The Sports Rules Book

Rugby Union  ◾  189 Unfair play and repeated infringements occur of her hindmost teammate; doesn’t join the when a player deliberately wastes time or knocks ruck or maul, or unbinds from it but fails to or throws the ball into touch, into touch-in-goal, retire behind the offside line without delay; or or over the dead-ball line. These infractions advances beyond the offside line but doesn’t result in free kicks. The opponents of a player join the ruck or maul. who deliberately plays unfairly or repeatedly breaks the law of the game will be awarded a ◾◾ When a ruck or maul takes place at a line- penalty kick. out, a player is offside if he joins the ruck or maul from his opponents’ side, joins it in front of his Misconduct and dangerous play include hindmost teammate, or is in the line-out but is not in the ruck or maul and does not retire behind ◾◾ striking, kicking, tripping, or trampling an the offside line. opponent; ◾◾ A player participating in a line-out is offside ◾◾ tackling early, late, or dangerously; if she advances beyond the line-of-touch before ◾◾ charging or obstructing an opponent who the ball has touched a player or the ground, unless she is advancing while jumping for the has just kicked the ball; ball. After the ball has touched a player or the ◾◾ holding, pushing, or obstructing an oppo- ground, a player is offside if she is not carrying the ball and advances beyond the ball, unless she nent who is not holding a ball, except in a is attempting to tackle the ball carrier. A player scrum, ruck, or maul; and who is not participating in the line-out is offside ◾◾ intentionally collapsing a scrum, ruck, or if she goes beyond the offside line before the maul. line-out ends. A player guilty of misconduct or dangerous ◾◾ If the ball has been kicked forward, a player play is cautioned or given a yellow card and is offside if he moves toward the opponent wait- ordered off the field for 10 minutes, meaning ing to play the ball before being put onside, or his team plays a man short for the 10 minutes. A if he comes within 10 meters of the opponent or cautioned player who repeats the offense must be the ball. given a red card and ordered off and may not play anymore in the match, meaning his team plays a Onside man short for the remainder of the match. Except for a player who is within 10 meters of an Offside opponent waiting to catch a kick, a player who is offside is made onside when he retires behind the When a player of the team in possession of the teammate who last kicked, touched, or carried the ball is closer to the opponents’ goal than the ball ball; when the teammate carrying the ball runs in is, that player is offside. This means she may not front of him; or when a teammate runs in front take part in the play and faces possible penalty. of him after coming from the place, or behind A player can also be offside in scrums, rucks, the place, where the ball was kicked. A player mauls, and line-outs. A player may be penalized who is offside may also be made onside when an while in an offside position if she plays the ball opponent carrying the ball has run 5 meters, when or obstructs an opponent. an opponent kicks or passes the ball, or when an opponent intentionally touches the ball and does A player is offside in the following situa- not catch or gather it. tions: Knock-On and Throw-Forward ◾◾ A player is offside during a scrum if he joins the scrum from the opponents’ side; if he doesn’t A knock-on occurs when the ball is propelled retire behind the offside line or to his goal line, toward the opponents’ dead-ball line after a whichever is nearer; or if he places a foot in front player loses possession of it or strikes it with her of the offside line. hand or arm. A throw-forward occurs when the ball carrier passes the ball forward toward the ◾◾ In situations not involving a line-out, a player is offside if she joins the ruck or maul from her opponents’ side; joins it in front

190  ◾  The Sports Rules Book opponents’ dead-ball line. A knock-on or a throw- In-goal is the area bounded by a goal line, the forward results in a scrum to the nonoffending touch-in-goal lines, and a dead-ball line. It includes team at the place of the infringement. the goal line and goal posts but excludes the touch- in-goal lines and dead-ball line. In-Goal A knock-on occurs when the ball travels toward the opponents’ dead-ball line after a player loses pos- Touch-in-goal occurs when the ball touches a session of it or propels or strikes it with her hand or corner post, a touch-in-goal line, or the ground arm, or when the ball strikes a player’s hand or arm or a person on or beyond the line. The flag is not and touches the ground or another player before it part of the corner post. When the ball becomes is recovered. dead in in-goal, a scrum is formed 5 meters from A line-out is a set play with a member of one team the goal line, with the attacking team putting throwing the ball inbounds between two lines of the ball into play. If a player carries the ball into players, with each line defending its own goal. in-goal but is held and cannot ground it, the ball A maul is formed by players from both teams, on is dead. The ball is also dead if a defender kicks, their feet and converging on the ball carrier. It ends knocks, or carries the ball into his own in-goal when the ball is on the ground, when a ball carrier area and the ball becomes dead. emerges from the maul, or when the referee calls for a scrum. In Touch A player is offside in general play when his team is in possession of the ball and he is in front of The ball is in touch (out of bounds) when it it. He may not take part in the play, but he is not touches on or beyond a touchline or when it is penalized unless he plays the ball or obstructs an carried by a player who touches on or beyond a opponent. touchline. A player may be in touch and kick or A player is onside in general play when she is propel the ball with her hand if the ball does not behind the ball. She may take part in the play when cross the plane of touch. A player may also catch she is onside. and deflect a ball into the playing area if it has A penalty kick may be taken by any player of the crossed in touch but the player’s feet have not. offended team. The kick must be taken at or behind the prescribed mark. When awarded a penalty kick, Ball or Player Touching Referee a team may opt to kick for goal, to kick for touch and have a line-out, to put the ball in a scrum, or to tap If the ball or a ball carrier touches a referee, play the ball and play. The opponents may not interfere continues unless the referee believes a team has with a penalty kick. gained an advantage. In this case he orders a A ruck occurs when the ball is on the ground and scrum, and the team that last played the ball puts players from each team are on their feet, in physi- it in. If a player carrying the ball touches the ref- cal contact, driving over the ball from a position eree while in her opponents’ in-goal, before she originating behind the ball. If the ball becomes can ground the ball, she is awarded a try. unplayable, a scrum is ordered. A scrum is a set play where one team puts the ball Terms into play between players from both teams after a minor infringement, such as a knock-on. The non- The dead-ball line is the line at the end of the in- infringing team puts the ball into the scrum. goal area. A throw-forward occurs when the ball carrier passes A drop out is a dropkick taken on or behind the the ball forward toward the opponents’ dead-ball 22-meter line; the opponents may not cross the line line. until the kick is made. The ball is in touch when it touches on or beyond A fair catch may be made by a player within his a touchline (out-of-bounds line) or is carried by a 22-meter area or his in-goal. He must catch the kick player on or beyond a touchline. and shout, “Mark!” He is awarded a free kick for A touch-down is scored when a player grounds the a fair catch. ball (touches the ball to the ground) in his in-goal. A free kick is awarded to a team after a fair catch A try, worth 5 points, is scored when a player or minor infringement. The team may not score a grounds the ball in her opponents’ in-goal. dropped goal from a free kick.

Rugby Union  ◾  191 Officials ◾◾ A tackled player is allowed to retain posses- sion of the ball temporarily. A referee is in charge of the match. Two touch judges, one on each side of the field, assist the ◾◾ Ground gained by a kick into touch does referee. not count, unless the ball lands in the field of play before it bounces into touch. Modifications Organizations Rugby league football is similar to rugby union football. The main differences include the International Rugby Board following: www.irb.com ◾◾ Each side has 13 players per side instead USA Rugby of 15. 2500 Arapahoe Ave., Ste. 200 Boulder, CO 80302-6752 ◾◾ A try is worth 4 points; a conversion is worth 303-539-0300 2. A penalty goal nets 2 points, and a drop www.usarugby.org goal counts for 1 point.

34 Shooting

Shooting  ◾  193 International shooting competition was intro- Shooters duced at the 1896 Summer Olympics, and the first world championships were held in 1897. In USA Shooting competitions, shooters compete In 1907, eight national federations founded in one of the following categories: the Union Internationale de Tir (French for the International Shooting Union), the international ◾◾ J1 Juniors: 18 to 20 years of age governing body for the sport. In 1998, the union’s ◾◾ J2 Juniors: 15 to 17 years of age name was changed to the International Shooting ◾◾ J3 Juniors: 14 years and under Sport Federation (ISSF). ◾◾ Scholastic: primary or secondary school Overview students ◾◾ Collegiate: undergrad students carrying a The sport of shooting has a number of events, each with its own detailed technical rules. The minimum of 12 credit hours ISSF recognizes 19 events for men and 11 for ◾◾ Military: members of U.S. Armed Forces, women; in Olympic competition, men have 10 medal events, and women have 5. active or reserve components, National Guard The objective is to score points by hitting ◾◾ Senior S1: 45 to 54 years of age targets. Rules for this chapter come from USA ◾◾ Senior S2: 55 to 64 years of age Shooting, the national governing body for the ◾◾ Senior S3: 65 years and older sport; for more-detailed information on each event, contact USA Shooting (see “Organiza- Shooters are further grouped within a shooting tions” on page 196). Only general rules are discipline by shooting precision classifications, provided here. ranging from AA (highest classification) to E (lowest). Range Equipment A range has a line of targets and a firing line. Firing points or shooting stations are behind Specifications for air rifles are the firing line. The firing point is equipped with a removable or adjustable bench. Ranges have ◾◾ length of front sight tunnel: 50 millimeters, walls, backing targets, or bullet traps to provide ◾◾ diameter of front sight tunnel: 25 milli­ protection. meters, Wind flags are placed as close to the bullets’ ◾◾ heel-to-toe length of butt plate: 153 milli­ flight path as possible (10 meters and 30 meters forward of the firing line) without interfering meters, with the shooting. They aid the shooters in ◾◾ weight with sights and hand stop: 5.5 kilo- determining the wind’s likely effects on a bullet’s flight path. Ranges for air gun competitions are grams, and located indoors. ◾◾ the front sight may not extend beyond the Shooting distances are measured from the muzzle. firing line to the target face. For pistol specifications, see table 34.1. Targets have 10 rings, with the innermost ring counting 10 points and the outermost, 1 point; the Rules width of the rings depends on the event. For the events specified, the proper heights of the target Men’s and women’s events recognized by the centers are as follows: International Olympic Committee are shown in tables 34.2 and 34.3. ◾◾ 10-meter and 25-meter ranges; 10-meter and 50-meter running targets: 1.4 meters A finals competition consists of 10 shots, fired in a single shot-for-shot format. The shooter has ◾◾ 50-meter ranges: .75 meter 7 minutes of preparation time, during which he

194  ◾  The Sports Rules Book Table 34.1 Pistol Specifications Pistol Maximum weight Maximum barrel length Caliber Rapid fire 1,400 g Box size only .22 Center fire 1,400 g 153 mm .30 to .38 Sport and standard 1,400 g 153 mm .22 Free No restriction No restriction .22 Air 1,500 g Box size only .177 Adapted from International Shooting Sport Federation, 2008, Official rules and regulations (Munich: Author). Table 34.2 Table 34.3 Men’s Olympic Events Women’s Olympic Events Event Shots Event Shots 50-m rifle, 3 positions 50-m rifle, 3 positions 3  40 shots 10-m air rifle 3  20 shots 25-m pistol 50-m rifle, prone 60 shots prone 10-m air pistol 40 shots standing 10-m air rifle 60 shots standing Skeet 50-m pistol 60 shots Trap 30  30 shots 25-m rapid-fire pistol 60 shots 10-m air pistol 60 shots Source: International Olympic Committee 40 shots Trap 125 targets 75 targets Skeet 125 targets 75 targets Double trap 150 targets Source: International Olympic Committee may take any number of sighting shots. He is as zeros and counted as part of the 10-shot final. given a 30-second warning before his prepara- Each shot is immediately scored and announced. tion time is up; this is followed by a 1-minute The procedures for firing are then repeated until pause. all 10 shots are taken. The range officer then gives him the com- Aiming exercises between the commands mand “Load!” The shooter may not load before “Stop” and “Load” are permitted only in 10-meter receiving this command. The next commands are and 50-meter rifle and pistol events. Shooters “Attention!” and “Three-two-one-start!” At this must do such exercises with an open bolt or an point the shooter has 75 seconds to fire. On the uncocked pistol or rifle. 75th second, if the shooter is still shooting, the range officer will command, “Stop!” Shots fired Scoring before “Start” and after “Stop” will be counted as zeros. Each target has 10 rings, with scoring values ranging from 1 on the outside to 10 for the inner If a shooter fires more than one shot during ring. Scoring officials score the targets and call the single shot time, all of those shots are scored out the results. If shooters are shooting more than

Shooting  ◾  195 one shot at the same target, officials must mark A regular double in skeet shooting occurs when or score the shots. regular targets are thrown simultaneously from each house. Deciding Ties Sights are metallic and without optics other than optional colored lenses attached to the rifle or pistol, Ties are decided in the following manner: or another means of sighting. Sights not containing corrective lenses are permitted. ◾◾ In 10-meter and 50-meter rifle and pistol A smallbore free rifle is one with a .22 caliber. events and 25-meter sport pistol events, A smallbore sport rifle also has a .22 caliber. the competitors who are tied participate in A sport pistol is chambered for long-rifle .22 car- a shot-for-shot shootoff. tridges and is a semiautomatic firearm capable for firing five shots. ◾◾ In 25-meter rapid-fire pistol shootoffs, com- A standard pistol is chambered for long-rifle .22 petitors fire one series of five shots in quick cartridges. succession. Officials ◾◾ In double trap, competitors fire one double from station 3 until a “lost” target is Competition officials include a chief range registered. officer (one appointed for each range), who is in charge of the competition at the range and in ◾◾ In skeet, competitors shoot in sequence on charge of the range officers, who give the com- station 4 until a “lost” target is registered. mands to the shooters. Scoring officers ensure that targets are rapidly changed, scored, and Terms marked. An air pistol is one with a .177 caliber; it is a com- Modifications pressed air or gas pistol that may be loaded with one pellet only. Modifications of the general procedures are as An air rifle is one using compressed air or carbon follows: dioxide; its caliber is .177 millimeter. A double consists of two skeet clay targets thrown ◾◾ Smallbore free rifle, prone, men: 45-second at the same time, one from each house; in the case time limit for shots rather than 75 seconds. of double trap, a double is two targets thrown from the machines in front of station 3. ◾◾ Rapid-fire pistol, men: one sighting series of Dry firing means the release of the cocked trigger five shots in 4 seconds during preparation time; mechanism of an unloaded firearm, or the release two competition series of five shots in 4 seconds, of the trigger mechanism of an air gun fitted with shot either in two groups of four shooters or a device that allows the trigger to operate without four groups of two shooters; on “Attention!” releasing the propelling charge. the targets are turned to the edge-on position, A free pistol is one with a .22 caliber; it can be loaded and on “Start!” the targets are turned to face the with only one cartridge. shooters. An irregular double in skeet shooting occurs when one or both targets of a double are irregular (they ◾◾ Trap, double trap, and skeet: The six best don’t conform to the normal standards) or when double trap shooters enter the final of 50 targets only one target is thrown. (25 doubles) for men and 40 targets (20 doubles) A clay target is lost when it is not hit in flight, is hit for women. For skeet and trap, the six best shoot- outside the shooting boundaries, or is “dusted” but ers enter the final round of 25 targets. no visible piece falls from it. A no-bird double is called when both clay targets ◾◾ The number of targets and number of shots are not thrown according to the rules. per target are shown in table 34.4. A rapid-fire pistol is a .22 caliber semiautomatic firearm.

196  ◾  The Sports Rules Book Table 34.4 Targets and Shots Event Sighting targets Competition shots 10-m air rifle, 10-m air pistol per event per target 50-m rifle events 4 1 50-m pistol 4 1 25-m women’s pistol 1 1 25-m rapid-fire pistol 1 1 5 shots in 4 sec 1 per series Adapted from International Shooting Sport Federation, 2008, Official rules and regulations (Munich: Author). Organizations National Rifle Association of America 11250 Waples Mill Rd. Amateur Trapshooting Association Fairfax, VA 22030 601 W. National Rd. 703-267-1000 Vandalia, OH 45377 www.nra.org/home.aspx 937-898-4638 National Skeet Shooting Association and www.shootata.com National Sporting Clays Association International Practical Shooting Confederation 5931 Rost Rd. P.O. Box 972 San Antonio, TX 78253-9261 Oakville, ON L6J 5E8 210-688-3371 Canada www.nssa-nsca.com 905-849-6960 www.ipsc.org

© Photodisc/Getty Images 35 Skateboarding

198  ◾  The Sports Rules Book In 1958, Bill Richards from North Hollywood, of a beginner, or is considered by the judges to California, saw some boys riding surfboards skate at the intermediate level they’d attached to wheels. He ordered some wheels from a roller skate company, attached Advanced: skater who has been placing in the them to boards, and began selling them as “side- top three in the intermediate level or is considered walk surfboards.” A hit song by Jan and Dean by the judges to skate above the intermediate gave the new sport nationwide exposure, and level the first national skateboard championship took place in 1965. Age Groups In 1971, Richard Stevenson designed the kick- At amateur events there are three major age tail (the upward curve on the back of the board), groups of skaters: preteens, teens, and young making it easier to control, and 2 years later adults. Preteen groups include 10 and under Richard Nasworthy created the polyurethane and 11 to 12 years of age. Teenager groups can wheel, offering better traction. In 1978, Allan be divided into 13 to 14, 15 to 16, and 17 to 18 “Ollie” Gelfand discovered he could go airborne years of age. Young adults are 19 and over. by standing on the tail of his skateboard to jump Sometimes there is also a masters group for 27 curbs, rails, and other obstacles. and over. In 1981, the National Skateboarding Associa- Equipment tion was formed; it became World Cup Skate- boarding in 1993. By 2000, skateboarding was It is suggested that helmets be required for all the sixth most popular participant sport in the events. For vert ramp and mini ramp events, United States (third in the 6 to 18 age bracket). helmets, elbow pads, and knee pads should There are more than 10 million skateboarders be required. The condition of personal skate- in the United States and more than 50 million board equipment is the responsibility of the worldwide. competitor. Overview Rules Disciplines recognized by World Cup Skateboard- The following rules apply to competitions and ing (WCS) include streetstyle or park, mini ramp, practices before competitions. vert ramp, and pool or bowl. WCS also recognizes special events such as vert doubles, highest air, Practice and best trick. The rules in this chapter are from the WCS. Every skater is allowed equal practice time on the ramp or street course. If a skater disrupts a Skaters practice session, he can lose practice privileges. Making up a missed practice heat is at the discre- WCS suggests the following divisions and tion of the competition director. age groups for amateur contests. However, contest organizers set the final age groups and Contest Structure Failure divisions. If the competition director or the head judge Divisions deems that the skating surface is defective, the surface will be repaired and the heat Beginner: skater who has never entered a skate- will be restarted at the point it was deemed board competition or has some experience in unskateable. competition but has never placed in the top three in the beginner class Equipment Failure Intermediate: skater who has placed in the If a skateboard breakdown occurs during the top three in the beginner class, has competition elimination phase of a contest and before any experience, is performing tricks beyond the scope seeding process has been used, the skater is

Skateboarding  ◾  199 allowed two runs at the end of her division’s Below average run 60-69 session. If a breakdown occurs before a skater’s Poor run 50-59 first or second run or during the first 30 seconds Very poor run 30-49 of a run, the skater will skate at the end of the None or few tricks completed 0-29 heat. The judges’ high and low scores are discarded, If the failure occurs after 30 seconds of the and the remaining scores are added. The total is skater’s run has elapsed, the run will be scored then averaged, giving the skater’s score. as a completed run. The option to place the skater in the next heat is up to the contest director. If the Ties are broken in this manner and in this breakdown occurs during the finals, the skater order: will skate second to last. 1. All judges’ scores from the best run are Interference averaged. Interference can be caused by a spectator, photog- 2. The other run’s score is used to break the tie. rapher, another competitor, failure of the skating 3. All judges’ scores from the other run are surface, or an object dropped in the skating area. If any of these occur, the skater should immedi- averaged. ately raise his hand. 4. The lowest run score for each rider breaks If the competition director or head judge the tie. determines that interference did indeed occur and the skater was less than 30 seconds into All judges’ scores from the lowest run score his run, he will be allowed to restart his run. are averaged. However, if 30 seconds of the run had elapsed, his run will be scored as a completed run with Vert Ramp and Mini no penalty. Ramp Competitions Missed Heat or Run This section provides standards and competition formats for vert ramps and mini ramps. If a skater misses a heat or a run, the contest director will decide if the skater can still compete. Vert Ramps The skater can pay a fee and protest the contest director’s decision. The contest jury will then The following standards are minimum require- make the decision. ments for a safe and sound structure to be used in any WCS-sanctioned event. The overall size General Judging of the ramp can vary but should be within the and Scoring Guidelines following limits: The minimum number of judges for an amateur Width: 48 to 100 feet event is three; the minimum is five for profes- Transitions: 10.5 to 11.5 feet sional events. Seven judges can be used for pro- Vert: 1.5 to 2 feet fessional events. Flat bottom: 14 to 16 feet Extensions: 1 to 2 feet Scoring is based on a 1 to 100 point scale, with Platforms on sides of ramp: 8 to 12 feet a suggested low of 40. The head judge sets the suggested average or base scores. Following is a Mini Ramps suggested scale: The mini ramp should have at least two small Amazing run 90-100 back-to-back halfpipes and a spine, preferably Above average run 80-89 with a double pipe along the top of the spine. The Average run 70-79 basic size of a mini ramp is as follows:

200  ◾  The Sports Rules Book Width: 24 to 40 feet Streetstyle Height: 4 to 7 feet and Park Competitions Transitions: 6 to 9 feet Flat bottom: 8 to 12 feet Streetsyle and park courses include obstacles that resemble natural street skating elements, such Competition Formats as ledges, handrails, banks, quarter pipes, hips, centerpieces, and pyramids. The course should All vert ramp and mini ramp contests are con- be a minimum of 100 feet by 150 feet and allow ducted in three phases: eliminations, semifinals, a variety of skateable lines. and finals. For competition runs, the clock or stopwatch starts at the competitor’s first trick. A Competition Formats 15-second warning is announced, and the judges stop scoring the run at the end of the allotted All streetstyle and park contests are conducted time. in three phases: eliminations, semifinals, and finals. For competition runs, the clock or Judging for Vert Ramp stopwatch starts at the competitor’s first trick. and Mini Ramp Competitions A 15-second warning is announced, and the judges stop scoring the run at the end of the In judging the routine’s composition routine or allotted time. line for vert ramp or mini ramp competitions, judges consider the following: Judging for Streetstyle and Park Competitions ◾◾ How many maneuvers the skater makes ◾◾ How many areas of the ramp the skater Judges’ criteria for streetstyle and park competi- tions include the following: uses ◾◾ Whether the skater avoids wasted setup ◾◾ The routine’s content: the number, difficulty, originality, and variety of tricks successfully walls performed ◾◾ Whether the skater performs the routine to ◾◾ The aggressive execution of maneuvers the limit while maintaining control performed Judging criteria include ◾◾ The style of the routine: the fluid linking of individual tricks ◾◾ degree of difficulty; ◾◾ bionics or amplitude (height of airs, length ◾◾ The use of the street course and ramps, boxes, handrails, and so on of grinds, and so on); ◾◾ variety of maneuvers and lines; Judges take falls into consideration, assess- ◾◾ linking of tricks; ing penalties based on what the skater was ◾◾ originality and style; attempting when the fall or step-off occurred, ◾◾ continuity of run and consistency; how the fall affected the run’s fluidity, and how ◾◾ use of the ramp or pool, including exten- the skater was able to recover and continue the run. sions, hips, channels, and corners; and ◾◾ aggressive execution of maneuvers. Officials Judges assess a penalty for falls. The severity Each WCS-sanctioned competition has a contest of the penalty depends on what the skater was jury composed of a contest director, a contest pro- attempting when the fall or step-off occurred and moter representative, a head judge, and a riders’ how the fall affected the overall run. representatives. Each member of the contest jury has voting rights.

Skateboarding  ◾  201 The contest jury is responsible for maintaining World Cup Skateboarding and enforcing the rules, dealing with protests, 1730 Ridgeview Circle and making necessary decisions regarding any Auburn, CA 95603 problems that arise. 530-888-0696 www.wcsk8.com Organizations World Freestyle Skateboard Association www.wfsafreestyle.org European Skateboarding Association www.skateboardesa.com

36 Snowboarding © Istock photo

Snowboarding  ◾  203 Snowboarding offers several forms of competi- with precise turns. The courses are between 80 tion. First developed in the United States in and 180 meters long. They must be at least 30 the 1960s, the sport combines elements of skiing, meters wide if two runs are set on the same surfing, and skateboarding. Snowboarding’s slope and at least 20 meters wide if the second popularity caught on in the 1970s and 1980s; in run is set on the first track. The finish must 1985, the first World Cup for the sport was held in be at least 8 meters wide. The minimum time Zurs, Austria. The International Snowboard Asso- requirement for a course is 50 seconds for two ciation was founded in 1994, and snowboarding runs combined. became an Olympic sport in 1998. Slalom courses allow for fluent runs with Today, most of the ski areas in North America changes of direction with very different and Europe allow snowboarding, and more than radii. Gates are set so that some full turns are 3.5 million people around the world have taken required, interspersed with traverses. Slalom up the sport. gates alternate red and blue. Each gate has between 6 and 15 meters from turning pole to Overview turning pole. Snowboarders negotiate at least 35 gates on the course, including at least two Snowboard competitions consist of alpine events double-gate combinations (hairpins) and at (slalom, parallel slalom, giant slalom, parallel least two triple- or quadruple-gate combina- giant slalom), freestyle events (halfpipe, slope- tions (flushes). style, and big air), and snowboard cross. Giant Slalom ◾◾ In the slalom races, riders race downhill through gates with tight turns that require sig- Giant slalom courses present a variety of long, nificant technical skill. In giant slalom races, gates medium, and short turns. The courses are are set farther apart on longer courses, and riders between 200 and 400 meters long and at least gain more speed on these courses. 30 meters wide, with the finish width at least 10 meters wide. Riders must ride at least 50 seconds ◾◾ In halfpipe competitions, competitors per- for two runs combined. form tricks in the air while going from side to side on a semicircular ditch or ramp. They receive Gates alternate red and blue except for double scores from judges for their performances. gates, which are the same color. The nearest poles of two successive gates must be at least 10 ◾◾ In slopestyle competitions, competitors meters. Riders must navigate at least 20 gates perform tricks while moving around, over, across, over undulating and hilly terrain that is topped or down terrain features, again receiving scores by compact, hard snow. Padding, nets, or other from judges for doing so. safety measures are put in place where riders might encounter danger. ◾◾ In snowboard cross, four to six riders race on a downhill course with jumps, berms, and Parallel Events other obstacles, with typically the first two riders advancing to the next round. The overall winner In parallel events—parallel slalom and parallel is the rider who finishes first in the final round. giant slalom—two competitors ride simultane- ously side by side down two courses, which are Courses configured and prepared to be as identical as possible, posing the same challenges for each Following are descriptions of courses for com- competitor. The left course (looking from the top) petitions in these events: slalom, giant slalom, is set with red gate poles and flags, and the right parallel events, halfpipe, snowboard cross, and course is set with blue poles and flags. Courses slopestyle. are set to have a variety of turns and to cause changes in rhythm. Slalom Parallel slalom courses are between 80 and Slalom courses include a series of turns that 120 meters long, with an average steepness of allow competitors to combine maximum speed 17 to 22 degrees and a distance between gates

204  ◾  The Sports Rules Book of 11 to 13 meters. These courses typically have Riders 25 to 32 gates, with the first gate located 8 to 10 meters from the start. The distance between the In U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association competi- two parallel slalom courses, from turning pole to tions, riders compete in these divisions: turning pole, is between 5 and 8 meters. ◾◾ Menehune: 12 years and younger Parallel giant slalom courses are 120 to 200 ◾◾ Junior 3: 13 and 14 years old meters long, with a distance between gates of 20 ◾◾ Junior 2: 15 and 16 years old to 25 meters. The number of turns on a parallel ◾◾ Junior 1: 17 and 18 years old giant slalom course is somewhere between 11 and ◾◾ Seniors: 19 to 24 years old 15 percent of the vertical drop in meters on the ◾◾ Masters: 25 to 34 years old course. The first gate is 8 to 10 meters from the ◾◾ Legends: 35 to 49 years old start, and the distance between the two parallel ◾◾ Methuselah: 50 years and older giant slalom courses, from turning pole to turning pole, is between 7 and 12 meters. Equipment Halfpipe Riders’ bibs, and how they are attached, cannot be altered in any way. Safety leashes are optional, Halfpipe courses are channels constructed in unless required by the organizer or the ski area. snow. Courses are as hard and even as possible, Snowboards with a gliding surface of up to 135 and the tops of each wall are clearly marked with centimeters must have a minimum width of 14 color. The length of a halfpipe course is 100 to 120 centimeters; boards with a gliding surface greater meters, and its width is from 14 to 16 meters, with than 135 centimeters must have a minimum a wall height of 3.5 to 4.5 meters. width of 16 centimeters. Bindings must be fixed diagonally on the long axis of the board, and Snowboard Cross boots cannot overlap each other. Competitors are not allowed to use any kind of device that Snowboard cross courses include banked can support their balance or reduce or accelerate turns, jumps, berms, drops, and steep and flat their speed. sections that challenge riders’ ability to stay in control. The courses measure between 120 Rules and 300 meters in vertical drop, with the aver- age slope incline between 15 and 18 degrees. The rules for this chapter are derived from the The slope should be at least 30 meters wide in U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association. Each course most cases, although for short sections of the has its own set of rules. course it can drop to as low as 10 meters wide. The finish must be at least 15 meters wide, and Slalom courses should not include gradients that exceed more than 25 degrees for lengths of 45 meters The slalom start takes place at irregular intervals; or more. a competitor does not have to finish the course before the next competitor begins. The starter Gates are placed along the course so competi- says, “Ready,” and then, a few seconds later, gives tors can distinguish them clearly and quickly at the signal to “Go!” The competitor has 10 seconds high speeds. to start after this signal. Slopestyle A slalom is decided by two runs, each run on a different course. All riders go on one course, Slopestyle courses are a minimum of 30 meters and then all move over to the second course. wide and include 150 to 200 meters of vertical The competition committee can reduce the drop. The slopes should be between 10 and 15 number of competitors in the second run to half, degrees and contain a variety of hits, with two provided that such notice was given before the or more lines that competitors may choose to race started. perform. Each course includes at least two jumps and two other features. Courses are designed to be technically challenging while allowing riders to set up for the next feature.

Snowboarding  ◾  205 In the slalom, as with all snowboarding events, went in the first run. Judges score each run, and helmets are required for all competitors. the best score of the two runs is the only score that counts toward the final placing. The same Giant Slalom approach works for the best of three runs. Competitors usually start at 60-second intervals Three to six judges are used at halfpipe events, (sometimes shorter or longer intervals are used). and they evaluate the runs on the following The starter gives the competitor a 10-second criteria: warning and then at 5 seconds counts, “5, 4, 3, 2, 1, go!” ◾◾ Standard airs: These include tricks and airs that are less than 360 degrees. Tricks that are A giant slalom is decided by two runs; typically performed well increase scores for execution. these runs are made on the same day. The second Judges emphasize variety, difficulty, and execu- run can be held on the same course, but the gates tion of tricks. must be reset. ◾◾ Rotations: These are maneuvers that include Parallel Events a rotation of 360 degrees or more. Judges look for smooth, precise, under-control rotating and take In parallel events, competitors are allowed to into account the variety, difficulty, and execution inspect the course, but they cannot ride down the of the tricks. prepared course or through the gates. Instead, they can slide down the sides of the course. ◾◾ Amplitude: This measures the height of maneuvers. The amplitude score is derived from Competitors start side by side in two separate the sum of all hits, divided by the number of hits start gates that open simultaneously. Any start taken. The value of each hit is equal to the number system can be used as long as it guarantees a of feet between the pipe’s lip (top) and the rider’s simultaneous start. Starts take place at irregular center of mass. intervals; riders need not have crossed the finish line before the next set of competitors begins. ◾◾ Overall impression: This includes how a rider designs his run to show a variety of tricks A competitor is disqualified if he manipu- that are well executed and difficult. lates the starting gate or tries to pass the start- ing gate before the start signal has been given. If two competitors are tied, the rider with the Competitors are also disqualified if they change highest score from the other run wins. If both runs from one course to another; disturb or interfere are tied, then the rider with the highest combined with the opponent, whether voluntarily or not; overall impression score wins. or incorrectly pass a gate. Competitors who are disqualified in the first run start the second run Snowboard Cross with the maximum penalty time of 5 percent; if they are disqualified in the second run, they are Snowboard cross competitions are generally run eliminated from the competition. according to a single-elimination format; some- times a double-knockout format is used. The finish lines for each competitor are sym- metrical and are each at least 8 meters wide. Competitors choose their lane positions in order of their qualifying times. Riders are disqual- Each race between two competitors consists ified if they intentionally push or pull another of two runs, with each competitor going once on rider or otherwise cause a competitor to slow each course. down, although unavoidable and casual contact can be okay. Course judges determine whether Halfpipe the contact is acceptable. The starter gives a “Ready” command to a com- Place of finish is determined by the first part of petitor and then says, “Go.” The competitor can the body or snowboard that crosses the finish line. leave anytime after the command. Once a com- In case of a tie, the two riders who tied run again. petitor starts, she is not allowed to restart. Slopestyle Competitions can be held in best of two runs, in best of three runs, and in modified formats. In Competitors take two runs, with only their high the best of two runs, competitors get two runs score counting toward the final ranking. Judging in the halfpipe, going in the same order as they is based on overall impression. Judges look at

206  ◾  The Sports Rules Book trick difficulty, execution, and amplitude of tricks As in skiing, to traverse is to ride perpendicular to as well as the sequence of tricks. the fall line of the slope. In the halfpipe, a freestyle rider traverses the flat bottom to perform tricks on Scoring can be based on an overall scoring either wall. system, in which each judge scores each rider on A snowboard whose nose and tail are shaped iden- a scale of 0 to 10, using one decimal, or on a scale tically, so the board will ride equally well in either of 0 to 100 with no decimals. Scoring can also be direction, is a twin tip. determined by a ranking system, in which riders The topmost portion of the walls of a halfpipe is are ranked for various tricks and their rankings called a vertical (also known as vert). Verticals are added up to determine places. allow riders to fly straight up from the halfpipe wall. Terms The opposing sections of the halfpipe are the walls. A wall is made up of a transition (where the rider Chatter is the vibration of the snowboard as a result begins the ascent) and a vertical section (where the of high speed, tight turns, or icy conditions. rider launches and performs a trick). The length of a snowboard’s metal edge that makes contact with the snow is the effective edge. Officials The part of the halfpipe between the two walls is the flat bottom. Officials for snowboarding events include Freestyle snowboarding is usually associated with riding a halfpipe but encompasses any kind of ◾◾ a jury, which monitors rule adherence and riding that includes tricks. course preparation, among other things; Riding with the right foot closest to the nose of the snowboard is goofy footed. ◾◾ a technical delegate, who ensures that A halfpipe is a vertical U-shaped structure used the rules are followed and the event runs in freestyle snowboarding. As for a skateboarding smoothly; halfpipe, riders use the opposing walls to get air and perform tricks as they travel down the fall line ◾◾ referees, gate judges, and course setters for of the slope. alpine events; and The edge of the snowboard where the heels sit is called the heel edge. ◾◾ judges for freestyle events. The top edge of the halfpipe wall is the lip. Borrowed from skateboarding, to Ollie is to get air Organizations by first lifting the front foot, springing off the back foot, then landing on both feet. International Ski Federation A quarterpipe is designed like a halfpipe but with Marc Hodler House only one wall. Blochstrasse 2 Riding with the left foot closest to the nose of the CH-3653 Oberhofen snowboard is regular footed. Switzerland Rocker is the opposite of camber. It occurs when www.fis-ski.com the snowboard is placed on a flat surface and rests only on the center portion. United States of America Snowboard The horizontal part of the halfpipe wall that serves Association as a vantage point, waiting area, or walkway to the P.O. Box 15500 uphill end of the pipe is the rollout deck. South Lake Tahoe, CA 96151 Sliding sideways to quickly slow down before a www.usasa.org jump or other situation where speed control is nec- essary is called a speed check. U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association The transition (also known as tranny) is the initial P.O. Box 100 curved part of a halfpipe wall between the flat of the 1500 Kearns Blvd. bottom and the vertical section of the wall. Park City, UT 84060 435-649-9090 www.ussa.org

37 Soccer

208  ◾  The Sports Rules Book Soccer is based on 17 laws, which have been Scoring: A goal is scored when the ball completely refined since the game’s modern beginnings crosses the goal line under the crossbar and in Great Britain in 1863. The sport was first between the goal posts. known in Britain as association football; this was shortened to A-soc and, finally, soccer. The Length of Game: Two 45-minute halves with a sport’s popularity in the United States lagged 10- to 15-minute halftime. Youth matches are until the 1970s, when youth leagues began to played in equal halves of lesser times (20 to 40 flourish. Soccer is a popular sport worldwide, minutes) depending on the age of the players. especially in Argentina, Brazil, England, Ger- Players must use their feet, head, or chest to play many, and Italy. In the United States, it is second only to basketball in youth participation (about the ball. With the exception of the goalkeeper (and a 7.7 million U.S. youths play soccer). About 18 player taking a throw-in), players may not use their million people play soccer at least once a year in hands or arms. The player who begins the game the United States, nearly half of those regularly by kicking off may not touch the ball again until it in soccer leagues. The game is popular in the has been touched by any other player. The game United States both recreationally and at youth proceeds with each team attempting to control the and high school levels. ball, move it down the field, and score a goal. Overview Field Objective: To score as many goals as possible by See figure 37.1 for the components and dimen- putting the ball into the opponents’ goal. sions of a soccer field. Field length is 100 to 130 yards and is marked by a halfway line that Number of Players: 11 per side (for short-sided divides the field in half. Goals are 8 yards wide, games, see “Modifications” on page 211). and the penalty area is 44 yards wide. Corner arcs are found in the four corners of the field. 18 yd. Penalty 6 yd. mark 50 to Center circle 10 yd. 20 yd. 100 yd. Halfway line 8 yd. 44 yd. Goal area Penalty area 12 yd. Corner arc 100 to 130 yd. ▶▶ Figure 37.1  The componentEs4a6n2d5d/HimKe/fnigs.i3o7n.1s/o3f3a12s0o7c/caelwr f-ipeuldll.ed/r1

Soccer  ◾  209 Players opponents. The offside offense is determined by the player’s position at the moment a teammate Each team has up to 11 players, one of whom must plays or touches the ball, not at the moment the be the goalkeeper. The other players are known player receives the ball. as defenders, midfielders, and forwards (or strik- ers). In major competitions, a team may not use A player is not called offside for merely being more than three substitutes in a game, while in in an offside position. To be ruled offside, the other competitions up to seven substitutes may player must be actively participating in the be used. In youth play unlimited substitution is play by interfering with play, interfering with generally permissible. When play is stopped, any an opponent, or gaining an advantage. The player, with the referee’s approval, may change player is still subject to being declared offside places with the goalkeeper. even after the ball deflects off the goal, the goalkeeper, or any defender. When a player is A substitute must be summoned onto the field declared offside, the opposing team is awarded by the referee and must enter the field at the an indirect free kick (IFK) at the point of the halfway line after the player being replaced has infraction. left the field. Once players have been replaced, they may not return to the game. (Different A player in an offside position is not offside soccer associations have variations of this sub- upon receiving a ball directly from a goal kick, stitution rule for youth, women’s, and senior corner kick, or throw-in, or playing a ball that competitions.) was last played by a defender who had posses- sion of the ball. Equipment Free Kicks The ball is round, is covered in leather or other suitable material, and is a number 5 ball, which There are two types of free kicks: direct free kicks is between 27 and 28 inches in circumference (a (DFKs), awarded for any of 10 major fouls com- smaller ball is used in younger youth matches). mitted by the opposing team, and indirect free kicks (IFKs), awarded for other violations made Players must dress in matching shirts, shorts, by either team. Opposing players must be at least and socks, and they must also wear shin guards 10 yards from the ball during the taking of any and shoes. Shoes may have studs if they are free kick. A free kick awarded to the defending rounded with no sharp edges. Goalkeepers often team within its own goal area may be taken from wear elbow and knee pads and gloves. A goal- any point within the goal area. An IFK awarded keeper must wear a different-colored uniform to the attacking team within the opponents’ goal from that of any other player, which includes area will be taken from the goal-area line nearest teammates, opponents, and the opposing goal- to the point where the infraction occurred. A goal keeper. Any equipment deemed dangerous to may be scored on any DFK with only the initial players may not be worn. This includes earrings, kicker touching the ball. On an IFK, another necklaces, bracelets, watches, and casts and player from either team must also touch the ball braces that the referee considers dangerous. before a goal can be scored. Rules A DFK is awarded to a team’s opponents when that team Some of the basic play is governed by the rules concerning offside, free kicks, and goalkeeping. ◾◾ kicks (or attempts to kick), trips (or attempts to trip), or pushes an opponent; Offside ◾◾ jumps at an opponent; A player is in an offside position if he is closer to ◾◾ violently or dangerously charges an oppo- the opponents’ goal line than the ball, unless the player is still in his own half of the field or is not nent, or charges an opponent from behind; closer to the opponents’ goal line than the last two ◾◾ strikes (or attempts to strike) an opponent with the hand, arm, or elbow; ◾◾ spits at an opponent;

210  ◾  The Sports Rules Book ◾◾ holds an opponent’s body or clothing; Terms ◾◾ tackles an opponent to gain possession of An advantage refers to a situation in which the the ball and makes contact with the oppo- referee calls, “Play on!” despite a foul having been nent before touching the ball; or committed—because the team that would be given ◾◾ deliberately plays the ball with any part of a free kick already has a greater advantage of a scor- the hand or arm (from the shoulder to the ing or passing opportunity. fingertips), except for the goalkeeper. A referee may issue a player a caution (yellow card) for misconduct or send off (eject) a player An IFK is awarded the opposing team when (red card) for violent conduct, serious foul play, or a player abusive language. A corner kick is awarded the opposing team when ◾◾ is declared offside, a player last touches the ball over his own goal line. ◾◾ deliberately impedes the progress of an For a corner kick, the ball is placed in the corner arc, and all opposing players must be at least 10 opponent by blocking her path instead of yards away. playing the ball, A direct free kick (DFK) is awarded for any of the ◾◾ plays in a dangerous manner, 10 major fouls. ◾◾ behaves in an unsporting manner, A fair charge is when a player makes shoulder- ◾◾ fair charges an opponent when the ball is to-shoulder contact with an opposing player in not within playing distance, or a nonviolent manner while attempting to gain ◾◾ prevents the goalkeeper from releasing the possession of the ball. For a fair charge to be legal, ball back into play. players must be within playing distance of the ball, and each player must have at least one foot An IFK is also awarded when goalkeepers take on the ground. more than 6 seconds before releasing the ball from A foul results in a direct free kick (DFK) or an indi- their hands. rect free kick (IFK) for the opposing team at the spot of the offense. Goalkeeping A goal may not be scored directly from a throw-in. A goal may be scored directly from an opposing These rules address the use of hands and of player’s corner kick, kickoff, or goal kick or from time-delaying tactics. Goalkeepers must release an opposing goalkeeper’s punt. Attacking players the ball back into play within 6 seconds after may not use their hands or arms to throw, carry, or gaining possession of the ball. A goalkeeper may propel the ball across the goal line. not delay the game by holding the ball before A goal kick occurs after a player last touches punting. (Penalty: An IFK is taken from the spot the ball over the opposing team’s goal line. The of the violation, or, if it occurred within the goal opposing team is awarded a goal kick, in which area, the kick is taken from the goal-area line that the ball may be placed anywhere within the goal runs parallel to the goal line, nearest the spot of area. Opposing players must be outside the pen- the infraction.) alty area, and the ball may be kicked by either the goalkeeper or another player. It must be kicked Once the ball has been released into play, goal- beyond the penalty area to be put into play. The keepers may not touch the ball again with their player who initially kicks the ball may not touch hands before an opponent touches it anywhere on the ball again until it has been touched by another the field or another teammate touches it outside player. of the penalty area. Players head the ball by hitting it with their head. An indirect free kick (IFK) is awarded for minor Goalkeepers may use their hands to field a fouls and other various violations. ball that has been deliberately headed, chested, A player is offside if she is closer to the opponents’ or kneed to them by a teammate, but they may goal line than the ball, unless the player is still in not use their hands to field a ball that has been her own half of the field or is not closer to the oppo- intentionally kicked to them by a teammate or nents’ goal line than the last two opponents. upon receiving a ball directly from a throw-in by a teammate.

Soccer  ◾  211 The ball is not out of play (out of bounds) until the from 3 v 3 through 9 v 9. Ball size is dependent entire ball has crossed entirely over the outside edge on the age of the players, with a number 4 of the touchline or goal line. The ball is also considered ball being used for U12 and U10 players and a out of play whenever the referee blows his whistle to number 3 ball for U8 and U6 players. Following stop the game. A player may go off the field of play are general recommendations that are used as is (out of bounds) to keep the ball in play. A ball remains or are further modified for youngsters playing in play if it bounces back onto the field after hitting soccer. a goal post, crossbar, or corner post, or if it does not completely leave the field after it hits an official. 9v9 A team is awarded a penalty kick when an opposing player commits a major foul within her own penalty This is often played by 12-and-under leagues. area. All players except the kicker and the goalkeeper A goalie is required for this level. Field size is must stand outside the penalty area, behind the ball, 90 yards long by 45 yards wide. The goals are 8 and at least 10 yards from the ball. The goalkeeper feet high by 8 yards wide. Game length is four must stand on the goal line and not move off the 15-minute periods. The basic rules of the game goal line until the kick is made. If the ball is stopped remain the same. by the goalkeeper and rebounds onto the field, play continues. If a goal is not scored and the ball goes 7v7 over the goal line after being touched by the goal- keeper, the attacking team gets a corner kick. This is often played by 10-and-under leagues. A sliding tackle occurs when a player slides on the Goalies are allowed but not required. Field size ground in an attempt to kick the ball away from an is 80 yards long by 40 yards wide. The goals are opponent. 7 feet high by 7 yards wide. Game length is four A team is awarded a throw-in when the ball goes 12-minute periods. The basic rules are the same, over the touchline (sideline), having last been except on kickoffs, goal kicks, corner kicks, free touched by an opposing player. A player throws kicks, and penalty kicks, opponents must be at the ball in from over her head, with both feet on least 8 yards away from the ball. the ground at the moment of release. At least part of each foot must be on or behind the touchline. If 5v5 the throw-in is done incorrectly, the opposing team is awarded a throw-in. This is often played by 8-and-under leagues. Goalies are allowed but not required. Field size Officials is 50 yards long by 25 yards wide. The goals are 6 feet high by 6 yards wide. Game length is four One referee and two assistant referees control the 10-minute periods. The basic rules are the same, game. The referee is responsible for enforcing the except for the following differences: rules; keeping the time and score; and issuing warnings, cautions, and send-offs to players and ◾◾ On kickoffs, goal kicks, corner kicks, and coaches. The referee signals the start and end of free kicks, opponents must be at least 6 the game. yards away from the ball. The assistant referees indicate when and where ◾◾ Offside is not called. a ball leaves the field of play and determine ◾◾ All kicks are indirect free kicks (IFKs). which team is awarded a throw-in, goal kick, or ◾◾ There are no penalty kicks. corner kick. They also indicate offside offenses ◾◾ A player who incorrectly makes a throw-in and signal with the flag other violations that the referee is not able to see. on the first attempt gets a second chance. Modifications 3v3 Different organizations modify the sport in dif- This is often played by 6-and-under leagues. ferent ways. Younger players generally do not Goalies are not used. Field size is 30 yards long by play 11 v 11 but play short-sided games ranging 15 yards wide. The goals are 4 feet high by 2 yards wide. Game length is four 5-minute periods. The

212  ◾  The Sports Rules Book basic rules are the same as those for 5 on 5, with Fédération Internationale de Football the following exceptions: Association (FIFA) ◾◾ On kickoffs, goal kicks, corner kicks, and FIFA-Strasse 20 free kicks, opponents must be at least 5 8044 Zurich yards away from the ball. Switzerland ◾◾ When the ball goes over a touchline, it is put 41 (0) 43 222 7777 back into play with a kick-in where the ball www.fifa.com crossed the line. National Soccer Coaches Association of ◾◾ When a ball goes over the goal line (but is America not a goal), it is put back into play with a 800 Ann Ave. kick-in where the ball crossed the line. Kansas City, KS 66101 913-362-1747 Organizations www.nscaa.com Soccer Association for Youth American Youth Soccer Organization 1 N. Commerce Park Dr., Ste. 306-320 12501 S. Isis Ave. Cincinnati, OH 45215 Hawthorne, CA 90250 513-769-3800 800-872-2976 www.saysoccer.org www.soccer.org United States Soccer Federation 1801 S. Prairie Ave. Cosmopolitan Soccer League Chicago, IL 61606 115 River Rd., Ste. 1029 312-808-1300 Edgewater, NJ 07020 www.ussoccer.com 201-943-3390 www.newyorksoccer.com

38 Softball

214  ◾  The Sports Rules Book Softball was first played in Chicago in 1887, pitcher, 8.5 inches long on sides parallel to the indoors, with a 17-inch ball. An outdoor ver- batter’s box, and 12 inches long on the sides of sion of the game was played with a 12-inch ball the point facing the catcher. Bases are 15 inches in Minneapolis in 1895. The game was standard- square, not more than 5 inches thick. A double ized in 1923, and today there are many variations, base, 15 inches by 30 inches, can be used at first including fastpitch, slowpitch, 16-inch slowpitch, base. Half the base is in fair territory and is white; and coed play. These variations make softball a the other half is in foul territory and is orange. widely accessible sport, played by young and old The pitcher’s plate is 24 inches long by 6 inches alike. More than 4 million people play softball, 2.5 wide; its front is 50 feet from the back point of million of them in adult leagues. The bulk of this home plate. chapter focuses on the slowpitch game. The outfield fence varies in distance, from Overview 265 to 275 feet for women to 275 to 325 feet for men. In coed play the fences are 275 to 300 feet. Objective: To score the most runs. A dead-ball area is drawn with chalk outside Scoring: A player scores a run when she safely the field of play. The line itself is in play, but if a fielder has either foot on the ground completely touches first, second, third, and home before over the line, the ball is dead and no play can be her team makes three outs. made. If a fielder intentionally carries a live ball Number of Players: 10 per team (11 if using an into the dead-ball area, any runners are awarded extra player, who bats but does not field; only two bases beyond the last bases they legally 10 are on the field). touched. If the act is unintentional, each runner Number of Innings: Seven. is awarded one base. Number of Outs per Inning: Three outs for each team. The defense fields 10 players. The 8 extra player is optional, but if one is 10 used, he must be in the starting lineup and be used for the entire game. Each Second base team has a batting order it must 7 9 adhere to, although substitutions may 4 be made. Once a player is removed from the game, she can reenter the 6 65 ft. Foul line game once. The visiting team bats first, in the top half of the inning; the Foul line Pitcher's plate home team bats in the bottom half of 5 1 127.25 3 the inning. The pitcher pitches and Third ft. First attempts to get the batter out; the base batter attempts to get on base and base eventually score. The most common ways to record outs are by strikeout, 50 ft. force out, tag out, and fly out. Batter's 3 ft. box 10 ft. 7 ft. 2 Catcher's box Field 8.4 ft. Figure 38.1 shows the dimensions of ▶▶ Figure 3E846.21 5/HTKhe/fidgi.m38e.n1s/3io3n1s2,0c8o/malwpo-pnuelnletsd,/ra2nd player a softball field for adult slowpitch. positions of a softball field. Home plate is five-sided, 17 inches wide across the edge facing the

Softball  ◾  215 Players Equipment In slowpitch, a team has 10 fielders: The ball is smooth-seamed, flat-surfaced, and pebble- or dimple-textured, with concealed ◾◾ Pitcher stitches. Its core is cork, rubber, or a polyurethane ◾◾ Catcher mix, covered with horsehide or cowhide. The ◾◾ First baseman 11-inch ball weighs between 5.9 and 6.1 ounces. The ◾◾ Second baseman 12-inch ball weighs between 6.25 and 7 ounces. ◾◾ Third baseman ◾◾ Shortstop The bat is made of hardwood, metal, graphite, ◾◾ Left fielder or other approved material. It may not be longer ◾◾ Center fielder than 34 inches or weigh more than 38 ounces. It ◾◾ Right fielder may not exceed 2.25 inches in diameter. A safety ◾◾ Extra fielder grip must be between 10 and 15 inches long and not extend more than 15 inches from the bottom A team may also have an extra player (EP) who of the bat. Metal bats may be angular. bats but does not field. The EP is optional, but if one is used, he must be in the starting lineup Gloves may be worn by any player, but only and must be used for the entire game. With an the catcher and first baseman may wear mitts, EP, all 11 players must bat, and any 10 may play with thumb and body sections. Webbing on any defense. Defensive positions may be switched, glove or mitt may not exceed 5 inches. Pants, but the batting order must remain constant. sliding pants, and shirts should be of the same design. Caps are optional; if they are worn, they All players, including the EP, may be replaced must be of the same design. Exposed jewelry and may reenter the game once. The starting may not be worn. Shoes may have soft or hard player and the substitute cannot be in the lineup rubber cleats or be smooth. In adult play, metal at the same time; each player must occupy his soles or heel plates may be used if the spikes do same position in the batting order. A substitute not extend more than .75 inch. Shoes with round may enter a game only once. A starting pitcher metal spikes are illegal. who is removed from the game may reenter the game once at any position except pitcher. Rules Under the short-handed rule, a team may start The bulk of this chapter focuses on slowpitch with 10 or 11 players and continue with one fewer rules. Most of these rules apply also to fastpitch player when a player leaves a game for any reason and 16-inch slowpitch; for differences, see the other than ejection. If the player leaving the game “Modifications” section on page 219. The basics is a base runner, she is called out; when her turn at of softball are found in the rules for pitching, bat comes, an automatic out is declared. The player batting, base running, runners advancing safely, may not return to the lineup unless she has left for runners being put out, and recording wins. the blood rule, which stipulates that a player who is bleeding or who has blood on her uniform must Pitching receive appropriate treatment before continuing to play. Play may be momentarily suspended while The pitcher must come to a complete stop for at the player receives treatment, or the player may be least 1 second while facing the batter and then required to at least temporarily leave the game. release the ball within 10 seconds. One foot must be in contact with the pitcher’s plate throughout A player or coach who is ejected may stay on the delivery. A pitcher may use any continuous the bench, unless the offense is flagrant, in which windup but must deliver the ball on the first for- case the ejected person must leave the grounds. ward swing of the arm past the hip and toward If an ejected player continues to participate or home plate. All pitches must be thrown under- reenters the game, the contest is forfeited to the hand and must reach an arc between 6 and 12 other team. feet. The pitcher may not continue her windup after releasing the ball.

216  ◾  The Sports Rules Book At the beginning of each half inning, and when ◾◾ A base runner interferes with a fielder before a relief pitcher enters the game, the pitcher has 1 the batter reaches first base. minute to complete not more than three warm-up pitches. A pitcher must be removed on the second ◾◾ The batter-runner runs outside the 3-foot conference in an inning. Shouting instructions lane after hitting a fair ball and interferes from the bench is not considered a conference. A with the fielder taking the throw at first starting pitcher is credited with a win when she base. (The batter-runner may, however, run has pitched at least four innings and her team has outside the 3-foot lane to avoid a fielder a lead that it does not give up when she leaves attempting to field a ball.) the game. In a game shortened to five innings, the pitcher must pitch at least three innings to ◾◾ The batter-runner interferes with a fielder be credited with a victory. A pitcher is charged attempting to field the ball. with a loss when he leaves the game with his team trailing, and his team fails to tie the score ◾◾ The batter-runner rounds first base on a hit, or gain the lead. turns toward second, and is tagged. An umpire calls “no pitch” when play is sus- Base Running pended, when a runner leaves his base before the pitch reaches home or is hit, when a runner has A base runner must touch the bases in legal order. not yet retouched her base after a foul or dead A runner is entitled to an unoccupied base if she ball, or when the ball slips from the pitcher’s hand reaches it before she is put out. Two runners during his windup or backswing. may not occupy the same base. The runner who arrives first is entitled to the base, unless forced Batting to advance; the other runner may be tagged out with the ball. If the first runner was forced to Players must hit in the batting order on their advance, she may be tagged out. lineup card. The batter must stand in the batter’s box (the lines are part of the box); no part of her A run does not count if the third out is made by feet may be outside the lines. The batter may not the batter or a runner being forced out at a base, hinder the catcher from throwing while standing or by a runner being tagged out before another in the batter’s box. runner touches home plate. Batter Out A runner must tag up before advancing on a caught fly ball. The runner may not leave her A batter is out when he swings and misses at a base until the ball is touched by the fielder. In third strike or fouls a third strike; when his fair slowpitch play, a runner may not steal. A runner or foul fly ball is caught in the air by a fielder; hit by a batted ball is out, unless she is on a base when, on a ground ball, a defensive player who when the ball hits her. If the closest defensive possesses the ball touches first base before he player is in front of the base the runner is on, the does; or when he switches boxes after the pitcher ball is live. If the closest defender is behind the begins to pitch. base, the ball is dead. A batter is also out when he has an entire foot Runner Advancement on the ground out of the batter’s box and he hits a fair or foul ball; when any part of his foot touches A runner may advance, without the risk of being home plate and he hits a fair or foul ball; when he put out, when he is forced to vacate a base because is caught using an illegal or altered bat; or when the batter is walked, when a fielder is called for he bunts or chops the ball. Other instances in obstructing the runner, when the ball is over- which batters are out include these: thrown (runners advance two bases from where they were when the ball left the thrower’s hand), ◾◾ After the batter hits the ball in fair territory, the and when the ball is blocked by equipment not bat strikes the ball again (unless the umpire involved in the game (unless it is blocked by the rules this contact was unintentional). offensive team’s equipment, in which case the runner closest to home is called out). ◾◾ A batted ball in fair territory strikes the batter outside of the batter’s box. Other situations in which runners may advance without the risk of being put out include when the batter hits an over-the-fence home run,

Softball  ◾  217 when the batter hits a ground-rule double, when is touched by any fielder; when he is tagged with a fielder unintentionally carries a live ball into a ball that is not held securely by the fielder; and dead-ball territory (one base), or when a fielder when he overruns first base and returns to the intentionally causes a live ball to go into dead-ball base without turning toward second. territory (two bases). In addition, a runner is not out when he is on A runner may advance, but risks being put out, base while hit by a batted ball or when he dis- when the batter hits the ball, when a fly ball is first lodges a base while sliding into it. touched, or when a fair ball strikes the umpire or another runner after having passed an infielder Recording a Win other than the pitcher. A win may be recorded in a variety of ways: A runner must return to his base when the batter hits a foul ball, when an illegal hit is ◾◾ Seven-inning win for the visitors: If the visi- declared by the umpire, when the batter or tors are ahead after seven complete innings, the another runner is called for interference, when a game is over. pitch is not hit by the batter, or when the umpire rules that a fielder intentionally dropped a ball. ◾◾ Seven-inning win for the home team: If the home team is ahead after the visitors bat in the Runner Out top half of the seventh inning, the game is over; if the home team scores the winning run in the The runner is out when she runs out of the base- bottom of the seventh, the game is over when line to avoid being tagged out; when she is tagged the run scores. with a live ball while not on a base; when a fielder in possession of the ball touches the base to which ◾◾ Extra-inning victory: A game tied at the end the runner is forced to advance; when she passes of seven innings goes into extra innings and is a runner ahead of her; when she leaves her base played until one team has scored more than the before a caught fly ball is first touched and the other at the end of a complete inning or until the play is appealed; or when she misses a base and home team scores the winning run. the play is appealed. ◾◾ Shortened game: A game stopped by rain A runner is also out when she interferes with a or darkness or for other reasons is considered fielder attempting to field or throw a ball; when complete if after five innings one team has scored she is hit by a batted ball while not on base; when more runs than the other team. The game is con- she purposely kicks the ball or runs the bases sidered complete if after four and a half innings backward to confuse the defense; or when the the home team has scored more runs than the third-base coach runs toward home to draw a visitors. throw (the runner closest to home is out). ◾◾ Forfeit: The umpire may call a forfeit for a In addition, a runner is out when a coach or number of reasons, which include a team’s failing team member intentionally interferes with a to show up or refusing to begin a game, noticeably thrown ball while in the coach’s box; when the delaying or hastening the game, or willfully break- runner stays on her feet and deliberately crashes ing the rules. If an ejected player does not leave into a fielder who has the ball; when she leaves within 1 minute, that, too, is reason to call a forfeit. her base before the pitch reaches home plate, The score of a forfeited game is always 7-0. touches the ground, or is hit; or when she doesn’t return immediately to her base when the pitcher Terms receives the ball after a pitch while in the 8-foot radius of the pitcher’s mound (fastpitch only). Note: The following list includes terms that are specific to fastpitch as well as slowpitch. Runner Safe An altered bat is illegal. This includes inserting material inside the bat, applying more than two A runner is not out when he runs out of the base- layers of tape to the grip, or attaching a “flare” or line to avoid interfering with a fielder; when he is “cone” grip to the bat. hit by a fair, untouched batted ball and the umpire An appeal play is one in which the umpire does rules that no fielder had a chance to make an out; not have to make a decision unless requested by a when he cannot avoid contact with a fair ball that coach or player. The appeal must be made before the

218  ◾  The Sports Rules Book next pitch or before the pitcher and infielders have may be charged even if the fielder does not touch crossed the foul line on their way to the bench. the ball (e.g., for a ground ball that goes between An assist is credited to a fielder when her throw the legs). leads to the putout of a runner. Two or more fielders Fair territory and foul territory are marked by two can receive assists on the same play. foul lines. Each line extends from home plate. One A batter is credited with a base hit (single) when he line creates a third baseline and left field line, stop- reaches first base safely on a hit without aid of an ping at the left field fence; the other creates a first error, or by way of a fielder’s choice or force play baseline and right field line, stopping at the right at another base. field fence. Anything on or in between the foul lines A batter receives a base on balls when the umpire is considered fair territory; anything outside the foul calls four pitches “balls” (outside the strike zone and lines is considered foul territory. not swung at by the batter). This allows the batter to A fake tag is a form of obstruction of a runner by reach first base safely. In slowpitch, the pitcher can a fielder who neither has the ball nor is about to notify the umpire if he wants to issue an intentional receive it. The umpire will award the runner the base base on balls (also called a walk); the batter then may he would have made, in the umpire’s judgment, had go to first base without getting any pitches. the obstruction not occurred. The base path extends 3 feet on either side of a direct A force play occurs when a runner is forced to line between bases. A runner is out when she runs advance to the next base because the batter becomes outside the base path, except to avoid interfering a runner. When a batter hits a ground ball with a with a fielder fielding a batted ball. runner on first, the runner is forced to run to second. A catch means a fielder has secured the ball with If a fielder touches second base with the ball in her his hands or glove. Regarding a catch that results in possession before the runner reaches second, the a putout—such as an outfielder catching a fly ball runner is “forced out” at second. If a runner is on or a first baseman catching a throw on a force out second when a ground ball is hit, she is not forced from an infielder—the catch is good if the player to advance if first base is unoccupied. has complete control of the ball but then drops it in A foul ball is any ball hit into foul territory. the act of removing it from his glove or throwing A ground-rule double is awarded a batter when his it. A fly ball is not considered caught if the fielder fair ball bounces over or passes through or under simultaneously falls or collides with another player the fence. or the fence and the ball is dislodged. A home run is recorded when a batter hits a fair ball A chopped ball occurs in slowpitch when the batter over the fence or circles the bases on an inside-the- strikes the ball downward to bounce the ball high park hit without being thrown out. in the air intentionally. This is illegal and the batter An illegally batted ball occurs when a ball is hit and is ruled out. the batter’s entire foot is on the ground completely A crow hop is executed in fastpitch play by a pitcher outside the lines of the batter’s box, or when any who steps or hops off the front of the pitcher’s plate, part of the foot is touching home plate. It also occurs replants her pivot foot, and pushes off from this new when an illegal bat is used. starting point as she completes her delivery. The infield refers to that portion of the field contain- A dead ball is a ball that is not in play. A delayed ing the four bases. In terms of players, the infield is dead ball remains live until the play is finished; at made up of the first, second, and third basemen and that point the proper call is made. A delayed dead the shortstop. The pitcher and the catcher (called the ball may be called for an illegal pitch, catcher’s battery) are also positioned in the infield. obstruction, plate umpire interference, obstruc- The infield fly rule prohibits an infielder from tion, or a batted or thrown ball hit with detached intentionally dropping a fair fly ball that can be equipment. caught with normal effort. This rule is in effect with A double is a hit in which the batter safely reaches either first and second or first, second, and third second base. bases occupied before two are out. When an umpire A double play is recorded by the defense when two calls an infield fly rule, the batter is automatically outs are made on the same play. out and runners may advance at their own risk. An error is charged to a fielder who misplays a Any defensive player positioned in the infield at ball (e.g., dropping a fly ball or throw, or fumbling the start of the play is considered an infielder for a ground ball), thus prolonging an at bat for the the purpose of this rule. batter or the life of a base runner, or permitting Interference occurs when an offensive player a runner to advance one or more bases. An error impedes or confuses a defensive player as she is

Softball  ◾  219 trying to make a play. Interference can be physi- time at bat. A run must score for a sacrifice fly to cal or verbal. Defensive players must be given the be recorded. chance to play the ball. In fastpitch, a batter may In fastpitch, a runner may attempt to steal a base be called for interference if he impedes the catcher during a pitch to the batter. In slowpitch, no steal- in his throw on an attempted steal. A base runner ing is allowed. may be called for interference if she is hit by a batted A pitched ball is in a batter’s strike zone when it is ball while she is not on a base and the ball has not over any part of home plate between her armpits and passed an infielder, excluding the pitcher. It is not the top of her knees in fastpitch play, or between her interference, however, if the batted ball was first back shoulder and front knee in slowpitch play. touched by a defensive player or if no infielder had A batter is credited with a triple when he reaches a chance to make an out on the ball. third base safely on his hit. A runner may lead off a base in fastpitch once A triple play is credited to the defense when it the ball has left the pitcher’s hand. In slowpitch, a records three outs on the same play. runner may not leave her base until the ball is batted, In fastpitch, a wild pitch occurs when a pitch touches the ground, or reaches home plate, and she eludes the catcher, allowing one or more runners must return to her base if the ball is not hit. to advance a base. A wild pitch is judged to be the Leaping is the term used in fastpitch when the pitcher’s fault, not the catcher’s. A ball that bounces pitcher goes airborne as he delivers the ball. With in the dirt and allows any base runners to advance this delivery, the ball is released as the pitcher’s feet is automatically a wild pitch. return to the ground. This is legal in men’s fastpitch but illegal in women’s fastpitch. Officials A legal touch, resulting in an out, is made by a defensive player who tags a runner with the ball Umpires govern the game of softball. The home while the runner is not on a base. The ball may not plate umpire stands behind the catcher. She be juggled or dropped by the fielder, unless the controls the game and calls balls and strikes. runner knocks the ball from the fielder’s hands or She also calls plays involving the batter, fair and glove after the tag. foul balls, and plays at the plate. The base umpire A defensive player may be called for obstruction if assists the home plate umpire in making calls and she hinders a batter from hitting the ball or impedes makes decisions at the bases. See figure 38.2 for a base runner while the fielder does not have the umpires’ signals. ball and is not about to receive the ball. An out may be recorded in a variety of ways, includ- Modifications ing strikeout, force out, tag out, and fly out. The outfield is that portion of fair territory between The following modifications explain some of the the infield and the fence. In terms of players, the out- major differences between the rules just presented field consists of the left fielder, the center fielder, the and the rules for fastpitch, 16-inch slowpitch, right fielder, and, in slowpitch, an extra fielder. coed, and senior play. A batter-runner may overslide first base and not be put out, but a runner oversliding second or third Fastpitch base is in jeopardy of being tagged out. In fastpitch, a passed ball is charged to the catcher A team has nine players, with an optional desig- when she fails to control a pitch that should have nated player (DP) who can hit for one of the nine been caught or contained with normal effort and a players. If the DP plays defense for the player base runner or base runners advance. he’s hitting for, that player is considered to have A quick return pitch is one made by a pitcher before left the game. The DP can play defense for any the batter is set. other player, and that player can still hit. Other A batter is credited with the appropriate number of differences include the following: runs batted in (RBIs) when his hit is responsible for one or more runners scoring. RBIs are not tallied for ◾◾ Pitching: The pitcher’s hand may go past his runs scored as a result of errors or if a run scores as hip twice if there are not two complete revolutions the batter grounds into a double play. in the windup. In men’s and boys’ Junior Olympic A sacrifice fly is credited to a batter whose caught competition, the pitcher needs to have only one fly ball results in a runner on third base tagging foot in contact with the pitcher’s plate. In women’s up and scoring. A sacrifice fly does not count as a

220  ◾  The Sports Rules Book Timeout Strike Player is out Runner is safe ▶▶ Figure 38.2  Common softball officials’ signals. E4625/HK/fig.38.2/331209/alw-pulled/r2 and girls’ Junior Olympic competition, both feet pitch” is called when the umpire judges that the must be in contact with the pitcher’s plate. pitcher is attempting to “quick pitch” a batter who is not set. ◾◾ One step must be taken forward in releasing ◾◾ Ball in play: The ball is in play when a ball the ball. Male adult and Junior Olympic pitchers may have both feet in the air during this step. or strike is called. The ball is also live during an Female adult and Junior Olympic pitchers must intentional walk. drag the foot or push off the pitcher’s plate with ◾◾ Batter safe: A batter is not out on a third the pivot foot; the leap is not legal in female strike that is a foul ball, unless it is a bunt. A batter competition. For both males and females, the hit by a pitch—even if it bounces—that is not a delivery is underhanded, with the hand below strike and that he attempts to elude is awarded the hip and the wrist not farther from the body first base. than the elbow. ◾◾ Third strike: In Junior Olympic 10-and- ◾◾ After the pitcher has taken her position, she under play, the batter is out on the third strike, may not throw to a base without stepping back whether the ball is caught or not. off the pitcher’s plate before throwing. Failure to step off the pitcher’s plate results in a ball being ◾◾ Base running: Runners must maintain called and any runners advancing one base. “No contact with their bases until the ball leaves the pitcher’s hand or they will be called out. Stealing

Softball  ◾  221 is allowed at all levels except for Junior Olympic order may be used as a runner. A player may be 10 and under. In Junior Olympic 10 and under, used as a courtesy runner only once an inning; if runners may leave base when the ball leaves the it’s his time at bat and he is on base, he is called pitcher’s hand but must return to the base if the out. A second home plate is placed 8 feet from ball is not hit. the back tip of home plate, on the first baseline extended. Runners must touch this second home ◾◾ A runner off her base after a pitch must plate. If the runner touches the original home advance immediately to the next base or return plate, he may be called out on an appeal play. to her base once the pitcher has the ball within Once a runner crosses a line 20 feet from home the 8-foot circle. Failure to do so results in her plate, he may not return to third. He will be called being called out. out if he does so. A runner may be put out at home in a nonforce situation without being tagged; if a ◾◾ Runners advance one base when the umpire defensive player steps on the original home plate calls an illegal pitch. On a wild pitch or passed while holding the ball before the runner touches ball lodged in or under the backstop, runners are the second home plate, the runner is out. entitled to advance one base. Organizations ◾◾ Breaking ties: In Junior Olympic girls’ and women’s fastpitch, if the score is tied after nine Amateur Softball Association innings, the offensive team begins its half inning 2801 NE 50th St. with the batter who had made the last out in the Oklahoma City, OK 73111 previous inning placed on second base. www.softball.org International Softball Federation 16-Inch Slowpitch 1900 S. Park Rd. Plant City, FL 33563 A strike is live, but runners cannot advance. 813-864-0100 Runners may lead off their bases, but they do www.internationalsoftball.com risk being picked off by the pitcher or catcher. National Softball Association They may not advance on an overthrown pick- P.O. Box 7 off attempt. Nicholasville, KY 40340 859-887-4114 Coed www.playnsa.com United States Specialty Sports Association The lineup consists of five males and five females, 215 Celebration Pl., Ste. 180 batting in alternating order. Two males and two Celebration, FL 34747 females play in both the infield and the outfield; 321-939-7640 one male and one female split duties as pitcher www.usssa.com and catcher. The lineups can also have two extra USA Softball players (EPs), one male and one female. Any 10 2801 NE 50th St. players may play defense if the proper mix is Oklahoma City, OK 73111 kept. If a male batter is walked, whether inten- www.usasoftball.org tionally or not, the next female batter has the option of walking also. The 11-inch ball is pitched to women; the 12-inch ball is pitched to men. Senior One or two EPs may be used. Unlimited courtesy runners are allowed; any player in the batting

39 Speedskating © Photodisc

Speedskating  ◾  223 Ice skates used for hunting and made of wood, down mark 10 meters beyond the starting bone, antlers, and leather straps first appeared line. Short-track courses have safety padding in Europe in the 4th century. Iron skates were covering the walls around the entire ends of crafted in Scotland in 1572, and competitions the rink. began to take place soon after that, with racing becoming more popular across Europe in the Skaters 18th century. In 1850, the first all-steel skates were made in America, and in 1889 Netherlands Skaters compete in age classes: pony (9 years old hosted the first world championships. Speed- and younger), midget (11 and younger), juve- skating events for men became part of the first nile (13 and younger), junior (15 and younger), Winter Olympics in 1924; women began Olympic intermediate (17 and younger), senior (18 and competition in 1960. older), and master (30 to 39, 40 to 49, 50 to 59, and 60 to 69). Overview Equipment Objective: To skate the fastest time. Competitors: The number of skaters in a In short track, skaters wear safety helmets, shin guards, neck protection, gloves, and skates. There competition varies from two to large packs, are no requirements for skates, but the boots are depending on the race. usually made of leather and composite materials Distances: Ranges from 500 to 5,000 meters for and have steel blades of 12 to 18 inches. Long- short track and 500 to 10,000 meters for long track skates have light, low-cut boots with thin track, with longer distances for marathon blades that are only slightly curved on the bottom. events. Short-track skates have sturdy, high-cut boots, Skaters compete in short-track events, long-track with thicker, adjustable blades that have more events, relays, and marathons. Skaters compete curvature on the bottom to negotiate the sharper in pack-style racing in groups of four to eight turns and more pronounced leans. skaters, where the first skater who crosses the finish line wins the race, or in long-track metric Rules style (Olympic) head-to-head racing, where the best time of all competitors in a distance is the If a skater falls within the first 10 meters of a long- winner. track race or the apex of the corner in a short-track Olympic-style, long-track speedskaters reach race, the starter may recall the race with a second speeds of up to 35 miles per hour; short-track shot. If the fall was not caused by interference speedskaters lean into the turns at a 65-degree and does not impede other skaters, the starter angle to maintain speeds of up to 30 miles per won’t recall the race. Falls are not called back in hour. The world record for 10,000 meters is 27.6 metric-style racing. miles per hour. Skaters also compete in relay and marathon competitions. A skater may make one false start, after which the race will be restarted. On the second false start Rink made by the same racer, that racer is disqualified from that event. In pack style, competitors may A short-track course is a 111.12-meter oval within not cross to the inner edge of the track, except an Olympic-sized hockey rink (30 meters by 60 when they may do so without interfering with meters). A long-track course is a 400-meter oval. other skaters. Skaters must skate in a straight Survey lines (or points) define track lanes (see line once they enter the homestretch, unless they figure 39.1). Lines are either snowlines or blocks are able to change lanes without interfering with set on the ice for long track. The skater’s path is another skater. considered to be .5 meter outside the survey line. This path is used in determining the distance. In metric-style racing, the skater who starts on the inner track changes to the outer track at the The tracks have start and finish lines marked crossing straight, and the skater starting on the in the ice. Long-track courses also have a fall- outer track changes to the inner. The change in tracks occurs each time the skaters come to the

224  ◾  The Sports Rules Book Start for To be used for 1500 meters semi-finals and finals 500 meters D of 500 meters A } Finish Line C F BE Start for 111.12 meters track 1000 meters 3000 meters 5000 meters Track 60 x 30 meters rink 2xA 57.71 meters 2 x 8.5 x π 53.41 meters A = Length of straight 28.85 meters One lap = 111.12 meters B = Curve 8.00 meters C = Measuring curve 8.50 meters Laps in different distances: D = Straight width 7.00 meters minimum E = Width from apex block 7.57 meters 500 m = 4½ laps 3000 m 27 laps F = Actual width of straight 1000 m = 9 laps 5000 m = 45 laps 1500 m = 13½ laps + 1.5 meters ▶▶ Figure 39.1  The dimEe4n6si2o5n/sHaKn/Hd acnolmanp/oFnigen3t9s.1o/f3a3s1p2e1e0d/Tsakmatimngy Prinakg.e/R2-alw crossing straight. The skater coming from the ◾◾ assisting another skater in a race or using inner track may not hinder the skater coming unfair team work; from the outer track on the crossing straight. ◾◾ endangering other skaters by kicking out In long-track races, a skater with inside or the blade or throwing the body across the pole position must be passed on the right side, finish line; unless the skater leaves enough room on the left for a skater to pass. It is the responsibility of the ◾◾ unsporting conduct, including foul lan- skater who is passing to avoid collision, although guage and fighting; and the skater being passed may not act improperly and intentionally cause a collision. In short-track ◾◾ loafing, competing to lose, or coaching races, skaters may pass on the left or right side. during a race. Again, the responsibility for avoiding collision falls on the passing skater. Skaters may be dis- Terms qualified for Assistance is a foul called when a skater gives or ◾◾ impeding, blocking, charging, or pushing receives assistance during a race. This does not another skater; apply to relay races. Cross track is a foul called when a skater does not ◾◾ skating inside the corner markers; stay in her lane and interferes with another skater. ◾◾ interfering with another skater by crossing Impeding is a foul called in short-track speedskat- ing when a skater deliberately impedes, blocks, to his path of skating;

Speedskating  ◾  225 charges, or pushes another competitor with any in separate lanes, racing against the clock; the part of the body. distances are 500 meters, 1,000 meters, 1,500 Kicking out is a foul called when a skater deliber- meters, 5,000 meters, and 10,000 meters for ately kicks out his skate, thereby causing danger. men, and 500 meters, 1,000 meters, 1,500 meters, This includes kicking out at the finish line and 3,000 meters, and 5,000 meters for women. In throwing the body across the finish line. pack style, up to eight skaters compete at once, Off track is a foul called when a skater shortens not confined to lanes, using drafting and race the distance to be skated with one or both skates on strategies. the left side of the curve, marked by track marking blocks. ◾◾ Relay: Teams of four skaters compete at Team skating is a foul called for any deliberate varying distances; the national championship dis- action during a race that benefits one skater over tance is 3,000 meters for ladies and 5,000 meters another skater. This does not apply to relay races. for men. Each member must take part in the race. A skater finishing a portion must touch the team Officials member who is taking over. Relay exchanges may take place at any time except during the Large competitions include a chief referee, final two laps. assistant referees, competitor stewards, starters, finish judges, timers, scorers, and a lap counter. ◾◾ Marathon: These events are contested over The chief referee has overall authority, including distances of 25 kilometers and 50 kilometers. deciding all protests. Organizations Modifications International Skating Union Speedskating events include the following: Ch. de Primerose 2 CH-1007 Lausanne ◾◾ Short track: Individual and relay events are Switzerland contested on a 111.12-meter track. In individual www.isu.org events, four to eight skaters (the pack) start on the line; the first to cross the finish line with the Speed Skating Canada leading tip of her skate blade wins. International 2781 Lancaster Rd., Ste. 402 distances for individual competitions are 500 Ottawa, ON K1B 1A7 meters, 1,000 meters, 1,500 meters, and 3,000 www.speedskating.ca meters for both men and women. U.S. Speedskating ◾◾ Long track: Events are contested on a 400- P.O. Box 18370 meter oval, using one of two formats: metric Kearns, UT 84118 (also known as Olympic style) or pack style. 801-417-5360 In metric style, two skaters compete at once, www.usspeedskating.org

© Jason Cairnduff/ActionImages/ICON SMI 40 Squash

Squash  ◾  227 Variations of squash originated in England bounces twice. When a good serve is delivered, in the early 1800s, when the use of a softer the opposing side attempts to return the serve. ball—one that could be “squashed” by a racket— Hits continue to alternate from side to side until gave rise to the game’s name. Squash was intro- the rally is over. In traditional scoring, when the duced to America in the 1880s. There are two server wins the rally, he scores a point; when the versions of the game: one using a soft ball and receiver wins a rally, she gains the serve. (In PAR one using a harder ball and a smaller court. The scoring play, games go to 11 points, with a point international version is played with the soft ball; per rally.) Play is continuous throughout the the American version—played also in parts of game, except for equipment changes approved Canada and Mexico—uses a hard ball, although by the referee or for injury. There is a 90-second in the 1990s the soft ball gained in popularity in break between games. the United States, with more than 95 percent of the games in the United States being played with Court the soft ball. The dimensions and markings of a squash court Squash’s popularity has spread to numerous are shown in figure 40.1. The court is 21 feet wide countries, and it is played worldwide by 15 mil- by 32 feet long. The short line is 18 feet from the lion people, with squash courts in almost every front wall. country. Recently the game has increased in popularity in South America, eastern Europe, the Out line Far East, and the United States. Because of the overwhelming popularity of the soft-ball game, this chapter covers only the rules for the soft-ball version. Overview 32 ft. Objective: To win rallies and ultimately Cut line the game by scoring more points than 6 ft. Tin line the opponent. 19 in. Number of Players: Two players (singles) is by far the dominant way the game is 18 ft. played. Doubles is occasionally played on a different size court 15 ft. Scoring: In traditional English scoring, Short line only the server can score, and games go to 9 points. If the score reaches 8-8 the Service box Half-court line 14 ft. receiver may choose to call, “Set one,” which means that the next player who 21 ft. scores wins, or “Set two,” which means that the first player to reach 10 points ▶▶ Figure 40.1  The dimensions and markings of a wins. In point-a-rally (PAR) scoring, a soft-ball squEa4sh62c5o/uHrKt./fig.40.1/331211/alw-pulled/r1 point is scored for each rally, and games go to 11 points. Match: A match is the best of five games. Players hit a small rubber ball against the front wall, above the tin and within the out-of-court lines, attempting to score points by hitting the ball in such a way that the opponent cannot return it before it

228  ◾  The Sports Rules Book Players In singles play, when a player loses the serve, the serve passes to the receiver. In doubles play, Players may be coached only during intervals the first side to serve in a game gets only one between games. A referee may penalize a player server. Once that rally is lost, the serve switches for a number of behaviors, including offensive to the opposing team. From there on, each side or intimidating behavior, obscene language and gets two servers; when the second server loses gestures, abuse of racket or ball, arguing with the serve, the serve goes to the opponents. At the marker or referee, unnecessary physical the beginning of the second and subsequent contact, excessive racket swing, and danger- games, the winner of the previous game serves ous play. first. A server “serves her hand out” (loses her serve) when Equipment ◾◾ her serve first hits a side wall, floor, or The ball has a diameter of 1.5 inches and ceiling; weighs 12.7 to 13.4 ounces. It is made of rubber or butyl, or a combination; it’s hollow and, ◾◾ part of one foot is not on the floor in the appropriately enough, “squashy.” Rackets are server’s box, with no part of that foot on the commonly made from titanium and graphite box line, when she strikes the ball; or composites. They may be no longer than 27 inches; the stringed area may not be larger ◾◾ the ball bounces on or outside the short or than 8.5 inches long by 7.25 inches wide. half-court line of the quarter court opposite When the ball is not in play, another ball may the service box. be substituted for it, upon mutual consent by the players or upon an appeal by one player A serve is also lost when a server to the referee. ◾◾ attempts and fails to hit a serve, Rules ◾◾ does not strike the ball correctly (e.g., hits The fundamental rules of squash are found in its the ball more than once or carries the ball rules for serving and for playing out rallies. with the racket), ◾◾ serves the ball out, Serving ◾◾ serves onto or below the cut line, or ◾◾ is struck by her own serve before the oppo- At the beginning of a game and when a receiver nent can strike at it. becomes a server, the server may choose to serve from either service box (see figure 39.1). Part Rallies of one foot must be on the floor in the service box, with no part of the foot touching the ser- A good serve may be returned before the ball vice box line, when the server strikes the ball. strikes the ground or after it bounces once. It The server throws the ball to begin the serve. must hit the front wall above the board before The served ball may not hit any surface before touching the ground. It may not touch any part striking the front wall. It must strike the front of the striker’s body or clothing, or any part of wall between the service line and the out line so the opponent’s body, clothing, or racket. that it reaches the floor within the quarter court opposite the server’s box (unless volleyed by If a striker hits an opponent with the ball, the opponent). the striker wins the stroke if the return would have struck the front wall without first touch- A server who throws the ball and then does ing any other surface. The exception is if the not attempt to hit it may serve again. A server striker has followed the ball around and turned continues to serve until he loses a rally. As long to strike the ball to the right of his body after it as he holds serve, he alternates boxes. If a rally has passed to his left, or vice versa—that is, the ends in a let (an undecided point), he serves again striker turns to hit the ball to the front wall after from the same box. it has already passed him and struck the back wall. This is an example of “turning,” and while the rules do not specifically prohibit turning, it

Squash  ◾  229 is deemed a dangerous maneuver because the physical contact with her or endangers her with striker loses sight of his opponent. Players are an excessive racket swing. strongly encouraged to call “let” in this case. If a player does strike a ball while turning and In addition to previous mentions of lets, rallies the ball strikes the opponent, it’s the opponent’s are replayed when point. ◾◾ the striker doesn’t hit the ball in a manner If a striker hits an opponent with the ball, to ensure the safety of his opponent, and the ball struck another wall before striking the front wall, a let is called, unless the referee ◾◾ a player is distracted by an occurrence on believes the return would have won the rally. In or off the court, the latter case, the striker is awarded the stroke. If the return would not have been good, and it ◾◾ the receiver is not ready for the serve and strikes an opponent, the striker loses the rally, or doesn’t attempt to return it, “no let” is awarded to the striker. ◾◾ the ball breaks during play, or A striker may make contact only once on a ◾◾ court conditions affect play. return but may make any number of attempts to hit the ball before it bounces twice. If a striker A player may appeal a decision that affects the swings and misses at a ball, which then hits the rally by saying, “Let, please.” The referee stops opponent, her clothing, or her racket, the referee play and decides on the appeal. Penalties that the will call a let if he believes the striker could have referee may levy include a warning or a stroke, made a good return. The striker loses the stroke game, or match awarded to the opponent. if the referee believes she could not have made a good return. Terms The outgoing striker must make every effort The board is the lowest horizontal marking on the to allow the incoming striker a clear path to the front wall, with the tin beneath it stretching the ball. It is also the incoming striker’s responsibility width of the court. to make every effort to get to the ball. Down is the expression used when a shot strikes the tin or fails to reach the front wall. To avoid interference, a player must make Game ball means that the server needs 1 point to every effort to provide his opponent with unob- win the game. structed, direct access to the ball; a fair view of The half-court line runs parallel to the side walls, the ball; and freedom to hit the ball directly to the dividing the court into two equal parts, intersecting front wall. If interference is called, the play is a the short line to form a “T.” let or a stroke is awarded to the offended player. A hand refers to the time during which a player A let is not allowed if the player would not have has the serve. made a good return, if he did not make adequate A handout means that the serve is changing hands. effort to get to and play the ball, if he created his Match ball means that the server needs 1 point to own interference, or if he clearly accepted the win the match. interference and played on. Not up is the term used when the ball has not been struck according to the rules. A let is always allowed if one player refrains The out line is a continuous line comprising the from striking the ball because of a reasonable fear front wall line, both side wall lines, and the back of striking her opponent with the ball or with the wall line. This line marks the top boundaries of the racket. This is the case even if no interference court. Unlike in tennis, if the ball touches any part actually occurred. of the line, it is considered out. If there are no side wall or back wall lines, the boundaries are the tops The referee will award a stroke to a player of the walls. If a ball strikes part of the horizontal if the opponent does not make every effort to top surface of such an unlined wall, it is out, even avoid interfering and the player would have if it rebounds into the court. made a good return. A stroke is also awarded if A quarter court is one-half of the back part of the the player would have made a winning return, court, which is divided into two equal parts by the even if the opponent makes every effort to avoid half-court line. interfering. The referee may also award a stroke to a player if her opponent makes unnecessary

230  ◾  The Sports Rules Book A rally is the play that begins with the serve and Officials ends when the ball is no longer in play. A service box is in each quarter court, bounded by A referee controls the match, sometimes assisted the side wall, the short line, and two other lines. The by a marker. The referee makes all major calls and server serves from this box. decisions; the marker calls the play, calls the score, The service line is a horizontal line across the front and calls faults, downs, outs, and handouts. wall, 6 feet above the floor. The short line is parallel to and 18 feet from the Organizations front wall. The striker is the player whose turn it is to hit the U.S. Squash ball. 555 8th Ave., Ste. 1102 A stroke is gained by the player who wins a rally New York, NY 10018-4311 because of interference. A stroke results in either a 212-268-4090 point scored for the server or a change of hand. www.us-squash.org The tin is between the board and the floor, running World Squash Federation the length of the floor. It makes a distinctive noise Innovation Centre, Unit 14 when the ball hits it. It is 19 inches tall (17 inches Highfield Dr., Churchfields in professional matches). St. Leonards-on-Sea TN38 9UH England www.worldsquash.org.uk

41 Swimming and Diving

232  ◾  The Sports Rules Book The origins of swimming as a sport are not swimming was added as an event at the 2008 known, although swimming championships Olympic Games. The competition, conducted were first held in Japan in the early 1600s. For a separately for men and women, is over a race in London in 1844, England’s Swimming distance of 10 kilometers. Society brought over several American Indians; Diving Heights: Competitions are conducted these Native Americans dominated the race using from 1-meter and 3-meter springboards as a style unknown to the English, a style resembling well as from 5-meter, 7.5-meter, and 10-meter today’s freestyle stroke. Swimming has been an platforms Olympic sport since the inception of the modern In swimming, both individual and relay races Olympics in 1896. are contested over varying distances, using one stroke or a combination of strokes. Strokes used Diving as a sport consisted only of what is are the breaststroke, the butterfly, the backstroke, now known as the forward straight dive until the and the freestyle. In team competitions, swim- early 1800s, when Swedish and German gymnasts mers earn points for their teams according to began performing acrobatic twists, turns, and where they place in the competition. jumps off the board. Diving became an Olympic In diving, several components of the dive are sport for men in 1904 and for women in 1912. The judged. Each dive has a rating for degree of dif- United States has long been successful in interna- ficulty, which is multiplied by the judges’ awards tional competition, although in the 1990s China to obtain a total point score for the dive. Divers emerged and has become a dominant force in the perform a series of dives in various body posi- sport. Synchronized diving made its debut at the tions, with different degrees of difficulty depend- 1995 FINA World Cup in Atlanta, Georgia. ing on the level of competition. Overview Swimming Pool Objective: In swimming, the objective is to record Along-course pool is 50 meters long; a short-course the fastest time; in diving, it is to receive the pool is 25 meters or yards long (see figure 41.1). highest score from judges. The minimum lane width is 2.13 meters. For Pool Swimming Distances: Numerous distances, ranging from 50 to 1,500 meters. Open-water 50 m Starting platforms 21 m Backstroke Recall 5m flags rope ▶▶ Figure 41.1  The dimensions and features of a swimming pool. E4625/HK/fig.41.1/331214/alw-pulled/r1

Swimming and Diving  ◾  233 championship competitions, the water depth is at matic systems are activated by electric impulse least 2 meters. and stopped by timers pushing buttons when racers finish. Manual timing is usually done with Pool-bottom lane markers, 10 inches wide, handheld stopwatches. mark the middle of each lane. These markers terminate in a “T” 2 meters from the pool wall. Swimming Rules End-wall targets, in the shape of a “T,” are in the center of the wall at the end of each lane, extend- Swimmers are seeded in preliminary heats ing at least 1 meter below the surface. according to their fastest times. The fastest swim- mers in each heat are placed in center lanes of Lanes are numbered from right to left as swim- the pool. In finals heats, the slowest swimmers mers stand facing the pool. Lanes are separated swim first and the fastest swimmers swim last. by floating lane dividers with a diameter of 5 to Some events, such as the Olympic Games and 11 centimeters. The color of the floats from the world championships, have semifinals, from wall to 5 meters out are different from the color which the fastest eight competitors qualify for for the rest of the course. the finals. Swimmers who record the same time tie for that event. The starting platforms for a long-course pool are between .5 and .75 meter above the water. To begin a race, competitors are called to their For a short-course pool, they’re no higher than starting blocks. After the referee’s whistle, swim- .75 meter above the water. The front edge of the mers “take their mark.” When they are motion- platforms is flush with the wall. The top surfaces less, the starter signals the start by shooting a gun of the platforms are square, at least .5 by .5 meter, or sounding a horn. If a swimmer leaves too early, and covered with a nonslip material. he will be disqualified at the end of the race. A swimmer is not charged with a false start if it was Backstroke starting grips are between 1 and 2 caused by the motion of another swimmer. feet above the water. The front edge of the grips is parallel with the water and flush with the face Competitors must stay in their own lanes. of the end wall. Three triangular backstroke Swimmers may be disqualified for swimming flags are placed 5 meters from each end of the out of their lanes or otherwise obstructing other course, anywhere from 1.8 to 2.5 meters above swimmers. Grabbing lane dividers to assist the water. forward motion is prohibited. A swimmer is dis- qualified for standing on the bottom of the pool, A recall rope is used to recall swimmers after except during a freestyle race. A swimmer may a false start. The rope is dropped about 11 meters not walk or spring from the bottom of the pool from the start in a short-course pool and 15 meters or leave the pool. A swimmer who is not entered in a long-course pool. Water temperature is to be in a race but enters the pool while a race is under maintained at 77 to 82 degrees Fahrenheit (25 to way is disqualified from the next event in which 28 degrees Celsius). she was scheduled to participate. A swimmer may not compete in more than three individual events Swimmers per day in a preliminaries and finals meet. In a timed finals meet, a swimmer may not compete Swimmers compete in breaststroke, butterfly, in more than five events per day. backstroke, freestyle, and individual medley, which is a combination of all four strokes. They Breaststroke swim in different age groups. Traditionally recognized age groups are 10 and under, 11 to Swimmers use a forward start from blocks. In 12, 13 to 14, 15 to 16, and 17 to 18. Many local the water, both shoulders must be in line with meets feature 8 and under, single age groups, the water surface, and the arms must move in or senior events. the same horizontal plane. The hands are pushed forward together from the breast and brought Swimming Equipment back under the water’s surface; the elbows must be underwater, except for the final stroke. The Races are timed with automatic, semiautomatic, hands may not be brought beyond the hips, or manual timing systems. Automatic systems are except during the first stroke after the start and activated by electric impulse and stopped when the swimmer touches the touchpad. Semiauto-

234  ◾  The Sports Rules Book after each turn. At least part of the swimmer’s Freestyle head must break the water’s surface at least once on each complete stroke cycle, except after the A swimmer uses a forward start. Any style of start and turns, during which the swimmer may stroke may be used. To make a turn, a swimmer take one complete arm stroke, one dolphin kick, must touch the wall; to complete the race, the and one breaststroke leg kick while submerged. swimmer must touch the wall at the prescribed The feet should be turned outward during the distance. propelling part of the kick; scissors or flutter kicks are not permitted. Individual Medley At turns, a swimmer must touch the wall with This event consists of four equal portions, with both hands at, above, or below the surface. Once strokes used in this order: butterfly, backstroke, the touch is made, a swimmer may complete breaststroke, and freestyle. Swimmers use a the turn in any way he desires. At the finish, a forward start and must complete each por- swimmer must touch the wall with both hands tion according to the rules for the appropriate at, above, or below the water surface. strokes. When changing from one stroke to the next, the swimmer follows the turn rules for Butterfly the stroke just completed, except for the back- stroke, where a swimmer must touch the wall The swimmer uses a forward start and keeps her as if she were finishing a backstroke race. As shoulders in line with the water’s surface and with the freestyle finish, a swimmer completes at or past the vertical toward her breast on each this race when any part of her body touches the stroke. She may use only one arm pull under- final wall. water per stroke, but she may use two dolphin kicks. She must bring both arms forward, over Relays the water, and pull them back together. The legs must kick in unison. A swimmer may not use a In a freestyle relay, four swimmers each swim scissors or breaststroke kick. one-quarter of the distance, using the freestyle rules. In a medley relay, four swimmers each At turns, the body should be on the breast. swim one-quarter of the distance, with the first Both hands must touch the wall simultaneously swimmer using the backstroke; the second, at, above, or below the surface. After the touch, breaststroke; the third, butterfly; and the fourth, the swimmer may complete the turn any way she freestyle. wants. Her shoulders must be at or past vertical toward the breast when she leaves the wall. At the No swimmer may swim more than one leg in finish, she must touch the wall with both hands a relay. Each swimmer must touch the touchplate simultaneously at, above, or below the surface, or pad in his lane before his teammate begins. A with her shoulders in line with the surface. team is disqualified for violating this rule. Backstroke Scoring The swimmer begins in the pool, pulling himself In dual meets, scoring for individual events is on toward the starting block, facing the starting a 5-3-1-0 basis; that is, the winner gets 5 points, end. The feet must be under the water to start. the swimmer placing second gets 3 points, the The swimmer pushes off on his back. Part of the third-place swimmer gets 1 point, and all other swimmer’s body must break the water’s surface competitors get no points. Scoring for relays is throughout the race, except during the turns. At on a 7-0 basis. For triangular meets, scoring for the start and during turns, a swimmer may be individual events is on a 6-4-3-2-1-0 basis; for underwater for up to 15 meters. relays, it’s 8-4-0. Scoring for most other meets, with point values doubled for relay events, is as To make a turn, some part of the swimmer’s follows: body must touch the wall. A swimmer may use a single or double arm pull to begin the turn. ◾◾ 4-lane pools: 5-3-2-1 Upon leaving the wall, the swimmer must return ◾◾ 5-lane pools: 6-4-3-2-1 to a position on his back. He finishes the race by ◾◾ 6-lane pools: 7-5-4-3-2-1 touching the wall while on his back.

Swimming and Diving  ◾  235 ◾◾ 7-lane pools: 8-6-5-4-3-2-1 United States Masters Swimming ◾◾ 8-lane pools: 9-7-6-5-4-3-2-1 P.O. Box 185 ◾◾ 9-lane pools: 10-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1 Londonderry, NH 03053-0185 ◾◾ 10-lane pools: 11-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1 1-800-550-SWIM www.usms.org In case of a tie between swimmers, the points USA Swimming for the tied place and the following place are 1 Olympic Plaza added and divided in two; each swimmer is Colorado Springs, CO 80909-5778 credited with the same points. For example, in a 719-866-4578 10-lane pool, two swimmers tying for first would www.usaswimming.org receive 10 points each (11 for first, 9 for second; divide that total of 20 by 2). Diving Pool Swimming Terms The competition springboard is made of flex- ible material and a nonskid surface. It is 20 Body refers to the torso, including the shoulders inches wide and 16 feet long, set at either 1 or 3 and hips. meters above the water’s surface. The 3-meter A forward start is a forward entry taken facing the springboard should have guard rails extending water. to at least the pool’s edge; boards should project Heats and semifinals are competitions used to at least 1.5 meters, and preferably 1.8 meters, pare the field to a manageable number for a final beyond the pool’s edge and over the water. event. A lane is the area in which each swimmer swims. The platform is solid and nonflexible and has Lanes are separated by lane lines, which are floating a nonslip surface. It is at least 20 feet long and markers, and are marked on the bottom of the pool 6.5 feet wide. The platform height is 10 meters; by lane markings. intermediate platforms can be set from 5 to 7.5 Long course refers to events held in 50-meter meters. For synchronized diving events, the pools. 10-meter platform should be at least 8 feet wide, Short course refers to events held in 25-meter or and preferably 10 feet. The water depth varies, 25-yard pools. depending on the height of the platform. Timed finals are competitions in which heats are swum and final placements are determined by times Divers recorded in the heats. Divers compete in three divisions: Swimming Officials ◾◾ Junior: for divers 18 and under. There are three junior programs—learn to dive, Officials include a referee, a starter, and a stroke novice, and competitive. or turn judge. Three timers per lane are used; ◾◾ Senior: for divers of any age, although typi- they are presided over by a timing judge. Other cally senior divers are ages 16 to 28. They officials, in applicable situations, include place must meet competitive requirements in judges and relay takeoff judges. terms of number of dives and difficulty. ◾◾ Masters: for 25 and older. Swimming Organizations Diving Rules Fédération Internationale de Natation The order of diving is decided by random draw. Av. de l’Avant-Poste 4 The diver’s name, the dive, and its degree of CH-1005 Lausanne difficulty are announced before each dive. After Switzerland each dive, the judges, without communicating www.fina.org with each other, immediately and simultaneously flash their awards.

236  ◾  The Sports Rules Book A diver may not perform a dive other than that dive choice is up to the diver, but the total announced (doing so will result in a failed dive, degree of difficulty of all dives cannot exceed with no score awarded) or repeat the same dive, a predetermined limit. even in a different body position. In competitions 3. Voluntary dives without limit: The diver other than national championships, a diver may performs a number of dives from different elect not to perform a dive and take no points. This groups. There is no limit on the total degree is to ensure the safety of the participants. There are of difficulty. These dives are commonly six types of dives that may be performed. referred to as optional dives. 1. Forward dive: The diver begins facing for- Scoring ward toward the water and rotates toward the water. A dive is judged on five parts: 2. Backward dive: The diver begins standing 1. Approach: the walk or run to the end of the backward on the end of the springboard or springboard or platform. This begins for- platform and rotates toward the water. ward, reverse, and some twisting dives. 3. Reverse dive: The diver begins facing for- 2. Takeoff: springing and jumping from the ward toward the water and rotates toward end of the springboard or platform to begin the springboard or platform. a dive 4. Inward: The diver begins standing backward 3. Elevation: the amount of height in the air on the end of the springboard or platform achieved after takeoff and rotates toward the springboard or platform. 4. Execution: the technique and grace in the air 5. Entry: the angle of entry, which should be 5. Armstand dive: The diver begins from a handstand on the end of the platform. This vertical; the straightness of the body; the dive is performed only in platform diving. amount of splash; the distance out from the springboard or platform; and whether 6. Twisting dive: The diver includes a twist in the dive was in front of the springboard or any of the previous five groups of dives. This platform or off to one side is the largest group of dives. Judges award points in half-point increments Divers may execute dives in four body based on the following scale: positions: ◾◾ Very good: 8 1/2 to 10 points 1. Straight: no bending at the knees or hips; feet ◾◾ Good: 6 1/2 to 8 points together and toes pointed ◾◾ Satisfactory: 5 to 6 points ◾◾ Deficient: 2 1/2 to 4 1/2 points 2. Pike: bent at the hips with legs straight; feet ◾◾ Unsatisfactory: 1/2 to 2 points together and toes pointed ◾◾ Completely failed: 0 points 3. Tuck: bent at the hips and knees; feet and When seven or nine judges are used, the two knees together and toes pointed highest and two lowest awards are cancelled. When five judges are used, the high and low 4. Free: any combination of the other three awards are cancelled. When nine judges are used, positions when executing a twisting dive the sum of the remaining awards is multiplied by the degree of difficulty and then by .6 to obtain Three categories of dives may be performed, the equivalent of a three-judge score. When seven and the requirements for each are specified by or five judges are used, the sum of the remaining the level of competition: three awards is multiplied by the dive’s degree of difficulty. 1. Required dives: A specific dive or body posi- tion—or both—is designated. All divers in the contest must perform a required dive. 2. Voluntary dives with limit: Divers perform a number of dives from different groups. The

Swimming and Diving  ◾  237 Judging ◾◾ In the tuck position, the tuck should be as compact as possible; 1 to 2 points will be The starting position for dives with an approach deducted for opening the knees. is assumed when the diver is ready to take the first step. For standing dives, the starting position ◾◾ In the free position, any combination of the is assumed when the diver stands still on the front three other positions must conform to the end of the springboard or platform, with head criteria of those positions. erect and body and arms straight. ◾◾ A twist dive is considered failed if the twist If the diver begins the approach or press and is greater or less than 90 degrees of the stops, a balk has been committed. A preparatory announced twist. movement of the arms may be made before the approach or press without a balk being called. The As described earlier, the entry into the water first balk results in 2 points being deducted from for all dives must be vertical, with the body each judge’s award. A second balk on the same straight and the toes pointed. On headfirst dive results in a failed dive. Any action before the entries, the arms should be stretched beyond diver takes the starting position does not count. the head in a line with the body, with the hands close together. If any part of the body below the The forward approach should be smooth, waist enters the water before the hands, the dive straight, and graceful and shall be not less than is considered failed. On feet-first entries, the three steps and a hurdle. The takeoff for the arms should be held close to the body, without hurdle—the jump to the end of the springboard— bending at the elbows. (Novice divers perform- must be from one foot only. ing certain dives are allowed to hold their arms straight overhead.) In running dives, the takeoff from the spring- board must be from both feet simultaneously. Diving Officials Springboard dives with a forward takeoff may be A referee is in charge of the competition and over- performed either standing or with an approach. sees the judges (typically three for dual meets and five for regional meets). A secretary oversees the In running platform dives, the diver must take scoring table and verifies the results. The scoring at least three steps and a hop for a two-foot take- table may consist of three or more personnel who off, and at least four steps for a one-foot takeoff. record and calculate the scores. Two points will be deducted from each judge’s score for violations. Diving Organizations On a standing dive, the diver must not bounce Fédération Internationale de Natation on the board or rock it excessively before takeoff. Av. de l’Avant-Poste 4 Doing so will result in a deduction of not more CH-1005 Lausanne than 2 points from each judge, at the individual Switzerland judge’s discretion. www.fina.org Touching the end of the board or diving to the USA Diving side during the execution of the dive will result 132 E. Washington St., Ste. 850 in a deduction of points, up to the discretion of Indianapolis, IN 46204 each judge. While the diver is in the air, the judges 317-237-5252 look for the following: www.usadiving.org ◾◾ In the straight position, points are deducted if the knees or hips are bent. ◾◾ In the pike position, the pike should be as compact as possible (the legs must be straight).

© Franck Faugere/DPPI/ICON SMI 42 Synchronized Swimming