Approved by the Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), Sanothimi, Bhaktapur, Nepal. HEALTH, POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION Revised and Updated Edition 10Grade Author Ram Kumar Rai
Published by TU Road, Kuleshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Phone: 4672071, 5187211, 5187226 Fax: 00977-1-4672073 E-mail: [email protected] www.readmorenp.com © Copyright: Publisher 2074 BS First Edition : 2074 BS Revised and Updated Edition : 2075 BS Reprint : 2076 BS Readmore welcomes any suggestions regarding the textbook. Language Editor: Yojana Karmacharya Grishma Rajbhandari Layout: Readmore Desktop Illustration: Sonam Syangden Tamang Dev Maharjan Printed in Nepal You can exchange the textbooks from your nearest book distributor if any technical errors are found. Read to help others read ! We are pleased to inform that a certain amount from each book is allocated to the Charity Fund. The fund is provided to deserving and needy students all over Nepal. The charity always welcomes co-operation and support from all well wishers and agencies.
PREFACE This book has been prepared as a text book according to the latest curriculum of Health, Population and Environment Education for grade 10 approved by the Curriculum Development Center (CDC), the government of Nepal and covers all the contents of the Syllabus. In this revised edition, every possible effort has been made to present the subject matter in easy, clear, lucid and systematic manner as far as possible. It is hoped that this book meets the objectives set forth by the national curriculum and fulfills the requirement of the students of grade 10. The text is divided into ten units as prescribed by the curriculum. I hope that the activities and project works provided in each chapter help the students foster their inherent strength and enable them to identify the problems prevailing in the society and come forward for their measures. At the same time, I believe that a sample of project work provided at the end of this book will certainly help the students to carry out research works for the practical exam. Moreover, simple language, updated data, illustration with pictures and diagrams will make the text more readable and adds to its utility. I would like to express my heartfelt regards to the Readmore Publishers and Distributors who supported in every step while preparing this book. Last but not least, I also put forward my sincere regards to the layout designers Sameer Shakya and Sunil Maharjan for their skillful hands for creative designing. I also apologize for any error or discrepancy despite the sincere efforts that has been made to make the book credible as far as possible. Lastly, I humbly request all the colleagues, students, subject teachers and well-wishers to provide valuable and constructive suggestions and feed back. - Author
Table of Contents Pages UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF HEALTH, POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION....................7 1.1 Various Aspects of Health, Population and Environment....................................................................7 1.2 Interrelationship of Health, Population and Environment Education in Terms of Various Aspects.......9 UNIT 2 DEMOGRAPHY, POPULATION CHANGE AND MANAGEMENT......................................15 2.1 Demographic Components, Process and Measurements....................................................................15 2.1.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................15 2.1.2 Demographic Components........................................................................................................................16 2.1.3 Demographic Process................................................................................................................................16 2.1.4 Demographic Measurements....................................................................................................................16 2.2 Consequences of Rapid Population Growth.......................................................................................38 2.2.1 Consequences of RPG on Environmental Aspect...................................................................................... 38 2.2.2 Consequences of RPG on Socio-economic Aspect....................................................................................41 2.3 Population Management...................................................................................................................46 2.3.1 Methods of Population Management.......................................................................................................47 UNIT 3 POPULATION, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT..................................................68 3.1 Population, Environment and Development Activities.......................................................................68 3.2 Regional Balance in Development......................................................................................................73 3.3 Sustainable Development..................................................................................................................75 3.3.1 Importance of Sustainable Development..................................................................................................75 3.3.2 Objectives of Sustainable Development....................................................................................................76 3.3.3 Principles of Sustainable Development.....................................................................................................77 3.3.4 Application of Sustainable Development..................................................................................................79 UNIT 4 POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS OF NEPAL..........................................82 4.1 Population Distribution by Ecological Region.....................................................................................82 4.2 Concept of Ecosystem........................................................................................................................83 4.2.1 Ecosystem of Nepal by Geographical Region.............................................................................................84 4.3 Effects on Ecosystem by Ecological Regions and Mitigating Measures................................................ 94 4.3.1 Effects on the Ecosystem of Mountain Region and Mitigating Measures..................................................94 4.3.2 Effects on the Ecosystem of Hilly Region and Mitigating Measures..........................................................96 4.3.3 Effects on the Ecosystem of Terai Region and Mitigating Measures..........................................................98 4.4 Management and Conservation of Environment................................................................................99 4.4.1 Major Activities on Environment Conservation and Management...........................................................100 UNIT 5 FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION AND QUALITY OF LIFE......................................................105 5.1 Concept of Quality of Life and its Components...................................................................................105 5.1.1 Introduction to Quality of Life...................................................................................................................105 5.1.2 Need and Importance of Quality of Life....................................................................................................108 5.1.3 Elements of Quality of Life........................................................................................................................110 5.2 Bases of Quality of Life......................................................................................................................114 5.3 Happy Life Indicators.........................................................................................................................117 5.4 Interrelationship between Quality of Life and Low Quality of Life......................................................120 UNIT 6 NATURAL RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY..............................................................125 6.1 Concept of Biodiversity......................................................................................................................125 6.1.1 Ecosystem Diversity...................................................................................................................................127 6.1.2 Species Diversity........................................................................................................................................127 6.1.3 Genetic Diversity.......................................................................................................................................129 6.1.4 Importance of Biodiversity........................................................................................................................129 6.1.5 Need of Conservation................................................................................................................................132 6.1.6 Conservation Measures of Biodiversity.....................................................................................................134 6.2 Biodiversity of Ecological Belt............................................................................................................136 6.3 Rare Animals and Plants....................................................................................................................138 6.3.1 Introduction of Rareness of Plants and Animals........................................................................................138 6.3.2 Common Causes of Rareness of Plants and Animals.................................................................................138 6.4 Adverse Effects of Human Activities on Biodiversity and Conservation Methods................................157 6.5 National and Local Level Biodiversity Conservation Programs............................................................158
UNIT 7 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND DISEASES................................................................167 7.1 Introduction to Communicable and Non-communicable Disease........................................................167 7.1.1 Concept of Disease....................................................................................................................................167 7.1.2 Types of Disease........................................................................................................................................168 7.2 Some Major Communicable Diseases.................................................................................................170 7.2.1 Food and Water Borne Diseases................................................................................................................170 7.2.2 Air-borne Disease......................................................................................................................................175 7.2.3 Diseases Transmitted by Contaminated Needles......................................................................................176 7.3 Non-Communicable Disease..............................................................................................................178 7.3.1 Causes or Risk Factors of Non-communicable Diseases............................................................................179 7.3.2 Some Non-communicable Diseases..........................................................................................................180 7.4 Environmentally Infectious Diseases..................................................................................................188 UNIT 8 ADOLESCENCE, SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION........................194 8.1 Some Major Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)............................................................................194 8.1.1 HIV and AIDS.............................................................................................................................................194 8.1.2 Syphilis.......................................................................................................................................................198 8.1.3 Gonorrhoea...............................................................................................................................................200 8.1.4 Chanchroid ...............................................................................................................................................201 8.2 Safe Motherhood...............................................................................................................................201 8.2.1 Introduction to Safe Motherhood.............................................................................................................201 8.2.2 Education and Health Service Related to Safe Motherhood.....................................................................202 8.3 Maternal and Child Health Care and its Measures..............................................................................206 8.3.1 Introduction and Importance of Maternal and Child Health Care.............................................................206 8.3.2 Maternal Child Health Care.......................................................................................................................207 8.3.3 Infant and Child Health Care.....................................................................................................................211 UNIT 9 CONSUMER HEALTH AND COMMUNITY HEALTH........................................................217 9.1 Concept of Community Health...........................................................................................................217 9.1.1 Introduction to Community Health...........................................................................................................217 9.1.2 Importance of Community Health.............................................................................................................219 9.1.3 Scope of Community Health......................................................................................................................221 9.2 Health Service Providing Agencies and their Activities.......................................................................223 9.2.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................223 9.2.2 Health Service Providing Agencies of Nepal..............................................................................................225 9.2.3 Voluntary Health Agencies........................................................................................................................231 9.2.4 Major Health Problems of Nepal...............................................................................................................236 9.3 Policies and Programs of Health Sector..............................................................................................240 9.3.1 Policies of Health Sector............................................................................................................................240 9.3.2 Major Programs in Health Sector..............................................................................................................243 9.4 Bad Habit, Its Consequences and Preventive Measures......................................................................249 9.4.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................249 9.4.2 Consequences of Bad Habit.......................................................................................................................250 9.4.3 Preventive Measures from Bad Habit........................................................................................................250 9.5 Smoking, Drugs and Alcoholism.........................................................................................................251 9.5.1 Smoking.....................................................................................................................................................251 9.5.2 Alcohol.......................................................................................................................................................253 9.5.3 Drugs.........................................................................................................................................................255 UNIT 10 PRIMARY HEALTH CARE, PRECAUTION AND SECURITY ON RISK.............................261 10.1 Methods and Procedure of First Aid...................................................................................................261 10.1.1 Meaning of First Aid..................................................................................................................................261 10.1.2 Importance of First Aid..............................................................................................................................262 10.1.3 Points to be Considered by the First Aider.................................................................................................262 10.1.4 First Aid Box...............................................................................................................................................262 10.1.5 Major Methods of First Aid.......................................................................................................................263 10.1.6 Some Accidents and its First Aid Methods................................................................................................265 10.2 Human Health and Safe Lifestyle........................................................................................................275 10.2.1 Human Health...........................................................................................................................................275 10.2.2 Safe Life Style.............................................................................................................................................279 GRID....................................................................................................................................2 82-283 A SET OF MODEL QUESTION............................................................................................... 284-285 A SAMPLE OF PROJECT WORK............................................................................................ 286-296
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UNIT CONCEPT OF HEALTH, POPULATION 1 AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION Learning Achievement After completing this unit, students will be able to: Explain the various aspects of health, population and environment. Describe the interrelationship among different aspects of health, population and environment. 1.1 Various Aspects of Health, Population and Environment Health, Population and Environment Education is a multidisciplinary subject. Due to its interdisciplinary nature; the subject matters related with various aspects of human life can become the scope of this subject. The subject matters and various aspects that are related with this subject are considered as the aspects of Health, Population and Environment Education. Those associated aspects are explained below: A. Physical Aspect Physical aspects include natural and man-made things. Natural physical aspects like air, water, temperature, soil, rocks, climate, etc are created by the nature. On the other hand canal, water taps, buildings, bridges, roads, hospitals, industries, schools, etc are man-made physical aspects. The quantity and quality of physical aspects make a great difference in the survival of living beings. People prefer to live in those places where more physical facilities are available. Investment in physical aspects like hospitals, power plants, canal, roads and transport system can promote the health and well being of the population. B. Biological Aspect Various aspects of health, population and environment are influenced by the biological factors of the environment. The degree of quality of life is determined by the richness of biological resources of that place. People get their foodstuffs and other various kinds of life supporting materials from them. Besides this, biological aspect contributes to maintain sound health and keep the environment clean and healthy. Similarly, it helps to improve living standard of the people through proper utilization of the biological resources in various sectors like agriculture, industries, trade and other socio-economic sectors. At the same time, we Health, Population and Environment Education-10 7
have to pay proper attention to bring balance between their utilization and proper management. C. Socio-cultural Aspect People have created social and cultural norms, values as well as rules and regulation. Social customs, traditions, rituals, festivals and religious practices are some examples of socio-cultural aspects. Different aspects of health, population and environment are interrelated with socio-cultural aspects. The customs, festivals, religious practices, food habits and way of living affect the health and environment. It is necessary to build up such tradition and culture not to affect the environment adversely. So, people should celebrate their socio-cultural practices without affecting the environment. This will definitely help to protect the environment. D. Economic Aspect The economic aspect is directly related with various aspects of health, population and environment. All areas of health, population and environment will be adversely affected by the poor economic condition of the nation. All kinds of economic activities depend upon the environment. For example, industries, factories, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, etc need raw materials from the environment. It helps to boost up the economic status of the family, community and the nation. On the other hand, poor economic condition spoils the health and productivity of the people. Besides it, the rapidly growing population causes economic problems and environmental degradation side by side. E. Science and Technological Aspect Science and technology are the outcomes of human innovation. They are the significant means of development process. It has made the world a small place and human life productive and comfortable. There is unbelievable development in the field of medicine, communication, transportation, education and agriculture and conservation sectors with the contribution of science and technology. The proper utilization of benefits by science and technology makes human life comfortable and productive. On the other hand, misuse of boon of science and technology ruins the civilization and existence of the world. The aforementioned point maintains that Health, Population and Environment Education are interrelated on the ground of science and technology. F. Political Aspect Political aspect includes the plans and policies launched by the high political level or by state administration and the government agencies. The plans, policies and programs in relation to health, population and environment are formulated by the political will in broad term. Political commitment is felt mandatory to execute health, population 8 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
and environment related programs in an effective way. If there is high level of political will, there is less chance of misuse of health services, over exploitation of resources and encroachment in the conservation areas. At the same time, preservation and rational utilization of resources is possible. G. Psychological Aspect Psychological aspect represents feelings, attitude, understanding and behaviour of the individuals. They are directly related with Health, Population and Environment Education. The will power of the people will provide motivation to conserve environment and promote overall health condition of the mass population. Programs and policies cannot be effective until and unless people are willing to participate from their heart in the conservation plans as well as population management programs. Hence, we can conclude that Health, Population and Environment Education are directly interrelated through psychological aspects. 1.2 Interrelationship of Health, Population and Environment Education in Terms of Various Aspects Since Health, Population and Environment Education are interrelated, they are integrated and introduced as a single subject. Due to its interdisciplinary nature, change in contents of one subject affects the other subjects. For examples: rapid population growth adversely affects the various aspects of Health and Environment education. At the same time, degraded environment causes healthy living and quality of life almost impossible. Proper management of population leads to healthy and prosperous life. Health, Population and Environment education are supplementary to each other in terms of various aspects such as physical, biological, socio-cultural, science and technological aspects and so on. Due to the inter-relationship among health, population and environmental education, they are introduced as an integrated subject. If there is any change in one of the associated subjects, the remaining two subjects are also get affected. As for example, rapid population growth and unmanaged population affect the health and environmental aspect. Moreover, the decline in environmental aspect makes it difficult to live healthy life. On the other hand, if healthy environment can be preserved, then there will be positive effect on population and health. In the same way, if the population can be properly managed there will be positive effect on the health and environment. In this way, all these subjects have become complementary to one another. Health, population, and environment education are interrelated with one another and the study of this subject helps to create a healthy, active, and safe society. Health, Population and Environment Education are related with the following aspects of human life: Health, Population and Environment Education-10 9
Biological Aspect Socio-Acsuplteucrtal AsPpoelcittical Population Education TeScciheAnsnocpleeocgti&cal EdEnuvcairtoionnment HEedaultchation PAhsypseicctal PsAyscpheoclot gical EcoAnsopmecict Fig- 1: Interrelationship of Health, Population and Environment Education in terms of Various Aspects A. Relation of Physical Aspect with other Aspects Physical aspects include natural and man-made things. Natural aspects like air, water, temperature, soil, rocks, climate, etc are created by the nature. On the other hand canal, water taps, buildings, bridges, roads, hospitals, industries, schools, etc are man-made physical aspects. The quantity and quality of physical aspects make a great difference in the survival of living beings. For example; people prefer to live in those places where more physical facilities are available. Investment in the physical aspects like hospitals, power plants, canal, roads, transport system, etc increases population density of that place. At the same time, the sound condition of physical aspect helps to ensure quality of life. Proper utilization of physical aspects plays an important role in the conservation of environment and regulation of ecological processes. In fact, physical aspect is related with environment, health and population. B. Relation of Biological Aspect with other Aspects The availability of biological resources of a place determines the environment and health of the people. For instance, people get their foodstuffs and other various kinds of life supporting materials from the biological resources. The status of the biological resources are also determined by the physical, socio-cultural, and other various aspects. The biological aspect supplies food, oxygen and so many things to the people 10 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
and helps to promote their health condition. At the same time, presence of abundant vegetation make positive contribution in the balance of ecosystem. The living standard of the people can be raised through proper utilization of the biological resources in various sectors like agriculture, industries, trade and other socio-economic sectors. So, we can say that biological aspect is directly or indirectly related with other various aspects of health, population and environment. C. Relation of Socio-Cultural Aspect with other Aspects People have created social and cultural norms, values, as well as rules and regulation. Social customs, traditions, rituals, festivals and religious practices are some examples of socio-cultural aspects. The socio-cultural aspects are interrelated with biological, political, physical and other various aspects of health, population and environment education. The customs, festivals, religious beliefs, traditions, culture, etc determine the health and environmental status of a place. For instance, our way of living, food habits and other social behaviours are more or less influenced by the climate, vegetation, economic status, etc. It is our need to build up such a social system so that we can protect our environment, improve our health and manage the population. People should celebrate their socio-cultural practices without affecting the environment. This kind of social behaviour definitely help to establish cordial relationship with other aspects of health, population and environment. D. Relation of Economic Aspect with other Aspects The economic aspect is directly related with various aspects of health, population and environment. The rapid population growth creates unemployment problem. Unemployment may invite the consequences like poverty, malnutrition, ill health and low productivity. In this situation, people are compel to over exploit the forest resources, marginal land, including other resources of the environment. These activities definitely causes degradation in the environment. The degraded environment eventually affects human health adversely. So, it is our responsibility to establish proper coordination between economic and other various aspects of environment, health and population. E. Relation of Science and Technical Aspect with other Aspects Science and technology are human innovations. They are the significant means of development process. It has made the world a small place and human life productive and comfortable. If there is proper utilization of science and technology it brings positive impact on health, population and environment. It is possible to make an unprecedented progress in the field of social, economic, political and biological aspects. It makes human life easy and productive. For instance, there is remarkable development in the field of medicine, communication, transportation, education, agriculture, industrialization and conservation sectors with the contribution of science and technology. However, misuse of science and technology ruins the civilization and Health, Population and Environment Education-10 11
development process. It damages the ecological balance, degrades human health and civilization. You can imagine the consequences of atomic and biological weapons in the war. The aforementioned point maintains that Health, Population and Environment Education are interrelated to one another on the ground of science and technology. F. Relation of Political Aspect with other Aspects The political parties forms the government. They formulate national plans and policies in the area of health, population, environment and other various sectors. If those plans and policies are good then it will contribute in the conservation of environment, population management and upliftment of the human health. The policy and program of the government to provide basic health services to the citizen free of cost definitely help to improve the health condition of the people. Similarly, the appropriate environmental policy helps to protect the forest resources and other environmental resources. Political commitment is crucial to execute the health, population and environment related programs in effective way. If there is high level of political will, it is possible to manage population, conserve the environment and improve the health status of people in the nation. In fact, political aspect is also related with other various aspects of health, population and environment. G. Relation of Psychological Aspect with other Aspects The perception, attitude and behaviour are associated with psychology of an individual. Human psychology plays an important role in the learning process of health, population and environment education. The positive psychology will provide motivation to the individuals for the conservation of environment and to promote the overall health condition of the population. Similarly, people with positive perception are always motivated for the management of population in a family, community and the national level. Programs and policies cannot be effective until and unless people are willing to participate in the environment conservation as well as population management programs. Hence, we can say that Health, Population and Environment Education are interrelated to one another through psychological aspects too. Activity There is a wetland nearby a Lohorung Rai community. There are more than 90 species of flora and fauna in that wetland. The farmers of the nearby area use water of that wetland for irrigation. There was enough water in the past but the wetland is drying out nowadays. What sorts of impact will be there on health, population and environment of that locality and what measures can be adopted to protect that precious wetland. Prepare a report and present it in your class. 12 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
Summary Ü Health, Population and Environment Education is a multidisciplinary subject. Due to its interdisciplinary nature; the subject matters related with various aspects of human life can become the scope of this subject. Ü The subject matters and various aspects that are related with this subject are considered as the aspects of Health, Population and Environment Education. Ü Natural physical aspects like air, water, temperature, soil, rocks, climate, etc are created by the nature. Ü Canal, water taps, buildings, bridges, roads, hospitals, industries, schools, etc are the examples of man-made physical aspects. Ü Proper utilization of physical aspects plays an important role in the conservation of environment. Ü Social customs, traditions, rituals, festivals and religious practices are some examples of socio-cultural aspects. Ü Our way of living, food habits and other social behaviours are more or less influenced by the climate, geographical structure, vegetation, economic status, etc. Ü The economic aspect is directly related with various aspects of health, population and environment. Ü Political aspect includes the plans and policies launched by the administration and the government. Ü If there is high political will, there is less chance of misuse of health services, over exploitation of resources and encroachment in the conservation areas. Ü Health, Population and Environment education are supplementary to each other in terms of various aspects such as physical, biological, socio-cultural, science and technological aspect. Ü Health, population, and environment education are interrelated with one another, and the study of these subjects helps to create a healthy, active, and safe society. Ü The living standard of the people can be raised through proper utilization of the biological resources in various sectors like agriculture, industries, trade and other socio-economic sectors. So, we can say that biological aspect is directly or indirectly related with other various aspects of health, population and environment. Ü The proper utilization of science and technology brings positive impact on health, population and environment. It makes human life easy and productive. Ü Human psychology plays an important role in the learning process of health, population and environment education. Ü Programs and policies cannot be effective until and unless people are willing to participate from their heart in the environment conservation as well as population management programs. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 13
EXERCISE A. Very short answer questions. 1. What is meant by physical aspect of environment? 2. In what aspect of health, population and environment does the plan, policy and law fall under? 3. Whatismeantbypsychologicalaspectofhealth,populationandenvironment? 4. Give any two examples of science and technological aspect of Health, Population and Environment. 5. Mention the role of economic aspect in Health, Population and Environment Education in one sentence. B. Short answer questions. 1. Illustrate the relation of science and technology in health, population and environment education. 2. List down the various aspects of health, population and environment and explain any one. 3. Explain the biological aspect of health, population and environment with suitable examples. C. Write short notes on: 1. Socio-cultural aspect of environment 2. Relation of economic aspect with other aspects D. Write differences: 1. Biological and physical aspect of environment 2. Social and economic aspect of health, population and environment E. Long answer questions. 1. Explain the interrelationship among Health, Population and Environment Education in terms of various aspects. 2. Explain the various aspects of health, population and environment with the help of a diagram. Project Work Visit a place nearby your school and observe the biological, socio- economic and physical aspects of that place. Write a report analyzing the interrelationship of those aspects among one another and discuss in your class. 14 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
UNIT DEMOGRAPHY, POPULATION CHANGE AND MANAGEMENT 2 Learning Achievement After completing this unit, students will be able to: Introduce demographic components, process and measures. Measure fertility rates, mortality rates and migration rates. Measure rate of natural increase, population doubling time, sex ratio and dependency ratio. Elaborate the consequences of rapid population growth on socio-economic and environmental aspects. Explain the various methods of population management. Explain the various kinds of contraceptive devices with their merits and demerits. 2.1 Demographic Components, Process and Measurements 2.1.1 Introduction Demography is the scientific study of human population. John Graunt is the first person who examined the trend of mortality and fertility from the death record maintained by the churches in London in his famous book ‘Natural and Political Observation Made upon the Bills of Mortality’ in 1662 AD. This work has been considered as the start of population study. So, the credit for initiating population studies goes to him. Therefore, he is also called as father of Demography or Population Study. Achille Guillard is the first person to use the term Demography. He used the term Demography in 1855 AD in his book “Elements of Human Statistics or Comparative Demography” by combining the two Greek words ‘Demos’ and ‘Graphia’. In Greek word, ‘Demos’ carries the meaning people and ‘Graphia’ meaning to study. Demography can be defined as the statistical and scientific study of population size, composition, distribution and change therein. Population of an area always changes over the time period because it is a dynamic phenomenon. Population change is brought about by the change in the rate of fertility, mortality and migration, in which fertility adds to the population size while mortality subtracts from it. Similarly in-migration and immigration add to the population whereas out-migration and emigration subtract from it. However, when the world population is concerned, migration neither adds nor subtracts but merely redistribute the existing population. Hence, it can be said that population of an area is the function Health, Population and Environment Education-10 15
of birth, death and migration. These components are also known as determinants of population change. Of these three components, fertility has the most influencing strength in affecting population change. Migration on the other hand, is not universal so far. Fertility and mortality are natural process. Migration is also a demographic process in which people move from less prosperous areas to more prosperous areas for the betterment of life. We know that birth is related to fertility, death to mortality and migration is related to mobility process. The process like fertility, mortality and migration are called demographic process. Table 2.1: Demographic Components, Process and Measures Components Process Demographic • Birth • Fertility Measures • Death • Mortality • Migration • Migration • Fertility Rates: CBR, GFR, ASFR, TFR • Mortality Rates: CDR, ASMR, IMR, CMR, U5MR • Migration Rates: I-MR, O-MR, NMR, GMR Source: Health, Population and Environment Education, Class 10, CDC, GoN, 2074 BS 2.1.2 Demographic Components The factors changing the population size are termed as demographic components. Birth, death and migration are considered as demographic components since they are the determining factors of population change. For instance, birth increases the population size while population is decreased by death. Incoming migration causes increase in population size and outgoing migration causes surplus in the size of population. Therefore, the size of population is determined by the demographic components like birth, death and migration. 2.1.3 Demographic Process There are various process to bring the change in population situation. Fertility, mortality and migration are considered as demographic process. Fertility is related with population growth and mortality with depopulation. Similarly, migration is related with population change due to incoming and outgoing phenomena. The study of demographic process (fertility, mortality and migration) deals with the population size, structure and its distribution pattern. Fertility, mortality and migration are the ongoing demographic process resulting in population as a dynamic phenomenon. 2.1.4 Demographic Measurements The study of pattern and change in the demographic phenomena over the time period through statistical or mathematical calculation is called demographic measurements. The level and trend of fertility, mortality and migration over the time period are 16 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
measured through demographic measurements. Hence, demographic measurements are carried out with the help of various statistical or mathematical formula. For instance, birth, death and migration measurements are mathematically measured by fertility rates, mortality rates and migration rates respectively. Demographic measures are very useful for the analysis of the size, composition and distribution of population of the given place over the certain time period. It is an important tool for studying population situation on various aspects. Table 2.2: Fertility, Mortality and Migration Rates Fertility Rate Mortality Rate Migration Rate M Crude Birth Rate (CBR) M Crude Death Rate M In-migration Rate M General Fertility Rate (CDR) (IMR) (GFR) M Age Specific Death M Outmigration Rate M Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASDR) (OMR) Rate (ASFR) M Infant Mortality Rate M Net Migration Rate M Total Fertility Rate (IMR) (NMR) (TFR) M Child Mortality Rate M Gross Migration Rate (CMR) (GMR) A. Measures of Fertility The study of human fertility occupies a vital position in the study of population dynamics for several reasons. Thus, in population dynamics, fertility is a positive force, through which the population expands. Fertility, is a process of giving birth to baby by a woman. It is also called reproduction. Usually, the period between 15-49 years of women is considered as the reproductive period. Sometimes the words “fertility” and “fecundity” are used synonymously but the meaning is quite different. For instance, fertility can be defined as ‘the actual reproductive performance of a woman or a group of women’. So, a woman is considered fertile if she had ever born any child otherwise she is considered as an infertile woman. Fertility is determined by social, cultural, psychological as well as economic factors. The fertility of the individual are limited by their own fecundity strength. Fecundity refers to “the capacity of a man and a woman, or a couple to participate in reproduction”. In other words, fecundity is a biological capacity of a woman, man or a couple to have children. It is a child bearing capacity and has no reference to whether or not a woman actually has given birth to a child. It can be defined as: the biological potential and physiological capacity to participate in reproduction. The absence of this potential is called infecundity. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 17
Difference between Fecundity and Fertility Fecundity Fertility Ü It is the biological capacity to Ü It is the actual performance of participate in reproduction process. reproduction. Ü It is related with both of the male Ü It is related with a woman or group and female. of women only. Ü All fecund women are not fertile. Ü All fertile women are fecund. Ü It does not directly affect Ü It directly affects population growth population growth rate. rate. Ü It cannot be counted in number. Ü It can be counted in number. Ü It is the foundation of fertility. Ü It is the outcome of fecundity. 1. Crude Birth Rate (CBR) Crude Birth Rate is the most common and easily computed measure of fertility. It is the total number of live births per 1000 midyear population of a given place for the specified year. It is customary to say crude birth rate since it cannot measure actual fertility rate due to the placement of total midyear population in the denominator where only a small portion of that population involve in the fertility process. The CBR of Nepal according to the Demographic and Health Survey 2011 AD was 24.3. It can be computed with the following formula: CBR = BP x 1,000 Where, B Ü Total number of live births during the given year P Ü Total mid-year population of the same year CBR Ü Crude Birth Rate Merits of Crude Birth Rate (CBR) It is the most easily computed and easily understood measurement of fertility. Only the data of total live births and total midyear population are required. It simply helps to analyze the trend of fertility level for different time period. Demerits of Crude Birth Rate (CBR) It is merely a crude measurement of fertility. It is not effective to compare the fertility levels between the countries or regions. It is highly affected by the sex-age composition of the population. Example Suppose, the total mid-year population of Itahari sub-metropolitan city in 2015 AD was 2,20,000 and the total live births during the same year was 6,000. Calculate Crude Birth Rate. 18 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
Solution Given, Mid-year population (P) = 2,20,000 Total live births (B) = 6,000 Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = ? We know that CBR = BP x 1,000 6,000 = 2,20,000 x 1,000 = 27.27 \\ The CBR of Itahari sub-metropolitan city in 2015 AD was 27.27 per 1000 Midyear population. [Computation Procedure of Midyear Population] Midyear population is considered as the total population of a given place at the mid of the year. It can be calculated by the two alternative methods as given below: i: (First Method) In this method, the midyear population can be computed by enumerating the total population of the country or the defined territory on the 1st day of the 7th month of specified year (i.e. July 1st according to the English Calendar). Example The population of Singapore on July 1st, 2012 AD was 5.2 million. This population itself is the midyear population for that reference year. ii: (Second Method) In this method, the midyear population is calculated by taking average of the total population of the 1st day and the last day of a given year. It can be computed by applying the formula that is given below: P= Po + Pt 2 Where, P Ü Total midyear population of the specified year P0 Ü Total population of the 1st day of the given year (initial population) Pt Ü Total population of the last day of the same year (succeeding population) Example Suppose, the total population of a country was 22,60,00,000 on January 1st 2012 AD and 23,20,00,000 on 31st December in the same year. Calculate the midyear population of that country. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 19
Solution Given, Total population of the 1st day of the given year (P0) = 22,60,00,000 Total population of the last day of the same year (Pt) = 23,20,00,000 Mid-year population (P) = ? We know that Po + Pt P= 2 = 22,60,00,000 + 23,20,00,000 2 = 22,90,00,000 \\ The Midyear population of that country in 2012 AD was 22,90,00,000. 2. General Fertility Rate (GFR) General fertility rate is the total number of live births per 1,000 midyear women’s population of the reproductive period. It is a refined measurement of fertility over the Crude Birth Rate because it is calculated by dividing the total number of live births by the midyear population of the women in reproductive period and multiplied by 1,000. The GFR of Nepal according to the Demographic and Health Survey 2011 AD was 96. It is computed by the following formula: GFR = B x 1,000 Pf (15-49) Where, GFR Ü General Fertility Rate B Ü Total number of live births P f Ü Total mid-year population of the women in the reproductive period (15-49 (15-49) years) Example In Nepal, according to 2001 AD census, the total number of live births were recorded 7,66,314 and midyear female population of reproductive period during the same year was 56,02,160. Calculate General Fertility Rate. Solution Given, Total number of live births (B) = 7,66,314 Total midyear female population of the reproductive period Pf = 56,02,160 (15-49) General Fertility Rate (GFR) = ? 20 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
Now, B Pf GFR = x 1,000 (15-49) = 7,66,314 x 1,000 56,02,160 = 136.8 \\ GFR of Nepal in 2001 AD was 136.8 per 1,000 midyear women population of child bearing period. 3. Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR) Age Specific Fertility Rate is the total number of live births per 1,000 Midyear female population of a specific age group of the reproductive period. It is calculated on the basis of interval of five years age group of women in reproductive period. It is believed that women in all age groups do not have the same level of reproductive performance. ASFR also makes possible to calculate total fertility rate and helps to study fertility differentials of women by age groups even within the reproductive period. Age Specific Fertility Rate can be calculated with the following formula: ASFR = Ba x 1,000 Pfa Where, Ba Ü Total number of live births given by women of specific age group ‘a’ Pfa Ü Total mid-year female population of the same age group ‘a’ Table 2.3: Calculation of ASFR of Nepal (1991 AD) Age Group Number of Women Number of Live ASFR = (Ba) x 1000 by Specific Age (Pfa) Birth (Ba) (Pfa) (3) (1) (2) (4) = (3) x 1000 (2) 15-19 9,14,792 86,877 95 20-24 8,57,484 25-29 7,26,141 2,45,240 286 30-34 6,01,962 35-49 5,11,018 1,97,510 272 40-44 4,32,727 1,27,616 212 45-49 3,69,800 77,164 151 33,320 77 10,074 28 Source: Rai R. K., HPE Education, Class 10, 2015 AD Health, Population and Environment Education-10 21
Example If the total number of mid-year female population of the age group 25-29, in a VDC in 2010 AD was 50,000 and the total number of live births given by the women of the same age group during the same year was 6,000. Calculate ASFR. Solution Given, Total number of live birth given by the age group (B )25-29 = 6,000 Total mid-year female population of that age group (Pf )25-29 = 50,000 Age specific fertility rate (ASFR) = ? We know that ASFR = Ba x 1,000 Pfa = B(25-29) x 1,000 Pf (25-29) = 6,000 x 1,000 50,000 = 120 \\ ASFR of the women in the age group 25-29 years of that VDC in 2010 AD was 120 per 1,000 midyear population. 4. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) Total Fertility Rate is the average number of live births to a woman throughout her reproductive period. It summarizes the pattern of age specific fertility rate. It is just a mathematical estimation of fertility rate rather than actual calculation. TFR can be calculated by multiplying the sum total of age specific fertility rate by 5 and dividing by 1,000. It can be calculated with the following formula: TFR = 5 × ∑ASFR 1,000 Where, TFR Ü Total Fertility Rate ΣASFR Ü Sum total of Age Specific Fertility Rates Example ASFR Calculate the TFR from the following table of ASFR. 84 236 Age group 188 15-19 20-24 25-29 22 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
30-34 121 35-39 77 40-44 39 45-49 13 Total: ∑ASFR = 758 Source: CBS, 2003 AD Solution Given, ΣASFR = 758 TFR = ? We know that TFR = 5 × ∑ASFR 1,000 = 5 x 758 1,000 = 3.8 \\ TFR = 3.8 per woman. B. Measures of Mortality Mortality is also an important component of population change. It is a continuous process tending to reduce population. In common sense, mortality means death. According to WHO, death is “the permanent disappearance of all evidence of life at any time after birth has taken place.” It is an inevitable event of life. It is an essential biological phenomenon for maintaining balance in nature. There are various measures of mortality rates. Some basic measures are discussed below: 1. Crude Death Rate (CDR) Crude Death Rate is the simplest and the most common measure of mortality. CDR is the total number of deaths per 1,000 mid-year population of a given place for the specified time period. It is calculated by using the following formula: D Crude Death Rate = P x 1,000 Where, D Ü Total number of deaths in a specified year P Ü Total midyear population of the same year Example Suppose, the midyear population of Dhangadhi Sub-metropolitan City was 1,80,000 in 2015 AD. If 1,500 people died during the same year. Find CDR. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 23
Solution Given, Number of death persons (D) = 1,500 Mid-year population (P) = 1,80,000 Crude Death Rate (CDR) = ? We know that D CDR = P x 1,000 = 1,500 x 1,000 180,000 = 8.33 \\ CDR of Dhangadhi Sub-metropolitan City in 2015 AD was 8.33 per 1,000 Midyear population. 2. Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR) It is another important method of calculating mortality rate. Mortality rate varies by age of the people. Generally, mortality rate is high in infanthood, childhood and old age. On the other hand, it is low during the adulthood. So, it is necessary to calculate mortality rate according to age groups to evaluate the age pattern of mortality. It can be calculated with the help of the formula that is given below: ASDRa = PDaa x 1,000 Where, ASDRa Ü Age specific mortality rate for the age group ‘a’ Da Ü Total number of deaths of the persons in a given year of the specified age group ‘a’ Pa Ü Total mid-year population of the same year and of the same age group ‘a’ Example Suppose, the mid-year population of the age group 35-39 years of Baglung was 36,000 in 2012 AD. Altogether 220 persons died during the same year. Find ASDR of that district. Solution Given, Number of death of people of the age group 35-39 (D35-39) = 220 Total mid-year population of the same age group (P35-39) = 36,000 Age Specific Mortality Rate (ASDRa) = ? Now, DPaa x 1,000 ASDRa = 24 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
= D(35-39) x 1,000 P(35-39) = 220 x 1,000 36,000 = 6.1 \\ ASDR of Baglung in 2016 AD of the age group 35-39 was 6.1 per 1,000 mid-year population. Activity:- Calculate ASMR for all age groups on the basis of the following data: Age group Population No of deaths ASMR 0 4,00,000 30,000 ------ 1-4 5,00,000 27,000 ------ 5-9 6,60,000 22,000 ------ 10-14 3,40,000 20,000 ------ 15-19 3,10,000 4,000 ------ 20-24 2,60,000 2,800 ------ 25-29 2,00,000 1,600 ------ 30-34 1,80,000 800 ------ 35-39 1,30,000 820 ------ 40-44 90,000 960 ------ 45-49 - - ------ 50-54 - - ------ 55-59 - - ------ 60-64 - - ------ 65-69 - - ------ 70-74 - - ------ 75-79 - - ------ 80+ 80,000 22,000 ------ 3. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) Infant mortality rate is considered as one of the most important indicators of socioeconomic as well as health condition of a country. In Demography, infants are defined as those children whose age come under one year, namely zero age. In other words, the children who have not yet reached one year of age are called infants. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 25
Infant Mortality Rate can be defined as the total number of deaths of infants per 1,000 live births of a given place for a specified year. It can be calculated with the following formula: IMR = DBo x 1,000 Where, IMR Ü Infant Mortality Rate D0 Ü Total number of death of infants before reaching one year of age B Ü Total number of live births in a given year Example Suppose, 3,200 live births were recorded in Hetauda Sub-metropolis in 2016 AD. Among them 120 infants died before completing one year of age. Find Infant Mortality Rate. Solution Given, Total number of live births (B) = 32,00 Total number of infant deaths (D0) = 120 Infant Mortality Rate(IMR) = ? Now, = Do x 1,000 IMR B = 120 x 1,000 32,000 = 37.5 \\ IMR of Hetauda Sub-metropolis in 2016 AD was 37.5 per 1,000 live births. 4. Under 5 Child Mortality Rate (U5MR) Under 5 Mortality Rate can be defined as the total number of death of children under 5 years of age per 1,000 live births. It is also considered as an indicator of socioeconomic situation of a place, territory or country. U5MR can be computed with the following formula; B U5MR = D< 5 year x 1,000 Where, U5MR Ü Under 5 Child Mortality Rate D<5 year Ü Total number of death of children under 5 years of age B Ü Total number of live births 26 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
Example Suppose, 40,000 live births were recorded in Kailali District in 2016 AD. During the same year 3,200 died before reaching the age of 5 years. Find U5MR of that place. Solution Given, Total number of live births (B) = 40,000 Total number of death of children under 5 years of age in the same year (D<5 )years = 3,200 Under 5 Child Mortality Rate (U5MR) = ? We know that U5MR = B x 1,000 D< 5 year = 3,200 x 1,000 40,000 = 80 \\ U5MR of Kailali District in 2016 AD was 80 per 1,000 live births. 5. Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) According to WHO, Maternal death is the death of the women while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes. Maternal Mortality Ratio is the number of death of women during pregnancy, child birth or post natal period from puerperal causes per 100,000 live births in a year. Maternal Mortality Ratio can be mathematically calculated as: MMR = Dp x 1,00,000 Where, B DP Ü The total number of death of women during pregnancy, child birth or post natal period from puerperal causes in a given year B Ü Total number of live births during the same year Example Suppose, 88 maternal deaths occurred due to puerperal causes in Jhapa District in 2015 AD. 53,200 live births was recorded in the same year. Find Maternal Mortality Ratio. Solution Given, Total number of live births (B) = 53,200 Health, Population and Environment Education-10 27
Total number of death of women due to puerperal causes (DP) = 88 Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) = ? Now, Dp B MMR = x 1,000 = 88 x 1,00,000 53,200 = 165.4 \\ Maternal Mortality Ratio of Jhapa District in 2015 AD was 165.4 per 1,00,000 live births. C. Migration Migration is the third component of population change as the other two are mortality and fertility. The nature of migration as a factor affecting population size is quite different from that of mortality and fertility. It is not a natural phenomenon. Generally, each migratory movement is deliberately made and it is driven or influenced by social, cultural, economic, political and physical circumstances. Migration can be defined as ‘the movement of people from one place to another place by crossing its migration defining area and minimum time duration by changing usual place of residence is called migration’. For demographic purpose, two broad types of migration are studied i.e. ‘Internal Migration’ and ‘International Migration’. Internal Migration Internal migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another place by crossing its migration defining area and minimum time period but within the boundary of the nation. Here the term ‘In-migration’ refers to the movement of people into an area from outside the migration defining area but within the same country. The term ‘Out- migration’ refers to the movement of people in which they depart from an area by crossing its boundary to outside but within the same country. International Migration International migration refers to the movement of people across international boundaries. It is termed as Immigration and Emigration. The term “Emigration” refers to the migration of native population outside the country. The term “Immigration” refers to the migration of foreigners into the country. Measures of Migration There are various measures of migration. Some basic measures are discussed below: 28 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
i. In-Migration Rate (I-MR) ii. Out-Migration Rate (O-MR) iii. Net Migration Rate (NMR) iv. Gross Migration Rate (GMR) 1. In-migration Rate (I-MR) In-migration Rate is the total number of in-migrants per 1,000 mid-year population of a specific place during the specified year. It is computed by dividing the total number of people coming to a place by the total mid-year population of the same place and multiplied by 1,000. It is calculated by the following formula: I-MR = I x 1,000 P Where, I Ü Total number of in-migrants of the specified area in a given year P Ü Total midyear population of the same year Example Suppose, the total midyear population of a city in 2015 AD was recorded 7,00,000 and the number of in-migrants were found to be 42,000. Find In-migration Rate. Solution Given, Midyear Population (P) = 7,00,000 Number of In-Migrants (I) = 42,000 In-migration Rate (I-MR) = ? We know that I-MR = I x 1,000 P 42,000 = 7,00,000 x 1,000 = 60 \\ In-migration Rate of that city in 2015 AD was 60 per 1,000 mid-year population. 2. Out-Migration Rate (O-MR) Out-migration Rate is the total number of out-migrants moving outside the place of origin per 1,000 mid-year population during the specific time. OMR is computed dividing the number of out-migrants by the mid-year population of the same place and multiplied by 1,000. It is calculated by the following formula: For Internal Migration O O-MR = P x 1,000 Health, Population and Environment Education-10 29
Where, O Ü Total number of out-migrants of the specified area in a given year P Ü Mid Year Population of the same year For International Migration E EMR = P x 1,000 Where, E Ü Total number of emigrants of the particular country at a given year P Ü Total Mid Year Population of the same year Example The Mid Year Population of Terai region in 1991 AD was 8,628,078 and the total number of out-migrants in the same year was 1,02,136. Find OMR of that region. Solution Given, Total number of out-migrants (O) = 1,02,136 Total midyear population (P) = 8,628,078 Out-migration Rate (O-MR) = ? We know that O-MR = O x 1,000 P 1,02,136 = 86,28,078 x 1,000 = 11.84 \\ Out-migration Rate of the Terai region in 1991 AD was 11.84 per 1,000 midyear population. 3. Net Migration Rate (NMR) Net Migration Rate is the difference between in-migration and out-migration rate. NMR can be defined as the difference between the total number of people arriving in an area and the total number of people leaving that area in a specified year per 1,000 midyear population in a given place. The calculated value of Net Migration Rate may be positive or negative. Positive value denotes that number of in-migrant population is more than the number of out-migrants whereas the negative value denotes that the population of out-migrants has outnumbered the in-migrant population. It is calculated with the following formula: NMR = I -O x 1,000 P Where, 30 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
I Ü Total number of In-migrants of the given year O Ü Total number of out-migrants of the same year P Ü Total midyear population during the same year Example In a VDC of Sankhuwasabha district 1,200 people in-migrated from other regions in 2015 AD and 1,800 people left that VDC and out-migrated to different parts of the country in the same year. During the same year 16,000 midyear population was recorded. Now, calculate Net Migration Rate of that place. Solution Given, Total no. of In-Migrants (I) = 1,200 Total no. of Out-Migrants (O) = 1,800 Mid Year Population (P) = 16,000 Net Migration Rate (NMR) = ? We know that NMR = I-O x 1,000 P 1,200 - 1,800 = 16,000 x 1,000 = - 600 x 1,000 16,000 = - 37.5 \\ The Net Migration Rate of that VDC of Sankhuwasabha district in 2015 AD was (-37.5) per 1,000 Midyear population. 4. Gross Migration Rate (GMR) Gross Migration refers to the sum of the total number of persons arriving in an area and departing from that area in a given year. In other words Gross migration rate involves the total number of people participating in both in-migration and out- migration process with respect to total midyear population. It can be defined as the total number of in-migrants and out-migrants in a specified year per 1,000 midyear population of the same year. Mathematically, it can be calculated as: I +O GMR = P x 1,000 Where, I Ü Total number of in-migrants O Ü Total number of out-migrants P Ü Total midyear population Health, Population and Environment Education-10 31
Example Suppose; in a VDC of Rautahat district, the midyear population in 2015 AD was 40,000. During the same year, 6,000 people came in that VDC from different parts of the country and 2,000 people left that place. Find Gross Migration Rate. Solution Given, Total no. of In-Migrants (I) = 6,000 Total no. of Out-Migrants (O) = 2,000 Total mid-year population (P) = 40,000 We know that GMR = I +O x 1,000 P 6,000 + 2,000 = 40,000 x 1,000 = 8,000 x 1,000 40,000 = 200 \\ The Gross Migration Rate of that VDC in 2015 AD was 200 per 1,000 midyear population. D. Other Demographic Measures 1. Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) Rate of natural increase can be defined as the rate at which a population of a particular place is increasing or decreasing in a given year due to the surplus or deficit of births over deaths, expressed as percentage of the base year. The RNI does not include the effects brought about by migration. The Rate of Natural Increase is the difference between the Crude Birth Rate and Crude Death Rate. It can be mathematically calculated as: RNI = CBR - CDR x 100 OR RNI = CBR - CDR 1,000 10 Where, RNI Ü Rate of Natural Increase CBR Ü Crude Birth Rate CDR Ü Crude Death Rate Example According to 2001 census, the CBR and CDR of Nepal were 33.1 and 9.6 respectively. Find out the Rate of Natural Increase. 32 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
Solution Given, Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = 33.1 Crude Death Rate (CDR) = 9.6 Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) = ? We know that RNI = CBR - CDR x 100 1,000 = 33.1 - 9.6 x 100 1,000 = 2.35% \\ The Rate of Natural Increase of Nepal in 2001 AD was 2.35%. Note: If the birth exceeds the death, RNI carries +ve value then population increases and vice versa. At the same time, if births equals to deaths, then population becomes stable or with zero rate of natural increase. 2. Population Growth Rate (PGR) The population of a place or a country change continuously. Birth, death and migration are the major demographic factors behind the population change. Population growth rate shows either the population of a place is increasing or decreasing. Population Growth Rate can be defined as the rate at which population increases in a given year due to the interplay of rate natural increase and net migration rate; expressed as percentage of the base population. It can be calculated with the following formula: PGR = CBR - CDR + NMR x 100 OR PGR = RNI + NMR x 100 1,000 1,000 Where, CBR Ü Crude Birth Rate CDR Ü Crude Death Rate NMR Ü Net Migration Rate PGR Ü Population Growth Rate RNI Ü Rate of Natural Increase Example Suppose, the CBR and CDR of a country were 28 and 7.2 respectively in 2015 AD. The Net Migration Rate was 6 per thousand mid-year population in the same year. Find PGR of that country. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 33
Solution Given, Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = 28 Crude Death Rate (CDR) = 7.2 Net-Migration Rate (NMR) = 6 Population Growth Rate (PGR) = ? We know that PGR = CBR - CDR + NMR x 100 1,000 = 28 - 7.2 + 6 x 100 1,000 = 2.68% \\ Population growth rate of that country in 2015 AD was 2.68 %. 3. Population Doubling Time (PDT) Population doubling time refers to the number of years required for the population of a place to double its size with reference to the current rate of population growth. Doubling time is a crude way of estimating future population size because it assumes a constant growth rate over decades but population growth rate is always changing over the time periods. Population doubling time helps to give a clear picture of how fast the population is increasing. It is computed by dividing 70 by the population growth rate. Mathematically, it can be calculated with the following formula: 70 PDT = PGR Where, PGR Ü Population Growth Rate PDT Ü Population Doubling Time Example The population growth rate of Nepal was observed 1.35% in the 11th census 2011 AD. Find population doubling time of that country. Solution Given, Population Growth Rate (PGR) = 1.35% Population Doubling Time (PDT) = ? We know that 70 PDT = PGR 34 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
= 70 1.35 = 51.85 \\ Population Doubling Time of Nepal with the PGR 1.35% is 52 years. 4. Dependency Ratio The dependency ratio is considered as the ratio between dependent and independent population. It is measured by considering the distribution of population by three broad age groups such as 0-14, 15-59 and 60 years and above. In these age groups, the age groups of 0-14 and 60 and above years are considered as dependent age groups and assumed that they may not be able to earn for livelihood. Similarly, the age group of 15-59 years population is called independent population and assumed as economically active, even though the large proportion of this age group population is not really economically dependent. Dependency ratio simply shows the number of persons dependent upon every 100 persons of independent age group. Dependency ratio further may be measured as child dependency ratio and old dependency ratio too. It can be computed dividing the number of dependent population by independent population and multiplying by 100. It can be calculated by the following formula. Dependency Ratio = Dependent Population x 100 Independent Population Symbolically, WDRhe=reP,opn(P0-o14p) +n(1P5-o59p) n(60 & above) x 100 Popn(0-14) Ü The child dependent population, under 15 years Popn (60 & above) Ü The old dependent population, 60 years and above Popn(15-59) Ü The independent population, between the age of 15-59 years DR Ü Dependency Ratio Dependency Ratio can be further classified into two sub groups such as: a. Child Dependency Ratio b. Old Dependency Ratio Child Dependent Population Independent Population a. Child Dependency Ratio = x 100 Symbolically, CWDhRer=eP,Pooppnn(0(1-154-5)9)x 100 Popn(0-14) = Population of children under 15 years. Popn(15-59) = Population of 15-59 years. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 35
b. Old Dependency Ratio = Old Dependent Population x 100 Independent Population Symbolically, OWDhRer=e,PoPponp(6n0(1&5-a5b9o)ve) x 100 Popn(60 & above) = Population of 60 years and above. Popn(15-59) = Population of 15-59 years. Example Calculate dependency ratio from the data given in the following table: Age group Population 0-14 20,54,520 15-59 28,30,880 60 & above 60,650 (a) Dependency Ratio: DR = Popn(0-14) + Popn(60 & above) x 100 Popn(15-59) = 20,54,520 + 60, 650 x 100 28,30,880 = 74.4 \\ Dependency Ratio = 74.7% (b) Child Dependency Ratio: CDR = Popn(0-14) x 100 Popn(15-59) = 20,54,520 x 100 28,30,880 = 72.6% \\ Child Dependency Ratio = 72.6% (c) Old Dependency Ratio: ODR = Popn(60 & above) x 100 Popn (15-59) 36 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
= 60,650 x 100 28,30,880 = 2.1% \\ Old Dependency Ratio = 2.1% 5. Sex Ratio Sex Ratio is the ratio of male population to the female population and generally, expressed as the number of male population for every 100 female population. It is computed with the following formula: SR = M x 100 F Where, SR Ü Sex Ratio M Ü Male population of a place in a given year F Ü Female Population of that place in the same year Example In Nepal, the male population was 1,28,49,041 and the female population was 1,36,45,463 in 2011 AD census. Calculate the Sex Ratio. Solution Given, Male population (M) = 1,28,49,041 Female population (F) = 1,36,45,463 Sex Ratio = ? We know that M Sex Ratio = F x 100 = 1,28,49,041 x 100 1,36,45,463. = 94.2 \\ Sex Ratio of Nepal in the census 2011 AD was 94.2. Activity Write down the various formula of Fertility Rates, Mortality Rates and Migration Rates including other demographic formula in a chart paper and discuss with your friends about their applications in your class. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 37
2.2 Consequences of Rapid Population Growth In a simple term, population growth can be defined as the rate at which a population is increasing due to natural increase and net migration, expressed as a percentage of the base population. The population growth rate with more than 2% and TFR with more than replacement level (2.1) is considered as rapid population growth rate. The rapid population growth is a universal problem in the developing countries. According to the data of the population census 2011 AD, the population growth rate of Nepal was 1.35%. It shows that there is no rapid population growth rate in Nepal. Even though, the TFR is still much more high (2.6). The density and size of population increases due to rapid growth of population. It causes adverse effects on the social, economic as well as environmental aspects of the society and the country. For the sustainable development of the society and the nation, there must be balance between population growth rate and socio-economic development. If population can be managed in an effective way, there will be positive impact on the social, economic and environmental aspects. It is obviously known that rapid population growth rate brings negative impact on various aspects of human life. Some of the consequences of rapid population growth rate are as follows: 2.2.1 Consequences of RPG on Environmental Aspect A. Forest and Vegetation Forest and vegetation are the invaluable assets of human life. They help to balance ecological process. At the same time, they are also playing important role to prevent landslide, soil erosion, air pollution, etc. About 57% of the land was covered by forest some decades ago but at present it is reduced to 29%. It is estimated that the forest area is Deforestation depleting at the rate of 1.7% annually. Deforestation rate is very high due to rapid growth of population especially in the case of Nepal. The common problems like soil erosion, flood, landslide, desertification, drought and irregular rain are caused by deforestation. At the same time there is loss of biodiversity and wildlife depletion as severe environmental problems due to the degradation of forest. B. Aquatic and Terrestrial Animals One of the major environmental problems of rapid population growth is environmental degradation. Degraded environment causes adverse effect on both of the aquatic and 38 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
terrestrial animals. There is depletion of land animals due to deforestation, forest fire, unscientific agricultural system, land fragmentation and so on. People do poaching of rare and endangered animals like elephant, tiger, musk deer, leopard, one horned rhino for their precious skin, fur, tusk, bones and their other organs. Rapid growth rate of population brings negative impact on aquatic animals. Due to rapid growth of population there is depletion of water animals. Acid rain causes destruction of aquatic animals and plants. Due to the environmental pollution the population of aquatic animals like fish, tortoise, crocodile, etc are decreasing. Consequently, it results problems in aquatic ecosystem. C. Air Pollution Air is vital environmental factor for all the living beings. The Earth is completely enveloped by the atmosphere. All the living beings need air to survive. Air gets polluted due to dense population. Industrialization, urbanization and construction works cause air pollution. Actually, air pollution is caused by dust, smoke and other harmful gases released from industries, vehicles, firewood. Consequently, dozens of air borne diseases are spread due to air pollution. D. Water Pollution Water Pollution Water is also one of the essential elements for living beings. The rapid population growth has brought adverse effect in quality and quantity of water. There is acute shortage of drinking water in the urban areas due to high density of population. At the same time, the rate of pollution in water is increasing day by day due to undue pressure of growing population especially in the towns and cities. E. Land Pollution Land Pollution Land is also one of the important natural resources. It is very important for the ecological balance and human survival. It is essential for the agricultural production, shelter and other various purposes. Rapid population growth has created adverse impact on productivity of Health, Population and Environment Education-10 39
land. To meet the needs of the growing population, farmers use pesticides, insecticides and chemical fertilizers in excessive amount. This kind of irrational activities damage the productivity and quality of the soil. The situation of deforestation and exploitation of marginal land for cultivation emerges in order to obtain food, cloth, housing and other needs of existing population. Similarly, green belts and cultivated lands of different places are encroached by constructing houses, factories and industries to fulfill the needs and demands of growing population. The above definitions prove that land degradation is a major Utilization of ground water for drinking problem created by rapid growth of population. F. Minerals Metallic and nonmetallic substances like gold, silver, lime, copper, magnesium, coal, petroleum, etc present in the Earth are called minerals. Construction of bridge, vehicles, machines, buildings, etc is not possible without minerals. They are also equally essential for the growth and maintenance of the living organisms. It shows that there is a close relation between minerals and population. Truly speaking, distribution of minerals is not equal in the Earth. As the population growth rate increases the exploitation rate of mineral resources also increases. Minerals are nonrenewable resources. Hence, it is quite certain that the deposit of minerals will be exhausted in the future. Consequently, there will be imbalance in the ecosystem and the world may suffer from energy crisis. G. Sound Pollution Sound Pollution Clean and quiet environment provide pleasure to human. In this juncture, people cannot live pleasant and quiet life due to sound pollution resulted by rapid population growth. The life in densely populated areas are full of noise from the means of transport, industries, crowd of the people, different types of instruments and gadgets, etc. This may lead to various kinds of diseases like hypertension, depression, anxiety, deafness, insomnia, irritation, etc. Hence, rapid growth of population needs to be controlled to reduce the level of sound pollution. H. Flood, Landslide and Soil Erosion Flood Flood, landslide and soil erosion are the natural disasters which are the most serious 40 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
environmental problems in Nepal. Rapid population growth is also one of the problems of environmental problems. The needs and demands of food and other materials automatically increases with the growth of population. Hence, rapid growth of population compels the people to exploit marginal land for cultivation and so on. As a result, during rainy season, it may cause soil erosion and landslides and flood. Though soil erosion and landslides are natural calamities, they are induced by human activities. People have to face great loss of lives and property due to deforestation, over exploitation of marginal land and unsustainable construction cause great damage to the lives, property and ecological process. 2.2.2 Consequences of RPG on Socio-economic Aspect A. Health Healthy manpower is required for the development of society and the nation. Healthy people can execute productive works and contribute in the development of the community and the entire nation. But rapid population growth rate has brought a big challenge in the health of the people. For instance, people are not getting enough food to eat. They are not getting quality health services and facilities adequately in time due to rapid growth of population. Health services should be expanded to meet the needs of the people. But it is not possible to increase the health services in the same ratio of population growth rate. In this context, doctors and health workers are compelled to check up more patients beyond their capacity. At the same time, hospital beds are quite inadequate in terms of their requirements. The following table give a clear picture of the situation of health services in Nepal: Table 2.4: Situation of Health Services in Nepal, 2015/2016 AD Health Services Number Health professionals Number Hospitals (Private, Government, Community 405** 16,854* and Teaching) (govt. - 104) Doctors Primary Health Centers Health Posts (pvt. - 301) Sub-Health Posts 202** Senior A.H.W/HA 9,500 Ayurvedic Service Centres 3,803** 3,176 AHW (Auxiliary Health Worker) 19,098 Village Health Worker 305 Nurses 38,759** 7,175 ANM (Auxiliary Nursing and 25,398** Mid wife) Kaviraj/Vaidhya 741 Source: CBS, Nepal in figures, 2015 AD, ** CBS, Nepal in figures, 2016 AD , *Nepal Medical Council Health, Population and Environment Education-10 41
B. Education Education is one of the important components of development of the country. People can get knowledge and are able to change their attitude and behaviour with the help of education. Hence, it is important to provide quality education to the people for the production of efficient and skilled manpower as per the requirement of the nation. But it is difficult to provide quality education to the people if the population increases rapidly. Due to rapid increase of number of students every year, it is difficult to increase the number of schools, manpower and physical infrastructure of schools and colleges in effective manner. In this situation, it is also difficult to manage trained teachers and necessary educational materials for quality education. Consequently, there will be declination in the status of education due to rapid population growth. So rapid population growth needs to be controlled to enhance quality of education. Table 2.5: Situation of Educational Services in Nepal 2001/02 - 2014/15 AD 2001/02 2014/15 Indicator Primary Lower Secondary Higher Primary Lower Secondary Higher Secondary Secondary Secondary Secondary School 19,498 34,335 Teachers 77,948 4,230 2,309 - 1,85,562 14,952 8,825 3,596 Students 30,34,710 - 43,35,355 19,179 13,225 12,132 - 52,349 38,861 4,16,995 4,33,428 4,21,709 18,35,135 9,00,585 Source: CBS, Nepal in figures, 2002 and 2015 AD C. Culture and Cultural Heritages Our invaluable folk songs, tale, folk dance, music, customs, languages, religions, monuments, chaityas, monasteries, temples, mosques, churches, festivals, etc that are inherited by our ancestors since time immemorial are called cultural heritages. Such cultural heritages play important role to give identity in the national and international arena. Our country is a multicultural, multiethnic, and multilingual nation. Some of our cultural heritages are also enlisted in the world cultural heritage list. Kathmandu Durbar Square, Patan Durbar Square, Bhaktapur Durbar Square, Changunarayan Temple, Lumbini Area, Pashupatinath Area, Swyambhunath, Baudhanath Area are some of the cultural heritages that are enlisted in the world cultural heritage. To make it a reality, programs of protection and promotion of physical and non-physical cultural heritages, should be protected. Different programs will be implemented effectively to prevent them from theft, losses, damages, and other immoral activities. We can see adverse impact on such invaluable cultural heritages due to the pressure of rapid population growth. Our unique culture is in threat due to blind imitation and modernization. The activities like encroachment in the heritage sites, constructing trade centers in those places are increasing nowadays. It is necessary to protect our 42 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
cultural heritages from the pressure of rapid population growth. If we cannot protect such heritages now, our future generation will not be able to see them. Activity Nepal is rich in cultural heritages. These invaluable heritages are being deteriorated day by day. What are the specialities and importance of cultural heritages in your community? How can those heritages be conserved? Prepare a report and present it in your class. D. Employment People have various kind of needs. People have to earn by hard work to fulfill their needs. Employment also helps in the promotion of personality of an individual. In the context of Nepal, the people in the active age group 15- 59 years need employment opportunities. Currently, in Nepal, 2.5 million people of working age are unemployed. At present, 40 million people are entering labour market every year. Because of rapid population growth rate; out of the total population, 30 percent is unemployed. High unemployment rate creates economic crisis. Side by side, it also creates the social, political and psychological problems also. It is the prime responsibility of state to promote employment opportunities by imparting knowledge and skills to national human resources in line with national and international labour market. E. Drinking Water Safe drinking water is one of the basic needs of human being. Water is necessary to the people from birth till death. We get water from various sources like tap, tube-well, stone spout, river, pond, well, etc. It is essential to purify water for good health. The sources of water cannot be increased as per the growth rate of population size. The human activities like random disposal of Queue for Drinking Water solid wastes, improper use of chemical fertilizers, improper management of sewage, unmanaged urbanization, deforestation, unmanaged industrialization, etc pollute the water sources. Because of this, a large population are suffering from the scarcity of safe drinking water. In Nepal, only about 80 percent people have got the facility of drinking water. Urban people are facing acute water supply problem. The water supplied to the public is also not safe for drinking. At the same time, more than 20% rural population do not have Health, Population and Environment Education-10 43
access to improved water supply. Because of deforestation, unmanaged urbanization and random industrialization the water sources are drying out and people are suffering from acute scarcity of drinking water. In some rural areas people walk for hours and hours to fetch drinking water. Eventually, there will be great loss of time and labour of the people in the management of drinking water service according to the demand of the people are the main problems of this sector. Impact of Population growth rate on drinking water: Difficulty to supply drinking water to each and every house. The water supplied to the public through improved sources also may not be safe for drinking. The sources of water are drying out due to deforestation in the rural areas. The ground water in the cities cannot get recharged due to the concrete jungle like unmanaged buildings and physical construction. Water from the stone spouts, wells, tube-wells, etc are decreasing due to human encroachment. F. Food Food is one of the very important needs of human being. At present, there is rapid population growth in the developing countries but it is not possible to increase the production and supply food in the same ratio of the population growth rate. In this context, rapid population growth rate creates the problem of food scarcity. As a result, people suffer from A Set of Foodstuffs malnutrition and become vulnerable to nutrient deficiency diseases like Kwashiorkor, Marasmus, Night Blindness, Scurvy, Rickets, Beriberi, etc. Then eventually, people suffer from unhealthy and unproductive life. Effect of Population Growth on Food Decrease in per capita food supply Sky rocketing in food price due to increase in demand Low consumption of quality food for the poor and marginalized people Increase in the natural calamities like soil erosion, landslide and flood due to cultivation in the marginal land Emergence of condition to import food from outside the countries Devastating deforestation in the name of land used for cultivation 44 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
G. Residence Residence is also considered as one of the basic human needs. According to Maslow’s classification of human needs, housing comes under the security related need. People need good housing facility for their healthy and productive life. Housing is necessary because it protects us from various unfavorable external environment. We know that rapid population growth creates adverse impact on housing facility of the people. For instance, rapid population growth increases the cost of house rent. Consequently, population density per room also increases. Moreover, there will be increase in slum areas in the marginal land especially at the bank of the river in the urban areas and nearby the jungle in the rural area. After all, there will be deterioration of health condition of the people. Effect of Population Growth on Residence Living space becomes limited and congested Different kinds health problems will be seen to the individuals Environmental pollution increases due to more crowded people and generation of more solid wastes Increase in the community health problem social problems Agricultural land being converted in to the residential areas Increase in the deforestation tendency in the name of land occupation for residence H. Clothing Clothing is also considered as one of the essential basic human needs after food and housing. It comes under the security need of the people. People should get adequate clothing according to the nature of work, weather and season. For instance, people in the high Himalayan region need warm clothes. Similarly, people living in the Hill and Terai region need warm or thin clothes according to seasonal variation. The textile industries are not expanded to supply clothes according to the demand of the rapidly growing population in our country. So, clothes are imported from neighboring countries. If the family size is big it is not possible to manage sufficient clothes according to the season to the family members. Rapid population growth increases the demand of clothes. Consequently, it increases the price of the clothes. As a result, people suffer from various kinds of health problems. It ultimately hampers quality of life of the people. Effect of Population Growth on Clothing Increase in clothes price due to high demand Compel to wear low quality clothes Difficult to manage necessary clothes to the family members adequately Import of foreign clothes causes flight of national property outside the country Health, Population and Environment Education-10 45
I. Security and Entertainment Security and entertainment is also considered as an important human need. Safe environment plays an important role to live happy, prosperous and productive life. Although a person is well to do with the physical facilities if s/ he does not feel secured, it is considered that the person is not living a quality of life. Every citizen needs peace and security from birth until death. Security of property and life is mandatory in the family, society, nation everywhere. As the population increases, there is increase in social crimes like theft, robbery, gang fights, looting, kidnapping, burglary, rape, etc. Consequently, it creates challenges in peace, harmony and security. Entertainment is considered as an inseparable aspect for mental and emotional refreshment in human life. Entertainment plays an important role to get relief from mental stress, tiredness, grief and lethargy. People can get entertainment through playing, singing, dancing, painting and many more activities. Moreover, they also get entertainment by organizing picnic, excursion, games and sports, carnivals and so on. Some people also get refreshed by visiting zoo, national parks, religious sites, etc. Rapid population growth creates unnecessary pressure on the public parks, religious places and other means of entertainment. Similarly, the tendency of encroachment in the area of playground, pond, public parks, national parks, conservation area, religious places, etc in the name of human settlement, cultivation, physical construction and development work is increasing day by day. It is only possible to make proper management of entertainment facilities to the people if there is control of rapid population growth in time. 2.3 Population Management Rapid population growth has become one of the great problems for the developing countries. It is the fact that rapidly increasing population is threatening the very existence of human beings. It is quite clear that, population is increasing faster in the developing countries including our nation whereas resources cannot be multiplied in the same proportion. In this situation, population management is the best instrument to maintain balance between population growth rate and socio-economic development of the society and nation. “Population management can be considered as a process by which growth rate and distribution pattern of population can be managed in accordance with the carrying capacity of the available resources of the given place.” As people are dependent on nature and natural resources for their daily life, management of population concerns their survival. Population management does not mean only to control growth rate of population but also accelerates the growth rate of depopulation. Population management gives focus on population distribution, composition and migration pattern along with their linkage with total development process. 46 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
2.3.1 Methods of Population Management The plans, policies and programs undertaken to reduce the rapid growth rate of population or to carry out the measures to increase the growth rate of population to maintain balance between the existing resources and population is considered as population management. There are various population control measures for the management of population. These controlling measures can be divided into direct and indirect measures. The direct population control measures deal with those measures which directly control the population growth rate. The controlling measures like appropriate age at marriage, proper birth spacing, legal abortion, control of migration, use of contraception are considered as the direct population control measures. Similarly, the measure which indirectly support to control the population growth rate are perceived as indirect population controlling measures. The controlling measures such as education, health facilities, women empowerment, gender equity and equality, employment, awareness can be taken as the examples of indirect population controlling measures. Direct Population Management Indirect Population Management Methods Methods • Population Education • Late Age at Marriage • Increase in Awareness through Education • To Keep Proper birth Spacing • Women Empowerment • Legal Abortion • Gender Equity and Equality • Control of Migration • Employment and Income Generation • Use of Contraceptive Devices Activity Some of the measures to control rapid population growth rate are as explained below: 1. Proper Birth Spacing Birth spacing is the period between the birth of the first child to the birth of the next child. It is said that birth spacing of 4/5 years is ideal for both the mother and child for their health. If the couple follow proper birth spacing they can get ample time to take care of their children and at the same time mother’s health also will be sound. Such planning may also help to maintain small family and eventually this practice helps the nation to control rapid growth rate of population. 2. Appropriate Age of Marriage Appropriate age of marriage refers to the age when he or she is physically, mentally, emotionally, economically and socially capable for having a married life. Generally, the appropriate age of marriage for male is considered as 25 and above since they are growing up to 25 years. Similarly, the proper age at marriage for female is considered Health, Population and Environment Education-10 47
between 20 to 30 years since this period is believed to be healthy fecund period. It is also believed that the first conception before 20 years and after 35 years are not good for the mother and child from the reproductive health perspective. Marriage at appropriate age also helps to control the rapid growth of population. 3. Women Empowerment Women Empowerment In Nepal, more than 50 percent of the total population is occupied by female. But it is a fact that Nepali women are far behind in access to education, health services, social service, political opportunities and economic opportunities compared to their male counter parts. The female literacy rate is far below the to male literacy rate. Even though, there is legal restriction of child marriage in our country, more than 40 percent girls are found married before the age of 19. The above data reveals that the condition of female is very low and they are discriminated and exploited in various aspects. Hence, education and economic opportunities are urgently required to empower and uplift their status. It makes them self dependent and helps to have decisive role in the family and society. Women empowerment eventually helps to control rapid population growth. 4. Gender Equality Gender equality refers to the equal enjoyment by women, girls, boys and men of rights, opportunities, resources and rewards. Equality does not mean that women and men are the same but their enjoyment of rights, opportunities and life chances should be equal whether they were born female or male. Mostly in rural communities of Nepal, men are considered superior to women and men have dominated role in decision making. The unpaid works like household chores performed by women are still considered as non-productive works and the only accepted role of women is considered to beget children. If the gender discrimination cannot be checked in time, it hinders the quality of life in the family. Similarly, parents give birth to many daughters in the desire of son. This kind of practice also consequently increases the population of the family and nation. Hence, there is an urgent need to recognize women’s capacities, knowledge, skills, competencies and contribution in the development process of the society and nation. It also helps to control the fertility and population growth rate. 48 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
5. Use of Contraception Family planning is the means to maintain appropriate size of the family. Family planning is possible through the proper use of contraception. They are of two types: i.e. natural methods of contraception and artificial contraceptive devices. Natural methods of contraception is the processes of avoiding unwanted pregnancy through fertility awareness based methods like Rhythm (Calendar) and Withdrawal method. Artificial method of contraception is also of two types like permanent and temporary contraception. In which the effective use of temporary contraceptive devices maintain birth spacing and delay birth for certain period of time. Different types of devices like Condoms, Pills, Norplants, IUDs, Deprovera, etc can be precisely used for temporary contraception. However, the permanent contraception like Vasectomy for male as well as Minilap and Laparoscopy for Female Sterilisation can be widely used if the couples have already had desired number of children. They are also called male and female sterilization. Proper use of contraception helps to maintain birth spacing and limits the family size. It helps to maintain quality of life of every couple and helps to make happy and prosperous family. Family planning is indeed a part of family management since it is the way to maintain prosperous family life through the proper balance between available resources and appropriate family size. The importance of family planning can be mentioned as follows: M It helps to manage proper birth spacing and promotes health of mother and child. M It helps to maintain desired family size and helps to acquire quality of life. M It helps to ensure the reproductive rights of the individuals. M It helps to control fertility rate. Types of Contraception There are two types of contraception which are described below: A. Natural Methods of Contraception Natural contraception method is the process of avoiding unwanted pregnancy without using any artificial contraceptive devices. This method depends on identifying the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle which occurs at the time of ovulation. This method is also known as fertility awareness based method. Some of the natural contraception methods are discussed as follows: (i) Calendar (Rhythm) Method It is one of the important female natural contraception method. It is the fertility awareness based contraception because its main objective is to know the fertile period (i.e. unsafe or ovulation time period) and not to involve in sexual intercourse during that unsafe period. Health, Population and Environment Education-10 49
For relying on this method, firstly, the woman should record the number of days in each menstrual cycle for at least 6 consecutive months. Here, the first day of menstrual bleeding always should be counted as day 1. Then secondly, she has to record the length of the shortest menstrual cycle and the length of the longest menstrual cycle from among the six recorded menstrual cycles. Then, she has to subtract 18 from the length of her shortest recorded menses cycle. This tells her 1st day of fertile or unsafe time period. Similarly, she has to subtract 11 from her longest recorded menstrual cycle. This tells her the last day of her fertile or unsafe period. After confirmation of the total number of days of her fertile or unsafe period, the couple either should avoid sexual intercourse or male partner has to follow withdrawal method during this period. Example Step I: Woman’s recorded length of 6 menstrual cycles Menses Cycles 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Months Jan Feb March April May June 33 29 29 30 34 30 Step II: Confirmation of the length of the shortest and the longest menstrual cycles Length of the longest cycle = 34 Length of the shortest cycle = 29 Step III: Subtraction of 18 days from the shortest menses cycle 29 - 18 = 11 (i.e. 11th day is the first day of unsafe period) Step IV: Subtraction of 11 days from the longest menses cycle 34 - 11 = 23 (i.e. 23rd day is the last day of unsafe period) Step V: Confirmation of fertile (unsafe) period I II III Safe period Fertile period Safe period Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 BPleeerdioindg PSearifoed UPenrsiaofde PSearifoed Fertility Awareness Method of Contraception i.e. 11th to 23rd days are confirmed as the unsafe or fertile days for all the consecutive menstrual cycles until and unless there is any change in the length of shortest day and longest day of menstrual cycle. (ii) Withdrawal Method (Male) Coitus interruptus or male withdrawal method is the oldest method of reversible contraception. In this method, male has to take out his Penis from the Vagina just 50 Health, Population and Environment Education-10
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