HPE Book 9_2076 Edition

Approved by the Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), Sanothimi, Bhaktapur, Nepal. HEALTH, POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION Revised and Updated Edition 9Grade Author Ram Kumar Rai

Published by TU Road, Kuleshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal. Phone: 4672071, 5187211, 5187226 Fax: 00977-1-4672073 E-mail: [email protected] www.readmorenp.com © Copyright: Publisher 2074 BS First Edition : 2073 BS Second Edition : 2074 BS Revised and Updated Edition : 2075 BS Reprint : 2076 BS Readmore welcomes any suggestions regarding the textbook. Layout: Readmore Desktop Illustration: Dev Maharjan Printed in Nepal You can exchange the textbooks from your nearest book distributor if any technical errors are found. Read to help others read ! We are pleased to inform that a certain amount from each book is allocated to the Charity Fund. The fund is provided to deserving and needy students all over Nepal. The charity always welcomes co-operation and support from all well wishers and agencies.

PREFACE This book has been prepared as a text book according to the latest curriculum of Health, Population and Environment Education for grade 9 prescribed by the Curriculum Development Center (CDC), the government of Nepal and covers all the contents of the Syllabus. In this revised edition, every possible effort has been made to present the subject matter in easy, clear, lucid and systematic manner as far as possible. It is hoped that this book meets the objectives set forth by the national curriculum and fulfills the requirement of the students of grade 9. The text is divided into 10 units as prescribed by the curriculum. I hope that the activities and project works provided in each chapter help the students foster their inherent strength and enable them to identify the problems prevailing in the society and come forward for their measures. At the same time, I believe that a sample of project work provided at the end of this book will certainly help the students to carry out research works for the practical exam. Moreover, simple language, updated data, illustration with pictures will make the text more readable and adds to its utility. I would like to express my heartfelt regards to the Readmore Publishers and Distributors who supported in every step while preparing this book. Last but not least, I also put forward my sincere regards to the layout designers Sameer Shakya for their skillful hands for creative designing. I also apologize for any error or discrepancy despite the sincere efforts that has been made to make the book credible as far as possible. Lastly, I humbly request all the colleagues, students, subject teachers and well- wishers to provide valuable and constructive suggestions and feed back. - Author

Table of Contents Page UNIT 1. CONCEPT OF HEALTH, POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION........9 1.1 Introduction to Health, Population and Environmental Education.......................9 1.1.1 Introduction to Health and Health Education.........................................................10 1.1.2 Introduction to Population and Population Education............................................13 1.1.3 Introduction to Environment and Environment Education.....................................16 1.2 Interrelationship between Health Education, Population Education and Environment Education.....................................................................................18 1.3 Scope of Health, Population and Environment Education..................................22 UNIT 2. DEMOGRAPHY, POPULATION CHANGE AND MANAGEMENT.............................30 2.1 Definition of Demography.................................................................................30 2.2 Sources of Population Data...............................................................................3. 1 2.2.1 Primary Sources......................................................................................................32 2.2.2 Secondary Sources..................................................................................................42 2.3 Factors Affecting Population Change.................................................................42 2.4 Marriage...........................................................................................................51 2.5 Areas Affected by Migration..............................................................................52 2.5.1 Impact on Environmental Aspect............................................................................52 2.5.2 Impact on Economic Aspect....................................................................................53 2.5.3 Impact on Health and Social Aspect........................................................................54 UNIT 3. POPULATION, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT.........................................57 3.1 Relationship Among Population, Environment and Development......................57 3.1.1 Concept of Development........................................................................................59 3.1.2 Indicators of Development......................................................................................62 3.2 Concept of Human Resource Development........................................................70 3.2.1 Need and Development of Human Resource..........................................................73 3.2.2 Importance of Human Resource Development.......................................................73 3.2.3 Human Resource Development Process..................................................................75 3.2.4 Challenge and Future Perspective of Human Resource Development in Nepal......77

UNIT 4. POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT STATUS OF NEPAL.....................................81 4.1 Size of Population..............................................................................................81 4.1.1 Population Size and Growth in Nepal......................................................................81 4.1.2 Composition of Population......................................................................................85 4.1.3 Population Density..................................................................................................9. 6 4.2 Population Distribution.....................................................................................98 4.2.1 Population Distribution by Rural Urban Residence...............................................1. 00 4.3 Urbanization and its Consequences.................................................................101 4.3.1 Meaning of Urbanization.......................................................................................102 4.3.2 Classification of Urban Areas.................................................................................102 4.3.3 Situation of Urbanization in Nepal........................................................................106 4.3.4 Urbanization by Ecological and Development Regions..........................................107 4.3.5 Impact of Urbanization on Population and Environment......................................108 UNIT 5. FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION AND QUALITY OF LIFE.........................................114 5.1 Introduction to Family Life Education..............................................................114 5.2 Responsibilities of Parents and Guardians towards their family.......................123 5.3 Marriage.........................................................................................................129 5.4 Planning of Family...........................................................................................133 5.5 Ageing and Social Security...............................................................................136 5.5.1 Social Security........................................................................................................141 UNIT 6. NATURAL RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY...................................................146 6.1 Concept of Natural Resources..........................................................................146 6.1.1 Introduction to Natural Resources........................................................................1. 46 6.1.2 Classification of Natural Resources........................................................................147 6.1.3 Importance of Natural Resources..........................................................................148 6.2 Types and Status of Natural Resources.............................................................149 6.2.1 Natural Resources.................................................................................................1. 50 6.3 Conservation of Natural Resources..................................................................1. 61 6.3.1 Conservation Principle of Natural Resources.........................................................161 6.3.2 Conservational Use of Natural Resources..............................................................163 6.4 Care for the Earth.............................................................................................164 6.4.1 Introduction to Care for the Earth..........................................................................164 6.4.2 Earth as a Living Planet...........................................................................................165 6.4.3 Need for Caring for the Earth................................................................................1. 67

6.4.4 Measures of Caring for the Earth..........................................................................168 6.4.5 Major Programmes for the Caring of the Earth....................................................169 6.4.6 Man and the Earth................................................................................................172 6.4.7 Local Level Efforts for Caring for the Earth............................................................173 UNIT 7. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH...........................................................................177 7.1 Concept of Environmental Health....................................................................177 7.2 Environmental Pollution and Management of Pollution...................................178 7.2.1 Introduction to Environmental Pollution...............................................................179 7.2.2 Sources and Causes of Environmental Pollution...................................................179 7.2.3 Impact of Environmental Pollution on Health.......................................................187 7.2.4 Mitigating Measures of Environmental Pollution..................................................190 7.3 Solid Waste Management................................................................................192 7.3.1 Management of Drainage and Human Excreta......................................................202 UNIT 8. ADOLESCENCE, SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION............211 8.1 Adolescence....................................................................................................211 8.1.1 Characteristics of Adolescence..............................................................................212 8.1.2 Changes in Adolescence........................................................................................213 8.1.3 Needs and Demands of Adolescents.....................................................................215 8.1.4 Problems of Adolescents.......................................................................................216 8.1.5 Management of Adolescent Problems..................................................................217 8.2 Sex Education..................................................................................................220 8.2.1 Objectives of Sex Education..................................................................................2. 20 8.3 Reproductive Health........................................................................................221 8.3.1 Aspects of Reproductive Health............................................................................221 8.3.2 Reproductive System.............................................................................................223 8.4 Reproductive Rights........................................................................................233 UNIT 9. CONSUMER HEALTH.....................................................................................236 9.1 Consumer and Consumer Health.....................................................................236 9.1.1 Introduction to Consumer Health..........................................................................236 9.1.2 Consumer Health Rights........................................................................................238 9.1.3 Importance of Consumer Health Education..........................................................240 9.1.4 Measures to Protection of Consumer Health........................................................241

9.2 Food and Nutrition..........................................................................................2. 45 9.2.1 Essential Nutrients for a Healthy Life....................................................................2. 46 9.2.2 Characteristic of Quality Food...............................................................................2. 53 9.3 Harmful Products and Healthy Living...............................................................255 9.3.1 Harmful Products in Everyday Use........................................................................255 9.3.2 Precautionary Measures from the Use of Harmful Products................................257 9.3.3 Planning for Healthy Life.......................................................................................258 UNIT 10. PRIMARY HEALTH CARE AND RISK PRECAUTION AND SAFETY..................261 10.1 Introduction to Primary Health Care................................................................261 10.1.1 Importance of Primary Health Care......................................................................263 10.1.2 Components of Primary Health Care....................................................................264 10.2 Concept, Types and Mitigating Measures of Risk.............................................266 10.2.1 Concept of Risk.....................................................................................................266 10.2.2 Types of Risks........................................................................................................267 10.3 Concept of Safety Education............................................................................280 10.3.1 Introduction to Safety Education..........................................................................280 10.3.2 Importance of Safety Education............................................................................281 10.3.3 Management of Safety Measures.........................................................................281 GRID..................................................................................................................286-287 A SET OF MODEL QUESTION..............................................................................288-289 A SAMPLE OF PROJECT WORK..........................................................................290-295 REFERENCES AND APPENDIX...................................................................................296

Curriculum of Health Population and Environment Education-Subject Matter and Weightage-Class -9 Ministry of Education, Curriculum Development Center, Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Unit/Scope Subject Matter of Class - 9 Periods (Unit 1) ^ Introduction and importance of Health, Population and 15 16 Concept of Health, Environment Education Population and ^ Interrelationship between Health, Population and 13 Environment Education 17 Environment 17 (Unit 2) ^ Introduction to Demography Demography, Population ^ Sources of Population Data 17 Change and its ^ Factors Affecting Population Change (Birth, Death, Management 17 Migration and Marriage) 16 (Unit 3) ^ Area Affected by Migration 17 Population, Environment ^ Concept of Development and Development ^ Index of Development 15 ^ Development of Human Resource (Unit 4) ^ Size of population Population Situation of ^ Regional Distribution of Population Nepal and Environment ^ Urbanization and its Effects (Including Data) ^ Introduction, Importance and scope of Family, Family Life (Unit 5) Family Life Education and Education Quality of Life ^ Responsibilities of Parents or Guardians in Family Life ^ Marriage (Unit 6) ^ Planning of Family Natural Resources and ^ Old age and Social Security Biodiversity ^ Concept of Natural Resources ^ Types and Situation of Natural Resources (Unit 7) ^ Conservation of Natural Resources Environmental Health and ^ Caring for the Earth Diseases ^ Man and Earth ^ Concept of Environmental Health (Unit 8) ^ Pollution and its Management Adolescence, Sexual and ^ Solid Waste Management Reproductive Health ^ Sewage and Toilet Management Education ^ Adolescence ^ Sex Education (Unit 9) ^ Reproductive Health Consumer Health and ^ Reproductive Rights Community Health ^ Consumer Health ^ Nutrition (Unit 10) ^ Quality Food Primary Health Care and ^ Consumer Right and Health Protection Precaution in Risk and ^ Harmful Goods Safety Education ^ Plan for Healthy Lifestyle ^ Primary Health Care ^ Risk Management, its Type and Mitigating Measures ^ Concept of Safety Education Total Periods 160

Unit CONCEPT OF HEALTH, POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 1 Learning Objective After completing this unit, students will be able to: • Introduce health, population and environment. • Clarify the concept of Health, Population and Environment Education. • Explain the importance of Health, Population and Environment Education. • Explain the scope of Health, Population and Environment Education. • Describe the interrelationship among different aspects of Health, Population and Environment Education. 1.1 Introduction to Health, Population and Environmental Education Health, population and environment are three integral components to each other. Population is the integral part of health and environment since people cannot maintain quality of life in the absence of sound health and healthy environment. At the same time, in the absence of population, environment is meaningless. Health and environmental condition will not be good if there is no proper management of population. Environment Education Co-ordination Safe, Prosperous Interaction and Productive Life Health Balance Population Education Education Fig:1.1 Interrelationship between Health, Population and Environment Education 9

Environment Education is essential for the preservation of total quality of the environment whereas, Health and Population Education are required for the preparation of healthy, productive and conscious human resources. Healthful living is possible through Health Education while Population Education helps to solve unmanaged population problem. A good balance between population and environment is essential for a happy, healthy and productive life. Hence, Health, Population and Environment Education are entirely interrelated with each other and the study of this subject helps to create, safe, productive and prosperous society. In this regard, we can conclude that proper coordination, balance and interdependence amongst health, population and environment education leads people towards the happy, productive and prosperous life. 1.1.1 Introduction to Health and Health Education A. Health The word ‘Health’ is found to be derived from the Anglo-Saxon word ‘Hale’. Its literal meaning is safe. Hence, health implies a sound mind in a sound body under the sound environment. According to WHO, “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. This definition emphasizes the importance of wellbeing of people in physical, mental and social state besides being free from disease and infirmity. Physical health means physical development and fitness whereas healthy thinking and mental development is related to mental health. Social behavior of an individual is related with social health. The abilities of a person like cooperation, friendship and leadership are considered as the scope of social health. It seems that this definition is more theoretical rather than practical. It is almost impossible to obtain such healthy persons in today’s world because it is very difficult to get the persons who are physically, mentally and socially sound at the same time. The criticism against the definition of health by WHO are as follows: Health is not a state but a dynamic process. It seems theoretically good but almost impractical in day to day life. This definition has failed to include emotional and spiritual aspects of health. This definition has not mentioned the relation of health with quality of life. Healthy persons, as defined by WHO can hardly be found in our community. Aspects of Health We know that our health is the combination of physical, mental and social health that governs our overall well-being. The WHO defines health as “…a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of 10

disease or infirmity”. So when talking about health, we must consider three aspects such as physical, mental and social aspects. a. Physical Health Physical health means the condition in which all of the body parts and organs are free from disease. At the same time, physical health denotes physical fitness in which all of the body organs function well. For our optimum level of physical health, our body should be strong, fit and free from illness. If our body is acquiring too little nutrients than it needs, we may suffer from malnourishment. It may cause various health problems to us. On the other hand, too much fatness can lead to obesity, which may increase the risk of hypertension, diabetes and heart disease. We can get many benefits from doing regular exercise. They strengthen our muscles, bones, heart and other organs of our body. Exercise not only promotes our physical health, but it also enhances our emotional, social and spiritual health and well being. Even though we lead a busy life, it is important to dedicate our time to regular physical activity also. We can do exercise in many ways such as dancing, swimming, jogging, etc. Similarly, we can be physically fit by playing different types of games and sports like football, badminton, lawn tennis and volleyball. Even taking the stairs instead of using elevators is a practical way of doing some physical exercise. This is especially important for those who lead a sedentary life. b. Mental Health Mental health denotes the condition in which people are free from mental stress, anxiety and any kind of mental disease. Since all aspects of health are interrelated, anything that has a negative impact on our thoughts and emotions may affect our all-round health. Feeling happy is associated with good mental health. We can improve the state of our mental health through yoga, meditation, music, counselling and creative works. Yoga and meditation help to let go off unnecessary stress. Getting enough sleep is also equally important for mental health. Mental health is also considered as an important aspect of overall health. Reading a novel or listening to music are effective ways of freeing the mind from unnecessary worries. Staying mentally active by learning new things, developing new skills and engaging in creative works can help us improve our mental health. We should not be afraid to try new things and involve ourselves in activities that interest us. Let us not forget that keeping our mind active also greatly improves our memory in the long run. 11

c. Social Health Social health denotes the social behaviour and etiquettes performed by the people towards family, neighbour, friend circle, senior citizens, brother-sisters and disabled people. As social beings, we do interaction with others, make friends and have a sense of belonging to each other. Social isolation can lead to feeling of sadness, which may affect our mental and physical health. In our busy life, we have so many things to do so that we sometimes overlook the importance of maintaining our all- round health. Good health is the integration of various aspects of life. The diagram that is given below illustrates some characteristics of a healthy person: Physical Characteristics Mental Characteristics Social Characteristics Free from disease Self-actualization Sense of cooperation Good complexion Free from anxiety Sense of leadership Physical fitness Self-controlled Well adjustment ability Good appetite Cheerfulness Sense of self-respect Well cultured Sound sleep Self-confidence Self- discipline Physically active Self esteem High morale Free from mental conflict Helpfulness B. Health Education Health Education has been defined differently by different scholars and institutions. It is difficult to get common definition on Health Education as the Earth is one but the world is not. Most people recognize the urgent need for Health Education but only some have clear ideas about what needs to be done. Health Education begins with the start of life and extends throughout home, school and society. Health education is an educational process of learning experiences designed to help individuals and communities improve their health by which they learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance and restoration of health. According to WHO “Health Education is the process which enables individuals and group of individuals to realize their health needs and match them to necessary health behaviour for the attainment of positive health”. According to the society of Public Health Education, “Health Education is a process which affects changes in the health practices of people and in the knowledge and attitude related to such changes”. From the above definitions, we can draw our conclusion such as: e Health Education is a process involving series of events but not a single event. e It helps to bring positive change on humans regarding their knowledge, attitude, code of behavior and pattern of life. 12

e Public participation is mandatory in Health Education. e Health Education aims to impart quality of life. e Motivation and encouragement is essential in Health Education. Activity After learning this lesson what can you do to improve the health condition of your family? List down any twelve measures. C. Need and Importance of Health Education Health education is essential for a healthy life. It gives idea for healthy living. There is lack of knowledge about basic health in the developing countries including Nepal. A large population are dying due to common and minor diseases like diarrhoea, pneumonia, typhoid, cholera, etc. There is no proper diagnosis of disease due to superstition, tradition, poverty, lack of access to health services. Everybody wants to live a healthy life. So, Health Education has become very essential as it teaches people to attain healthy life by disseminating knowledge, skills and understanding on health related issues. The need and importance of Health Education are mentioned in the points that are given below: Health Education helps to conduct public awareness campaign in all matters related to health. It helps to develop positive attitude and perception regarding health issues. It helps the individuals and community to modify their behavior according to the code of health standard. It motivates individuals and community to adopt preventive, curative, promotive, and rehabilitative health measures. It helps to motivate individuals to keep the environment in balance through sanitation and pollution control programs. To prepare healthy and productive citizen. To eradicate health related superstition. It helps to promote longevity of life. 1.1.2 Introduction to Population and Population Education A. Concept of Population The term ‘population’ has been taken from the Latin word “Populous” meaning people and refers to a group of people occupying at a particular place in a particular time period. Population can be defined as the total number of people residing in a particular area in a specific time period. It is also considered as the number of people organized in a group attached with their own racial, social, and cultural 13

values and norms. Population includes the people of all age groups, sexes, castes, and ethnic groups, occupations, race and religion of the given place. The size of population always keeps on changing due to the interplay of population components like birth, death and migration. At the same time, population size varies from place to place due to variation in geographical structure, climatic condition, and socio-economic disparity. Hence, we can see variation in the size of population from country to country and in different territories or regions within a country. Influenced by social, economic Dynamic process Defined geographical and ecological factors territory POPULATION Organized group of people Specified time period Fig:1.2 Concept of Population B. Concept of Population Education Education can play an important role to bring multi-sectoral change in the country. There is a relevant perception about education, which says: “If your plan is for ten years plant trees. If your plan is for one hundred years educate children.” In this sense, if we get appropriate knowledge on population education from the school level, it helps to develop confidence for the proper management of population. Different people have different opinions about Population Education. Some consider it as Family Planning Education since the issues related to family planning and contraception are discussed for better future. Some call it Sex Education since the contents like human reproduction; human sexuality and sexual behavior are incorporated in this subject. In the same way, some people define this subject as Demography since it contains the subject matters like demographic components, process, and measures, which include fertility rates, migration rates, mortality rates, dependency ratio etc. Family Planning Education Environmental Family Life Education Reproductive Health Education Sex Education Population Education Demography Fig:1.3 Concept of Population Education 14

In fact, Population Education is a multi- disciplinary subject because the subject matters of Population Education are related with different subjects such as Sociology, Economics, Environment Education, Geography, Biology, Statistics etc. The first person to coin the word “Population Education” is Prof. Sloan R. Wayland of Columbia University, U.S.A. Population Education refers to a multidimensional educational process of developing awareness and understanding of population situation as well as rational attitude and behavior towards that situation for the attainment of quality of life for individual, family, community, nation, and the world. Although, various opinions are found to get the definition of Population Education, the most appropriate definitions are given below: According to UNESCO (1970 AD), “The Population Education is an educational programme which provides learners for the study of population situation in family, community, nation, and the world with the purpose of developing rational and responsible attitudes and behaviour towards that situation.” According to R.C. Sharma, “Population Education is an educational programme which helps learners to understand the interrelationship of population dynamics and other factors of quality of life and to make informed and rational decisions with regard to population related issues with the purpose of improving the quality of himself, his community, nation, and the world.” From the above-mentioned definitions, it becomes clear that Population Education is an educational process through which students can get population related knowledge, attitude, awareness and skill and thereby can change their behavior positively for the attainment of quality of life. So that they are able to make proper planning and responsible decision for: Appropriate age of marriage Appropriate number of children Ideal family size Proper planning of family Proper migration process Proper birth spacing Proper parenthood Activity Collect the data of age at marriage of the SAARC countries for different years and compare the trend of age at marriage among those countries and discuss in the class under the guidance of your subject teacher. 15

C. Need and Importance of Population Education Population education helps us to be aware of the consequences of rapid population growth on social, economic and demographic aspects of human life and environment. Students get an opportunity to investigate and explore the interaction between the population and their environment. Population Education helps to bring about the desired changes in the fertility behaviour of the future parents. Population Education is the means to help individuals in making rational decisions on population management measures for themselves and their society. The need and importance of Population Education are mentioned below: Population Education plays an important role in bringing positive change in attitude and behaviour on population related issues. It develops rational and responsible attitude and behaviour among learners about desirable family size and quality of life. It helps to take rational and responsible decision on population related problems and challenges. Population education explains the size, growth, composition, distribution and other characteristics of human population. It studies the relationships of man with his environment. It helps to develop knowledge about interrelationship between population growth and socio-economic development in the case of individual, family, society, nation and the world. It develops the concept of small and happy family. It helps to attain safe and sound reproductive and sexual health. It aims at attaining quality of life. It helps to avoid social evils like child marriage, early marriage, gender discrimination, drug addiction, etc. 1.1.3 Introduction to Environment and Environment Education A. Concept of Environment The term ‘environment’ means surrounding, which includes physical, biological, cultural, and social conditions of the surrounding. Etymologically, the term ‘environment’ means the conditions by which one is surrounded. In our day-to- day life, we can observe that every organism lives in the midst of various living and non-living objects, happenings, and influences. The aggregate of these components forms its environment. Environment can be considered as all external conditions or influences under which an organism lives or develops. The environment determines survival, reproduction, growth, and development of the living organism. 16

The living organisms (e.g. plants, animals including human beings) and nonliving organisms are found on the Earth. None of the living organisms can survive alone. The living organisms depend on each other in the environment for their survival. The sum process of these entire living and non-living beings together make an environment for an organism. Thus, the environment denotes the sum total of physical and biological factors that directly influence the survival, growth, development, and reproduction of organisms. Any external force, substance or condition, which surrounds and affects the life of an organism in any way is called environmental factor. No organism can live without environment. Human beings are no exception to this rule. The general concept of environment with their components are illustrated in the following diagram: Physical Aspects Biological Aspects e.g. water, soil, temperature, e.g. plants, animals, roads, buildings, etc. microbes, etc. Concept of Environment Socio-cultural Aspects e.g. traditions, customs, beliefs, food habit, religious practices, etc Fig:1.4 Concept of Environment B. Concept of Environment Education Environment is the natural source from where all kinds of human needs are fulfilled. For instance, the things like clothing, food materials, medicines, oxygen and other essential things are found in the environment. Environment Education is the only effective instrument for bringing about desired change in the world. Environment Education aims to make individuals aware of their environment and its problems. It helps them to understand the effects resulted by human activities on the environment. The human activities like deforestation, random use of insecticides, over exploitation of ground water and minerals have created adverse impact on environment. Similarly, the activities like pouching of wild animals and putting fire in the forest also cause adverse effect on the environment. Such kinds of negative interaction of human being with the environment results into various types of environmental problems like flood, soil erosion, earthquake, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, etc. Consequently, various kinds of dreadful diseases will get spread and it will create serious health problems to the people in those areas. In this context, there is need of environment education. 17

Environmental education is an educational process in which individuals gain awareness of their environment. It also helps to acquire knowledge, skills and experiences to take action in their environmental problems. As a result, they can develop a deeper understanding of environmental issues and have the skills to make informed and responsible decision, which will enable them to solve present and future environmental problems. The objective of Environment Education is: individual and social group should acquire knowledge, develop attitude, skills and abilities and participate in solving real-life environmental problems. According to IUCN Commission of Education (1970 AD), “Environment Education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among man, his culture and his biophysical surrounding. Environment Education also entails practice in decision making and self-formulation of a code of behavior about issues concerning environmental quality.” C. Need and Importance of Environment Education All living beings including human beings can survive by utilizing the natural resources available in the environment. Environment Education helps people to identify different problems relating to environment and also helps to solve those problems in a rational manner. Environment Education has given some basic guidelines for the conservation of environment. The following points clarify the need and importance of Environment Education. Environment Education imparts knowledge to the individuals about the different aspects of environment. It provides knowledge about the interrelationship between man and the nature. It raises awareness and skill for rational and responsible utilization of environmental resources. It educates people about the need and importance of environment and motivates them for the involvement in conservation activities. It helps to integrate environment conservation activities while carrying out development programmes. It provides information to the people for conservation measures according to the ecological diversity. It helps to maintain ecological balance for the survival of all living beings. It teaches people to pay respect for all aspects of the nature and motivate them to behave accordingly. 1.2 Interrelationship between Health Education, Population Education, and Environment Education Since Health, Population and Environment Education are interrelated, they are integrated and introduced as a single subject. Due to its interdisciplinary nature, 18

change in contents of one subject affects the other subjects. For examples: rapid population growth adversely affects the various aspects of Health and Environment education. At the same time degraded environment makes healthy living and quality of life almost impossible. Similarly, a proper management of population leads to healthy and prosperous life. Health, Population and Environment education are supplementary to each other in terms of various aspects such as physical, biological, socio-cultural, science and technological and so on. Due to the deep inter-relationship among health, population and environmental education, they are integrated and made into one subject. If there is any change in one of the related subjects, the remaining two subjects are affected. As for example, rapid population growth and unmanaged population affect the health and environmental aspect. Moreover, the decline in environmental aspect makes it difficult to live healthy life. On the other hand, if healthy environment can be preserved, then there will be positive effect on population and health. In the same way, if the population can be properly managed there will be positive effect on the health and environment. In this way, all these subjects have become complementary to one another. Thus, health, population, and environment education are closely interrelated with each other, and the study of these subjects helps to create a healthy, active, and safe society. The interrelationship between these three subjects in terms of various aspects can be best explained through the following chart: Biological Aspect Socio-Acsuplteucrtal AsPpoelcittical Population Education TeScciheAnsnocpleeocgti&cal EdEnuvcairtoionnment HEedaultchation PAhsypseicctal PsAyscpheoclot gical EcoAnsopmecict Fig:1.5 Interrelationship of Health, Population and Environment Education in terms of Various Aspects 19

A. Physical Aspects Physical aspects include natural and man-made things. Natural aspects like air, water, temperature, soil, rocks, climate etc are created by the nature. On the other hand canal, water taps, buildings, bridges, roads, hospitals, industries, schools etc. are the man-made physical aspects. The quantity and quality of physical aspects make a great difference in the survival of living beings. For example; people prefer to live in those places where more physical facilities are available. Investment in the physical aspects like hospitals, power plants, canal, roads, transport system etc. promote health and way of living of the population. B. Biological Aspects Various aspects of health and population are influenced by the biological factors of the environment. The degree of quality of life is determined by the richness of biological resources of that place. People get their foodstuffs and other various kinds of life supporting materials from them. Besides this, biological aspect contributes to maintain sound health and keep the environment clean and healthy. Similarly, it helps to improve living standard of the people through proper utilization of the biological resources in various sectors like agriculture, industries, trade and other socio-economic sectors. At the same time, we have to pay special attention to bring balance between their utilization and proper management. C. Socio-cultural Aspects People have created social and cultural norms, values, as well as rules and regulation. Social customs, traditions, rituals, festivals and religious practices are some examples of socio-cultural aspects. Different aspects of health, population and environment are interrelated with socio-cultural aspects. The customs, living standard, festivals, religious traditions etc affect the health and the environment. It is necessary for us to build up the tradition not to affect the environment with our social activities. People should celebrate socio-cultural practices without affecting the environment. This will definitely help to protect the environment. D. Economic Aspects The economic aspect is directly related with various aspects of health, population and environment. All areas of health, population and environment will be adversely affected by the poor economic condition of the nation. All kinds of economic activities depend upon the environment. For example, industries, factories, 20

pharmaceuticals, agriculture etc need raw materials from the environment which helps to boost up the economic status of the family, community and the nation. On the other hand, when the economic condition of the people is poor it spoils their health and productive life. Besides it, the rapidly growing population causes economic problems and environmental degradation. E. Political Aspect Political aspect includes the plans and policies launched by the administration and the government. The programs in relation to health, population and environment are implemented by the political level in broad term. Hence, health, population and environmental problems can be solved effectively. Political commitment is felt mandatory to execute the health, population and environment related programs in effective way. If there is high political will, there is less chance of misuse of health services, over exploitation of resources and encroachment in the conservation areas. At the same time, preservation and rational utilization of resources is possible. F. Psychological Aspects Psychological aspect represents feelings, attitude, understanding and behaviour of the individuals. They are directly related with Health, Population and Environment Education. The will power of the people will provide motivation to conserve environment and promote overall health condition of the mass population. Programmes and policies cannot be effective until and unless people are willing to participate from their heart in the conservation plans as well as population management programs. Hence, we can conclude that Health, Population and Environment Education are directly interrelated through psychological aspects too. G. Science and Technological Aspects Science and technology are the result of human innovations. They are the significant means of development process. It has made the world a small place and human life productive and comfortable. There is unbelievable development in the field of medicine, communication, transportation, education and agriculture and conservation sectors with the contribution of science and technology. The proper utilization of benefits by science and technology makes human life comfortable and productive. On the other hand, misuse of boon of science and technology ruins the civilization and existence of the world. The aforementioned point maintains that Health, Population and Environment Education are interrelated on the ground of science and technology. 21

1.3 Scope of Health, Population, and Environment Education Health, Population and Environment Education are interrelated subjects. Each discipline has its own scope; however, they are interrelated to each other. Here, scope means the various conditions, places, subject matters, aspects content areas and correlated disciplines that are related with the concerned discipline or subject. It is obvious that the scope of one discipline influences the scope of another discipline. The scope or content area of Health, Population, and Environment Education are mentioned below: Scope of Health Scope of Population Scope of Environment Education Education Education a. In terms of social a. Demography a. Aspects of Environment setting: • Determinants Education of population • Physical aspects Home, school, change • Biological aspects workplace and • Consequences of (Animals, Plants, community. rapid population Agriculture, Forest growth science) b. In terms of correlated • Human sexuality • Socio-cultural subjects: and reproduction aspects • planning for Sociology, Psychology, future b. In terms of correlated Medicine, subjects: Anthropology, b. In terms of • Health Education Biology, Home correlated subjects • Population Science, Population • Health Education Education Education, • Environmental • Economics Environment Education • Geography Education, Physical • Geography • Culture Education, Culture, • Sociology • Sociology etc. • Anthropology • Anthropology • Political science • Science and • Economics etc. Technology • Geology etc. Fig:1.6 Scope of Health, Population and Environment Education A. Scope of Health Education Health Education has a very wide scope. It is dependent and closely related to many other aspects besides health. It touches all branches of human life, namely personal life, school life and community life. The scope of Health Education at present is broadened as its importance is realized. Hence, the scope of Health Education has 22

extended from home, school, community to different social settings as well as with various disciplines like Biology, Culture, Sociology/Anthropology, Home Science, Environment Education etc. The scope of Health Education is explained below: 1. Scope of Health Education in terms of Social Settings Man is a social being. Hence, people have to adjust their day to day life with various social settings. Basically; home, school, workplaces and community are considered as the scope of Health Education from the perspective of social settings. a. Home Home is the first and foremost school of a child. S/he gets different experiences of Health Education from parents and elders. Children learn personal hygiene, proper time to eat, need and importance of diet, proper time to sleep, sanitation and cleanliness of the house and surrounding. Besides this, it also helps to set up rules in the family for healthy and prosperous family life. Hence, home is a place where Health Education is essential. b. School School in rural area School is an institution from where students can learn many information, ideas and experiences through formal and non-formal educational programs. Planned and formal health education teaches various health rules, healthy way of living. It also educates the students about preventive, promotive, curative, as well as rehabilitative health services. Health Education in school motivates and encourages the students to utilize the available health services for healthy and happy life. c. Community Community is a group of people who live in a definite geographical area in organized way with the sense of “we feeling”. In this context, community is also a scope of Health Education. Community covers a larger area such as organizations, clubs, institutions, ethnic groups, hospitals, markets etc. Health Education is essential in those areas. Community can be taught about sanitation, public health, proper management of solid waste, prevention, and control of communicable disease and so on. It also helps to aware the people about the need and importance of vaccination, balanced diet, and public sanitation. 23

2. Scope of Health Education in Terms of Correlated Subjects Health Education is an integrated subject by its nature. Hence, Health Education is related with many other subjects like Environment Education, Sociology, Biology, Culture, and Population Education and so on. Health Education is made as a complete subject integrating some important and essential contents from various other subjects. For example, Sociology, Biology, Home Science, population Education, Physical Health Education, Environment Education imparts knowledge of Health Education. Therefore, we can conclude that all those subjects are the scope of Health Education. Activity Conduct a small interaction program on “scope of health, population and environment education” in your school and demonstrate the findings of that program on a chart paper and cling on your class room wall. B. Scope of Population Education Population Education is a multidisciplinary subject. Scope of Population Education is broad enough since Population Education is related with various aspects and disciplines. Basically, it deals with demography, determinants of population change, human sexuality, family planning etc. The scope of Population Education is mentioned as follows: 1. Demography Demography is a scientific study of human population in relation to changes caused by the interplay of birth, death and migration. Birth, death and migration are the key components of Demography. These three components play vital role in population change. Demography deals with fertility, mortality and migration process. a. Determinants of Population Change Determinants of population change is an important area of population education. Hence, it is customary to discuss about the factors responsible for change in the size of population. It must be understood that the population of any place at a specific time is a function of three types of events: births, deaths and migration. There are fundamentally four ways in which the number of people in any area can undergo change: Children may be born in that area Death of inhabitants of that area 24

In-migration of people from other areas Out migration of inhabitants from area These components of population change namely births, deaths and migration are identified as fertility, mortality and migration respectively and are known as population variables because the size, growth, composition and distribution of any population are determined by them. b. Consequences of Rapid Population Growth Rapid growth of population causes adverse effects on social, economic and environmental aspects. The consequences of rapid population growth like food scarcity, environmental crisis, malnutrition and various social problems are studied in this area. c. Human Sexuality and Reproduction Human sexuality and reproduction involves the subject matters like sexual behavior, sexual problems, human reproductive system, reproductive function and sexually transmitted infections (STI’s) etc. A better understanding of sexuality and reproduction will make students responsible in sexual and reproductive behavior. d. Planning for Future A major concern of Population Education is to change the fertility behavior of the youths and help them in planning for their future. Population Education provides opportunity to take appropriate decision for appropriate age at marriage, proper birth spacing, family welfare, proper parenthood for the future and so on. 2. Scope of Population Education in terms of Correlated Subjects It is obvious that Population Education is a multidimensional educational process. In this context, the contents and subject matters of this subject is supplemented from various other correlated disciplines like Sociology, Biology, Geography, Health Education, Political Science, Statistics etc. For instance, occupation, employment, and urbanization are the subject matters of Population Education and are related with Economics. Similarly, socio-cultural values and beliefs; which are related to Population Education are the subject matters of Population Education and at the same time, they are also the scope of Sociology. C. Scope of Environment Education The environment is a complex phenomenon. In this perspective, Environmental Education has a broad field that encompasses Humanities, Science, Economics, 25

technology, social sciences and other disciplines. The scope of Environment Education is explained below: 1. Aspect of Environment Education a. Physical Aspects Physical aspects can be classified as natural and man-made aspects. Air, water, climate, topography, soil, sand etc denote natural physical aspects, whereas road, bridge, buildings, gadgets and machineries represent the examples of man-made physical aspects. b. Biological Aspects Biological aspects are important elements of environment. Animals, birds, insects, microbes and vegetation are the best examples of biological aspects. c. Socio-culture Aspects Biological Aspects The socio-cultural norms, values, traditions, customs as well as temples, mosques, gumbas, chaityas and churches that are created by the human toll and innovations are called socio-cultural aspects. Socio-cultural aspects guide our society. In their absence our society and our way of living cannot function systematically. 2. Scope of Environment Education in terms of Correlated Subjects The syllabus of Environment Education is developed by incorporating the contents of different correlated subjects. Hence, Environment Education has relation with many other subjects like Geography, Sociology, Culture, Population Education, Health Education, etc. Being the interdisciplinary nature, the changes in the subject matters of other related subjects influence the scope of environment education. 26

Summary M Population education is an educational process through which individuals can get knowledge and skill and thereby change their attitude and behaviour for quality of life. M People learn population for population awareness. M Environmental education is a process in which individuals gain awareness of their environment and helps to acquire knowledge, skills, values and experiences in problem solving, and take action to improve the environment. M Health education is the process, which enables individuals to realize their health needs and match them to necessary health behaviour for the attainment of positive health. M Health is the state of complete physical, mental and social well being, not merely the absence of disease and infirmity. M Psychological aspects of environment denote feeling, attitude, perception, understanding etc. M Scope of health education has extended from home, school, and community to different social setting along with other various subjects like biology, sociology, environment education, culture etc. M Scope of population education is broad enough and deals with demography, human sexuality, family planning, population dynamic and other many co-related subjects. M Scope of environment education encompasses the various aspects like physical aspect, biological aspect and socio-cultural aspect including other co-related subjects like population education, health education, geography, psychology, biology, culture etc. M Water, soil, road, building, temperature, rock, bridge etc are the example of physical aspects of environment. M Plants, animals, small insects, and microbes are the example of biological aspect of the environment. M Food habits, customs, social, and religious beliefs, traditions, rituals etc are the example of socio-cultural aspect of the environment. M Since health, population and environment education are interrelated subjects and introduced as an integrated subject; change in the content of one subject influences the scope of other subject. M The plans, policies, programs, and commitment at the policy level of the government and its agencies for the management of health, population and environmental issues and problems come under the political aspect of Health, Population, and Environment Education. M Proper coordination, balance, and interdependence amongst health, population, and environment by health, population and environment education leads people to safe, healthy, productive and quality of life. 27

Exercise A. Very short answer questions. 1. What is Population Education? 2. Define Environment Education. 3. Give any two examples of socio-cultural aspects of environment. 4. What aspects are included in the definition of health by WHO? 5. Mention any two needs and importance of Health Education. 6. Write any two experiences that you have learnt from Population Education. 7. Mention any two consequences of rapid population growth. 8. Write any two importance of Health Education in our life. 9. Why is population education also called as a multidimensional subject? Justify in one sentence. 10. Write a difference between biological and physical aspect of environment. B. Short answer questions. 1. Why do we learn Population Education? Give reasons. 2. Population education is also called as a subject for population awareness. Why? 3. How does a healthy environment help in maintaining happy and prosperous life? 4. “People who get Population Education are also aware of health issues and environmental degradation”. Justify. 5. Elucidate any four needs and importance of population education. 6. Mention any four health related experiences that you can get from your school. 7. “Health, population and environment education is for the enrichment of quality of life”. Justify the statement. 8. Explain the scope of health education in terms of social settings. 9. Illustrate the relation of science and technology with health, population and environment education. C. Write short notes on: 1. Demography 2. Socio-cultural aspect of environment 28

3. Scope of health education in terms of correlated subjects 4. Planning for future D. Write differences: 1. Biological and physical aspect of environment 2. Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary subject 3. Physical and mental health E. Long answer questions. 1. Explain the scope of Population Education and Environment Education. 2. Explain the interrelationship of Health, Population, and Environment Education in terms of physical, psychological and economic aspects. Project Work Visit the different places of your locality. Observe the environmental components of those places. Put them in the following chart then present in the class for discussion. Physical Aspects Biological Aspects Socio-cultural Aspects 1…………………………….... 1…………………………….... 1…………………………….... 2…………………………….... 2…………………………….... 2…………………………….... 3…………………………….... 3…………………………….... 3…………………………….... 4…………………………….... 4…………………………….... 4…………………………….... 5…………………………….... 5…………………………….... 5…………………………….... 6…………………………….... 6…………………………….... 6…………………………….... 7………………………………. 7………………………………. 7………………………………. 8………………………………. 8………………………………. 8………………………………. 9………………………………. 9………………………………. 9………………………………. 10……………………………. 10……………………………. 10……………………………. 11……………………………. 11……………………………. 11……………………………. 12……………………………. 12……………………………. 12……………………………. 13……………………………. 13……………………………. 13……………………………. 29

Unit DEMOGRAPHY, POPULATION CHANGE AND 2 MANAGEMENT Learning Objective After completing this unit, students will be able to: • Compare between formal and social demography. • Compare the primary and secondary sources of population data. • Explain the different types of census methods. • Mention the various factors affecting birth, death, and migration. • Define marriage and compare age at marriage in the SAARC countries. • Mention the impact of migration on social, economic, and environmental aspects. 2.1 Definition of Demography The term “Demography” is the combination of two Greek words ‘Demos’ and ‘Graphia’. In which, ‘Demos’ carries the meaning people and ‘Graphia’ meaning to write, to study or science. The literal meaning of Demography is the scientific study of population dynamics. John Graunt is the first person who examined the trend of mortality and fertility from the death record maintained by the churches in London in his famous book ‘Natural and Political Observation Made upon the Bills of Mortality’ in 1662 AD. This work has been considered as the start of population study. So, the credit for initiating population studies goes to him. Therefore, he is also called as father of Demography or Population Study. Several scholars have tried to define demography in their own way. Some of them defined demography in broad sense whereas some of them attempted to define it in a narrow sense. Therefore, Demography can be defined in two dimensions like: A. In narrow senses: as formal demography B. In broader sense: as social demography A. Formal Demography In narrow sense, demography is known as formal demography. Formal demography is the quantitative study or mathematical study of human population. According to the UN multi-lingual demographic dictionary (1958 AD)- “Formal demography is the scientific study of human population primarily with respect to their size, structure, composition, distribution and their development”. Similarly, according to Lucus (1987)- “Demography is a science dealing with marriage, birth, death and migration of human population. It also involves the 30

size, geographical distribution and composition of population and how these changes over time”. Formal demography deals with population statistics. B. Social Demography Social demography is also known as population study. In broad sense, demography is called as social demography since it explains and analyses the contents and issues of population studies by relating with the social and economic aspects. Social demography is a multidisciplinary subject since it studies the subject matters of Biology, Psychology, Medicine, Geography, Environment Science and the contents of formal demography as well. According to Shryock and Siegel (1976)- “Social demography or population study is concerned not only with population variables eg: fertility, mortality and migration but also with the relationship between population changes and other variables like social, economic, political, biological, genetic, geographical and the like”. Social demography deals not only with population variables but also with the relationship between population changes and other variables such as social economic, political and geographical aspects. 2.2 Sources of Population Data Population data refers to the data about socio-economic and demographic characteristics of human population. It is also called demographic data. It provides information about birth, death, migration, age, sex, marital status, nationality, religion, literacy, mother tongue, occupation, and family planning of a particular place for a particular time period. Such data is useful to the various organizations and individuals for the development planning and policy formulation process. We can obtain population data from the two major sources. They are illustrated in the following diagram: Sources of Population Data Primary Sources Secondary Sources Census Textbooks Vital Registration System Research Reports Sample Survey Statistical Year Books Administrative Records Periodical, Journals Population Register Population Monographs Fig: 2.1 Source of population data 31

2.2.1 Primary Sources Primary sources of population data is regarded as the first hand data. The population data from the primary sources are collected from the field or households. Primary data can be collected through different types of data collection tools like questionnaire, question schedule, observation, interview, etc. The primary sources of population data are mentioned below: A. Census B. Vital Registration System C. Sample Surveys D. Administrative Records E. Population Register A. Census The word census has been derived from the Latin word “Censere” which indicates value or tax. In ancient time, census used to be carried out in order to identify the person who could be taxed and recruited in military forces. But at present time, census denotes the enumeration of total population residing in a particular country or territory of a country at a particular time period. Census is not only a head count. It is a function of enumerating social, economic and demographic data of individual. In ancient time, instead of enumerating the entire population, only heads of family, farmers, merchants, landlords, men in the age group suitable for military service, etc used to be enumerated. In such a census, women and children were seldom included. The modern census, on the other hand aims at enumerating all persons in a given territory without duplication and omission. 1. Definition of Census Census is the most fundamental source of population data. It can be defined as- “the total process of collecting, compiling, evaluating, analyzing and publishing demographic, economic and social data at a specified time, to all persons in a country or a part of the country.” In other words, the enumeration of the entire population of a country or a territory of a country at a particular time is known as census. Historical Development of Census Evidence shows that census operation was practiced in Bolivia, China, Egypt, Palestine, and Rome in ancient time. It is believed that population census was taken in Bolivia in 4000 BC, China in 3000 BC, Egypt in 2500 BC, and Rome in 805 BC. However, the history of modern census is of less than 400 years old. The first systematic census is believed to have been carried out in Sweden in 1749 AD, U.S.A. in 1790 AD, Great Britain in 1801, and India in 1872 AD. The first scientific census is 32

known as the census of Sweden, which was carried out in 1749 AD because it had included demographic and socio-economic information of population. Table: Historical Trend of Census Enumeration in the World Census Before the Start of Modern Census Country Year Bolivia 4000 BC China 3000 BC Egypt 2500 BC Rome 805 BC Modern Census Quebec 1665 AD Sweden 1749 AD 1790 AD USA 1801 AD UK 1872 AD India 1911 AD Nepal In the case of Nepal, it does not carry a long census enumeration history. The first population census of Nepal was taken in 1911 AD. Since the first population count in 1911 AD, ten more censuses have been conducted in Nepal. The earlier traditional censuses of Nepal were not so much precise as compared to the modern censuses. The four censuses conducted before the 1952/54 AD are known as “head counts”. In Nepal, the first scientific census was started in 1952/54 AD but the census was enumerated in two different years in the country. It was conducted in Eastern Nepal in 1952 and Western part of the country in 1954 AD. Then the sixth census was taken in 1961 AD. We can observe the tendency of decennial census after 1961 AD onwards. During the last 100 years, Nepal and many other countries in the world have experienced many socio- demographic changes. In terms of number, the population of Nepal was 56,38,749 in 1911 AD. An increase of about five times during the period of 100 years has been observed. Now, in the 11th national population census of 2011 AD, the country has enumerated 2,64,94,504 population. 2. Census Enumeration Methods a. De-facto Method In this technique, individuals are counted on the basis of actual place of residence. In the de-facto census, if a person is found anywhere at the time of census, he/she is counted over there. The government declares a fixed date as “census day or census 33

night” and all the people are appealed to stay at home or to stay wherever they are on that very day or night. Usually, census enumeration is conducted at moon night and that night is also called the census night. In this technique, persons who are absent at the time of census enumeration are not counted but foreigners if they are present at the time of census are also counted. This technique is popular in Britain, France and other developed countries. The census was conducted in India with this census technique in 1932 AD. However, this technique is not in use at present. b. De-jure Method In this technique, people are counted at their permanent residence. In this technique, census period is defined (i.e. a period of 2 to 3 weeks) and population counting should be completed within that given period. Therefore, this census technique is also called period enumeration. In the de-jure census, the foreigners and people at their temporary residence are not enumerated. This technique has been practised in many developing countries. There is declaration of census reference date to any one day from within the census period. c. Modified De-jure Method Demographers have introduced modified De-jure method by removing some errors of De-jure census. It is an alternative and more practicable approach over the De-jure and De-facto census technique. In this technique, individuals are enumerated on the basis of their usual place of residence (i.e. the residence where the respondents are living for more than six months is perceived as usual place of residence). At the present context, this census technique has been practised in various countries in the world including Nepal. In our county since 1952/54 AD, all the succeeding censuses have been taken on the basis of modified De-jure census technique. According to this technique, the in-mates in prison, students in hostel, Armed forces in barracks, as well as beggars, sages, and hermits are also enumerated during the census. 3. Features of Census Some of the salient features of the census are as follows: i. The census covers a well-defined territory (i.e. the entire country or a well- defined part of a country). ii. A census is conducted at definite time period and regular interval (i.e., five or ten years interval). iii. Every unit of population is counted without duplication or omission. iv. The national government is responsible for conducting census enumeration. v. Census provides first hand information. vi. It is a data bank of human population. 34

Information to be collected in the census The United Nations (UN) has a list of recommended and other useful topics to be covered by a census from 1970 AD onwards. It is useful universally. Most of the countries have adopted that list while formulating questionnaire for their census enumeration. The UN (1970 AD) recommended census list should include the following characteristics: i. Geographical Characteristics Information associated with the following topics are collected under this heading: Place of birth Place of usual residence Place where staying at the time of census Place of previous residence Duration of residence Place of work ii. Personal and Household Characteristics Following information are collected under this heading: Age Sex Caste/ethnic group Marital status Relation to the head of the household Religion Language Literacy Number of live births Age at first marriage Number of children alive Language Nationality iii. Economic Characteristics Information related to the following topics are enumerated under this heading: Occupation Employment status Sources of livelihood Socio-economic status Sources of income 35

The Census has the following merits and demerits: Merits of Census Demerits of Census Census data works as the national Census is more expensive in comparison demographic data bank. to other kinds of data collection methods. Census data is useful to compare Large number of manpower is required population between the countries. for census enumeration. It provides data for planners, policy There is no in-depth and comprehensive makers, government and other demographic data as in the sample agencies. Survey data. It is useful to maintain voters’ list. It cannot provide population data on yearly basis. Census data can be used for research There is delay in publication of final studies. report. It is the most important source of Poor quality of data and more errors population statistics. than in sample survey. Activity Prepare a list of demographic, social and economic characteristics of your household collected by the census enumerator of 2068 BS by consulting your guardian. B. Vital Registration System (VRS) Vital Registration System is also known as Civil Registration System. It is another primary source of population data. It is a system of registration of vital events of life. The Vital Registration System can be defined as A continuous, permanent and compulsory legal registration and statistical recording of vital events which include: live births, deaths, divorce, migration, marriage, adoption, etc primarily for their value as legal document and secondarily for their usefulness as a source of population statistics. In a general term, statistical recording and reporting of birth, death, marriage, divorce, and migration is called vital registration. The data, which is obtained by collecting and editing of such vital events, is considered as vital statistics. In Nepal, Vital Registration is recorded in the local bodies like V.D.C and Municipalities. After registration of vital events, the concerned authority provides registration certificate, which are, required as legal document for school enrolment, taking citizenship certificate, selling and purchasing of land, house and so on. 36

The credit for the initiation of Vital Registration System goes to the churches in the Britain. The VRS was first started in England in 16th century. It was used to keep the record of churchmen; Sweden adopted VRS in 1608 AD; which is known as the first scientific Vital Registration System in the world. Furthermore, VRS started in Canada in 1610 AD, Finland in 1628 AD, Denmark in 1646 AD, and Norway in 1684 AD. England conducted Vital Registration System in 1837 AD as a legal basis. The box that given below shows the historical development of vital registration system in the world: History of Vital Registration System in the World Country Year (AD) Sweden 1608 Canada 1610 Finland 1628 Denmark 1646 Norway 1684 England 1837 The Vital Registration Act in Nepal was passed in 2033 BS (1976 AD). Similarly, its regulation passed in 2034 BS. In Nepal, the actual Vital Registration Operation started since 2035 Baisakh 1st (14th April, 1978 AD). The government conducted a Vital Registration Pilot Project in three VDCs of Kathmandu. Later, it was launched in ten districts in 2035 BS (One in Kathmandu and nine districts in the Terai). Then the number increased to 21 in 2036 BS, 34 in 2037 BS and 40 in 2038 BS. Since the first Baisakh of 2047 BS, the Vital Registration System has been carried out in all 75 districts under the Ministry of Local Development. There is a legal provision of registration of vital events of life (i.e. birth, death, marriage, divorce, migration, etc) at the Local Registration Office within 35 days. a. Characteristics of Vital Registration System e It is an important tool for studying the dynamics of population. e Under this system, every event is required to fill up certain form. e It is a compulsory, continuous and legal registration process of vital events. e It is a primary source of population data and is known as registration system. e The system is widespread in developed countries whereas this has not yet been made regular in developing countries. b. Coverage of Information in the Vital Registration System Under this system, the vital events of life like the incidence of birth, death, marriage, adoption, separation, divorce, migration etc are required to be recorded by filling up certain type of form, which includes the following information: 37

i. Information related to birth Name of new born baby Date of birth Sex Order of birth Place of birth Place of residence Name of father/mother Age of mother Occupation of father/mother ii. Information related to death Name of the deceased person Age Sex Place of death Place of birth Cause of death Place of residence Marital status Occupation iii. Information related to marriage Name of the bride/bridegroom Father’s name of bride/bridegroom Race of the bride/bridegroom Residence of the bride/bridegroom Age of the bride/bridegroom Place of the bride/bridegroom Occupation of the bride/bridegroom iv. Information related to divorce Birth Certificate Registration Form Name of the divorced person (both of the husband and wife) Age Permanent residence Education Language Religion 38

Caste Number of live births Time period between marital union Number of living children v. Information related to migration Migration Certificate Registration Form Name of the migrant Age Sex Place of birth Citizenship Place of residence Education Religion Language Cause of migration Place of destination Merits of Vital Registration System Demerits of Vital Registration System • This is a reliable source of population • Only limited demographic data. characteristics are recorded. • It makes easy to know the future • Data gained from this system is trend of population. incomplete, especially in developing countries due to lack of sound • It helps policy makers to plan for administrative management and future. perfect monitoring system. • Under this system, data can be • The data from VRS cannot be available continuously. alternative to census data. • Data obtained from this system is useful to check the accuracy of Census and Survey Data. • It is an important tool for the study of population dynamics. Activity Divide your class into different groups. Compare the various demographic and socio-economic data like TFR, IMR, Life Expectancy at Birth (e°x), GMR and MMR of Nepal with other SAARC countries and discuss it in the class. 39

C. Sample Survey Sample survey is another important method of data collection in Population Studies. Indeed, it is an important source of population data. In a Sample Survey, information is collected from the sample population. The required data or information are collected through the questionnaire as we do in the census enumeration. Hence, it is popularly known as sample survey. According to UN “The sample survey is a process of collecting, compiling, evaluating, analyzing and publishing demographic, economic and social data about the sample population at a specified time that help to conclude the general behavior of the entire population”. Sample Survey is a contemporary method of data collection. It does not have a long history. The Sample Survey has been started since 19th century in the world from England. In England, Charles Booth carried out the sample survey at the beginning of the 19th century. Moreover, another scholar B.W. Rowntree conducted another sample survey in the beginning of 20th century. However, it became popular widely after 1950 AD. After the establishment of Population Research Center at Princeton University in 1956 AD; around 400 Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) survey had been conducted from around the world. In a country like Afghanistan, where Census has not been conducted yet, population data are being collected through sample survey. In the case of Nepal, various longitudinal and cross-sectional sample surveys have been conducted since 1966 AD, Nepal Health Survey (1966 AD), Demographic Sample Survey (1974 AD), Nepal Family Health Survey (1996 AD), Nepal Living Standard Survey 2006 AD, etc are some examples. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the Sample Survey is mentioned in the table that given below: Merits of Sample Survey Demerits of Sample Survey In-depth study of some special aspects Despite the several advantages, it can of population is possible. never take place either of a Census or Vital Registration System. The quality of data obtained through Per unit cost is much high compared to a sample survey is better than that that of census operation. obtained from the census. It fulfils inter census data gap. It may not represent the entire population perfectly. It is cheaper and easier to administer Highly skilled and resourceful human than census. resource is needed which is not always possible. Sample survey, specially (post census It is not possible to be conducted survey) can be used to check the continuously like the vital registration accuracy of the census data. system. 40

Activity Develop a sample survey questionnaire related to population composition by age, sex, occupation and education with the help of your subject teacher and collect data from any 10 households of your locality. D. Administrative Records Administrative Records are also considered as an important primary source of population data. It is the collection of information by managerial authorities for their own purposes. This is also called as partial record since they may not necessarily provide complete demographic information. School enrolment record, telephone directories, citizenship record, life insurance record, ration card records, voters’ list, etc are the best examples of administrative records. Some organizations like Insurance company, Corporation and some other particular organizations keep the record of age, sex, religion, education, ethnicity, etc including other required information. The population above 18 years can be known from the voters’ list. Similarly, socio-economic study of students is possible through students records. These data can be precisely used for socio-demographic analysis. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the administrative records is mentioned in the following table: Merits and Demerits of Administrative Records Merits of Administrative Records Demerits of Administrative Records • It needs less manpower to keep • It cannot provide complete data. records. • It cannot provide required information • It is useful to collect the population for population analysis. data. • It is collected merely with the • It is useful to execute research work administrative purpose. and programs. • It saves time and money to get the required data. E. Population Register Population register is also an important sources of population data. It is also called as partial record. It is a system of record keeping of all events from birth to death (i.e. marriage, divorce, child birth, migration, etc) of an individual in separate card or file. It is a sophisticated and systematic method of record keeping. This method is more popular in the developed countries like Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Norway and Finland. 41

According to the UN (1960), Population register is “… a mechanism which will provide for the continuous recording of information about the population in such a manner that data on particular event related to each as well as selected characteristics describing him are maintained on a current basis.” 2.2.2 Secondary Sources The data which are already collected and compiled by others (i.e. institutions, organizations, individual researcher or research groups) is called secondary sources of population data. Unlike the primary sources, secondary sources of population data is not collected by the researchers but it is already collected by other individuals and national and international agencies. In other words, the data obtained from books, journals, periodicals, United Nations Demographic Yearbook, The World Population Data Sheet, Population Monograph are the example of secondary sources of population data. List of the Secondary Sources of Population Data • Books • Magazines • Journals • Research Reports • Statistical yearbooks • Internet • Organization’s reports • The world Population Data sheet • UN Demographic Yearbook • Periodicals 2.3 Factors Affecting Population Change 58th issue 58th edition A. Birth United Nations • Nations Unies Birth is one of the determinants of population change. It is a natural phenomenon. Births of Demolition by Earthquake many children means high level of fertility rate. High fertility rate causes increase in population size. There are various socio-cultural, economic and environmental factors determining the fertility level. They are eventually determine the fertility behaviour of the people. 1. Social Factors Every society is guided by some specific social values, beliefs and traditional norms. Socio- cultural factors directly influence the fertility behaviour of the couples which ultimately affects the growth rate of population of that place. Some of the social-cultural factors are as follows: 42

Factors Affecting Birth Social Economic Environmental Factors Factors Factors Economic Condition Climate Illiteracy Poverty Early Marriage Unemployment Occupation Polygamy Importance of Son Fertility Family Structure High Infant Mortality Rate Poor Status of Women Universalization of Marriage Rapid Population Growth Rate Fig: 2.2 Factors Affecting Birth a. Illiteracy There is direct association between fertility and literacy rate. In our society, there are majority of illiterate people. They do not know the consequences of large family size and high fertility rate. They are also unknown about family planning and birth spacing. Due to the ignorance, they give birth to many children. As a result fertility rate goes high. b. Early Marriage Early marriage is also one of the prominent factors of rapid growth of population. There is a social and religious customs of early marriage in Nepalese society. In some communities, there was a belief that to get a daughter married before menarche get them salvation (punya). About 40 percent daughters are married before the age of twenty even though marriage before twenty is illegal according to the law of the country. Early marriage provides longer fertility period. Hence, couples bear larger number of children and population increases faster. c. Importance of Son Our society is male dominated. Hence, preference is given to the son. Therefore, women have to give birth to many children in the want of son. Sometimes, there are dozens of daughters in the want of son. In some communities and religion, the son puts fire on the funeral pyre and is believed to give his demised parents salvation. These kinds of religious and traditional beliefs increase the fertility level of that place. 43

d. Family Structure Structure of the family also makes difference in the size of the family. Generally, we observe small size of family in the nuclear family and large family size in the joint family. In the present context of our country, about 55% population are living in the rural areas and most of them are residing in joint family. The couples in the joint family are found with larger number of children compared to the nuclear family. e. Universalization of Marriage Marriage is universal in our society. It is believed that no one can go to heaven if he/ she is not married. Especially in rural areas, the man and woman are looked down if they do not get married. Hence, marriage is still perceived as a social concern rather than a personal matter. Therefore almost all people get married in the marriageable age and consequently it causes increase in population size. f. High Infant Mortality Rate The infant rate in Nepal is very high compared to other countries. The IMR of Nepal has been recorded 46 per 1000 live birth in 2011 AD. The factors like illiteracy, traditional beliefs, social and religious norms and values, unhealthy environment as well as poor health services and malnutrition are responsible for high infant mortality rate. When IMR is high then couples are not sure about the survival of their children and give birth to many children though they desire less. Hence, high IMR eventually accelerates fertility rate. g. Poor Status of Woman Being the male dominated society, the situation of women is far behind compared to their male counterparts. Women are not in priority in education, social work, politics and in decision making process. They are generally restricted in household works like cooking, washing, cleaning, collecting fodder, rearing their children etc. Those important household chores done by them are not counted as functional work. Women at discussion Hence, they are deprived of access to education, social works, political decision and so on. They are compelled to bear large number of children. It ultimately increases fertility rate. h. Polygamy Polygamy is a social evil of our country. Though it is illegal, it is still in practice in our society. As our society is solely male dominated, a man gets married to many women in rural areas. It increases the population since there is competition of births between the wives. 44

2. Economic Factors Like social factors economic factors also precisely affect the fertility behaviour of women. Some of the economic factors affecting fertility are as follows: a. Economic Condition Economic condition makes difference in the fertility rate. It means that economic condition plays an important role in fertility differential. For instance a family with poor economic condition may have high fertility rate compared to the family with sound economic condition. Parents with low economic condition give birth to many children thinking that once they are grown up they will provide economic support to the family. They also hope that if they give birth to many children, they will take care of them during old age. b. Poverty Poverty is one of the causes of rapid population growth. In the context of our country, more than 25% population is below poverty line and facing various kinds of problems in day to day life. They can neither employ themselves nor get employment. They don’t have any means of security in their old age. At the same time, due to ignorance and economic problem they don’t have access to family planning services. In this situation, they give birth to many children for their old age insurance. c. Unemployment Unemployment rate is increasing day by day in developing countries like Nepal. In this context many people are unemployed and under employed. Hence, they are supposed to stay idle at home. Consequently this compels women to give birth to more children. Thus, unemployment also causes growth of population. d. Occupation Nature of occupation makes a great Plumbing Profession difference in fertility of any place. Generally, the population with agriculture based occupation has high population growth rate in contrast of the population with which is not based on agriculture. Nepal is an agrarian country. More than 66% people are still engaged in agriculture. They need more hands to work in the field. So, to compensate the requirement of labour force, they give birth to more children. 45

3. Environmental Factors a. Climate Climate is considered as one of the major factors affecting fertility rate. Generally, people living in the place or a country with hot climate have high level of fertility rate and the people residing in a cold climate are found with low fertility rate. Basically, people in the hot climatic region get physical maturity earlier than the people of the cold climatic region. For example there is onset of menarche among the girls in the Terai region generally right after the age of 11 to 13 year. On the other hand, among the girls of the high Himalayan region, it occurs only after the age of 14 or 15 years. In other words, people living in the hot climatic region mature faster and are more fertile than their counterparts who belong to the cold region. Thus, fertility rate of the people residing in the hot region is comparatively higher and eventually increases the population size faster than that of the cold region. B. Death (Mortality) Death is another determining factor of population change. It is also a natural phenomenon of population change next to birth. Death is inevitable after birth. Death rate is directly related with quality of life. Hence, the government of our country has adopted all possible efforts to bring down the existing death rate. The crude death rate of Nepal was 9.6 in 2001 AD and it was reduced to 6.0 in 2011 AD. The crude death rate of Nepal is still very high in comparison to other countries. Some of the factors affecting death rate are as follows: Factors Affecting Mortality Social Economic Environmental Factors Factors Factors Illiteracy Poverty Climate Disease Lack of Balanced Diet Natural Calamities Lack of Health Services and Pollution Facilities Fig: 2.3 Factors Affecting Mortality 1. Social Factors a. Illiteracy Illiterate people are ignorant about family planning, immunization to infants, balanced diet to the children etc. Hence, there is high infant and child mortality rate in the country. Similarly , illiterate people are not responsive to modern health facilities and services. Therefore, they prefer to go to the local faith healers rather 46

than to go to the hospital and health centers. As a result, a large number of people die even due to simple curable diseases. b. Diseases Disease is also one of the major causes of death. Communicable diseases (i.e. Diarrhoea, Cholera, Pneumonia, Measles, etc.), non-communicable diseases (Diabetes, Cardio-Vascular Diseases, Cancer, etc.) and STIs like Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Hepatitis B and C including HIV and AIDS are the major causes of death. These diseases cause untimely death of the people. So, disease also increases mortality rate. c. Lack of Health Services and Facilities The condition of health services and facilities make difference in the health status of the individuals. Most of the people in our country especially in the remote area are dying due to lack of health services and facilities. Hospitals, Health Centers as well as doctors and health workers are not found in sufficient number. Existing hospitals and health manpower cannot provide health services as per the demand of the growing population. At the same time, available health services also may not be of good quality. It also increases mortality rate. 2. Economic Factors a. Poverty According to the Nepal Living Standard Survey 2011 AD, (25.20%) population of our country are living below poverty line. Hence, majority of the Nepalese people cannot fulfill their basic needs due to poverty. As a result they become weak and unhealthy. Ultimately, they suffer from various kinds of diseases like malnutrition, communicable and non- Hardship of life communicable diseases etc. This condition leads to untimely death. In this way, poverty also causes increase in mortality rate. b. Lack of Balanced Diet A balanced diet contains all kinds of nutrients and macronutrient in required amount and proportion. There must be required proportion of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, mineral and water in the balance diet. They are equally important for the growth and development of the body. Due to the ignorance and poverty, majority of the Nepalese population cannot get balanced diet in their meal. This pathetic situation is also responsible for the increase in mortality rate. 47

3. Environmental Factors a. Climate Climate is one of the dominant factors of mortality rate. For instance, people in hot climatic zones get mature earlier and die earlier. On the other hand, people in the cold area slowly reach maturity and live longer than the people of the hot region. This factor also causes increase in mortality rate. b. Natural Calamities Natural calamities also is an Demolition by Earthquake important cause of death. Thousands of people are dying due to the natural calamities like Flood, Hurricane, Tsunami, Volcanic Eruption, Earthquake, Landslide etc. These incidences increase both morbidity and mortality rate. c. Pollution It is another predominant factor of morbidity and mortality rate. There are various types of pollution like water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, radiation pollution, chemical pollution etc. Pollution causes adverse impact on health and quality life of people. As a result various kinds of pollution related diseases attack the human health and increases mortality rate. C. Migration People involved in migration Migration is the third component of population change, the other two being mortality and fertility. Migration also plays an important role in distribution of population of any country or a place. In fact, migration is the unnatural component of population change. It can be defined as: the movement of people from one migration defining area to another place by changing the usual place of residence is called migration. Migration keeps balance between the distribution of population and the supply of natural resources. Transportation is helpful for the migration of people from one place to another. When a person moves from one place to another, he/ she really leaves his/her group, family and society. Migration is a demographic process. Migration may be considered as an indicator of basic socio-economic transformation. In most countries, it has been observed that industrialization and 48

economic development have been accompanied by large volume migration of people from rural area to town, from towns to other big cities and from one country to another. Migration can be classified as internal and international migration in a broad term. Here, internal migration means the movement of people from one geographical area to another migration defining area within the national boundary. It affects the population distribution in different parts of the country but does not cause any change in the total population of the country. International migration is the movement of people from one country to another country. It causes change in the population of a country. In our context, both types of migration are observed in alarming rate. In the case of internal migration, there is a large stream of migration from rural area to towns and cities. In terms of international migration, the population involved in immigration and emigration is almost balanced but there is adverse impact on socio-economic aspects due to thousands of refuge immigrants in our country. The volume of migration is determined by push and pull factors of the place of origin and the place of destination. Hence, broadly speaking push and pull factors are the main causes of migration process. Some of the factors affecting migration are mentioned below: Factors Affecting Migration Social Economic Environmental Factors Factors Factors Employment Education Climate Marriage Industrialisation Natural Calamities Transportation Fertile Land Health Service Entertainment Migration Population Change Fig: 2.4 Factor Affecting Migration 1. Social Factors a. Education A large number of people migrate to towns and cities for education. There is lack of provision of quality education in remote areas. So, thousands of youngsters have emigrated to foreign countries for higher studies and quality education. Thus, education has also caused a large flow of internal as well as international migration. 49

b. Marriage Marriage is also another important factor affecting migration. In our social system, females should go to their husband’s home after marriage. It decreases the population in their place of origin and there is increase of population in the place of destination. But it does not cause change in the total population of the country if marriage is not performed with foreigners. If a man gets married to a foreigner, the population of that country will be increased and the population of his wife’s parental country will decrease. c. Transportation Transportation is the prerequisite of Means of transportation development activities. The volume of migrant population increases with the expansion of transportation facilities. Due to the advancement of science and technology as well as transportation and internet the world has become small. So, transportation facilities also plays an important role in migration process. d. Health Services Health is the most important concern to the human life. It plays the role of pull factor of migration. A large number of people are leaving their place of origin or remote area (birth place) due to lack of health services. A large number of people are migrating to towns and cities for better health services. e. Entertainment Entertainment is also one of the important factors affecting migration. People do not like to live a boring life. They need entertainment. Hence, people like to move on to those places where there are access to entertainment facilities. 2. Economic Factors a. Employment Employment is a proximate determinant of migration. Almost all people leave their place of origin in search of employment opportunities. For instance, majority of the people from rural area migrate to towns and cities. Among them some are migrating abroad for better earning. Everybody wants to live quality of life. Working at Garment Industry Good employment is a must for prosperous and productive life. Hence, people are compelled to migrate in search of employment opportunities. 50