stage with the successful development of a U-233 based fuel. CHALLENGES  Genuine problems of nuclear technology includes safety and waste management. Incidents like Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, Fukushima are serious case of concern.  Complete phase out of nuclear power generation for the fear of nuclear accident would be a wrong move. If nuclear energy is generated adhering to the highest standards of safety, there is less possibility of catastrophic accidents.  Land acquisition and selection of location for Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) is also major problem in the country. NPP‘s like Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu and Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh have met with several delays due to the land acquisition related challenges.  As India is not a signatory of NPT and NSG, nuclear supply is severely contained by sanctioned against India. This situation has changed after 2009 waiver and bilateral civil nuclear energy agreements with many countries.  Reprocessing and enrichment capacity also required boost in India. For this India needs advanced technology to fully utilise the spent fuel and for enhancing its enrichment capacity.  On the front of Infrastructure and Manpower needs, India has worked very hard for development of Industrial infrastructure to manufacture equipment and skill development. Many Universities and institutes provide engineering manpower for NPP. NUCLEAR TESTS AND NUCLEAR DOCTRINE 193

 In 2003, India has adopted its Nuclear Doctrine of 'No First Use' i.e. India will use nuclear weapons only in retaliation against a nuclear attack on its Territory.  In addition with this in 1965, India with NAM countries proposed five points to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons to UN Disarmament commission. These are: Not to transfer Nuclear technology to others; No use of nuclear weapons against non nuclear countries; UN security cover to non nuclear States; Nuclear disarmament; Ban on the nuclear test.  In May 1974, India has conducted its first nuclear test in Pokharan with the codename of \"Smiling Buddha\".  Between 11 and 13 May, 1998, five nuclear tests were conducted as a part of the series of Pokhran-II. These tests were collectively called Operation Shakti–98.  According to a 2018 report by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Pakistan has 140-150 nuclear warheads compared to India‘s 130-140 warheads.  Pakistan has not stated a ―no first use‖ policy and there is little known about its nuclear doctrine. INDIA’S STAND ON DIFFERENT NUCLEAR TREATIES  Limited Ban Treaty: US, UK and USSR in 1963, signed this treaty. It allows nuclear tests only underground thus, prohibits the nuclear experiments on ground, underwater and in outer space. India has also ratified the treaty.  Treaty on Outer Space: Signed in 1967, it prohibits countries to test nuclear weapons in orbit or on celestial bodies like moon.  Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Signed in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970, now has 190 member states. It requires countries to give up any present or future plans to build nuclear weapons in return for access to peaceful uses of nuclear energy.  Three main objectives of the treaty are non-proliferation, disarmament, and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology.  India is one of the only five countries that either did not sign the NPT or signed but withdrew, thus becoming part of a list that includes Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and South Sudan. 194

Why India didn’t sign the NPT? 1. The quest for freedom of action in an uncertain regional strategic environment and an asymmetric international system dominated by superpowers and China drove India to not sign the NPT and hedge, and to conduct the 1974 test. 2. India perceives its nuclear weapons and missile programs as crucial components of its strategic doctrine. 3. India rejects the Treaty on the grounds that it perpetuates—at least in the short-term—an unjust distinction between the five states that are permitted by the treaty to possess nuclear weapons, while requiring all other state parties to the treaty to remain non-nuclear weapon states. 4. One major point raised by India is that the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have stockpiles of warheads and have shown reluctance to disarmament which also angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT states. 5. For eliminating the last nuclear weapons, the nuclear weapons state requires confidence that the other countries would not acquire nuclear weapons. 6. Moreover, India‘s pledge of not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary and a self-imposed moratorium on nuclear test since 1998, established its credibility as a peaceful nuclear power even without joining the treaty. 7. Perceived security threats from Pakistan and Pakistan‘s ally China and demonstration of a nuclear weapons capability guaranteed New Delhi‘s ability to effectively hedge in an asymmetric international system, and a regional strategic environment where New Delhi felt largely cornered. 8. Maintaining a degree of political autonomy has driven independent India‘s foreign policy choices. Major decisions that New Delhi took in the nuclear realm are representative of that. The grand bargain of NPT was certainly going to restrict India‘s policy options. 9. Domestic political imperatives also dictated the timing and the rhetoric about the nuclear power. 195

 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) intends to ban all nuclear explosions - everywhere, by everyone. It opened for signature on 24 September 1996 and since then 182 countries have signed the Treaty, most recently Ghana has ratified the treaty on 14 June 2011. The Treaty will enter into force after all 44 States listed in Annex 2 to the Treaty will ratify it. These States had nuclear facilities at the time the Treaty was negotiated and adopted. As of August 2011, 35 of these States have ratified the Treaty. Nine States still need to do so: China, the Democratic People‘s Republic of Korea, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Pakistan and the United States. India, North Korea and Pakistan have not yet signed the Treaty.  Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) is a proposed international agreement that would prohibit the production of two main components of nuclear weapons: highly-enriched Uranium and Plutonium. An FMCT would provide new restrictions for the five recognized nuclear weapon states (NWS— United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, and China), and for the four nations that are not NPT members (Israel, India, Pakistan, and North Korea).  Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is not a treaty and does not impose any legally binding obligations on Partners (members). Rather, it is an informal political understanding among states that seek to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology. The regime was formed in 1987 by the G-7 industrialized countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK, and the United States). There are currently 35 countries that are members (Partners) of the MTCR. India has become the 35 full member MTCR In July 2016. MTCR membership enables India to buy high-end missile technology, strengthen its export control regime and it supports India‘s bid to become the member of Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG). India and Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): 1. The NSG was created in response to India‘s first nuclear test ‗Smiling Buddha‘ (Pokharan-I) in 1974. The NSG first met in November 1975 in London, thus popularly referred to as the \"London Club\". 2. It‘s a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to contribute to the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons through the implementation of two sets of Guidelines for nuclear exports and nuclear-related exports. 196

3. NSG consists of 48 members, include the five nuclear weapon states US, UK, France, China, and Russia. It is not a formal organization, and its guidelines are not binding. 4. A non-NPT state cannot become a member of NSG which keeps India out of the group. 5. India was left outside the international nuclear order, which forced India to develop its own resources for each stage of the nuclear fuel cycle and power generation, including next generation reactors such as fast breeder reactors and thorium breeder reactors. 6. More recently in January 2019, China has again reiterated its previous stand that India‘s accession to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is pre-requisite for its membership to the NSG or else there should be a common guidelines for the membership of the non-NPT states. 7. Rejecting India‘s claims for NSG membership, China cited the reasons that there should be no double standards in enforcing the NPT and the international community should stick to multilateralism and promote the three pillars namely non-proliferation, disarmament and peaceful uses of nuclear energy. 8. Except China, all P5 members have endorsed India‘s membership of NSG based on India‘s non-proliferation record. 9. Pakistan has also applied for the NSG membership while being also a nonsignatory to the NPT. But it has a dubious record and its credibility is very much doubtful as a peaceful nuclear state. 10. Membership of the NSG will provide India, greater certainty and a legal foundation for India's nuclear regime and thus greater confidence for those countries investing billions of dollars to set up ambitious nuclear power projects in India. 11. Though India is not a member of NPT and NSG, its track-record in observing the provisions of either body, is impeccable. NSG was able to grant a waiver to India in 2008 on the basis of its past performance, now it should have no objection to admitting the country as a member. 197

 Australia Group admitted India as the 43rd member on 19 January 2018. It‘s an informal group that keeps a control over exports of substances used in making of chemical weapons. The group membership will help India to raise its stature in the field of nonproliferation, and help in acquiring the critical technologies. It will also strengthen India‘s bid to gain NSG membership.  Wassenaar Agreement: Wassenaar Agreement, established in 1996, is a group of countries which subscribe to arms export controls. It seeks to bring about security and stability, by fostering transparent practices in the process of sale and transfer of arms and materials and technologies that can be used to make nuclear weapons. It is a grouping of 42 countries, of which India is the latest entrant on December 8, 2017. With the exception of China, all the other permanent members of the U.N. Security Council are signatories of this arrangement. After joining the group India will be able easily access dual use technologies and materials and military equipment that are proscribed for non- participating members. In addition India will also be able to sell its nuclear reactors and other materials and equipment indigenously produced without attracting adverse reactions. WAY FORWARD  In his presidential address at the first International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva in August 1955, Homi J Bhabha, traced the growth of the civilization, correlating it with increase in energy consumption and the development of new energy sources. He emphasized that the acquisition by man of the knowledge of how to release and use atomic energy must be recognized as the third epoch of human history.  To maintain pace of development, it is important to build a constant and reliable supply chain of nuclear materials.  The fundamentals underlying the possibility of breakthrough growth in India‘s civil nuclear programme are strong: political will, bilateral agreements with most supplier countries, an NSG waiver for nuclear trade, domestic human resources and capability developed in the last 30 years of nuclear power operations.  While the political will and commitment to nuclear power remains strong, the government in recent months tried hard to secure membership in the NSG, an effort that was ultimately unsuccessful. It is crucial to remember that India does not need NSG membership to import nuclear technology that was already cleared through the exemption given in 2008. 198