Paper-3, Booklet-2, S&T-Environment Mng

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GOVERNMENTAL EFFORTS  National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) 2009 The policy envisages a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi- disaster oriented and technology driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response. The policy covers all aspects of disaster management including institutional and legal arrangements, financial arrangements, disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness, techno-legal regime, response, relief and rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery, capacity development, knowledge management, research and development.  National Plan on Disaster Management An institutional mechanism for preparation of the National Plan has been put in place, which is under preparation in three parts namely:- 1. National Response Plan 2. National Mitigation Plan and 3. National Capacity Building Plan A Facilitation Committee under the Chairmanship of Secretary (Border Management) in the Ministry of Home Affairs and three sub-committees namely: 1. National Response Plan Committee 2. National Mitigation Plan Committee and 3. National Capacity Building  National Disaster Mitigation Fund Section 47 of the Disaster Management Act 2005 provides for constitution of National Disaster Mitigation Fund. The provisions of the Act are as under: (a) The Central Government may, constitute a fund to be called the National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) for projects exclusively for the purpose of mitigation and there shall be credited 52

thereto such amount which the Central Government may, after due appropriation made by parliament by law in this behalf. (b) The National Disaster Mitigation Fund shall be applied by the National Disaster Management Authority.  Indian National Centre for Oceanic Information System (INCOIS) Post tsunami dated 26th December, 2004; Ministry of Earth Sciences has established INCOIS, Hyderabad. The Tsunami Early Warning System (TEWS) was made operational on 15th Oct 2007. This agency has developed a protocol for issue for Tsunami Watch, Alert and Warnings. The Centre gives information to all responders about the origin, time, location of the epicentre, magnitude and depth of an earthquake inside the ocean and accordingly issues bulletins. The system is capable of detecting all earthquake events of more than 6 Magnitude occurring in the Indian Ocean in less than 20 minutes of occurrence and first report on the occurrence of an earthquake in India and the Indian Ocean region to sent to MHA within 25- 30 minutes indicating the location and magnitude of the earthquake. Further, if any rise in water level is reported by NIOT, TEWC would issue a Tsunami warning within 60 minutes of the occurrence of the earthquake. The information so generated would be disseminated through various communication channels to the concerned user agencies in a fully automated mode.  Geological Survey of India (GSI): The GSI was designated as nodal agency for coordinating geological studies, landslides hazard zonation, monitoring landslides, avalanches, studying the factors responsible and suggesting precautionary and preventive measure  National Flood Risk Mitigation Project (NFRMP) Envisaged for mitigation or reduction in risk, severity or consequences of floods. It aims at ensuring that arrangements are in place to mobilise the resources and capability for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery from disasters besides creating awareness among vulnerable communities. NDMA has been entrusted to prepare a Detailed Project Report (DPR) on Flood Risk Mitigation Project.  The MOEF measures towards developing a Regulatory Framework for Chemical Safety  The Environment (Protection) Act 1986. 53

Under the Act, two rules have been notified for ensuring chemical safety, namely (a) The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 (MSIHC) amended in 1994 and 2000; (b) The Chemical Accidents (Emergency, Planning, Preparedness, and Response) Rules, 1996 (EPPR) under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.  The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991, amended in 1992 and the Public Liability Insurance Rules 1991, amended in 1993 require maximum hazard units to procure an insurance policy and deposit an equal amount in the Environment Relief Fund to provide immediate relief to victims of chemical accidents. Conclusion Between 1996 and 2001, 2% of national GDP was lost because of natural disasters, and nearly 12% of Government revenue was spent on relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction during the same period. As per a World Bank study in 2003, natural disasters pose a major impediment on the path of economic development in India. There is a growing need to look at disasters from a development perspective. Disasters can have devastating effect on communities and can significantly set back development efforts to a great extent. But then, it could also offer an opportunity to invest in development efforts in a post disaster scenario. Disasters are opportunities for communities to reinvent themselves. The Tenth Five Year Plan emphasizes the fact that development cannot be sustainable without mitigation being built into the development process. Disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and relief are four elements, which contribute to and gain from the implementation of sustainable development policies. These elements, along with environmental protection and sustainable development, are closely inter-related. The need of the hour is to chalk out a multi-pronged strategy for total disaster management comprising prevention, preparedness, response and recovery on the one hand and initiate development efforts aimed towards risk reduction and mitigation on the other. 54

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT Environment assessment involves a study to determine any unique environmental attributes from endangered species to existing hazardous waste to historical significance. Environment Assessment procedure ensures consideration of environmental implications before making a final decision of assessing the environmental attribute. Process of assessment analyses the effects on environment and is useful for reporting those effects undertaking a public consultation exercise and lastly it reveals decision to public after reviewing the comment of the report. One of the main strengths of environmental assessment (EA) is its flexibility. The EA can help establish and strengthen decision- making and communication mechanisms within a project. It can also pave the way for introducing innovations. An EA may reveal sound environmental, social or economic reasons for shifting a project's direction. In view of the primacy accorded the opinions and aspirations of local people, the EA process may also function as a project control mechanism. While the EA should not be expected to correct all the weaknesses of a flawed planning process, when properly designed and executed, it can be a valuable tool for project implementation. When the role of the EA is more restricted, the situation can work in reverse. The environmental impact statement (EIS) provides documentation of the information and estimates derived from the various steps in the EIA process. A typical EIS contains three parts methods and key issues, background to the proposed development, environmental impact assessments on topic areas. The Benefits of Environmental Assessment  Reduced cost and time of project implementation.  Cost-saving modifications in project design.  Avoid violations of laws and regulations.  Avoided treatment/clean up costs.  A healthier local environment (forests, water sources, agricultural potential, recreational potential, aesthetic values, and clean living in urban areas)  Maintenance of biodiversity.  Improved human health.  Increased community skills, knowledge and pride  Decreased resource use and fewer conflicts over natural resource 55

Principles of EIA  Species Impact Assessment  Technology Assessment  Social Impact Assessment  Economic Assessment  Risk Assessment  Cumulative Impact Assessment  Life Cycle Analysis  Strategic Environmental Assessment  Energy Analysis  Integrated Impact Assessment  Health Impact Assessment  Regulatory Impact Assessment Purposes of EIA To facilitate decision-making: it provides a systematic examination of the environmental implications of a proposed action, and sometimes alternatives, before a decision is taken. To aid in the formation of development:. It can be an aid to the formulation of developmental actions, indicating areas where the project can be modified to minimise or eliminate altogether the adverse impacts on the environment. The consideration of environmental impacts early in the planning life of a development can lead to environmentally sensitive development; to improved relations between the developer, the planning authority and the local communities; to a smoother planning permission process and sometimes to a worthwhile financial return on the expenditure incurred. To be an instrument for sustainable development: The key characteristics of sustainable development include maintaining the overall quality of life, maintaining continuing access to natural resources and avoiding lasting environmental damage. Sustainable Development 56

EIA Cycle 57

Steps in EIA process Conclusion The focus of EIA needs to shift from utilization and exploitation of natural resources to conservation of natural resources. At present EIA reports are extremely weak when it comes to assessment of biological diversity of a project area and the consequent impacts on it. This gap needs to be plugged. We need an independent EIA authority, sector wise EIAs, creation of a centralized baseline data bank for dissemination of all information related to projects from notification to clearance to local communities and general public for continued sustainable development. CLIMATE CHANGE Atmosphere is always in a state of turmoil and instability leading to variation in weather and climatic conditions. Thus the variation and shifts in weather conditions over space and time of different scales and magnitude resulting into changes of Climatic Type is defined as Climate Change. The rate of climatic changes depends on the nature of causal factor. This may be gradually or rapidly, partly or drastically, short term or long term, Local, regional, or global scale. The Climate change which 58

occurred during Jurassic Period leading to mass extinction of Dinosaurs due to sudden onset of Cold Climate was rapid and instantaneous. Global warming is heating up of the globe when the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere disturbs the heat budget (balance between incoming and outgoing heat) of the earth, which otherwise remains balanced. Since heat remains trapped within the earth‘s atmosphere, temperatures begin to rise. Both land and sea temperatures have witnessed a steady increase since 1880 when record-keeping began. Greenhouse effect Greenhouse Gas Sources and Causes Carbon dioxide (CO2) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation Refrigeration, solvents, insulation foams, aero propellants, industrial and commercial 59

uses Methane (CH4) Growing paddy, excreta of cattle and other livestock, termites, burning of Nitrogen oxides (N20) fossil fuel, wood, landfills, wetlands, Carbon Monoxide (CO) fertilizer factories. Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers, burning of wood and crop residue. Iron ore smelting, burning of fossil fuels, burning e-waste. Factors affecting climate change  Natural Factors  Continental drift  Variation of earth‘s orbit  Plate tectonics  Volcanic activity  Ocean currents  Anthropogenic factors  Greenhouse gases  Atmospheric aerosols  Land use change  Smog -Sulphurous smog/London smog -Photochemical smog/Los Angeles smog  Acid Rain 60

Impacts of climate change 61

Methods to reduce CO2 in environment  Clean coal technology: seeks to reduce harsh environmental effects by using multiple technologies to clean coal and contain its emissions.  Carbon capture and storage: Carbon capture and storage catches and sequesters (hide) carbon dioxide (CO2) from stationary sources like power plants. Flue-gas separation removes CO2 and condenses it into a concentrated CO2 stream. After capture, secure containers sequester the collected CO2 to prevent or stall its reentry into the atmosphere. The two storage options are geologic and oceanic (must hide the CO2 until peak emissions subside hundreds of years from now).  Carbon sink:A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period.The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration.  Other measures  Expanding forests, restoring existing forests and managing forests to encourage more carbon uptake.  Soils naturally store carbon, but agricultural soils are running a big deficit due to intensive use. Because agricultural land is so expansive—more than 900 million acres in the United States alone—even small increases in soil carbon per acre, if it can be done, could be impactful.  Direct air capture is the process of chemically scrubbing carbon dioxide directly from the ambient air, and then storing it either underground or in long-lived products.  Enhanced weathering is a chemical approach to remove carbon dioxide involvingland- or ocean-based techniques. One example of a land-based enhanced weathering technique is in-situ carbonation of silicates. Climate Change And International Organisations The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)  IPCC was founded in November 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) jointly as a place to study global warming problems at a governmental level.  It is the mechanism that accumulates scientific knowledge on global warming while debates on the international countermeasures have been made in the COPs (Conference of the Parties) 62

of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These two mechanisms are complementing each other. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)  The UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. The 195 countries that have ratified the Convention are called Parties to the Convention (Almost universal Membership).  The UNFCCC is a ―Rio Convention‖, one of three adopted at the ―Rio Earth Summit‖ in 1992. Others are the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification.  Due to intrinsic linkages, the Joint Liaison Group was set up to boost cooperation among the three Conventions, and synergies in their activities on issues of mutual concern. It now also incorporates the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.  The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations \"at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system.\" It states that \"such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.\" Following its effectuation, the COP1 was held in Berlin, COP2 in Geneva, and the COP3 was held in Kyoto to adopt \"Kyoto Protocol\", which implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to 'a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system' Kyoto Protocol  The Kyoto Protocol commits its signatories by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets.  The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the \"Marrakesh Accords.\" Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.  Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of \"common but differentiated responsibilities.\" 63

 When no Protocol exists, the global CO2 emission in 2010 will increase by 24% compared with 1990. When the Protocol is enforced in 2000, the global CO2 emission in 2010 will reduce by 5.2% compared with 1990.  Parties to the Kyoto protocol are classified as:  Annex I: Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex I of the Convention. These are the industrialized (developed) countries and \"economies in transition\" (EITs). EITs are the former centrally-planned (Soviet) economies of Russia and Eastern Europe. The European Union-15 (EU-15) is also an Annex I Party.  Annex II: Parties to the UNFCCC listed in Annex II of the Convention. Annex II Parties are made up of members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Annex II Parties are required to provide financial and technical support to the EITs and developing countries to assist them in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation) and manage the impacts of climate change (climate change adaptation).  Annex B: Parties listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol are Annex I Parties with first or second round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets.  Non-Annex I: Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the Convention are mostly low-income developing countries. Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries when they are sufficiently developed.  Least-developed countries (LDCs): 49 Parties are LDCs, and are given special status under the treaty in view of their limited capacity to adapt to the effects of climate change.  Industrialized countries (Annex I) have to report regularly on their climate change policies and measures, including issues governed by the Kyoto Protocol (for countries which have ratified it). They must also submit an annual inventory of their greenhouse gas emissions, including data for their base year (1990) and all the years since.  Developing countries (Non-Annex I Parties) report in more general terms on their actions both to address climate change and to adapt to its impacts - but less regularly than Annex I Parties do, and their reporting is contingent on their getting funding for the preparation of the reports, particularly in the case of the Least Developed Countries.  Kyoto Mechanisms are also known as Flexible Mechanisms and they include Emissions Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation to lower the cost of achieving emission targets. 64

 Emission Trading: Emissions Trading‐mechanism allows parties to the Kyoto Protocol to buy 'Kyoto units' (emission permits for greenhouse gas) from other countries to help meet their domestic emission reduction targets.  Joint Implementation: Any Annex I country can invest in emission reduction projects (referred to as \"Joint Implementation Projects\") in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically.  Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Countries can meet their domestic emission reduction targets by buying greenhouse gas reduction units from (projects in) non Annex I countries to the Kyoto protocol.  Kyoto Units: The emissions trading can be international or domestic. Under the International Emissions Trading (IET), the countries can trade in the international carbon credit market to cover their shortfall in Assigned amount units. Countries with surplus units can sell them to countries that are exceeding their emission targets under Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol.  Certified Emission Reductions (CERs): Certified Emission Reductions are one of the types of the Kyoto Units. They are issued under the Clean Development Mechanism. The Annex‐I countries can use the CERs to comply with their emission limitation targets or by operators of installations covered by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) in order to comply with their obligations to surrender EU Allowances, CERs or Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) for the CO2 emissions of their installations. The Government and Private entities can hold the CERs on electronic accounts with the UN.  In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the \"Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol\" was adopted. The amendment includes:  New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020;  A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by Parties in the second commitment period; and  Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and which needed to be updated for the second commitment period.  The Kyoto Protocol is seen as an important first step towards a truly global emission reduction regime that will stabilize GHG emissions, and can provide the architecture for the future international agreement on climate change. 65

 In Durban (2011), the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP) was established to develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force under the Convention, applicable to all Parties. The ADP is to complete its work as early as possible, but no later than 2015, in order to adopt this protocol, legal instrument or agreed outcome with legal force at the twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties and for it to come into effect and be implemented from 2020. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)  Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation.  Its original objective is to reduce green house gases but it is claimed that it can deliver \"co- benefits\" such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation.  \"Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation\" implies a distinction between the two activities. Deforestation is the permanent removal of forests and withdrawal of land from forest use. Forest degradation refers to negative changes in the forest area that limit its production capacity.  REDD is sometimes presented as an \"offset\" scheme of the carbon markets and thus, would produce carbon credits.  Main Actors: REDD activities are undertaken by national or local governments, dominant NGOs, the private sector, or any combination of these. It is being pushed strongly by the World Bank and the UN for setting up the bases for the carbon market and the legal and governance frameworks of countries receiving REDD. REDD ++  ―REDD+‖ goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation, and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.  It is predicted that financial flows for greenhouse gas emission reductions from REDD+ could reach up to US$30 billion a year. This significant North-South flow of funds could reward a meaningful reduction of carbon emissions and could also support new, pro-poor development, help conserve biodiversity and secure vital ecosystem services.  Further, maintaining forest ecosystems can contribute to increased resilience to climate change. To achieve these multiple benefits, REDD+ will require the full engagement and respect for the rights of Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent communities. 66

Important Summits Post-Kyoto Bali Summit, 2007  Adopted Bali Road Map thatincluded  The Bali Action Plan (BAP)  Launch of the Adaptation Fund,  Decisions on technology transfer Copenhagen Summit, 2009  This accord is an agreement between developing nations block called BASIC (Brazil, South Africa, India andChina).  Allcountries should pledge voluntary limits to reduce GHG emissions.  Copenhagen Accord also laid the groundwork for financial commitments  Agrees a ―goal‖ for the world to raise $100 billion per year by 2020.  Global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C to the pre-industriallevel. Cancún Summit, 2010  It called for a large ―Green Climate Fund‖, and an ―Adaptation Committee‖ at global level to support developing countries in mitigation ofGHGs.  It looked forward to a second commitment period for the KyotoProtocol.  All Parties to the Convention have agreed to report their voluntary mitigation goals forimplementation. Durban Summit,2011  In 2011, parties adopted the ―Durban Platform for EnhancedAction‖.  Second phase of Kyoto Protocol was secured.  COP 17 approved the Governing Instrument for the GCF. Doha Summit, 2012  Kyoto Extended: It established a second commitment period (2013 – 2020)  Japan, Russia and Canada refused to join the second commitment period 67

Warsaw Summit,2013  The G77 and China bloc led 132 poor countries in a walk out during talks about ―loss and damage‖ compensation for the consequences of global warming.  Poor countries have demanded that the developed world give them $100 billion annually by2020 Paris summit, 2015  Paris Summit is one of the most important environmental conferences because of the INDC commitments made by major polluters.  The conference objective is to achieve a legally binding and universal agreement on climate to be signed in 2015, and implemented by2020.. Bonn summit, 2017  alliances were formed for phasing out coal  decision to putting up green buildings and accelerating eco-mobility  decision to look into the greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture  The key demands centred on getting agreed upon and including in the official agenda the ‗pre-2020 actions‘.  There was also a demand for fixing a deadline for the ratification of 2012 Doha amendments to the Kyoto Protocol to give a legal shape to the ‗pre-2020‘ commitments.  An important outcome of CoP 23 is the 'Talanoa Dialogue'. Katowice summit, 2018  The Katowice conference has finalized a rulebook for implementation of the Paris Agreement, which was unanimously adopted by all member countries.  The guidelines set out how countries will provide information about their Nationally Determined Contributions describing their domestic climate actions, mitigation and adaptation measures.  The conference also saw some progress on the major issue of climate finance. The rulebook has addressed some concerns about the opaqueness of climate financing. Now, Developed Nations had to provide hard data on the sources of future financial flows.  The rulebook says what kinds of financial flows — loans, concessions, grants — can be classified as climate finance, how they should be accounted for, and the kind of 68

information about them needed to be submitted. India’s Efforts to Counter Climate Change India is the world‘s third largest economy and fifth largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitter, accounting for about 5% of global emissions. India‘s emissions increased 65% between 1990 and 2005 and are projected to grow another 70% by 2020. By other measures, India‘s emissions are low compared to those of other major economies. India accounts for only 2% of cumulative energy- related emissions since 1850. On a per capita basis, India‘s emissions are 70% below the world average and 93% below those of the United States. India is releasing 6 billion US dollars in one go for intensive afforestation which will result in more carbon sinks. National action plan on climate change (NAPCC) Government of India has launched eight Missions as part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in specific areas which include assessment of the impact of climate change and actions needed to address climate change. 1. National Solar Mission:  The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of solar energy for power generation and other uses with the ultimate objective of making solar competitive with fossil-based energy options  The plan includes: specific goals for increasing use of solar thermal technologies in urban areas, industry, and commercial establishments; a goal of increasing production of photovoltaic to 1000 MW/year; and a goal of deploying at least 1000 MW of solar thermal power generation.  Other objectives include the establishment of a solar research centre, increased international collaboration on technology development, strengthening of domestic manufacturing capacity, and increased government funding and international support. 2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency:  Initiatives based on increasing the energy use efficiency were expected to yield savings of 10,000 MW by 2012.  Building on the Energy Conservation Act 2001, the plan recommends:  Mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-savings certificates; 69

 Energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-efficient appliances; and  Financing for public-private partnerships to reduce energy consumption through demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings and agricultural sectors. 3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat:  To promote energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning, the plan calls for:  Extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code  A greater emphasis on urban waste management and recycling, including power production from waste;  Strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy standards and using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles; and  Incentives for the use of public transportation. 4. National Water Mission  With water scarcity projected to worsen as a result of climate change, the plan sets a goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other measures. 5. National Mission for Sustaining the HimalayanEcosystem  The plan aims to conserve biodiversity, forest cover, and other ecological values in the Himalayan region, where glaciers that are a major source of India's water supply are projected to recede as a result of global warming. 6. National Mission for a \"Green India\"  Goals include the afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and expanding forest cover from 23% to 33% of India's territory. 7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture  The plan aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms, and agricultural practices. 8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change  To gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts and challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modelling, and increased international collaboration.  It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through venture capital funds. 9. The ‘mission’ on India’s coastal areas  It will prepare an integrated coastal resource management plan and map vulnerabilities along the entire nearly 7000-km long shoreline. The Environment Ministry, which already regulates 70

activities along India‘s coasts through the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules, is supposed to house and service this mission. 10. ‘Mission’ on dealing with climate impacts on human health.  The ‗mission‘ is likely to carry out a comprehensive assessment of the kind of effects climate change is likely to have on human health in different regions of the country and build up capacities to respond to these and also to health emergencies arising out of natural disasters. 11. Waste-to-energy mission  Will incentivise efforts towards harnessing energy from all kinds of waste and is again aimed at lowering India‘s dependence on coal, oil and gas, for power production. National Action Programme to Combat Desertification  India is a party to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and MoEF is the National Coordinating Agency for the implementation of the UNCCD in the country.  As an affected party, a 20 year comprehensive National Action Programme (NAP) to combat desertification in the country has been prepared. The objectives are:  community based approach to development,  activities to improve the quality of life of the local communities,  awareness raising,  drought management preparedness and mitigation,  R&D initiatives and interventions which are locally suited,  strengthening self-governance leading to empowerment of local communities  It is proposed to initiate activities that include, among others, assessment and mapping of land degradation, drought monitoring and early warning system groups, drought preparedness contingency plans, and on-farm research activities for development of indigenous technology etc. will be taken up. India’s Stand on climate change negotiations  Clean air, clean energy and clean power balanced with growth were the priorities for India in its mission to combat climate change. The government had pursued voluntarily set targets with commitment, conviction and followed-up action and had played an active and positive role in tackling the Climate Change.  India‘s stand is based on its domestic obligations of addressing the basic development needs of poverty eradication, food security and nutrition, universal access to education and health, 71

gender equality and women empowerment, water and sanitation, clean energy, employment, sustainable cities and human settlement and its commitment to fight climate change.  India is of the view that historical emissions of developed countries as laid down in the Conventions should be the basis for differentiation. The developing countries‘ need for inclusive growth, sustainable development, poverty eradication, and energy access to all must be recognized as fundamental to the approach to differentiation.  India is of the view that Announcement of contributions for Green Climate Fund (GCF) and its actual deposit should be ensured by developed countries. GCF could be used to purchase Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) of climate friendly technologies. The non-capitalization of the Green Climate Fund was a matter of concern and could affect the 2015 Climate agreement.  India grows into a regional power, which can only be accomplished if India is given sufficient development space to grow its economy and eliminate poverty. It is in India‘s interest to diversify its energy portfolio — a prospect that can be strengthened with the U.S.‘s assistance. The way to achieve these objectives is to forge an ―India exception‖ at the global climate talks in Paris; doing so is the only realistic pathway to a global climate deal and will cement the growing ties between the two critical actors in an evolving international order. Conclusion Wealthy nations like the U.S., and those of the EU argued that emissions from developing countries are consistently rising and they need to commit to more serious emission cuts. A consensus needs to be developed at the earliest. The immediate up scaling of ambition in the second Commitment period of Kyoto Protocol and its early ratification by all Kyoto Protocol parties would be a step in the right direction. Concerning mitigation, distinction enshrined in the Convention between Annex I (Developed) and nonAnnex I (developing) Parties must be maintained in accordance with the principles of Equity, CBDR and other provisions of the UN Conventions. The ‗developing versus developed country‘ schism needs to be diluted at the earliest and Developed Countries should avoid watering down the CBDR principle envisaged in earlier agreements. 72

POLAR VORTEX & OZONE DEPLETION A polar vortex is a large pocket of very cold air, typically the coldest air in the Northern Hemisphere, which sits over the polar region during the winter season and is a polar cyclone. Polar Vortex is a 1. Cold; 2. Upper tropospheric: sometime extending till the lower levels of stratosphere (At poles, the troposphere extends up to 8-9 km); 3. Circumpolar; 4. Low pressure; 5. Large cyclonic parcel of air [1000 km] (counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere)  Polar vortex is closely associated with jet streams [Rossby waves].  It is formed mainly in winter and gets weaker in summer.  It surrounds polar highs and lie within the polar front (boundary separating the temperate and polar air masses). 73

Polar Vortex Cold Wave  The polar vortex will remain in its place when the Westerlies along with the polar jet are strong (Strong polar vortex means there is huge temperature contrastbetween the temperate and polar regions).  When the polar vortex is weak, it intrudes into the midlatitude regions by buckling the general wind flow pattern. This leads to significant cold outbreaks in the midlatitude regions.  The vortex is capable of delivering subzero temperatures to the United States and Canada where is occurs the most. How it slips  The Polar jet traverses somewhere over 650 N and S latitudes. When the temperature contrast between polar and temperate regions is maximum, the jet is very strong and the meandering is negligible.  But when the temperature contrast is low (doesn‘t mean it‘s summer), the jet starts to meander (Rossby waves).  Meandering jet creates alternating low and high pressure cells. High pressure cells are created below the ridges and the low pressure cells below the troughs (This is because of the upper air circulations created by the jet).  With severe meandering, the high pressure cells push over to north and displace the polar cyclone from its normal position i.e. the cyclone moves away from the pole and slips into the temperate regions where there is an intense low pressure.  With the strengthening of the jet, the high pressure cells become weak and retreat to their normal latitudinal positions. With the retreat of the high pressure cells, the polar cyclone movesback to its normal position – poles. 74

Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at South Pole]  Polar vortex and ozone depletion are two distinct but related phenomena.  There is a steady decline of about 4% in the total volume of ozone in Earth‘s stratosphere.  Much larger decrease in stratospheric ozone is observed around Earth’s polar regions.  Depletion of ozone is due to increase in halocarbons in the atmosphere. 75

Ozone Depleting Substances 1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 3. Hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs) 4. Halons (were used in fire extinguishers) 5. Methyl bromide (was used as fumigant. Fumigation is a method of pest control by suffocating pests with poison) 6. Carbon tetrachloride (formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, refrigerant and as a cleaning agent) 7. Methyl chloroform (solvent for organic compounds; used for cleaning metal parts and circuit boards). They have been used as:  refrigerants in commercial, home and vehicle air conditioners and refrigerators  foam blowing agents  a component in electrical equipment  industrial solvents  solvents for cleaning (including dry cleaning)  aerosol spray propellants  fumigants. Chlorofluorocarbons  Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were widely used as refrigerants until the 1980s.  They are also considered greenhouse gases that cause climate change. 76

 There are still CFCs left in older industrial air conditioning and refrigeration systems. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons  Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) have been used as a substitute for CFCs.  They do less damage to the ozone layer than CFCs. Halons  Halons are halocarbon gases that were originally developed for use in fire extinguishers.  Production and consumption of halons ended in 1994 in developed countries Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer  The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna Convention) was agreed in 1985.  It established global monitoring and reporting on ozone depletion.  It also created a framework for the development of protocols for taking more binding action. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer  The Montreal Protocol under the Vienna Convention (the protocol) was agreed in 1987.  It facilitates global cooperation in reversing the rapid decline in atmospheric concentrations of ozone.  Under the protocol countries agreed to phase out the production and consumption of certain chemicals that deplete ozone.  Phase out of these substances is required by specific deadlines.  The Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol are the first and only global environmental treaties to achieve universal ratification, with 197 parties.  As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. 77

 Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070. Kigali amendment to Montreal Protocol 2016  Kigali is the capital city of Rwanda.  In the 28th meeting of the Parties (2016) to the Montreal Protocol, negotiators from 197 nations have signed an agreement to amend the Montreal Protocol in Kigali.  The parties are expected to reduce the manufacture and use of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by roughly 80-85% from their respective baselines, till 2045.  This phase down is expected to arrest the global average temperature rise up to 0.5 °C by 2100.  It is a legally binding agreement between the signatory parties with non-compliance measures.  It came into effect from 1st January 2019. India’s position  India has agreed on a lenient schedule as it consumes only 3% of HFCs as compared to the other nations like the USA (37%) and China (25%). Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)  Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are used since as an alternative to CFCs and HCFCs.  HFCs do not contribute to ozone depletion.  However, they are potent greenhouse gases with high global warming potential. HFO Alternatives to HFCs  HFO stands for hydrofluoro olefin.  HFO refrigerants are composed of hydrogen, fluorine and carbon atoms, but contain at least one double bond between the carbon atoms. 78

The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules  The rules are framed under the jurisdiction of Environment (Protection) Act.  These Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of various ODSs, besides regulating production, trade import and export of ODSs and the product containing ODS.  These Rules prohibit the use of CFCs in manufacturing various products beyond 1st January 2003 except in metered dose inhaler and for other medical purposes.  Similarly, use of halons is prohibited after 1st January 2001 except for essential use.  Other ODSs such as carbon tetrachloride and methylchoroform and CFC for metered dose inhalers can be used upto 1st January 2010.  Further, the use of methyl bromide has been allowed upto 1st January 2015.  Since HCFCs are used as interim substitute to replace CFC, these are allowed up to 1st January 2040. BIODIVERSITY What it is? Biodiversity itself is a combination of two words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety).It is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified topographical region. It brings up to the varieties of flora, fauna, and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form. It relates to the variability among living organisms on the earth, including the variability within and between the species and that within and between the ecosystems. Biodiversity is an arrangement in continuous evolution, from the viewpoint of an individual organism as well as from a viewpoint of species. It is not found uniformly on the earth. Types of biodiversity 79

 Genetic diversity: refers to the variation of genes within species. Species are the groups of individual organisms having definite resemblances in their physical characteristics. They also differ in their features such as physical appearance, height, etc. This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic diversity is vital for healthy breeding of population of species.  Species diversity: refers to the variety of species. It relates to the number of species in a demarcated area. The diversity of species can be measured through its abundance, richness, and types. The regions rich in species diversity are called hotspots of diversity.  Ecosystem diversity: The wide differences between types of ecosystem and the diversity of habitats and ecological processes happening inside each ecosystem type set up the ecosystem diversity. The boundaries of communities and ecosystems are not very strictly demarcated. Importance of biodiversity ECOLOGICAL  The major functions done by species which are important for ecosystem function and human survival are:  Capture and store energy  Produce and decompose organic materials  Help to cycle water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem  Fix atmospheric gases and help to regulate the climate The more diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive through adversities and attacks, and subsequently, is more productive. The more the diversity of species in an ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is likely to be. ECONOMIC  Biodiversity is comprehended as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food, cosmetic products, and pharmaceuticals.  Some of the significant economic commodities that man derives from biodiversity are:  Food crops  Livestock  Forests  Fish 80

 Medicinal resources The vital part of biodiversity is ‗crop diversity‘, which is also known as agro-biodiversity. SCIENTIFIC  All species can contribute some evidence to show how life evolved and will continue to evolve.  Biodiversity helps in sensing how life functions and the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems.  The level of biodiversity is a good indicator of the state of the relationships of human beings with other living species. Causes of loss of biodiversity  The excessive population has resulted in the rampant exploitation of resources, deforestation and habitat loss.  Illegal wildlife trade and man animal conflict  The destruction of the Tropical regions has resulted in the loss of natural habitats which is catastrophic for the whole biosphere.  Natural calamities like forest fires, droughts, floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, etc. cause damage to both flora and fauna of the earth.  Pesticides and other pollutants like toxic heavy metals and hydrocarbons destroy the feeble and sensitive species.  Invasive species  Global Climate change MAN-ANIMAL CONFLICT Conflict between people and wild animals is one of the main threats to the continued survival of many species in different parts of the world, and is also a significant threat to local human populations. In recent years, India has seen widespread conflict between wildlife and human beings. A large survey of 5,200 families around 11 protected areas across the country found that 71% of households reported crop losses due to raids by wildlife. These statistics are only the tip of the iceberg. The vast majority of crop losses and damage caused to wildlife are not reported at all. Such conflicts affect not only local populations but also have increase environmental impacts on ecosystem equilibrium and biodiversity conservation. 81

Man-Animal conflict includes:  Predation on livestock or domestic animals by wild animals  Ungulate damage to crops and fences  Wildlife strewing about residential garbage  Damage caused by squirrels or bats to fruit and fruit trees  Bird nesting in undesirable residential locations  Vehicle/wildlife collisions, aircraft/bird collisions Reasons  Encroachment of human beings in wildlife habitats for residential purposes and the expansion of cities, as well as allowing livestock to graze in forest areas.  Accidents due to expanding road networks and increase in vehicular traffic. Some of the road networks even pass through protected areas, hence creating danger zones for wild animals.  Land use transformations such as change from protected forest patches to agricultural and horticultural lands and monoculture plantations are further destroying the habitats of wildlife.  Unscientific structures and practices of forest management in the country are another central contributor to man animal conflicts.  Moreover, tourism without proper guidelines disturbs animal habitats and further leads to man animal conflict.  Infestation of wildlife habitat by invasive exotic weeds like lantana, eupatorium and parthenium have resulted in decreased availability of edible grasses for wild herbivores. As a result, herbivores come out of forest areas and cause depredation of agricultural crops on the fringes.  Decreased prey base caused by poaching of herbivores has also resulted in carnivores moving out of forests in search of prey and to indulge in cattle lifting. Effects  Man animal conflict leads to crop damage, animal deaths, and loss of human life, injuries to people and injuries to wildlife, livestock depredation, and low compensation for such incidents further leads to degraded living standards of the affected population.  Decline of wildlife populations. 82

What should be done?  Relocation of human settlements, which will alter the ecological setting in favour of wild animals.  Ecocentric tourism must be promoted so that the unique habitats of animals do not get disturbed or polluted.  It is the duty of the Ministry of Environment & Forest to provide assistance to State Governments for improvement of habitats to augment food and water availability, and to minimize animal movement.  Training programmes and Awareness programmes to sensitize the people about the Do‘s and Don‘ts to minimize conflicts.  Encouraging and supporting involvement of research and academic institutions, and leading voluntary organizations having expertise in managing human-wildlife conflict situations.  Poaching of wild animals should be stopped so, that the number of wild animals can stabilize at its carrying capacity allowing it to reach equilibrium in the ecosystem. Thus, equilibrium in the numbers of prey and predators in the forest ecosystem would be maintained.  Wildlife habitat fragmentation should not be done in the name of developmental projects.  Constructing solar powered fencing, protection walls, using natural fencing (e.g. bee barriers) will also help in minimising conflict between human and wildlife.  Using GPS tracking collars and GIS mapping software, researchers can identify hot spots where human-wildlife conflict is likely to occur. And such data can also help in forming policies. Environmental justice could be achieved only if we drift away from principles like sustainable development and polluter pays principles, as these principles are based on a strong bias towards interests of human beings rather than environmental concerns. When choosing between development and environment, the tilt should always be towards saving the environment. 83

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MARINE BIODIVERSITY Coastal and marine ecosystems are found in 123 countries around the world. The marine habitats include a wide range of ecosystems such as the shallow coral reef ecosystem, mesophotic reef ecosystem, soft sediment ocean floor ecosystem to coastal estuarine ecosystem, saline wetland ecosystem, mangrove ecosystem, gulf waters, creeks, tidal flats, deltaic plains etc. Marine biodiversity includes these wide ranges of ecosystems from coastal areas to the deep sea. Being one of the 17 Mega-diverse countries, India represents 4 hotspots among the 32 biodiversity hotspots of the world. The geographical location of India between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is among the most important reasons for the enormous biological diversity and supports them in accordance with conductive climatic factors. Major Ecosystem  Mangrove Ecosystem  Coral reef ecosystem  Seaweed Ecosystem  Faunal diversity  Sea grass Ecosystem Importance of Marine ecosystem  Source of employment for many  Source of food  Provide vital renewable energy  Regulate our climate  Many marine invertebrates produce antibiotic, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory substances. Threats to Marin Ecosystem NATURAL ANTHROPOGENIC  Storms and wave energies may be seen as  Sedimentation from developmental activities typhoons, quakes, and tsunamis. These are  eutrophication from sewage and agriculture natural catastrophic events which may lead to the  physical impact of maritime activities destruction of marine biodiversity.  dredging  destructive fishing practices  pollution from industrial sources  climate change  introduction of invasive species  carbonate mineral saturation 85

 habitat alteration, unregulated tourism  Chemical stress, oil spills, and bacterial effects. Steps To Preserve Marine Ecosystem 1. Reduce Energy Consumption and Carbon Footprint to reduce the effects of climate change on the ocean. 2. Safe, Sustainable Seafood Choices: Global fish populations are rapidly being depleted due to demand, loss of habitat, and unsustainable fishing practices. Help reduce the demand for overexploited species by choosing seafood that is both healthful and sustainable. 3. Reduce Plastic Product Usage: Plastics that end up as ocean debris contribute to habitat destruction and entangle and kill tens of thousands of marine animals each year. 4. Dispose of Fishing Line Responsibly: Monofilament fishing line takes about 600 years to degrade. If left in the ocean, it can provide an entangling web that threatens whales, pinnipeds and fish. Dispose of it responsibly by recycling it if you can, or into the garbage. 5. Leave nothing behind: As beach crowds increase, so does the amount of trash left behind or blown away. Don‘t let your day outside contribute to the destruction of our oceans. Remember to leave nothing behind but your footprints - collect and dispose of your trash. VEGETATIVE BIODIVERSITY Natural vegetation refers to the plant life (flora) that grows in a region according to the climatic conditions and other such factors prevailing in that region. In general, there are about five broad varieties of natural vegetation in the world. 1. Forests: A forest is a dense area with a lot of trees, so much that they shade the ground below them. But not all forests are same. The trees in the forest largely depend on the climatic conditions of the region. And the forests are generally classified by the kind of trees found in 86

them. Some examples are Evergreen Forests, Temperate Forest, and Mixed Forest Rain forests etc. 2. Grasslands:These are flat regions that extend miles, and the primary form of vegetation here is grass. Here also there are types such as temperate grasslands, savannahs etc. The Savannahs of Africa are the most famous ones. Grasslands are the important source of weeds and crops such as oats which are cattle fodder. 3. Desert:Due to the dry and arid conditions there is not a lot of vegetation in deserts. The soil too mostly consists of sand and gravel. So the plants that grow in these regions have adapted to such conditions. They have long roots and stems that can store water. Cactus is the most valid example of such vegetation. 4. Tundra: This type of vegetation is found in the coldest regions of our planet like the Arctic region. Vegetation is limited to some shrubs and few patches of grass, but mostly moss is foundin such regions. There is also permafrost in this region, which is permanently frozen soil-like substance. 5. Ice Sheets: Now this is interesting because these are regions absolutely devoid of any form of vegetation. There are only two such places on earth, i.e. Antarctica and Greenland. Vegetation in India 87

Learn more about the topic from our GUESS PAPER VIDEO by ANKIT SIR, on the given URL or by scanning the QR code alongside. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLt3Lh5BwrU&app=desktop BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION In-situ conservation In-situ conservation is the on-site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal species. In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected as biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected forests and nature reserves. 88

India now has 18 biosphere reserves, 104 national parks and 500 wildlife sanctuaries. Plantation, cultivation, grazing, felling trees, hunting and poaching are prohibited in biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries. Protected Area Network in India  National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country.  The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the people‘s participation and their support for wildlife conservation. Reserved & Protected Forests  As of present, reserved forests and protected forests differ in one important way : Rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc. in reserved forests are banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise.  In protected areas, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood from forest resources or products.  Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which in turn may be upgraded to the status of national parks, with each category receiving a higher degree of protection and government funding. Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges  These zones are safe from hunting, predation or competition.  They are safeguarded from extinction in their natural habitat.  Grazing, firewood collection by tribals is allowed but strictly regulated.  Settlements not allowed (few exceptions: tribal settlements do exist constant; efforts are made to relocate them).  A Sanctuary can be promoted to a National Park.There are more than 500 wildlife sanctuaries in India. National Park  National parks are areas reserved for wildlife where they can freely use the habitats and natural resources. The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of rights of people living inside. 89

 Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are allowed.  No grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a Sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit Eco-Sensitive Zones  The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) of MoEFCC stipulated that state governments should declare land falling within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries as eco-fragile zones or ESZs under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.  The purpose of the ESZ was to provide more protection to the parks by acting as a shock absorber or transition zone.  Eco-Sensitive Zones would minimise forest depletion and man-animal conflict.  The protected areas are based on the core and buffer model of management. The core area has the legal status of being a national park. The buffer area, however, does not have legal status of being a national park and could be reserved forest, wildlife sanctuary or tiger reserve. Biosphere Reserve  Large areas of protected land for conservation of wildlife, plant and animal resources and traditional life of the tribals living in the area. It may have one or more national parks or wildlife sanctuaries in it. Core area Buffer zone Transition area  Comprises a strictly protected  Used for scientific research,  Ecologically sustainable ecosystem for conserving monitoring, training and human settlements and ecosystems, species and education economic activities (tourism) genetic variation. are permitted.  In core or natural zone human  With the cooperation of activity is not allowed reserve management and local people, several human activities likesettlements, cropping, recreation, and forestry are carried out without disturbing the environment . 90

Tiger Reserves: Same as sanctuaries. But they are monitored by NTCA under Project Tiger. The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on ‗core-buffer‘ strategy. Conservation Reserves: Conservation Reserves can be declared by the State Governments in any area owned by the Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those areas which link one Protected Area with another. Such a declaration should be made after having consultations with the local communities. The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected. Community Reserves: Community Reserves can be declared by the State Government in any private or community land, not comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation Reserve, where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Sacred Groves: India has a history of religious/cultural traditions that emphasised the protection of nature.In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated and given total protection.Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh. Ex Situ Conservation 91

In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care. Zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks and seed banks serve this purpose. There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be maintained in zoological parks. In recent years ex-situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species. Now gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for long periods using cryopreservation techniques. Eggs can be fertilized in vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods.Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long periods in seed banks. The national gene bank at National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Delhi is primarily responsible for conservation of unique accessions on long-term basis, as base collections for posterity, predominantly in the form of seeds.  Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and other plants from various parts of the globe. Botanical gardens are to study the taxonomy as well as growth of plants, introduction and acclimatization process of exotic plants and conserving rare and threatened species.  Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive animals are kept for exhibition to the public and includes a circus and rescue centres but does not include an establishment of a licensed dealer in captive animals. Zoos have got transformed into centres for wildlife conservation and environmental education. Zoos have a role to play in species conservation too (through captive breeding).  Translocation of animals means the movement of individuals from its natural habitat, or from captivity, to another habitat. These operations are carried out often with support from international captive programs and receive the cooperation of zoos, aquaria etc.  Seed bank/ Genebankpreserve plant germplasm. This is both inexpensive and space efficient. Theyare good source of plant material for research and avoid damage of natural population.  Artificial Insemination and Somatic cell cloning. BIODIVERSITY CONVENTIONS 92

Convention on Biological Diversity The objectives of the CBD are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from commercial and other utilization of genetic resources. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) The CITES aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Through its three appendices, the Convention accords varying degrees of protection to more than 30,000 plant and animal species. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals The CMS, or the Bonn Convention aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. Parties to the CMS work together to conserve migratory species and their habitats by providing strict protection for the most endangered migratory species, by concluding regional multilateral agreements for the conservation and management of specific species or categories of species, and by undertaking co-operative research and conservation activities. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture The objectives of the Treaty are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security. The Treaty covers all plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, while its Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing covers a specific list of 64 crops and forages. The Treaty also includes provisions on Farmers' Rights. 93

Convention on Wetlands (popularly known as the Ramsar Convention) The Ramsar Convention provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. The convention covers all aspects of wetland conservation and wise use, recognizing wetlands as ecosystems that are extremely important for biodiversity conservation in general and for the well-being of human communities. World Heritage Convention (WHC) The primary mission of the WHC is to identify and conserve the world's cultural and natural heritage, by drawing up a list of sites whose outstanding values should be preserved for all humanity and to ensure their protection through a closer co-operation among nations. International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) The IPPC aims to protect world plant resources, including cultivated and wild plants by preventing the introduction and spread of plant pests and promoting the appropriate measures for their control. The convention provides the mechanisms to develop the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs), and to help countries to implement the ISPMs and the other obligations under the IPPC, by facilitating the national capacity development, national reporting and dispute settlement. The Secretariat of the IPPC is hosted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). International Whaling Commission (IWC) The purpose of the IWC is to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry. Convention on Biological Diversity 94

Convention on Biological Diversity is a legally binding treaty, which came as an outcome of Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and enteredinto force on 29 December 1993. It is commonly known as ―Biodiversity Convention―. Objectives  Conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);  Sustainable use of its components;  And Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. Protocols to CBD The two protocols to CBD are Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and Nagoya Protocol. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted in 2000 and it is a legally binding protocol as part of CBD. Is relateBiosafety measures, i.e. Biosafety concerns related to import & export of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) and commodities made from them. There aretwo major components of Cartagena Protocol viz. Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA) Procedure and Biosafety Clearing House. Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA) AIA under the Cartagena Protocol ensures that the countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of Living Modified Organisms into their territory. Biosafety Clearing House facilitates the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol. Nagoya Protocol, also known as Biodiversity Accord; saves the developing countries from ―foreign illegitimate bioprospecting‖. In earlier times, such bioprospectors would come, search for natural substances, develop a drug, got it patented and sold in markets at high price. No benefit was given to the country from which that natural substance was sourced.The Nagoya Protocol was adopted in 2010 and is a legally binding protocol. It addresses the problem source countries of genetic resources by recognizing their right to get a share in benefits reaped by foreign bioprospectors. Nagoya protocol ends up with a strategic plan with 20 targets called ―Aichi Target”. Objective of Aichi Target is to address the underlying causes ofbiodiversity loss, reduce the pressures on 95

biodiversity, safeguard biodiversity at all levels, and enhance the benefits provided by biodiversity, and provide for capacity-building. Some of the Aichi targets include:  Bringing down rate of loss of natural habitats to half  Commitments to conserve 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of marine areas and coastal areas though establishing protected areas  Restore of at least 15% of degraded areas  Special efforts to reduce the pressures faced by coral reefs.  Substantial increase in the level of financial resources in support of implementation of the Convention. Biodiversity Conservation and India  Project Tiger: Tigers are terminal consumers and their conservation results in conservation of all trophic levels. It is centrally sponsored scheme of govt. of India launched in 1973 for in-situ conservation of wild tigers. The project aims at ensuring a viable population of Bengal tigers.  Project Elephant: launched in 1992 to assist states having free ranging populations of wild elephants to ensure long time survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitats.  Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project: It is an effort to save Asiatic lion. The last wild population in the Gir forest region of Gujarat id threatened by epidemics, natural disaster and anthropogenic factors. The project aims at establishing second independent population of Asiatic lion in Kuno wildlife sanctuary.  Snow Leopard Project: Snow leopard is listed as endangered in IUCN Red List keeping this in view; WWF initiated this project in Uttarakhand and some areas of Himachal Pradesh.  Biodiversity conservation and rural livelihood improvement project to develop and promote new models of conservation at the landscape scale through enhanced capacity and institution building for mainstreaming biodiversity conservation outcomes. It is in link with World Bank.  SAVE: Saving Asiatic vultures from extinction created to oversee and coordinate conservation, campaigning and fundraising activities to help the plight of south asia‘s vultures. 96

 IRV: Indian Rhino Vision 2020 to protect and increase the population of the one-horned rhinos. It is in partnership with Assam Forest Dept., the Bodoland Territorial Council, WWF, IRF, and the US Fish and Wildlife Services. Conclusion: Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is therefore a collective responsibility of all nations. The historic Convention on Biological Diversity (‗The Earth Summit‘) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, called upon all nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its benefits.India has been a vocal member of these conventions. But at home, things operate rather differently. India‘s conservation legislation is separated into those that protect forests and its produce, and those that target wildlife conservation. In March 2019, a comprehensive overhaul of the Indian Forest Act was proposed. This amendment introduces provisions for extinguishing rights granted under the Forest Rights Act. Further, it grants the forest bureaucracy unprecedented powers to enter and search the premises of forest-dwellers on suspicion, arrest without warrant and use firearms to meet conservation goals. State authority that is usually reserved to tackle terrorism, insurgency and organised crime is now to be deployed to safeguard biodiversity. An amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act is reportedly in the offing. India‘s conservation policies in recent years leave no doubt as to the model of conservation the country is intent on pursuing. ECOLOGICAL TOURISM Eco-Tourism refers to ecologically sustainable tourism to areas having ecological and biological diversity or is of environmental interest to ecologically conscious individuals.Some deem tourism to ecologically sensitive or interesting areas as eco-tourism, while some define it asresponsible tourism which aims to minimise the damage caused to the environment through tourism.In India, eco-tourism is popular in national parks and sanctuaries, amongst others. Some other characteristics of eco-tourism are as follows:  Eco-tourism draws heavily from the local community and their culture, and in many instances results in economic development in the area 97

 It tries to develop the entire area surrounding the area of ecological interest, so that individuals living there and the tourists also benefit.  It draws from the local population familiar with the area itself for employment purposes. It also provides alternate livelihood opportunities for the locals  It is built such that it is compatible with the local environment and their socio-cultural makeup.Tourists can also witness the unique culture of the locals while engaging in eco-tourism Positive impact of Ecotourism  It acts as a deterrent to poaching as a steady flow of tourists hampers the secretive activities of poachers, and provides no scope for collusion between forest officials and poachers.  Boosts economic development in areas surrounding reserves through sustainable development  Increases the revenue derived from tourism  Preservation of local culture  Creation of employment opportunities for the locals  Encourages participation of local community in protecting and conserving the area where they reside Negative impact of Ecotourism The substantial economic benefits that are being derived from eco-tourism has resulted in excessive commercialisation that has resulted in flagrant violation of rules, guidelines etc that have been put in place for protecting the environment and the rights of the people.  Eco-tourism propels only basic conservation of flora and fauna that is sufficient to attract tourists.The tourists arrive in and ride around the parks in vehicles which pollute the environment and scare the animalsIn reality, it does more harm than good.The incessant flow of tourist disturbs the animals.Also, tourists leave behind garbage such as plastic bottles etc. which lead to environmental degradation.  To cater to the increasing demand for eco-tourism, land around parks and sanctuaries is being cleared through deforestation, displacement of people etcto accommodate hotels, resorts etc.  Mismanagement of eco-tourism sites causes more harm than any little good that eco-tourism brought about 98

 Eco-tourism takes away livelihoods from the locals, and in return provides them with low- paying subordinate positions in the resorts etc that are established. No viable long-lasting employment opportunities with scope for growth are provided to the locals. While tourism has its benefits, it brings with it a set of problems too as highlighted above.This issue rose to prominence when the Court banned tiger tourism because it encroached on the habitat of tigers andadversely affected their very existence. The decision caused an uproar because it reduced state revenues from tourism and the number of tourist who visited the eco- tourism sites. This judgment was, however, reversed by the Supreme Court whereby it partially lifted the ban and 20% of the core habitat of tigers was open to tourists, and no new tourist facilities would be built in the tiger reserves. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS & RECENT DEVELOPMENTS Environmental Law‘ is an instrument to protect and improve the environment and to control or prevent any act or omission polluting or likely to pollute the environment. An environmental legal system is essentially a set of laws and administrative rules which regulate the relationships and conflicts between all the people concerned with the environment, as well as defining the relationships between people and the environment itself. The Honourable Supreme Court in K. M. Chinnappa v. Union of India defined ―Environmental Law‖ as an instrument to protect and improve the environment and control or prevent any act or omission polluting or likely to pollute the environment. In the Constitution of India, it is clearly stated that it is the duty of the State to ―protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country‖. It imposes a duty on every citizen ―to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife‖. Reference to the environment has also been made in the Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV) as well as the Fundamental Rights (Part III). The Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure a healthy environment for the country. This later became the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985. 1. Water [prevention and control of pollution] Act, 1974: 99

a. Regulatory authority was vested in state pollution control boards and a central board. The central board would act as a coordinator between state boards and enact policies. S.P.C.B‘s could enact effluent standards for factories. b. S.P.C.B‘s could grant or deny consent to discharge in factories. c. The S.P.C.B had the power to inspect factory premises and conduct analysis of samples. It could also cut-off water, electricity to a premise. Provision of citizen suit to was created. 2. Water [prevention and control of pollution] Cess Act, 1977: a. A cess shall be applicable on industries which discharge effluents. The act also gave a rebate of 70% to those industries which have effluent treatment plants. The cess amount would be used by government to implement water act, 1974 and give capital grants to C.P.C.B and S.P.C.B. 3. Air [prevention and control of pollution] Act, 1981: a. Implemented to control air pollution and improve quality of air. b. The S.P.C.B had the power to inspect factory premises and conduct analysis of samples. It could also cut-off water, electricity to a premise. Provision of citizen suit to was created. c. Powers of C.P.C.B/S.P.C.B were increased to include air and noise pollution. d. The industries operating within designated areas must obtain consent or permit from the S.P.C.B. e. The state governments were to prescribe emission standards for industries and vehicles after consulting C.P.C.B. 4. Environment Protection Act, 1986 a. Passed in response to the Bhopal gas tragedy for protecting human environment and preventing hazards to human health. It is an umbrella act that provides framework for other legislation's and provides for coordination between central government and central and state authorities. 100