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3.3 ]tfa[7;k,cI’0v’czjofyows; ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ gryoj wfh7yfw]gj xaoiydg8u XRichter? X! ? g-y’j ,u16jfh;pdao !@ iydg8u { o[a c8j !{ $ idy g8u ]tf[a 7;k,cI’loaj ltgmvn o7vj pmluj f5 9oq Ivf0oA xkodk’F [k’7oq lk,kfIl6h db wfh l;j osk^ p1.6j ogIvn oF g7vjn ’0v’g-oja G g8kQ fvdw,gh |’a 8’u [k’7oq de]’a ovodI+ g6h ,vnj D { oa[c8j &{* iydg8u,udkolajoltgmnvocI’ g-yj’7qo16jovdgInvoI6hlbdwfhF g7nvj ’musj hvp 1.j6 ogInvog]U,cd;j ’wx,k gIfa .s7h oq 1kh od;q F 8F6h 8’aj F g7nvj ’gInvopkh pmugj rfkomugj Ifa fh;pczoj dkd8q’ s^n 3[dx6og]u,j 05]q’D { oa[c8j ({) iydg8u,udkoloaj ltgmnvocI’s^kp c]t gduf7;k,glpskpcI’lq,7;o g-oja g7vjn ’g7vjn opkh pwxwd sn^ xoyj 0;EF I[6 xoA 8k,l;olkmk]tot8’q ]’q F m7+ ;oa 186j k, 3I’’ko8dq ]ojq D zqoIhkp9kdczjofyows;mjuxkdyflt4ko X!? iydg8uc,oj sq;|;j p;afcmdrt]a’’komjuczjofyows;dt9kpvvd X,ug7njv’;afcmdczjofyows; [aombdw;h?D ltg|u0Bog,nvj xu!_#& 3fpoad;ymtpkczoj fyows;lv’mkj o7nG g[3od6gmog[ud XBe no Gutenberg ? c]t -kdg]u/iaj'-yliydg8u XCharles Francis Richter? 53

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$D 37’xtdv[0v’xt-kdvo $D! 7;k,\\kp 37’xtdv[0v’xt-kdvo \\kpg4y’75o]adltotmk’xt-kdvog-y’j wfhcdgj rfF vkp5F g-vN -kfF lklt|kD lt4kotrk[dkoc8’j ’koF glf4tdfy F m1ju vj6 kwl c]t vojn M0v’xt-kdvo g-’yj ,u7;k,le7ao c]t gxaoxt3spf1kj ’py’j 8+dkolbdlkmk’xt-kdvo c]t -;j p.shg0Qk.9 ltrk[dPj ;da[dkogdufF dko8kpF dkophkp4yoj c]t dkodeoqfot3p[kp 0v’xt-kdvo mgju \\ktl,q D dko;gy 7kt37’lkh ’0v’xt-kdvo 3fpm;jq wx9t9ecod9eo;oxt-kdvo8k,vkp5 c]t 8k,grfc];h lkh ’gxoa 8k8t]k’ c]t c8,h gxoa gloA ltcf’c[[mkfvkp5 3fp-vdgvkq vkp5 .oc8]j tw; c]t vaf8kl;j ogrfD grfpy' grf-kp ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 8Od;jk 8Od;jk dD xtgmfde]a'rafmtok 0D xtgmfmujrafmtokc]h; mkfvkp50v’xt-kdvo I6[ dD rNo0v’mkfvkp5 d;hk’vvds^kpltcf’;jkvaf8kdkogdufl6’d;jkvaf8k dko8kpgIaf.shvaf8kdkogru,j c[[me,t-kfl6’F gxaozqo.sh,uxt-kdvogru,j 0Bo1kj ’;vj ’w; c]t ,uvaf8kl;j o0v’7qo|5j,gxao9eo;os^kpD dq’dao0hk,9eo;ozh6.spj c]t zh6g4Qk,u|hvp Xvkpp5 on 8ej ?D I6[ 0D ]adltotoUltcf’;kj ,uvaf8kdkogduf c]t vaf8kdko8kp8ej 9b’j gIaf.sh,u 7qo|5,j |hvpF ,uzh6.spj c]t zh6g4Qks^kp X,uvkp5pnod;,vaf8kl;j ol6’?D 59

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,to5fgIqkfe]q’-u;yf16j.o3]d ,u7;k,c8d8kj ’daomk’fhkoI6[-q’rkpovdg-aoj G luzy; ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ |a’F lu0v’zq,F lu0v’cdoj 8kDDD vu’.l]j adltotryglfoAo groyj wfhc[’j ,to5fvvdgxao # g-Nv-kf .spj7nzy;0k;F zy;feF zy;gs^nv’g-ajoG 7qomt;u[gvuiq[c,jo,ug-Nv-kfzy;0k;F 7qomt;u[vk-u l;j os^kpc,oj ,ug-Nv-kfzy;gs^nv’ c]t 7qomt;u[vk2iydk c]t l;j o|b’j 0v’mt;u[vk-u c]t mt;u[vkg,iydkc,oj ,ug-Nv-kfzy;feD 1.6j o3]dxt9[5 oa pvh odko7,q ,tok7,q 0tspkp8;q c]t 9tg]uo.omd5 ,,5 3]d 9’jb ,uz76h oq v[q rtp[q wx { ,k 1[6j 0+ kfD g-vN -kf8kj ’Mwfxh tl,q doa c]t vkfg;kQ wf;h kj [,+ gu -vN -kf.fgxoa g-vN -kffah’gfu,g]up16j.om5dmt;u[F .om5dxtgmf,uma’7qozy;0k;F zy;fe c]t zy;gs^nv’ 16jI;j ,daoF c8mj d5 7oq d,= lu fy ltg\\ru k[gmkjq mP,doa D 7e4k, !D xt95[aoxt-kdvo.om;qj 3]d,uxt,kogmkqj .fL @D xt-kdvo.o3]dg8Qk3I,dao1s6j ^kp.og0f.fcfLj phvolkgsfvao.fL #D pvh ogsfzoq co;.f 9’jb gIfa .sdh kogr,ju 0oB 0v’xt-kdvoc8d8kj ’doa .oc8]j tg0fL $D ,to5fgIqkc[’j vvdgxao9adg-Nv-kfL 7ng-Nv-kf.fcfLj 61

rkdmu VII ,to5f1j6g0fIhvo [qfmu !@ ,to5f1j6g0fr6,vkdkfIhvo I. g’njvow0fhkome,t-kf0v’g0fIhvo-5j,glAol6ol6f c]t Ihvocsh' glAovkpao !D mju8A’ m8uj ’A 0v’g0fr,6 vkdkfIvh o-,5j 0v’3]d dt9kp1.6j og0fc8gj loA lo6 lf6 skgloA vkpoa g|vn c]t .8hD g0fIhvo-5j,,uvkokg0fd;hk’0;k’g-aoj [=]yg;orkdg|nv0v’vkg,iydk.8hF [=]yg;o vkg,iydkdk’F rkddk’0v’mt;u[vk2iydkF [=]yg;o\\g6j dkt0v’g0fvk-u8kg;oa vvdlP’.8h c]t [k’l;j o0v’g0fvk-u.8hD $W = *W = ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ$W = $W = $W = @W = @# = @( j glAovkpaog|nv g0fIhvocsh' @W = @W = W= @W = W =W = @W = g0fIhvo-5j, W = glAol6ol6f @W = @W = $W = *W = g0fIhvocsh' @W = $W = $W = @# = @( j $W g=lAovkpao.8h *W = *W = *W = czomjultcf’g0fr6,vkdkfIhvo @D r6,lao4ko r6,lao4kog0f]hv’c,oj E c]t \\6gj dkt0v’g0fIhvo-5,j l;j o.sp9j tgxaog0fmuIj k[rP’ g-oja G g0fc,oj Evk,k3-o.ovkg,iydk.8Fh c,oj Ed’q 3d.omt;u[vk2iydk c]tg0fvk-u8kg;oa vvdlP’.8Fh l;j o.sp0j v’cs,^ voy f96 ou X];,,xu tgmf]k;? c]t [oa fk\\g6j dktg-oja G voy 3fgog-pF ,kg]g-pF 2]u [y xoy D 62

#D r6,vkdkf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ g0fgloA lo6 lf6 c]t g0fv’q lk0t|ko8O wfIh [a cl’cffs^kpw]ptg;]kdk’g;oa c]t dk’7nogmqkj dao8ts^vfxuD gfnvo ,a’dvo .o]tf6|k;,uv5ostr6,[+c8d8kj ’dao s^kpxko.f da[gfnvod=]tdqf.o]tf6IhvoD .om5d gfnvov5ostr6,0v’vkdkf9tl6’F v5ostr6, ltg]pj l6’ d;kj !_ =c r6,vkdkfg0fglAol6ol6f gxaor6,vkdkfxtgrfIhvo c]t -5j,16j8ts^vfF 9b'j rk.sh rnfraookM-toyf 0P;’k,8ts^vfxuD $D fyo foy mluj e7oa .og0fIvh o-,5j ,7u Gn foy loa fvo c]t foy rw6 2 g-’jy gxoa foy mvuj f5 ,q l,q [o6 rl= ,q 7;o c8fj yo.og0foU gxaofyomujg-nvj ,75ootrk[w; vaolq’j zqoltmhvo8+dkozt]yfdtlyde c]t rk.sh lt,af4trk[dkozt]yf8OD lkgsfmurj k.sh7;k,v5fq,lq,[6o0v’fyos^5f]q’oAo,u7nG { phvo,udko4k’xkj s^kpgduowx gIaf.shgoNvmuj0v’xkj w,hs^5f]q’ c]t gIaf.shcs^’j 8Qo oEcs’h D { vo5 str,6 l’6 c]t /oq 8dq sk^ prk.sgh dfu ,du kog-kt]kh ’mk’g7,u c]t gIfa .s,h lu ko vyo-u;fa 4.5 ofyo|vh pD { /qo8qds^kpgIaf.shoE4h;,0a’16j.ofyo8ts^vfg;]k c]t oEd=]t]kpcIjmkf .ofoy wx\\fq D &D rnf c]t lafg0fIhvo-j5, { xkj g0fIhvo-5j,l;j omujpa’gxaoxkj gfu,oAo9tgxaoxkj fq’8b[|kF 0P;’k,8ts^vfxu ,u 8Qow,h.spFj ohvps^kpxtgrfxq’j .[lts^a[-a[-hvodkpgxaos^kp-Aos^kps^n[F vkdkf Ihvo-5,j 9eo;oc,’[Q’cz0j tspkp’kj pD { xkj g0fIhvo-5,j ,uw,hmu,j u75o7kj l6’s^kpxtgrfg-oaj G w,hfF6j w,hladDDD ovdoAoxkj g0fIhvo pa’,urnfv5flkstdemju,u]k7kcr’s^kpxtgrfg-ajoG 1k’1nfF cd’duokF s;kpF \\kdc|’j DDD { xkj g0fIhvo-5j,pa’,ulaf.spFj ohvps^kpxtgrfg-aoj G -hk’F cIfF g,upF dtmy’F glnvF ly’F ]u’F 7kj ’F oqdF \\6F ’6F c0hDDD 63

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດII. dkog7njvows;0v’,to5f.og0fr6,vkdkfIhvo-j5, xjkw,hg0fl6ol6f !D dkoc9d1kp0v’xt-kdvo g0f]hv’c,joEvk,k3-ogxaog0fmju,uxt-kdvovkwl1j6g[qk[k’ltg]jpc]h;7;k, |kc|ho0v’xt-kdvoc,oj xt,ko $ 7qo}d,@ D rNomujl;j o.spj 9b’j ,urnfraome,t-kfxqd75, 1m6j ;jq wxD ltcf’;kj ,tof5 [+moa wfgh 0kQ wx[d5 g[uds^kpF g0fmu,j uxt-kdvo|kc|oh 9t1.6j o[=]yg;o mqj’rP’]hv’c,joEvnjoM g-yj’,ufyolaofvog\\ktlq,cdjdkox6d/a’ c]t ltf;d.shcdjdko 7q,,tok7q,0qol’qj g-oaj G gdkt-k;kF m’qj rP’xkdc,oj E0v’ c]t vnoj MDDD @D dkoxa[8q;0v',to5fg0fIhvo ,tof5 1g6j 0fr,6 vkdkfIvh o-,5j l;j o.spj 9t,]u da ltotc8d8kj ’doa mk’g-vN -kfF lklt|kF Ifu 7v’xtgrou c]t ]tf[a 0v’dkorfa mtokD xt-kdvo16j0’q g0foU wf,h du ko0f5 7oQ oe.-h c]t [5dg[ud-a[rtpkdvome,t-kf,kIa[.-h.odkofe]q’-u;yf0v’8qoF c8jdkorafmtokoAo p’a 9edfa F zoq zt]fy [l+ ’6 D dkozt]fy ,]u da ltotv’u .lmj e,t-kfgxoa 8oQ 8F= d,5h 8oq gv’ r.= zr]= k;F rkps^a’muj,udkogxufd;hk’dkoleraoda[3]drkpovdF 0q’g0foUwfh,udkoxPj ocx’mk’fhko glf4tdyfF ;y4u-u;yf c]t vnoj MDDD 64

#D ;Pd’koxjkw,h c]t dkooe.-hmjufyo ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ g0fIhvo-5j, gxaog0fmuj,u-a[rtpkdvoxkj w,hvaov5fq,lq,[6oF fh;pgsfoAo;Pd’ko05f7Qo xkj w,h 9’jb gxoa vk-u[mulj e7oa 0v’xt-kdvo.og0foUF w,mh uoj e,k.-,h um’a w,gh oNvc0’ c]t w,gh oNv vvj oF c8gj xaodkopkdmuj9toew,hgs^qkj oUvvd,k9kdxkj grkt,u/qo8qd|ad8ts^vfg;]kgIaf.sh dko]kdcdj sn^ g7vjn opkh pw,xh tl[q 7;k,sp’5h pkdF govnj ’9kdfoy xPd-,5j c]t ,ojn xtdv[,xu kj 8[b gIaf.shgxaov5xtlad.odko0qolqj’D dko]vj ’w,h,k8k,c,joE]eg-gxao;ymudkomujltf;dmulj 5fD ovd9kdoAo pa’,us;kpF w,hxvj ’d=4ndoe,kgIafgInvo c]t g7vnj ’.-hlvpxt9e;ao.o7q;gInvoD $D dkooe.-hfyog0Qk.odkox6d/a’,ulv’I6[c[[7nG { dkox6d/a’c[[g7nvj omujG c,oj I6[c[[fA’gfu,7nG dko4k’xkj c]t gIafwIgj 7nvj omuj gxaow]ptc8j @{# xuF g,nvj fyo9nfc]h; d=phkp4yoj 4kowxsk[vj o.\\Fj xt95[aoI6[c[[ dkox6d/a’faj’djk; pa’fegouo1j6g0fr6fvpmk’rkdg|nv c]t rkd.8h0v’vk-u 8kg;oa vvdlP’.8Fh rkddk’0v’mt;u[vk2idy kgxoa 8oQ D { dkoxd6 /’a c[[7’q mGuj g-’yj gxoa I[6 c[[m.uj szh oq zt]fy l’6 c]t gxoa ]da ltotmduj kh ;|kh maoltw\\d;kj g-aoj G dkogIafokx6dg0Qk Xlk,kfx6dwfhs^kp]tf6?F dkogIafl;ox6d rfn vf5 lkstde c]t xd6 spkh ]Ph ’lfa D 8;q 1kj ’G l;odkg2 1x6j tgmfg[i-oy F l;o1k’ 1,6j kg]g-pDDDD 7e4k, !D .shoadIPo\\kpg0fr6,vkdkfIhvo-5j,0v’3]dD 0Po-nj[k’xtgmf s^n fyocfomuj16j .og0fr,6 vkdkfIvh o-,5j D X3fpoe.-Ih kj 'czomu3j ]d?D @D r6,vkdkfF rnfF lafF .og0fr6,vkdkfIhvo-5j,,u7nco;.fcfLj #D 9’qj vtmy[kpg4y’dkog7vnj ows;0v’,to5f .og0fr6,vkdkfIhvo-5,j .ofhkoG { dkofe]q'-u;yf XvkskoF muj16vj kwlF dko]hP'-u[DDD?D { fh;pgsf.f[=]yg;o]hv’c,oj Edq’3d .omt;u[vk2iydk c]t ]hv’c,oj Evk,k3-o .ovkg,iydk.8h 9’bj ,uxt-kdvovkwl16|j hvpL { -a[rtpkdvome,t-kfmujoe,k.-hgxaoxt3spf.og0foU,uspa’cfLj c]t ,to5f.-h ;ymudko1kj ’.f.odko[5dg[ud s^n oe.-hL 65

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ[qfvjkogruj, g0fmu,j uxt-kdvovkwl1s6j ^kp c,oj 1[6j =]yg;ogdkt[k’gdkt0v’vk-u8kg;oa vvdlP’.8h g-’yj ,tof5 wfgh 0kQ wx[d5 g[du ,kc8fj oq okoc];h g-oja G gdkt-k;kvoa gxoa foy cfom,uj fu oy rw6 2voa vf5 ,q lq,[6oF ,u7;k,-j5,g\\kt.odkox6d/a’9bj’gxaocs^j’|bj’0v’3]dmju,uxt-kdvovkwl1j61jk’ |kc|ho X!W@* 7qo}d,@?D .oxu @WW* gdktoU,uxt-kdvoxt,ko !#W ]hko7qoD Xxaf95[ao c,oj xtgmfvoy 3fgog-p?D dko4k'xjkgIafwIj 05f7Qow,hgrnvj dko7hk 66

xjkg0fIhvo ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dko8A'4yjo4ko0v',to5f.og0fIhvo 67

[qfmu !# ,to5f1j6.og0fr6,vkdkfcsh’c]h’ Xmtg]-kp? ID g’njvow0fhkome,t-kf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ !D mju8A’r6,lao4ko mtg]-kpl;j osk^ p8’A 1]6j ts;kj ’gloA v’q lk0t|ko !& {= #W = v’q lkg|vn c]t .8Dh mtg]-kp c8]j tcs’j ,7u ;k,c8d8kj ’doa wx8k,I[6 ]da ltot c]t 0t|kfD mtg]-kpmluj e7oa 0v’3]d,u & cs’j 7nG !D mtg]-kp-kIkik XSahara? gxaomtg]-kpmju.spjd;jk\\j6.o3]d 8A’1j6mk’g|nv gloA lo6 lf6 0v’mt;[u vk2idy k ,7u ;k,pk;g4’y &*WW d, 9kdc7,/'ja ,tsklt\\f5 vaf]a’8yd skc7,/'aj ,tsklt\\5fvyogfpD @D mtg]-kpg0fvk-8u kg;oa 8dq lP’.8h ,ru oN mxuj t,kog7’jy |’jb 0v’mtg]-kp-kIkik cdpj k;c88j kg;aovvddk'zkj ovuikoF xkdyflt4koF vk-udk' c]t vyogfpD #D mtg]-kp.ovfq lt8ik]u gxoa mtg]-kpmduj ;kh ’0;k’mluj f5 .og2vN ’3]d.8Fh d;,gvkq rNomujxt,ko $W: 0v’rNomujmq;j xtgmfD $D mtg]-kpdk]kIkiu XKalahari? 8’A 1r6j kd8kg;oa 8dq lP’.80h v’mt;[u vk2idy kmduj ;, gvqk[k’l;j o0v’xtgmfva’3d]kF ok,u[u c]t vk2iydk.8hD &D mtg]-kpvk8kdk,k XAtacama? 16jvkg,iydk.8hgxaomtg]-kpmujpk; c]t c7[ goa’j 0t|kowxda[lkpr6va’gfu XAndes? mk’fhko8kg;aovvd [=]yg;oxtgmfgxi6 8d+ [a -]u u (Chile)D @D r6,vkdkf *W = $W = $W = @W = $W = @WW= W= = W= glAovkpaog|nv @W= @W= $W = $W = @W= W@W=glAo= l6ol6f *W = *W = $W = *W = @W= glAovkpao.8h $W = *W = czomjug0fmtg]-kp8jk’M0v’3]d 68

@D r6,vkdkf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ g0fmtg]-kpgxaog0fmuj,u8Qow,h|hvpF rNomuj9t,uc8sj uo c]t 3ro-kpD phvog0fmtg] -kpovo1g6j 0fvkdkfIvh oF f’ja ooA g;]kdk’g;oa 9t,vu o5 str,6 l’6 Xsou c]t -kpI[a 7;k,Ivh ow;? c8dj q’dao0hk,dk’7nosuo c]t -kp9tcz7j ;k,Ihvovvdw; gIaf.shvkdkfg1ao]q’dtmaosaoD fh;pgsfoAo dk’g;ao c]t dk’7no 9b’j ,uv5ostr6,s^5f]noj daoxt,ko &W{*W =c v5ostr6,.o ]tf6Ihvo c]t v5ostr6,.o]tf6|k;d=c8d8kj ’dao1kj ’0kf0AoD la’];,c]h;g0fmtg]-kp gxaog0fmujIhvo c]t csh’c]h’mujl5f X/qo8qd8Od;kj !WW ,, }xu?D #D rnf c]t laf.og0fmtg]-kp govnj ’9kdfyo.og0fmtg]-kpgxoa fyog7,a F vkdkfIvh o 7;k,-,5j 8O g\\kt c8lj tgrkt rnf[k’-toyfgmqkj oAoD fa’j oAo rnf.og0fmtg]-kp 9b’j ,uc8xj tgrf r5j,|k,F 8Qodt[v’grafF sphk8O g-y’j ,uIkdpk;1’aj ]q’g]yd.ofyo grvnj f6fgvqk7;k,-5,j X,u[k’-toyfIkd1a’j ]q’g]ydg4y’ ({) c,af? .[ohvp9qodkpgxao|k,D .og0fmtg]-kp 4hkrq[oE.8hfyo[vj o.f[vj o|’bj d=9tdkp gxaocs^j’mujv5fq,lq,[6ogryoj gvUo;kj G 3vvk-yf (Oasis)X ! ? [=]yg;ooU9t,u7qo,k8A’4yjo4kos^kp 9oq dkp,kgxoa 8;q g,vn ’0oB ,kD rnf1j6g0fmtg]-kp !? 3vvk-yfG c,oj g0fmuj,u[+oE16j XxP[fa'j gdktfvomujv5fq,lq,[6o.omtg]-kp? 69

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດlfa .og0fmtg]-kpgxoa lfa mmuj oq 8d+ kovfq vkskoF oEwfsh k^ p,N c]t pkj ’wxwdg-oja G v6fF oqddt9vdgmfF |64q’F dt8kj pxkj DDD ,ulafg]nv7ko[k’-toyfmuj,ulu7hkp7n lufyo-kp grvnj s^q[s^ud wrwfh’kj pD xt9[5 oa oU ,su k^ pxtgmfmwuj ffh fa cx’mtg]-kp.sdh kp,kgxoa foy xd6 /’a g-oja G vfy lt]kcvoF ][u Fu vkog-iDu DDDD v6f oqddt9vdgmf 70

IID dkog7njvows;0v’,to5f.og0fmtg]-kp ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ !D -a[rtpkdvome,t-kf.omtg]-kp g4y’c,oj ;kj g0fmtg]-kp9tcs’h c]’h c]t m]5 tdoa fkoc8vj f5 ,q l,q [o6 wxf;h p-[a rtpk dvo.8hfyo g-’yj groyj wfh7Qorq[;kj .orNomtg]-kpgxaog0fmu[j ao95cImj kfs^kp-toyfmulj e7aog-oaj G mv’cf’16-j u]uF oE,aog-Nvw2 X168j kg;aovvddk'F vkj ;gxug-p?DDD dkofb’oE0Bo9kd[+oE.og0f3vvk-yf [+oE.og0fmtg]-kp 71

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ@D glf4tdyf.og0fmtg]-kp ,to5fvkwl16j.og0fmtg]-kp,u|hvpmujl5f g-y’j 16jdtc9ddt9kpF l;j o16j.og0f3vvk-yf (Oasis) ,uxt-kdvovkwl1|6j kc|oh r=l,q 7;oD 9eo;o0v’xt-kdvomvuj kwl1.6j og0fcs’h c]’h c]t g0fmtg]-kpo0U oB d[a xt],y kooE m,uj 1u .6j o[]= gy ;oooA D 4kh ,ou E.-rh P’rd= ,= 7u oq vkwl1s6j k^ p c]t dkoxd6 /’a d0= tspkp8;q D l;j o[]= gy ;o muj,uoE|hvp9t,u-k;]hP'lafc[[g7nvj omujD 0tc|’dkoglf4tdyfmujgfaoj 0v’0q’g0fmtg]-kp c,oj v5flkstdedko05f7QoF 3fpltgrktc,oj v5flkstdeoE,aog-Nvw2D 7e4k, !D .soh da IPoG { 9'jq vtmy[kpr,6 vkdkfIvh o.og0fmtg]-kpD { 0Po-[nj k’xtgmf.og0fr,6 vkdkfIvh omtg]-kp X3fpoe.-Ih kj ’czomu3j ]d? @D mtg]-kp0v’3]d,da 9tr[q 1[6j =]yg;o.f0v’c8]j tmt;u[L #D 9’qj xP[mP[7;k,c8d8kj ’]ts;kj ’rnf c]t laf.og0fmtg]-kpda[g0fIhvo-5,j L $D g0fmtg]-kpwf,h udkoxPj ocx’mulj e7oa mk’fkh oglf4tdyf7nco;.fLD 72

[qfmu !$ ,to5f1j6g0fmqj’sphk-k;ko ID mju8A’ c]t 95fryglf !D mju8A’ fyocfomqj’sphk-k;kooU 9trq[1j6mk’g|nv c]t mk’.8h0v’g0fr6,vkdkfIhvo-j5, g-ajoG 1j6vkg,iydk.8hF mt;u[vk2iydk c]t rkdg|nv0v’vqflt8ik]uD mqj’sphk-k;ko xtdv[fh;pmqj’sphkmjul6’ g-yj’d;,gvqk[=]yg;od;hk’0;k’F ,ulafxjkvkwl1j61jk’s^;’s^kpD m’jq spkh mulj e7oa ,u7nG { m’jq spkh ]k3of XLlanos? 1g6j 0f],5j c,oj E3viy3o3d xtgmfg;go-g6 vo]kD { mq’j sphkdexqf XCampos? 16jxtgmfd5p1ko c]t g[i-yoD { m’jq spkh di’a 9k3d XGranchaco? 1x6j tgmfvkd-’a 8oy D { mqj’sphk-k;ko1j6mk’.8h0v’mtg]-kp-kIkik.omt;u[vk2iydkgxaomqj’sphk mudj ;kh ’d;kj \\Dj6 @D r6,vkdkf .og0fmq’j sphk-k;ko,u]tf6c]h’ c]t ]tf6/qo1kj ’9tc9h’F v5ostr6,0v’vkdkfl6’ 8ts^vfxuD v5ostr6,ltg]pj .o]tf6|k;xt,ko @! =c .o]tf6Ihvoxt,ko @* ={ #@ =c ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ *W = *W = $W = $W = @W = @W = W = glAol6ol6f W= @W = @W = $W = $W = *W = *W = czomujg0fmqj’sphk-k;ko.o3]d 73

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ#D fyo .og0foU,u7;k,v5fq,lq,[6o|hvp .o]tf6/qofyogxaofyo8q,|P;F l;j o.o]tfc6 ]’h fyoc0’ cdoj rk.swh 4F 7kfpkdF 4kh ,du koxd6 rfn 4k;vo9t8vh ’,du ko.l/j oj5 D [oa skdkodtldy e.og0f .dhg0fcsh’c]h’ xt]y,kooE/qo9edaf c]t /qo8qd[+7vj pcooj voD $D rnf l;j o.spgj xoa m’jq spkh -k;ko ,]u da ltotgxoa m’qj spkh l’6 gdktgxoa r,5j c|oh c]t ,8u oQ w,h 0BoxtxqoD 4hk16.j dhg0fl6ol6f9t,u8Qow,h0Bo8b[|kd;kj sphkF c84j hk16.j dhg0fmtg]-kp m’qj sphkoU 9t,u8Qosphkg8hp9qo,u]adltotgxaorq,rnf7hkp7n 16jmtg]-kp Xs^n g7y’j mtg]-kp?D g0f-k;ko 16mj t;u[vk2iydk ,u8Qo[k;[a[ XBaobab? g-y’j gxao8Qow,h.spmj ujl5fD pvh og0fo,U xu t],y kooE/oq sk^ pd;kj g0fg7’yj mtg]-kp 8oQ spkh 9’jb ,0u t|kfl’6 Xvkfl’6 g4y’ @ c,af?F sphkgs^qjkoU,uIkd1aj’]q’g]yd c]t .[lh;pcs^,7q, grnjvxa[8q;g0Qkda[ 7;k,csh’c]h’D mq’j sphk-k;ko 74

8Qo[k;[a[ 75 ສະຫສງວ.ວນ.ລສຂິ ະສດິ

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ&D laf 8k,xkj -k;ko,ulafdyosphks^kp-toyfg-aoj G ]t,aj’F -hk’F d;k’F ,hk]kpF c[h c]t lfa mduj oy -oU gxoa vkskog-oja G glvn F l’y gxoa 8oQ D rgy lfxkj -k;ko1v6j fq lt8ik]u ,|u 46 ’q F \\3u dvk]k c]t ,ugs’aolq[gxaf Xlafmu2j adw0cj 8]j hP’]6dfh;poEoq,?D ,hk]kp IID dkog7njvows;0v’,to5f.og0fmqj’sphk-k;ko !D xt-kdvo .og0foU,uxt-kdvovkwl1j6|hvp grktltrk[me,t-kf[+veo;p7;k,ltf;d .s7h oq g0kQ wx8’A 4ojy 4ko 7dn oa d[a g0fIvh o-,5j D g0fm,uj xu t-kdvo|kc|oh sk^ pg-oja G gdktdp5 [kF gdkt9kw,dkF rkd8kg;aovvd0v’xtgmfg,ad-ydF g0fvkg,iydkdk’F vkg,iydk.8hF rkd 8kg;aovvd 0v’g[i-yoF xtgmf-6fa’ c]t oug-iuD g4y’;jkg0foU9twfhIa[zqoltmhvo9kd ]q,,=]tl5, c8rj 6,vkdkf .og0fmq’j sphk-k;ko oU[+cooj vo[k’xugduf7;k,csh’c]h’1kj ’ zyfxqddt8y g-oaj G .omt;u[vk2iydk [vj og0fmugj vUo;kj -kcIo X Sahel ? ,uwrcsh’c]h’8yf8+dao ,ks^kpxu rk.shgduf,u7;k,vbfsy;D vq’dko9af8A’lkdqortpkpk,.sh7;k,-;j pgsn^v.odko rafmtokfyocfomq’j sphkgs^qkj oU16jltg\\uD c88j hv’vkwlg8ad3o3]1uc[[maoltw\\g0Qk,k[5dg[ud 9b’j gIaf.sh fyocfooU,u7;k,9tg]uodhk;|hkwfh.ovtok7qfD 76

@D ltrk[7;k,gxao1j60v’-k;2Nog,nv’ ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ c,oj pa’.-h;ymusk]hP’-u[fh;pdko]kj lafF skxk c]t gIafwI1j 6mj q;j wxD .omt;u[vk2iydk pa’,u-k;rNog,nv’[k’d,5j 16j.o0Aofhvprafmtokmujl5fD dkomuj,uw]ptg;]kcsh’c]h’g-y’j [+,u/qo 8qdfqogdnv[g7y’j xu gIaf.sh-k;rNog,nv’r;doU[+lk,kfx6drnf s^n gda[0v’xkj wfhD fa’j oAo -k; rNog,nv’9b’j 8hv’wfhdtdP,vkskocIw;h grnvj xtg-uo|hkda[]tf6c]h’mucj dpj k;fa’j dkj ;D 16jg0f muj,umtg]lk[F c,oj E]emko s^n 16j.dh/a’j mtg] xt-kdvo,uvk-u[c[[fA’gfu, X]kj lafF skxk? wfhs^5f|hvp4vp]q’F -k;2Nog,nv’9eo;o|’bj ,uvk-u[]hP’lfa c]t xd6 /a’gxoa vk-u[8oQ 8=cmoD wfh,us^kpxtgmfmuj,u7;k,9tg]uodhk;|hkmk’fhkoglf4tdyfg-ajoG xtgmfd5p[kF g,ad-yd3dF g[i-oy DDD 7e4k, !D .soh da IPo\\kp { g0fm’jq spkh -k;ko0v’3]dD { 0Po-[jn k’xtgmf sn^ foy cfom1uj .6j og0fm’jq spkh -k;ko0v’3]dD X3fpoe.-ch zom3uj ]d? @D r6,vkdkfF fyoF rnf c]t laf.og0fmq’j sphk-k;ko,u]adltotgfaoj co;.fcfLj #D 9’qj vtmy[kpdkog7vnj ows;0v’,to5f .og0fm’qj sphk-k;ko,u7nco;.fL 77

rkdmu VIII ,to5f1j6g0fvq[vj5o [qfmu !& ,to5f1j6g0fr6,vkdkfvq[vj5o goNvmulj ;j o.sp0j v’g0fv[q vo5j c,oj m’jq spkh mudj ;kh ’.sp1j r6j kp.omt;u[F d;,xt,ko _ : 0v’2oN m3uj ]d c]t ,xu t-kdvovkwl1x6j t,ko ( : 0v’xt-kdvom’a \\fq 0v’3]dD r,6 vkdkf 9tc8d8kj ’9kdg0fvonj M ,]u tf|6 k;mcuj dpj k; ,/u oq 8dq |vh p g-’jy r9= t,su pkh x’jq 0oB wfFh gxoa cs’j^ dko]Ph ’lfa mluj e7oa 0v’3]d 3fpltgrktc,oj 1.6j o[]= gy ;om’jq spkh m,uj 7u ;k,ltf;d.odko0oq l’jq maopkskol;j o.spj9tlq’j gxaolyo7hk0kvvdmujle7aoF gIaf.sh[=]yg;ooUdkpgxaocs^j’muj,uxt-k dvovkwl16j1kj ’|kc|ho c]t ,u8q;g,nv’.spgj duf0Bo1kj ’s^;’s^kpD ID g’njvow0me,t-kf !D mju8A’r6,lao4ko fyocfolj;o.spj0v’g0foUgxaomqj’rP’8Og-ajo mqj’sphkcxiiu (Prairie) 1j6ltst]af vkg,iydk mq’j sphkltg8a[ (Steppe) 16jiafg-pF mq’j sphkxk,xk (Pampas) 0v’vkd-a’8yoD c,oj E]eg- .og0foU,ad9tgsnvfcsh’ .o]tf6c]h’ c]t 9tgdufoE4h;,g,nvj ,u/qo8qd|adD ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ *W = *W = *W = $W = $W = $W = @W = @W = glAol6ol6f W =W = W= @W = @W = W= $W = $W = @W = *W = *W = @W = $W = $W = *W = *W = czomjumq’j sphk.og0fvq[v5jo 78

@D r6,vkdkf ]da ltotr,6 vkdkf0v’g0foU ,u7;k,-,5j xkodk’F xt]y,kooE/oq ltg]pj xt,ko*@& ,,}xu r9= t.ssh pkh x’jq 0oB wfgh -oja G m’jq spkh m,uj 8u oQ spkh g8ph sn^ m’qj spkh sPh o Xltc8[a ? c]t m’jq spkh muj,u8Qosphkl6’lq,7;o XPrairie?D gonvj ’9kdg0foU16jskj ’wd9kdmtg]g0Qkg]yd.o.9dk’mt;[u 9’jb wfIh [a vfy mry oq 9kdmtg]|vh pD .o]tf|6 k; vkdkf|k;9fa vo5 str,6 sf5^ 8Od;kj W c= ,usy,tD .o]tf6IhvovkdkfIhvov5ostr6,0Bol6’xt,ko @! =c rhv,ma’,u/qo8qdD #D fyo fyo.og0fm’qj sphkoUgxaofyolufe s^n ludtg[qkF gxaofyoz5zp5j c]t ,umkfgdnvF 3]stmu9j egxao .sch drj db lk-kfD $D laf .og0fm’jq spkh ,ulfa s^kp-toyfG dt8kj pxkj F \\x6 kj F \\k9vdF \\kwoDDD m’jq spkh 1r6j kddk’ 0v’vk-u,u,hkxkj F ’q;dtmy’F ]=F ]kF ,hkF d;k’DDDD ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dt8kj pxkj \\kwo 79

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ&D xjkw,h xkj w,hg0fvq[v5jo ,u8Qow,hxtgrf.[cs^,g-aoj G w,hcxdF w,hIU’gvUo;kj G xkj w8dk XTaiga?D 4kh g]upwxmk’.80h v’xkj w8dk c,oj xkj 8oQ w,.h [.spj g-oja 8oQ c-o XChene?F 8oQ cvfa XHetre?DDD l;j o.spj0v’g0f8kg;ao8qd0v’mt;u[gvuiq[ c]t ]P[8k,/aj’,tsklt\\5fvaf]a’8yd0v’ vkg,iydkg|nv,u/qo8qds^kpF f’aj oAo 9’bj ,uxkj w,h.[.spj 16gj 2Nv’3]d.8h,uxkj g0fvq[v5oj |hvpD II. dkog7njvows;0v’,to5f.og0fvkdkfvq[vj5o !D xt-kdvo govjn ’9kdg0fogU xoa vkokg0fd;kh ’0;k’F r,6 vkdkfv[q vo5j -,5j g1oa F gxoa g0fm,uj mu ’jq spkh d;hk’.spFj vaogxaog’nvj ow0ltf;d.shcddj kofe]q’-u;yf0v’xt-kdvoF f’ja ooA 0’q g0foU 9’jb ,du ko0tspkp8;q 0v’8;q g,vn ’8kj ’M g-’jy gxoa [vj og8kQ 3I,0v’xt-kdvo gxao9eo;os^kpg-oaj G 8q;g,nv’cfog;u XDenver?F 8;q g,nv’c-’]p5 XSaint Louis? 1l6j tst]fa vkg,idy kD dko]Ph ’cdt.og0fv[q voj5 80

@D dkooe.-hfyo.og0fvq[vj5o ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ .ovtfuf fyocfol;j o.sp0j v’g0foUgxaomuj16jvkwl0v’xt-kdvomuj,uvk-u[]kj laf c]t r;d]hP’lafc[[g7njvomujD c8j.oxt95[aowfhdkpgxaocs^j’dtlydemjule7aole]a[dkox6drnf g0fvq[v5jomuj8hv’dkooE|hvpg-aoj G lk]uF g0Qkg[^F g0Qk3vf c]t g0Qk/hk’ s^n gxaog0f]hP’laf mjule7ao0v’3]dg-ajoG dko]hP’cdt c]t ’q;grnjv.sh-UoF oEoq,F g7njv’o5j’sqj,D lj;os^kp dkodtlyde 16jg0fvq[v5jo9tlhk’gxaog0foy7q,0t|kf.spj 8q;1kj ’G g0f9aflaodkox6dg0Qkg[^F xd6 lk]u1l6j tst]fa vkg,iydkD g0fvq[v5oj c,oj g0fv5flkstdemujle7aog0f|b’j 0v’3]dgxao8Qoc,oj v5flkstde mudj Pj ; 0vh ’d[a ;Pd’kodtldy eD 8;q 1kj ’ 3I’’kogIfa -oU dtxv’F 3I’’ko3,ch x’h F 3I’’kooE8koF 3I’’ko 2vd|’a c]t 3I'’kogIaf/5jo9kddtf6d s^n -UolafD ovd9kdoU pa’gxaog0fv5flkstde|ad s^kp0tc|’mu0j tspkp8;q l’6 D 7e4k, !D .soh da IPoG { \\kpg0fm’jq spkh .og0fv[q vo5j D { 0Po-0jn v’[k’xtgmf sn^foy cfom1uj .6j o2oN mmuj ’jq spkh g0fv[q vo5j D X3fpoe.-Ih kj ’czom3uj ]d? @D f;h pgsf.fm’jq spkh g0fv[q vo5j 9’jb ,u7o5 ]da ltotc8d8kj ’d[a m’jq spkh .og0fIvh o-,5j L #D 9q’j g;Qkg4y’dkog7nvj ows;0v’,to5f .og0fr6,vkdkfvq[v5jo,u7nco;.fL 81

rkdmu IX ,to5f1j6g0f0Q;3]d [qfmu !* ,to5f1j6g0f0Q;3]d g0f0Q;3]dgxaofyocfom5]tdaofko c]t s;jk’gxqjk [+,u4yjo.f0v’3]dmju,u]tf6|k; pk;oko g\\nvo.og0foUD rNoczoj fyo4ndxdq 7,5 f;h p -oA oEdvh o8ts^vfg;]k ,uxt-kdvovkwl 1|6j vh p 7dn oa d[a 1g6j 0fmtg]-kpD rfn roa ,|u vh p sn^ [,+ gu ]pu .o[k’[vj oF govjn ’9kdvkdkf|k;9fa D ID g’njvow0fhkome,t-kf !D mju8A’ g0f0;Q 3]d,u1l6j v’cs’j 7nG g0f0;Q 3]dg|nv X vkd8yd? c]t g0f0;Q 3]d.8h Xv’a 8kd8yd ?D ,tsklt\\5f xk-u2yd ,tsklt\\5f vk2iydk vaf]a'8yd ,tsklt\\5f vkg,iydk.8h 0Q;3]d.8h vyogfp vkg,iydk ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 0Q;3]dg|nv ,tsklt\\5f vk-u ,tsklt\\5f vqflt8ik]u vaf]a'8yd gvuiq[ xk-u2yd vk2iydk czomju0Q;3]d { g0f0Q;3]d vkd8ydd;,gvqk,tsklt\\5fg1nvdg1ao vkd8ydF gdkt3dicvo]a’ (Groenland) mk’rkdg|nv0v’lk,mt;u[ Xvkg,iydkF vk-u c]t gvuiq[?D { g0f0Q;3]d va’8kd8ydgxaog0f|b’j muj4ndvhv,Iv[fh;p,tsklt\\5flk,cs’j muj8yf 9vfdao X,tsklt\\5fvaf]a’8ydF vyogfpF c]t xk-u2yd?D 82

@D 95fryglf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dD gxaog0fcsj’7;k,|k; g0f0;Q 3]d gxoa g0fmu|j k;mulj f5 0v’3]dF gxoa 0’q g0fmu[j +,u]tfI6 vh o9tc9’h D 0D gxao[jvo[+,u7qos^kp ,u7qovkwl16jg0fglAo0Q;3]d[+Ivf $WW WWW 7qoD l;j o16jva’8kd8yd9t,uc8oj ad7Qo7;hk 9eo;o|b’j muwj fhzafxPj odaowx168j k,lt4kou7Qo7;hk;ymtpklkfD 16jvkd8yd,u7qocvfltdu3, xt,ko !WW WWW 7qo 16jrkdg|nv0v’dkokfk c]t 16gj dkt 3dicvo]a’F ,u7qo]kxq’xt,ko #& WWW 7qo fe]q’-u;yf16lj tda’fuok;u c]t ,u7qo1kd5f xt,ko @&W WWW 7qo16j-ug[]u D 7D w]ptdk’7nopk;oko1j60Q;3]d c]t gsao8kg;ao.opk,mjP’7no7nG * gfnvo gxaodk'g;ao c]t * gfnvogxaodk'7noD #D my;maf dD g0fva’8kd8yd .og0fo,U -u oA oEdvh o|kmluj f5 F gvoU ;kj voy ]’a -fy X!? (Inlandsis) mxuj dq 7,5 mt;[u F vly tc[dX@? (Iceberg) gxao3’oj oEdhvomujcpd8q;vvd9kdvyo]a’-yfD .o]tfa[ { @ = c oEmtg]dhk, c]t lhk’gxaoczjooEdhvo s^n [a’du (Banguise) mjupa’7q’8q;8ts^vf]tf60v’dk’7nomjupk;okoD va’8kd8ydgxaomt;u[|bj’mujgxqjks;kj ’[+,u7qovkwl1j6 ovd9kdoad7Qo7;hk9eo;o|bj’F [+,urnfF ,urP’laf[k’-toyfmujvkwl 16j8k,c7,mtg]7nG oqdxu'd;yoF c,;oEF \\uoED oqdxu'd;yo 16jva’8kd8yd \\u0k; 160j qQ;3]d X!? vyo]a’-yfG c,oj fkooEdhvovao,tsklkolk,kfd;,gvqkmt;u[|bj’D X@? vyltc[dG c,oj 3’oj oEdhvomujc8dcpdvvd9kdvyo]a’-yf c]t 4ndoEmtg]rafwx8k,|hkoED 83

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ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດl;j ogzqkj vnoj MoAo,u9eo;os5^f]q’wxs^kp ltcf’;kj dkoxa[8q;.shg0Qkda[ltrk[c;f]hv,oAo gIafwfhpkdF vk-u[0v’g0qkg9Qk c,oj ]hP’d;k’-uwfhs^kp0Bo9qo,uxt]y,kogs^nv.-h c]t oewx 0kpgxaolyo7hk s^n c]dxPj oda[zt]yfraomk’dtlyde c]t v5flkstde0v’-k;zy;0k;D 7e4k, !D 9’jq g;kQ g4’y dkofe]’q -;u fy 0v’,tof5 1g6j 0f0;Q 3]d 3fppdq gvkq 7oq vou p5 c]t 7oq ]kx’q ,kvtmy[kpL @D 16gj 0f0Q;3]d.oxt95[ao,udkoxPj ocx’spa’cfLj 9’qj vtmy[kp D [qfvjkogruj, vkd8yd XArtic? gxaorNomuj.o[=]yg;o0qQ;3]dg|nvg-yj’[=]yg;o0v’vkd8ydoUxtdv[fh;p rNomu[j k’l;j o0v’xtgmf8kj ’Mg-aoj dkokfkF diyoc]oF Xfyocfo0v’dkokfk?F iafg-pF ltst]fa vkg,idy k Xvk]fa ltdk?F wvc]oF ovdc;F lt;gu foa c]t 2oy c]o];,g4’y []= gy ;o0v’ ,tsklt\\5fvkd8ydfh;pD [=]yg;orNomluj ;j o.sp0j v’vkd8yd9tgxaorNomudj ;hk’F ,tsklt\\5fxqd75,wxfh;poEc0’ roN mIju v[Mxklt9kdrfn roa c]t zon czoj foy dx= dq 7,5 wxf;h poEc0’g-oja fP;doa D c8vj f5 ,q l,q [o6 wxfh;ply’j ,u-u;yf8kj ’Mmuvj kwl1g6j 0foUg-oaj G xk;ko (Baleine), oqdxu'd;yo c]t ,to5fD me,t-kf0v’[=]yg;ovkd8yd9tc8d8jk’9kdmujvnjo1jk’gsaowfh9tc9h'F 7qomujvkwl 16gj 0fvkd8yd9t,udkoxa[8q;F .-h-u;yf16dj a[7;k,|k;g1ao c]t me,t-kfvao m5]tdaofkoD vkd8dy 9t,7u ;k,vvj ows;wf’h kj pmlju f5 9kddkoxPj ocx’8kj ’Mmgju dfu 0oB gm’y 3]d0v’gIkq 88

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8kg a;o[qfvjkogruj, av av''77kkoo fk;g7kt XPlanets? ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດfk;g7ktgxao;af45,tsaflt9aomuoj adfk]klkf.sh7;k,lqo.9,kgxaog;]kfqookos^kp roa xuc];h 3fpltgrktdko379vo0v’fk;g7ktm’a s^kp.omvh ’2kh D xaf95[ao,to5f,u7;k,dhk;|hkmk’fhkog8ad3o3]1us^kp0Bo 9bj’g0Qk.9g]nvj ’]k;8jk’M dPj ;d[a fk;g7ktsk^ p0oB F c8dj ,= su k^ pg]vjn ’dPj ;d[a fk;g7kt c]t3]d0v’gIkq mpuj ’a sk7e8v[ vtmy[kp[+wfhD fk;g7ktc[’j vvdgxao @ d5,j .sp7j nG fk;g7ktd5,j ohvpxtdv[fh;pfk;r5f XMercury} Mercure?F fk;l5d XVenus?F 3]d XEarth}Terre?F fk;va’7ko XMars?D fk;g7ktgs^qjkoU 9t,]u da ltotgxoa 0v’c0’ l;j ovdu d,j5 |’jb 7fn k;g7ktd,j5 .spxj tdv[f;h p fk;rtsfa XJupiter?F fk;glkq XSaturne?F fk;pg6 iofa sn^ vi6 kol5 XUranus?F c]t fk;go[a 9o6 (Neptune?D d,j5 fk;gsk^jq oU xtdv[fh;pdHkfvkf9t,u;af45c0’g]adohvp s^n [+,ug]upd=wfhD fk;g7ktmujgxao[=]y;ko0v’ f;’vkmyf9txtdv[fh;pdHkfwI3fig9o _W:F dHkfgI]uvv,}dHkfIu]P, _: c]t vud !: c,oj mkfvonj MD f;’vkmfy c]t fk;g7ktm’a sk^ p7Gn fk;rtsfa F fk;glkq F fk;pg6 iofa c]t fk;go[a 9o6 ,cu I’3o,h 4;j ’s^kp 9’jb lk,kff’b .sdh kH fgskj^q ooA 1wj6 fch 8fj k;g7kt0t|kfovh p g-oja G 3]d0v’ gIkq gIfa .sdh kH fwI3fig9olo6 skpwx 3fpdkoc-d18j6 k,govN sou gxoa 8oQ D l’jy moju da fk]klkfl’q wl,kokoc];h d7= n p’a 9t,lu ’jy m,ju -u ;u fy 1gj6 m’y fk;g7ktf;’vojn vdu s[n^ + Xovd9kd3]d?D 7;k,9tg]uofhkodkoles^;fvt;tdkfgIaf.shco.j 9c]h;;kj .o]t[q[l5]ypt 9addt;kooU,u3]drP’f;’fP;gmqjkoAomuj,ulyj’muj,u-u;yf16jwfhma’oUgrktfk;vnjoMoAo[+g\\ktda[ dkofe]’q -u;yf0v’l’yj m,uj u-u;yfm’a s^kpg-oja G vkdkfIvh ogduowxF g1oa gduowxgxoa 8oQ D 90

8k8t]k'dPj ;d[a ]t[[q l]5 py t9da dt;ko -nj w]ptmk’9kdf;'8kg;ao glAozkj o \\6oIv[8q;gv’ \\6oIv[f;’ fk;g7kt ! Iv[ vkmyf !Iv[ gxao]hkody3]c,af l6odk' rf5 $* &) (W $F)&W !(F( ;oa )) ;oa ld5 !W( !}@ !W) !W_ !@F!W$ @F(*@ ;oa @@& ;oa 3]d !$( !$_ !}@ !&@ !@F(&( @$ -;qj 3,’ #*& ;oa v’a 7ko @W* !}@ @@) @$_ *D(_W @$ -;qj 3,’ #( okmu *)( ;oa rtsfa ($! (() !}@ )!& !}@ !$@F*WW _ -;qj 3,’ &W okmu !!F_ xu glkq !F#$( !F$@( !F&W( !@WFWWW !W -;qj 3,’ !$ okmu @_F& xu pg6 iofa @F(#& @F)(W #FWW$ &@FWWW @$ -;jq 3,’ )$ xu go[a 9o6 $F$&* $F$_( $F&#( $)FWWW @@ -;jq 3,' !*& xu dkola’gdffk;g7kt ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dkog[’jy fk;g7kt.s7h ;k,8ojn g8oA le][a zmh6 lju oq .9fk;g7ktc8]j tf;’g7vjn om.ju omfy mk’ mujc8d8jk’dao c]t [+g7up16j.o8ec|j’gfu,D fk;g7kt-Ao.o g,njv379voIv[f;’vkmyf 7A’|’bj 9tg0Qk,k1I6j ;j ,.omyfmk’fP;daoda[f;’vkmyflv’7A’7nG g,nvj fk;g7kt1.6j o]ts;kj ’ f;’vkmyfda[3]dgvUo;kj 16.j o8ec|’j I;j ,daofhko.o XInterior Planet? c]t g,nvj f;’vkmyf 1]j6 ts;kj ’3]dd[a fk;g7ktgvUo;kj 1.j6 o8ec|’j -dnj oa fkh oovd XSuperior Planet?D l;j ofk;g7kt-Aoovd9tg0Qk,k1.j6 omyfmk’-dnj a[f;’vkmyfwfhrP’1kj ’fP;7nG 8ec|’j Ij;,daofhkoovdD gIqklk,kfg[yj'gsaofk;g7kt8jk'M .o]t[q[l5]ypt9addt;ko 3fp.-h dvh ’lvj ’mk’wdD fk;r5f XMercury} Mercure? gxaofk;m1uj .6j dhf;’vkmyfmluj 5f 379vowfhw;mluj 5f.o]t[q[l5]ypt9addt;ko7n.-hg;]krP’ )) ;ao d=\\6oIv[f;’vkmyfwfh ! Iv[F phvo;kj ,ao16.j dhf;’vkmyfs^kp9b’j ,ucl’]q[d;o9kd f;’vkmfy sk^ pm’a gIfa .sph kd.odkom9ju tldb lk3fpdvh ’3m]tmfa 9kd3]dD fk;rf5 [,+ u [oa pkdkf muj9tgda[7;k,Ihvow;h gIaf.shfhkomujsaog0Qkskf;’vkmyfIhvog4y’ #&W =c c]t fhkomuj16j dq’dao0hk,g1ao9afg4y’ {!(W =cD dkog[yj’fk;r5fgIqk9tg[yj’gsaowfh.opk,I5j’g-Qk c]t sq;7O.ow]ptg;]ks^a’9kd f;’vkmyf8qd s^n dvj of;’vkmyf0Bo[+gduo ! -q;j 3,’g7y’j D g,nvj fk;r5f16mj k’8kg;aovvd0v’ 91

f;’vkmyf9tgsao1g6j my’mhv’2hkg;]k7Omk’myf8kg;ao8qd c]t g,nvj 1m6j k’myf8kg;ao8qd0v’ f;’vkmyf9tgsoa mk’myf8kg;aovvdg;]kI’j5 vt]5o X8vog-kQ ?D .og2Nv’3]dg|nvg;]kmujgsaowfh-afg9oc,jo.o-j;’pk,7O7nG gfnvo,a’dvo{g,lkD pk,I5’j vt]5o X8vog-Qk? 9kdd=]tdqf{85]kD l;j omk’g2Nv’3]d.8hg;]k.odkogsaofk;r5f 9txPj ocx’wxF dkog[y’j fk;r5f.shg[y’j wxpa’fhkog|nv0v’f;’vkmyf !W D= 0=h,6o[k’1jk’mu|j hkI6hdjP;da[fk;r5f MERCURY v5ostr6,rNozy;G #&W =c}{!(W =c cI’fb’f6fG WF#) gmqkj 0v’3]d 7;k,|kc|hoG &F$ gmqkj 0v’oE [aopkdkfG [+,u 7;k,lts;jk’l6’l5fG {!F$ c,doy96f fk;l5d XVenus? ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ fk;ld5 1.j6 d3h ]dgIkq mluj f5 ,ucl’I’j5 .ls^kpD 4kh xkdfq .omvh ’2kh 8vo 7OgIkq gvUo;kj fk; xt9e g,nv’ XEvening Star?D 4hkxkdqf.omhv’2hk8voI’5j vt]5o X8vog-Qk? dvj of;’vkmyf0Bo gvUo;kj fk;I’j5 s^n fk;xtdkprdb XMorning Star?D g;]kmguj soa fk;ld5 7ndvj o f;’vkmyf0Bo s^n sa^’f;’vkmyf]a[0v[2hkwxc]h;[+gduo # -qj;3,’ g4y’;kj fk;l5d9t16j.dh3]dgIqks^kpd=8k, c8gj IqkI6hg]nvj ’dPj ;da[fk;l5d|hvps^kpgrkt;kj ,udHkfdkd3[oyd Co@ s5h,s+16|j kc|hos^kpD dkog[y’j fh;pdhv’3m]tmaf[+lk,kfmt]5zkj o[aopkdkf0v’,aowfhD dko\\6o0v’fk;l5d\\6o .omyfmk’dq’dao0hk,da[fk;g7ktf;’vonj MD 0=h,6o[k’1kj ’mu|j hkI6hdPj ;da[fk;l5d v5ostr6,rNozy;G $)W c= VENUS cI’fb’f6fG WF_ gmqkj 0v’3]d 7;k,|kc|hoG @F$ gmqkj 0v’oE [aopkdkfG ,udHkfdkd3[oyds^kpmulj 5f 7;k,dqffao0v’[aopkdkfG ,u7;k,fao _! gmqkj 0v’3]d ,u7;k,lts;kj ’G {$F$ c,doy96f 92

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