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Promoting Spirited Nonprofit Management  Winter 2016  $19.95Social Media:The New Nonprofit Nonelective Guo and Saxton on Social Media Capital Karpf on Digital Listening Eynaud, Mourey, and Raulet-Croset Go behind the Scenes of a “Non-Organization”

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Volume 23, Issue 4 Winter 2016 Features Page 6 18 Step 1 for Effective Advocacy Page 10 in the Age of Trump: Learn 5 Welcome to Listen Better 6 Social Media as an Nonprofits are increasingly Organizational Game Changer incorporating digital listening into their practice, using the same tools This article explores the connections and techniques of journalism, between social media and the deep governments, and corporations to changes that are taking place in the develop new advocacy techniques. relationship between our organizations But, as David Karpf, author of The and our constituencies. Social media’s MoveOn Effect, points out, there is “naturally reciprocal and boundary- a vast difference between listening crossing character is at the very more through digital media and center of its transformative potential,” listening better. McCambridge writes—but for many, the habits of vertical leadership and by David Karpf gatekeeping are hard to break. 24 Defending Underage Migrants by Ruth McCambridge across Free Online Spaces: Behind the Scenes of a 10 Social Media Capital for “Non-Organization” Nonprofits: How to Accumulate It, Convert It, and Spend It This article, about the formation of an extraordinarily effective civil It is a rare nonprofit that today does society “non-organization” in France, not have a Facebook page or Twitter is a fascinating portrait of a social account. But as more and more movement that operates as an ever- nonprofits are rushing into the fray, expanding mass of local cells, whose their leaders often overlook one basic members communicate and coordinate question: “What’s in it for me?” A crucial via an elaborate network of e-mail lists benefit, write the authors, is a new, and periodic face-to-face meetings. highly valuable resource engendered by social media: social media capital. by Philippe Eynaud, Damien Mourey, and Nathalie Raulet-Croset by Chao Guo and Gregory D. Saxton COVER DESIGN BY CANFIELD DESIGN COVER ART: “ANGUSTIA EN LAS REDES SOCIALES” BY JUAN PEDRO LINARES MONTES/WWW.JPLINARES.ES

D e p a r t m e n t s Page 18 54 The Philanthropic State: Page 24 Market–State Hybrids in the 42 Collaborating for Equity Philanthrocapitalist Turn and Justice: Moving Beyond Collective Impact This article challenges the assumption that philanthrocapitalism operates In the face of the ever-increasing in a vacuum largely divorced from need to solve the wicked problems governmental interventions, and of inequity and injustice in the United explores how new philanthropic States, the authors developed a set of initiatives have compelled increased six principles, drawn from decades financial support from governments of research, organizing, and experience toward the private sector. in a wide range of fields, to replace the problematic top-down Collective Impact by Linsey McGoey model that, since its introduction, has become the go-to for organizations 62 The Overhead Baby and the involved in collaborative efforts. Bathwater: A Nonprofit Trustees’ Need-to-Know by Tom Wolff, Meredith Minkler, Susan M. Wolfe, Bill Berkowitz, The authors take the position that an Linda Bowen, Frances Dunn Butterfoss, organization’s overall understanding Brian D. Christens, Vincent T. Francisco, of its financial status must include a Arthur T. Himmelman, and Kien S. Lee clear sense of its overhead, and they highlight some important patterns that emerged from their recent analysis of over ten thousand New York organizations. by John MacIntosh and George Morris www.npqmag.org Nonprofit Information Networking Association Ruth McCambridge, Executive DirectorThe Nonprofit Quarterly is published by Nonprofit Information Networking Association, 112Water St., Ste. 400, Boston, MA 02109; 617-227-4624. Nonprofit Information Networking Association Board of Directors Ivye Allen, Foundation for the Mid South Copyr­ight © 2016. No part of this publication maybereprinted without permission. Charles Bell, Consumers Union ISSN 1934-6050 Jeanne Bell, CompassPoint Nonprofit Services Jim East, George Kaiser Family Foundation Chao Guo, University of Pennsylvania Anasuya Sengupta, Activist/Strategist/Facilitator Richard Shaw, Youth Villages

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EVERY DAY ARTS, COMMUNITY, BUSINESS, PHILANTHROPIC, AND ELECTED LEADERS ARE TRANSFORMING AMERICA’S COMMUNITIES THROUGH THE ARTS.NATIONAL ARTS AWARDS – Honoring the Philanthropic Community and Arts Leadership Doug Aitken Tony Bennett Susan and David Goode The Mr. Holland’s Opus Esperanza Spalding Roselyne Chroman SwigOutstanding Contributions Carolyn Clark Powers Legacy Award Foundation Ted Arison Philanthropy in the Lifetime Achievement Award Arts Award to the Arts Award Arts Education Award Young Artist AwardBUSINESS COMMITTEE FOR THE ARTS BCA 10 – Honoring the Business Community Aetna Inc. Austin Energy Badger Meter Robert Buchsbaum, CEO CopperPoint Dealer.com2016 BCA Hall of Fame Award Blick Art Materials Insurance Companies 2016 BCA Leadership AwardDogfish Head Craft Brewery Dunlap Codding Johnson & Johnson M Powered Strategies, Inc. Northern Trust Procter & GambleANNUAL LEADERSHIP AWARDS – Honoring Arts Community Leaders and Partners ArtsMemphis Community Brad Erickson, Executive Flora Maria Garcia, Barbara Goldstein, Laura Perille, CEO Mary Anne Phan Engagement Fellowship Director, Theatre Bay Area President & CEO, United Independent Consultant EdVestors NABE Foundation/AmericansThe Robert E. Gard Award for Alene Valkanas State Arts Arts of Central Florida the Arts in Community Life Michael Newton Award for Barbara Goldstein Arts Education Award for the Arts Scholarship Advocacy Award Innovative Arts Funding & Associates Awardee 1 Public Art Network Award PUBLIC LEADERSHIP IN THE ARTS AWARDS – Honoring Elected Officials and Artist AdvocatesMichael Spring, Senior Advisor, Octavia Yearwood, Rep. Suzanne California Governor King County, WA Executive Orlando, FL Mayor Office of the Mayor, Director, Arts Educator and CEO/ Bonamici (OR-1) Jerry Brown Dow Constantine Buddy Dyer National Award Miami-Dade County Director, Team Ohhh for Congressional Arts Public Leadership in Public Leadership in Public Leadership inDepartment of Cultural Affairs American Express Emerging the Arts Award for State the Arts Award for County the Arts Award for Local Selina Roberts Ottum Award Leadership3 Leaders Award Arts Leadership3 Arts Leadership4 Arts Leadership3 for Arts Leadership2 AMERICANS FOR THE ARTS THANKS ALL WHO SUPPORT THE ARTS AND ARTS EDUCATION IN AMERICA. VISIT US AT WWW.AMERICANSFORTHEARTS.ORG Ledisi Iowa Lieutenant Governor Santa Barbara, CA Mayor Kentucky State (1) scholarship presented in conjunction with the NABE Foundation, the charitableArtist Advocacy Award3 Kim Reynolds Helene Schneider Representative Brent Yonts arm of the National Association for Business Economics (NABE). (2) presented in Public Leadership in conjunction with National Endowment for the Arts. (3) presented in conjunction Public Leadership in Public Leadership in with United States Conference of Mayors. (4) presented in conjunction with the Arts Award for State the Arts Award for Local the Arts Award for State National Association of Counties. (5) presented in conjunction with National Arts Leadership3 Lieutenant Governors Association. (6) presented in conjunction with Arts Leadership5 Arts Leadership6 National Conference of State Legislatures.

WelcomeExecutive Publisher Dear readers, The winter 2016 edition of the Nonprofit Joel Toner Quarterly addresses some of the enormous potential that awaits us with a wise use ofEditor in Chief social media. This edition is a bit unusual in that it has just four articles on the topic, and each is meant toRuth McCambridge provoke your deeper and more thorough consideration of what social media does and can potentially mean toSenior Managing Editor our practices as nonprofits. We cannot give you a step-by-step model on how toCassandra Heliczer make social media work for your organization, because the way you use social media should be as an embodiment of your identity, and youContributing Editors must build that not on your own but in relationship with others. What you do on social media becomes who you are expected to be in the eyes of your stakeholders,Fredrik O. Andersson, Shena Ashley, Jeanne Bell, and if your approach is sloppy, unimaginative, redundant to others, or self-centered you will not only alienate your constituency but also will have completely missedChao Guo, Jon Pratt the boat. For social media can no longer be thought of as an elective or a necessary evil, to be tacked on as an afterthought. Social media is here to stay and has becomeOnline Editor Community Builder integral to the practice of democracy worldwide. There is an art and a science to integrating social media into your practice, and theJason Schneiderman Erin Rubin art has to do with the development of voice and the science concerns the develop- ment of position—but none of it is mechanical. Social media communications areDirector of Digital Strategies quite personalized, with a demonstrated understanding of the human beings you are addressing. Aine Creedon So how can we adjust to this foregrounding of the personal when we have spent so much time rigidly professionalizing the sector? Are people really no longer goingGraphic Design to be impressed by restraint and individualized leadership but instead, increasingly,Kate Canfield by the ability to knit more out of less by force of wit and rapidly deployed interactive strategy that must by needs emerge from a state of some integrity? The articles here Production imply and sometimes say outright that it is time for us to rethink the balance between Nita Cote the long-term slow building and the shorter-term day trips of joint endeavor (from which you continue to build long term).Marketing and Development Manager It is all very exciting, but it requires that we place ourselves differently in the scrum of human endeavor—that we experiment and test and sometimes relinquishAmanda Nelson territoriality, and that we see our identities as a set of values to be played out and reinforced dynamically as organizations, networks, and movements, and back againOperations Manager to organizations communicating with the people we work for and with. Scarlet Kim We want to thank our authors, each of whom is presenting a particular window through which to look. We are inspired by their thoughts, and we hope you will be, too.Copy Editors ProofreadersChristine Clark, James Carroll,Dorian Hastings Dorian Hastings Editorial Advisory Board Elizabeth Castillo, University of San Diego Eileen Cunniffe, Arts & Business Council of Greater Philadelphia Lynn Eakin, Ontario Nonprofit Network Anne Eigeman, Anne Eigeman Consulting Robert Frady Chao Guo, University of PennsylvaniaRahsaan Harris, Emerging Practitioners in Philanthropy Paul Hogan, John R. Oishei Foundation Mia Joiner-Moore, NeighborWorks America Hildie Lipson, Maine Center for Public Interest Lindsay Louie, Hewlett Foundation Robert Meiksins, Forward Steps Consulting LLC Jon Pratt, Minnesota Council of NonprofitsJamie Smith, Young Nonprofit Professionals Network Michael Wyland, Sumption & Wyland Advertising Sales 617-227-4624, [email protected]: Order by telephone (617-227-4624, ext. 1),fax (617-227-5270), e-mail ([email protected]), or online (www.nonprofitquarterly.org). A one-year subscription (4 issues) is $59. A single issue is $19.95.WINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​5

Nonprofits & Social MediaFar from an elective Social Mediaadd-on, social media as aGnaOmregaCnhiaznatgieornalhas become a firmlyentrenched part of by Ruth McCambridgeour communicationspractice. But, as If you are one of those nonprofits still words, with publics who care about what they do.McCambridge approaching social media as simply another But that very DNA of reciprocity demands awrites, “many of our tool in your belt, you are very much missingorganizations remain the point. different set of behaviors from us in the long run.relatively hierarchical Social media has been an assumption buster No longer can we just blast out a message andand control based, for nonprofits of all kinds, and on a larger basis, expect it to have impact as is—emerging substan-defined by their own for civil society. Its naturally reciprocal and tively unchanged from the scrum of interactionsdrawn boundaries boundary-crossing character is at the very center among those who receive it, pass it along, arguerather than by of its transformative potential—but in some non- back with it in sometimes very public ways, orconnection, and with profits this central characteristic may find an open support or shame you for it.a limited view of the and hospitable host, and in others it may find anresources lying fallow unimaginative, slow-to-adjust, recalcitrant setting. The messages about you do not even need toaround them.” While come from you to mobilize the publics that arewe no longer have What Makes the Difference? already, or potentially, yours. Those messagesthe choice to adopt a might come from friends, admirers, and detrac-lukewarm attitude Much of what has been written about social tors, who may send a sally out in networks wheretoward social media, media and nonprofits is focused on movements you are known—to have them resonate or not,“[A] productive and networked ways of working, and this article and go further or not. What is said about you isembrace of the will draw from that literature, as will those that less controllable but more visible (perhaps) andfray . . . requires that follow in this edition. However, the principles of able to be more broadly influential—even overone’s own integrity practice and the dynamics of social media well you—because it acts as a potentially rich feed-and values base be used are relevant to most, if not all, nonprofits back loop.clear internally, with constituencies and stakeholders—in otherso that it can also So the loci and initiators of control change,be clear to the Ruth McCambridge is the Nonprofit Quarterly’s editor boundaries shift and become more permeable,external world.” in chief. and digital communication (and remember, that is iterative and relational) becomes a core strategic skill. This is now where we all live.6 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  “TEAPOT IN SPACE” BY RENE BACHRACH KRISTOFIC/RBK25.BLOGSPOT.HR/



Now ideas can start And when you really embrace all of this, you networks. . . . [M]any established causeanywhere and catch on will find that social media has erased boundaries movements (e.g., feminist, minorities,and progress one way in between formerly separate stakeholders, and thus peace, environment) have also becomeone network and enforces an integrity of message. The strategic hybridized, moving fluidly across nationalanother way in a work of the organization then becomes the devel- borders, targets and issue boundaries.”4second—eventually, opment and playing out of your identity vis-à-visand sometimes very the world, your mission, and your stakeholders— Now ideas can start anywhere and catch onquickly, finding their and, in some ways, that simplifies the work we do. and progress one way in one network and anotherway forward to impact way in a second—eventually, and sometimesthrough loose ties. The easy reciprocity also allows for more ease very quickly, finding their way forward to impact in cocreation of things over time—for instance, through loose ties. This can, at its best, create Premise: of action networks, of ideas about the future we a commonality of purpose experienced from a Value is desire, or of campaigns for social change. This diversity of outlets using different approaches, creates, according to C. K. Prahalad and Venkat and that can be very impressive to the onlooker. co-created Ramaswamy, connected, informed, and active But it also blurs the distinctions between com- by the customer participants whose engagement enriches the municator and audience, and for those who want organization and the larger movement.1 (See to claim ownership of an initiative, it can seem and the firm chart, below.)2 a problem. Many organizations, however, have Implication: adjusted to this new reality. Customer-Firm But to get this fulsome response, write Pra- interaction is locus halad and Ramaswamy, the organization has to of value attend to the quality of the cocreation experi- [F]ar from inaugurating a situation of co-creation Manifestation: ences.3 No longer are most movements or initia- absolute “leaderlessness,” social media Focus on the tives branded to just one organization with one have in fact facilitated the rise of complex quality of customer-firm center of command. And, as described by W. and “liquid” [Bauman, Z. (2000). Liquid interactions Lance Bennett and Alexandra Segerberg in “Com- Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press] or munication in Movements”: “soft” forms of leadership which exploit Many NGOs have relaxed their interests in the interactive and participatory character controlling or branding issue campaigns, of the new communication technologies.5 and offer many avenues for publics to Of course, none of this happens without the engage directly with each other, and with facilitating hand of trusted leaders, but where other issues and organizations in cause those leaders are, and who they are, is much changed. Positional (vertical) leadership holds less sway, and positions of trust/ credibility (curation inclusive of frames Co-creation The individual is for understanding and action) or the experiences are central to the ability to connect and attract between the basis of value co-creation networks (bridging) hold more. Either experience organizations or individuals can play these roles. But leadership is more a Variety Personalization of matter of election than of imposition, of co-creation the co-creation with bridging and curation functioning experiences through experience more horizontally than vertically—and, heterogeneous in effect, the nature of the leadership is interactions in the skills of being of use to, rather than Focus on Focus on directing, those around you. If followers innovating experience lose faith in these leaders’ abilities to experience networks discern what it is that particular commu- environments nities need, others may be right behind them to fill the gap. The roles of bridging8 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

and curating are less gatekeeping roles and more ultimate legitimators; the final court is moving But in all of this, manyinformed connecting of people to information more and more into the public space in which of our organizationsand networks, and of networks to networks. As social media connects those stakeholders to one remain relativelySandra González-Bailón and Ning Wang wrote in another, allowing them to support or attack, or hierarchical and control“Networked discontent”: sometimes both. based, defined by their own drawn boundaries Online networks of communication . . . A productive embrace of the fray, however, rather than by have flattened and decentralized the flow requires that one’s own integrity and values base connection, and with of information; as a consequence, they have be clear internally so that it can also be clear to a limited view of the helped undermine the old asymmetries that the external world. Thus, your integrity becomes resources lying fallow gave prominence to an elite of gatekeepers.6 your ticket to credibility and a potential leader- around them. ship role—that, and an active constituency. The habits of gatekeeping are evidently veryhard to break for some social engineers—the There is, of course, much more to be exploredinvitation-only realms where the real decisions here—for instance, the relationship betweenare made (complete with sandwiches and techno- your face-to-face community, your online com-logically up-to-date whiteboards) are increasingly munity, and your networks, which must alwaysretro and even resented and rebelled against. The be attended to—but in the end, understanding andfact that some of the money that funds such stuff making good use of social media are now corecomes from those who have had a major part in competencies for many if not all of us here in thedeveloping social networking—well, that is just social sector.a special irony we all have to live with. Notes In “Peer Production: A Form of Collective 1. C. K. Prahalad and Venkat Ramaswamy, “Co-creatingIntelligence,” Yochai Benkler, Aaron Shaw, and unique value with customers,” Strategy & LeadershipBenjamin Mako Hill refer to three research con- 32, no. 3 (2004): 4–9.cerns for understanding collective intelligence: 2. Ibid, 5.“(1) explaining the organization and governance 3. Ibid.of decentralized projects, (2) understanding the 4. W. Lance Bennett and Alexandra Segerberg, “Com-motivation of contributors in the absence of munication in Movements,” in The Oxford Handbookfinancial incentives or coercive obligations, and of Social Movements, Donatella Della Porta and Mario(3) evaluating the quality of the products gener- Diani, eds. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press,ated through collective intelligence systems.”7 2016), 372–73.Later in the article, they acknowledge that the 5. Paolo Gerbaudo, Tweets and the Streets: Socialorganizational features of communities of peer Media and Contemporary Activism (London, UK:production change over time; so, in fact, we Pluto Press, 2012), 22.must research our processes even as we engage 6. Sandra González-Bailón and Ning Wang, “Net-in them—a terrifying thought for those who hate worked discontent: The anatomy of protest campaignsambiguity.8 in social media,” Social Networks 44 (January 2016): 97. But in all of this, many of our organizations 7. Yochai Benkler, Aaron Shaw, and Benjamin Makoremain relatively hierarchical and control based, Hill, “Peer Production: A Form of Collective Intel-defined by their own drawn boundaries rather ligence,” in Handbook of Collective Intelligence,than by connection, and with a limited view of Thomas W. Malone and Michael S. Bernstein, eds.the resources lying fallow around them. In the (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015), 175–202.midst of all that sits the idea of governance—that 8. Ibid.is, who really has the final say over what you asan organization should be doing? To comment on this article, write to us at feedback @npqmag.org. Order reprints from http://s​ tore.nonprofit A number of nonprofits that have recently run quarterly.org, using code 230401.afoul of their networks of stakeholders have hap-pened upon the startling fact that these are theirWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​9

Nonprofits & Social Media Capital The linchpin of Social Media Capitalsocial media’s return for Nonprofits: on investment is How to Accumulate It, social media Convert It, and Spend Itcapital—a resource by Chao Guo and Gregory D. Saxton that can be converted or Like it or not, social media has become an are rushing into social media, their leaders often indispensable part of our lives. Fifteen overlook one question: “What’s in it for me?” One expended toward years ago, many nonprofits were still hesi- of the obvious benefits of social media is that it strategic tant to launch an organizational website has engendered new forms of communication and on the Internet; today, we rarely come across a stakeholder engagement for nonprofit organiza- organizational nonprofit that does not have a Facebook page or tions. Now we propose something that is not sooutcomes. Here, the Twitter account. As more and more nonprofits obvious but crucially important: it has engendered authors present a a new, novel, and highly valuable resource—social logic model with Chao Guo, PhD, is associate professor and Penn Fellow media capital. five key steps that in the School of Social Policy and Practice at the Univer- illustrate how the sity of Pennsylvania. Guo is editor in chief of Nonprofit Social media capital is a special form of social accumulation and and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, and founding codirector capital that is accumulated through an organi- of the China Institute for Philanthropy and Social Innova- zation’s social media network. Nonprofits can mobilization of tion at Renmin University of China. Gregory D. Saxton, look at it as being the key immediate outcomesocial media–based PhD, is assistant professor in the Schulich School of Busi- derived from their social media efforts, and it is aresources occur over ness at York University in Toronto, Canada. Previously, resource that can be converted or expended, like Saxton was associate professor in the Department of other resources, toward strategic organizational time and how Communication at the University at Buffalo, SUNY. outcomes. To illustrate why and how social media essentially capital is the linchpin of social media’s return on interactive theentire endeavor is.10 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  “ABUNDANCE” BY HELEN SYKES/WWW.HELENSYKES.COM



Unless nonprofits investment, we present a logic model for non- The other element is strategy, particularlyunderstand the critical profit organizations currently using, or planning regarding an organization’s communications rolerole of social media to use, social media. Unless nonprofits under- and its target audience. It is not enough to simplycapital within this logic stand the critical role of social media capital be on social media; instead, the organizationmodel—based on a plan within this logic model—based on a plan that is needs to think strategically about what it wantsthat is well organized well organized around strategic outcomes—then to achieve through its presence. The startingaround strategic their social media efforts may essentially come to point for this strategy should be the final elementoutcomes—then their far less than might have been possible. in Figure 1—namely, what are the strategic out-social media efforts may comes the organization is hoping to achieve. Withessentially come to far The model has five key steps (see Figure 1): those outcomes in mind, the organization needsless than might have inputs, outputs, immediate outcome, intermedi- to backward map and lay out a social media com-been possible. ate outcomes, and strategic outcomes. We orga- munications plan for reaching those outcomes. At nize the remainder of this article around these the heart of this plan is determining which specific five elements. Note that, while the logic model audience(s) the organization wishes to target and presented here suggests a linear relationship, the the communications role it will adopt to reach actual process of accumulating, converting, and that audience.1 expending social media capital in an organization rarely follows a sequential order. Here, the organization needs to do some research. An environmental organization working 1. The Inputs: Resources and to reduce water consumption at home, for Audience Targeting Strategy instance, might wish to target local lawmakers, coalition partners, opinion leaders such as journal- Though social media platforms do not charge for ists and educators, or current and future house- basic use of their services, effective social media hold owners (including teens and young adults). use nonetheless requires nonprofits to dedicate The point is that the organization should seek to inputs. In Figure 1, we have highlighted two ele- cultivate a specific, well-defined audience through ments of these inputs. The first element is straight- its social media communications. forward: resources. It is not cost free to get social media up and running for an organization: the The organization then needs to decide how successful adoption and use of social media it will engage with that audience.2 Key here is require that nonprofit organizations devote the the role it will adopt to add value to its target necessary time, money, and staff to the endeavor. audience’s social media feeds. Each of the Yet such resource commitments are also likely above hypothetical audiences requires a differ- to be sorely underestimated by nonprofit manag- ent communications approach. Concretely, the ers, with social media tasks often passed off to organization might choose to become an expert a single staff member or intern as additional or or “thought leader” on a specific subject issue secondary duties. by crafting original content designed to inform,Figure 1. Logic Model for Achieving Strategic Outcomes from Social Media UseINPUTS OUTPUTS IMMEDIATE OUTCOME INTERMEDIATE OUTCOMES STRATEGIC OUTCOMES (Organization’s social media (Develop social media–based (Convert social media capital (For example, policy change, into cultural, financial, human, donations, accountability) activities) social resources) intellectual, or reputational capital) Resources Implement Social Resource- Capital Other Forms Resource Organizational(Time, money) Communication Media Acquisition Social Media Conversion of Capital Expenditure Outcomes Connections & Communication Capital Audience Plan Messages Strategy Direct Expenditure of SMC12 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

sway, or educate. Alternatively, it might seek to Connecting actions are designed to make, How social capital isbe a curator of information on that subject— build, foster, or maintain ties to a specific member acquired through socialbecoming, in effect, a go-to source for the latest (a particular individual or organization) within media is distinct andand most relevant information produced by your ideal (strategically defined) network. Of much narrower than howothers. Or, the organization might consider itself course, this cannot be done unless you’ve already social capital is acquireda convener or community builder, relying on identified a target audience and adopted a strate- in offline settings. Onsocial media activities designed to foster connec- gic role for the organization’s communications social media platforms,tions among stakeholders and thus build a more efforts vis-à-vis that audience. For each role, a you will be reaching forcohesive online community. Differently put, the following must be built that eventually is expected an outcome with twoorganization needs to define its intended stra- to help further build itself through connecting and main tools at yourtegic role on social media. Does it wish to be an messaging actions. disposal: makinginformation source? An opinion leader? A market connections andbuilder? A curator? A community builder? Each Messages. The second output you can make sending messages.role potentially adds value to its audience’s social use of on social media is messages. Throughmedia feeds. What the nonprofit should seek to videos on YouTube, photos on Instagram, pinsdo is to match its own proclivities, interests, and on Pinterest, messages on LinkedIn, tweets onresources with the audience’s needs. Twitter, and status updates on Facebook, non- profits can message and dynamically update their In brief, before even beginning to bring hand publics—and these messages comprise the bulkto keyboard, the organization needs to develop of communications activity on social media.4 Ina plan that clearly lays out its desired outcomes, line with your social media strategic plan, theseclearly indicates the target audience, and clearly messages will chiefly target key, previously iden-lays out a broad strategic identity for the organiza- tified stakeholder groups and employ contenttion’s communications efforts. that reflects the strategic thought leader, analyst, curator, connector, or community builder role you2. The Outputs: Social Media have set for yourself. Here, what is included inConnections and Messages the messages matters: messages are designed to provide value-added content to your strategicallyHow social capital is acquired through social identified ideal audience. The extent to which youmedia is distinct and much narrower than how can play an effective strategic role that you havesocial capital is acquired in offline settings. On adopted for your targeted community depends onsocial media platforms, you will be reaching for whether your messages are meeting and exceed-an outcome with two main tools at your disposal: ing what the community wants from you.making connections and sending messages.3 In addition to offering content to establish an Connections. The first output you have at organization’s strategic role, messages can alsoyour disposal is connecting. Connecting can be be used for targeting or connecting purposes, andthought of as relationship building, because it may include replying and commenting, favoritingsolidifies a connection or tie to another user. Con- or liking, sharing, user mentions, hyperlinks, andnecting tools include the organization’s friending hashtags. These actions form message ties thatand following of other users. With these formal can be reciprocated, and over time the repeatedsocial network connections, either you are use of message-based connecting also serves toconnected or you are not, generally in a binary develop ties with new users and strengthen tiesfashion. The purpose of these binary connections with existing users.is that they demonstrate a nonprofit’s interestin engaging with other users; they are signals of For all audiences, finding the right mix ofinterest in creating an online community. At the one-way information, two-way dialogue, andsame time, these two-way relationships provide mobilizing messages will help the target audi-access to new information, whether you use it or ence be engaged and grow while also allowingnot. If you do not, however, the tie may eventu- the organization to leverage that audience to helpally atrophy. the organization pursue its social mission.WINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​13

Our key point here is that 3. The Immediate Outcome: some combination of reciprocal following,social media capital is Social Media Capital through sharing and liking the users’ messages,always the central and through mentioning and acknowledging theresource one seeks to The third step in the logic model, and the imme- user in targeted social media messages.8accumulate, because on diate outcome to be expected, is social media–social media the social based social capital, or what we are calling social Along the way, the organization begins tonetwork is key. To reach media capital; these are the social resources in an track—formally or informally—the digital foot-any meaningful organization’s social media network that can be prints of the budding organization–stakeholderorganizational outcome accumulated, mobilized, and expended to achieve relationship that are visible through the users’through social media organizational outcomes.5 favoriting, sharing, comments, upvotes/down-activities, the votes, user mentions, and so forth.9 In this way,organization must, Social media capital is a special form of social the community and its activities grow, and it istherefore, first acquire capital. Social media capital stands apart from the network-based assets that make up the keysocial media capital. other forms of social capital in that its founda- immediate resource that organizations are devel- tion lies in the public space comprising the formal oping when they engage in social media–based online social media networks.6 Specifically, social activities. This is why nonprofits cannot simply media–based networks are seen as being more employ social media to get donations, find vol- instrumental, more geographically dispersed, unteers, or mobilize constituents for advocacy more loosely knit, more diverse, and less hier- action. Instead, they must first build their stock archical and bureaucratic than other network of social media capital through growing and nur- forms, and they are created around specific inter- turing their networks of social media followers. ests more than institution, geography, or family.7 This allows for communities that, in the past, had While it is beyond the scope of this article to no means of coming into existence, to be created discuss how to measure social media capital, it is around brands, specialized knowledge areas, rare useful to note that social media capital is discern- diseases, and organizing issues where the com- ible along a number of structural and cognitive munity of interest is dispersed. dimensions. Among these are the size of the orga- nization’s audience network, the organization’s Again, on social media, the activities that are position within the audience network, and the privileged are communication-based activities. length and/or number of interactions the organi- Anything that can be communicated—informa- zation has with each audience member, as well as tion, rumors, messages, knowledge, ideas, memes, network norms and values such as commitment, emotion, sentiment, affect, greetings, insults, identity, solidarity, expectations and obligations, compliments, and opinions—is fertile ground for and trust. Given the publicly visible nature of making its way rapidly through these geographi- social media, each dimension is observable and cally dispersed, loosely connected networks. each reflects elements of the social resources the organization has accumulated on social media. Our key point here is that social media capital is always the central resource one seeks to Social media capital plays an inescapable accumulate, because on social media the social and key role in organizational efforts on social network is key. To reach any meaningful organi- media, yet it is a means to an end. There are two zational outcome through social media activities, common processes through which the acquisi- the organization must, therefore, first acquire tion of social media capital converts to strategic social media capital. In line with this point, a organizational objectives. In the first process, nonprofit must accumulate followers before any social media capital has an indirect impact on meaningful organizational engagement can take outcomes in that it can be converted first into place, and this accumulation generally follows other forms of capital that, in turn, directly influ- a typical set of steps: (1) a specific user is tar- ence organizational outcomes. These are called geted, such as an important community member intermediate outcomes. In the second process, or a new user who is noticed to be following social media capital is expended to directly gen- the organization; (2) the organization begins erate strategic outcomes. to develop a relationship with the user through14 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

4. Intermediate Outcomes: Converting outcome (direct expenditure of social media Social media capital isSocial Media Capital into Alternative capital). Continuing with the example of Justin built mainly by messagesOrganizational Resources Trudeau, when the campaign asked its followers and connections, and if on social media to go vote for the candidate, it was you have a trusted role inAs shown in Figure 1, once a nonprofit has built translating social media capital directly into the social networks whereits social media capital (immediate outcome), it organization’s strategic outcome of electing Justin you may wish to inciteis often able to convert this into other types of Trudeau. This more direct building of social media action of some kind, thatresources, such as cultural, financial, human, toward an outcome is not necessarily a one-step capital can be translatedintellectual, or reputational capital (intermediate process. For instance, nonprofit advocacy orga- into other resources oroutcomes). nizations employ Twitter in public education, used directly to produce but often as a part of a larger strategy. The public key organizational This conversion concept is explicitly reflected education approach to advocacy is not to directly outcomes.in a slogan belonging to the firm Constant Contact, change public policy but rather to help changewhich seeks to help companies “turn fans into people’s minds, opinions, and attitudes—which,customers,” thus converting social media capital over the long term, is expected to change attitudesinto financial capital. Similarly, when a nonprofit toward public policy and then, ultimately, publicorganization asks its followers to take action on a policies themselves. But, the extent to which ancause that later becomes successful, it has lever- advocacy organization can achieve that publicaged its social resources into human, reputational, education and policy outcome through its socialcognitive, and very likely financial capital. The media efforts ultimately depends on the amountprecise manner in which this conversion takes of social media capital built within its social mediaplace varies greatly according to the context. The network.critical point to recognize is the need to identifyand account for a conversion plan in the strategic • • •social media plan. Social media capital is generated differently and,5. Strategic Outcomes in some ways, more simply than capital accumu- lated offline or even in previous forms of newAs shown in the logic model in Figure 1, the ulti- media such as websites or blogs. Social mediamate goal is to leverage social media capital to capital is built mainly by messages and connec-reach strategic outcomes. tions, and if you have a trusted role in social networks where you may wish to incite action Figure 1 depicts two ways of reaching such of some kind, that capital can be translated intoorganizational outcomes. The first path in the other resources or used directly to produce keymodel derives from the use of already converted organizational outcomes. Still, practitioners needintermediate outcomes (converting social media to recognize that, as with anything, there are stepscapital into other resources and then expending to accumulating and deploying (and even repay-those resources—or capital conversion). The ing) capital. Because the accumulation of socialprocess is relatively straightforward: after accu- media capital requires a reciprocal relationshipmulating social media capital, the organization with their publics, it is critical for nonprofits tocan convert it into cultural, financial, human, more clearly understand how the accumulationintellectual, or symbolic capital and then deploy and mobilization of social media–based resourcesthat toward a predetermined organizational occur over time and how essentially interactive theoutcome. For example, when Justin Trudeau’s entire endeavor is. It is only by being clear about2015 campaign for prime minister of Canada and comfortable with the reciprocal, public, andasked its followers on social media to make a fluid nature of these resources that organizationaldonation, it was essentially converting its huge leaders can achieve meaningful organizationalstock of social media capital into financial capital, outcomes and maximize the economic and socialwhich could then be spent on the organization’s returns on their social media investment.strategic outcome: electing Justin Trudeau. The second path involves the direct translationof social media capital into a desired organizationalWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​15

Notes the acquisition of social media capital”; and Saxton 1. Gregory D. Saxton and Chao Guo, “Online stake- and Guo, “Conceptualizing Social Media Capital.” holder targeting and the acquisition of social media 6. Gerald C. Kane et al., “What’s Different about capital,” International Journal of Nonprofit and Vol- Social Media Networks? A Framework and Research untary Sector Marketing 19, no. 4 (October 2014): Agenda,” MIS Quarterly 38, no. 1 (March 2014): 286–300. 274–304. 2. Chao Guo and Gregory D. Saxton, “Tweeting Social 7. danah m. boyd and Nicole B. Ellison, “Social Change: How Social Media Are Changing Nonprofit Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship,” Advocacy,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 43, no. 1 (February 2014): 57–79. 13, no. 1 (October 2007): 210–30; and Lee Rainie and 3. Gregory D. Saxton and Chao Guo, “Conceptual- Barry Wellman, Networked: The New Social Operat- izing Social Media Capital: Measures, Causes, and ing System (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012). Outcomes” (presentation at the Annual Meeting of 8. Guo and Saxton, “Tweeting Social Change.” the Association for Research on Nonprofit Organiza- 9. Brian G. Smith, “Public relations identity and the tions and Voluntary Action, Denver, CO, November stakeholder–organization relationship: A revised 20–22, 2014). theoretical position for public relations scholarship,” 4. Kristen Lovejoy and Gregory D. Saxton, “Infor- Public Relations Review 38, no. 5 (December 2012): mation, Community, and Action: How Nonprofit 838–45. Organizations Use Social Media,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 17, no. 3 (April To comment on this article, write to us at feedback 2012): 337–53. @npqmag.org. Order reprints from http://​store.nonprofit 5. Saxton and Guo, “Online stakeholder targeting and quarterly.org, using code 230402. In a Nutshell Social media capital has its own special characteristics, so nonprofits should be intentional about its deployment. Understanding the leadership roles available, and considering how to develop your position within that world and toward what outcomes, is important. Nonprofits should think of social media capital as they would financial or any other type of capital, in terms of planning. Just like financial capital is a convertible resource and requires both short- and long-term planning, social media capital is fluid and requires a careful strategy to maximize its support of both intermediate and long-term goals. Social media capital is more often built around interests or causes than around institutions, and this is where nonprofits have an advantage over other organizations. Nonprofits can integrate their missions into their social media presence and strategy to take advantage of the capital that comes with advocacy or awareness efforts and social justice causes. Similarly, any news events that relate to a nonprofit’s mission will likely be reflected in popular media, and nonprofits can take advantage of this opportunity for exposure to build their online presence. The reciprocal nature of social media engagement can be a source of strength for nonprofits, if it is recognized and used efficiently. In fact, social capital well spent will build more social capital. What are stakeholders talking about? What are they asking for? The reciprocal use of social media as a tool of communication gives nonprofits a direct line to their stakeholders’ concerns.16 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

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Effective listening, explains David Karpf, Nonprofit Advocacy & Social Mediais far more complicated than simplymonitoring one’s analytic reports, and Step 1 fordigital listening can never replace the Effective Advocacy“messy, slow, deliberative work [that] in the Age of Trump:fosters a culture of commitment anddeepens organizational identity.” But, Learn to Listen Betteras he points out, “if ever there was atime to listen harder and listen better, by David Karpfit is now. The organizations thatdistinguish themselves will be the ones Editors’ note: This article was adapted fromthat listen best and that know how to David Karpf’s new book, Analytic Activism: Digitalinterpret what they are hearing.” Listening and the New Political Strategy (Oxford TUniversity Press, 2016). he incoming Trump administration is bound to offer a multitude of surprises and chal- lenges for nonprofit professionals. Many of us have been pondering big-picture strat- egy questions, asking ourselves how best to adjust to the new advocacy landscape. At the moment, the only thing we can predict with certainty is that there will be scenarios no one can predict. But I can guarantee with reasonable confidence what the first step will need to be: the most effective nonprofits will be the ones that listen best. We often look to digital media and marvel at the new ways that citizens can now speak online. But the Internet is not solely a platform for speech; it is David Karpf, PhD, is associate professor and director of graduate studies at the George Washington Univer- sity School of Media and Public Affairs, and author of The MoveOn Effect: The Unexpected Transformation of American Political Advocacy (Oxford University Press, 2012) and Analytic Activism: Digital Listening and the New Political Strategy (Oxford University Press, 2016).  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​19

Better listening and also used for listening. Journalists, governments, particularly vital during periods of rapid, unex-organizational learning corporations, and nonprofits are all learning to pected change. Just as advocacy leaders of gen-are always fine goals to incorporate digital listening routines into their erations past developed tactics whose impact wasstrive toward, but they work processes. Viral hashtags and most-read amplified through the industrial broadcast mediaare particularly vital lists help news organizations pick up new trends system (where you could grab the entire nation’sduring periods of rapid, in reader interest. Government agencies monitor attention through three television networks),unexpected change. website analytics to identify where citizens get today’s most effective advocates are leveraging confused by red tape and stop filling out request their message through viral sharing on social forms. Corporations use social media analyt- media. And the most effective and timely mes- ics to monitor their brand and reputation. And sages during the Obama administration will surely nonprofits are increasingly using these same lose some of their force as we enter the Trump tools and technologies to develop new advocacy era. Obama and his officials respond to differ- techniques—a new “analytic activism” that carries ent pressures and appeals than Trump’s officials both great promise and real risk. It can unlock the surely will. The social tenor of the country and advocacy potential of your organization, or it can the topics that dominate mainstream media cov- lead you astray. erage will move apace with these shifts. Indeed, the best social movement strategies have always Digital listening takes many forms. Some are been rooted in an insightful reading of the media active interventions—discussion forums where system and the political situation. members and supporters weigh in on a proposed course of action, or weekly surveys that ask for Prioritizing digital listening doesn’t mean aban- comments and suggestions from a variety of doning your own instincts and insights—there is stakeholders. Other forms take advantage of more both an art and a science to the craft of analytic passive monitoring tools—A/B tests and social activism. Rather, it means opening your strategic media analytics can signal the issues, messages, processes to new inputs, and using those inputs to and calls to action that have the greatest reso- question long-standing assumptions. The tactics nance with a supporter base. Advocacy organi- that thrive in the coming years will necessarily be zations can harvest the trace data left behind by nimble and responsive. No longer can we afford all sorts of online activity. When these data are to select tactics because they are the ones we’ve packaged into a format that can actually help always used or because we recall that one time managers, executive directors, and boards make when they appeared to work so well. When faced better decisions, they become a powerful source with a strategic dilemma, the appropriate and of learning and organizational change. available answer must now be, “Well, we’ll test it.” Effective listening is far more complicated than To be clear, investing in analytics, experi- simply monitoring one’s weekly Google Analytics mentation, and measurement is no guarantee report, of course. The leading nonprofits meld a of advocacy success. It is not enough simply to wide range of digital signals into a broader culture listen more through digital media. The real goal of testing, in which they repeatedly measure the is to harness analytics to listen better. And that impacts of their engagement tactics, creating requires organizations to pay real attention to the small experiments that help them to adapt and biases and limitations of the data they gather, and learn in a changing media and political environ- to think through the processes that will help them ment. Their weekly leadership meetings feature harness that data effectively. multiple signals from analytics programs, as well as the results and lessons gleaned from recent And that can be a hefty task, because we have tactical experiments. This helps nonprofits to to remember what digital trace data can’t tell us. develop agile feedback loops, allowing them to tinker with new tactics and strategies. Analytics can often automate value judgments. As behavioral economist Dan Ariely puts it, “You Better listening and organizational learning are are what you measure.”1 If you focus on measur- always fine goals to strive toward, but they are ing supporter responsiveness and impact through page views or new e-mail list sign-ups, you will20 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

inevitably come to prioritize very different issues talk with their active volunteers; they ask hard Organizations shouldand practices than if you focus on repeat member questions of their coalition partners; and they approach digitalinteractions or offline event participation. And don’t assume that the analytics and experimen- listening with a healthythere can be a creeping accessibility bias inher- tal results are either objective or infallible—they dose of skepticism,ent in digital listening, because some metrics are listen within their own networks and also keep investigating where themuch easier to track than others. The campaign an eye out for lateral trends appearing outside of activity that they cantactics, issue topics, and message frames that are their networks. The goal of digital listening and most easily measurethe most popular are not necessarily the ones that experimentation is to create valuable additional departs from the activityare the most powerful. Analytics render an incom- input for their strategic judgment, not to use ana- that they most deeplyplete portrait of public sentiment. Organizations lytics to replace their judgment entirely. value.should approach digital listening with a healthydose of skepticism, investigating where the activ- There is one other limitation to digital listen-ity that they can most easily measure departs from ing that nonprofits should keep in mind: all thesethe activity that they most deeply value. digital traces of supporter sentiment and social media engagement represent listening without The general rule for incorporating digital lis- conversation. It used to be hard to find out whattening into your organizational workflow is to ten thousand supporters thought of your organiza-always be blending. All the advocacy organiza- tion’s work. Hearing from them required two-waytions that have pioneered the use of digital listen- conversations. Now, many large advocacy orga-ing and testing have adopted a blended approach nizations run daily A/B tests of this size beforeto analytics signals. Rather than blindly chasing lunch. This can be a real boon; more listening isthe latest digital trends, they maintain a color- certainly preferable to less. But there was a ben-ful mix of listening signals: they conduct weekly eficial inefficiency in the old way of conductingmember surveys; they make phone calls, and conversations. Conversations, particularly whenTogether, we’ll write the next chapter. F or more than 70 years, Pacific Oaks has prepared students to serve diverse communities throughout California. Education Human Development Marriage and Family Therapy Teacher Credentialing pacificoaks.edu 877.314.2380  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​21WINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG

Atomistic engagement conducted among large groups, constitute shared barely listening to their members and support-can move fast and can be work. They require the minutes and hours from ers, leaning on the same approaches that haveharnessed by smart, everyone. And that messy, slow, deliberative work seemed to work well enough before. But if evernimble nonprofits. But a fosters a culture of commitment and deepens orga- there was a time to listen harder and listen better,deep, committed nizational identity. It builds organizational bonds it is now. The years to come will require moresupporter base provides and richer civic skills. Conversation and ongoing from civil society organizations. These are uncer-heft and force. The participation change people. Digital listening tain times. The rules of political engagement aremightiest organizations merely records them as they already are. being hastily rewritten, and the old routines thatin the years to come will governed media behavior are changing alongsideharness both. • • • them. This is a moment when we should leave no old assumption untested. It is time to tinker, The work of digital listening falls primarily upon experiment, fail, learn, and tinker some more. the analysts, technologists, and strategists who are gathering the data and rendering them acces- The organizations that distinguish themselves sible. It is (to borrow a concept from Personal will be the ones that listen best and that know Democracy Media’s Micah Sifry) an atomistic how to interpret what they are hearing. form of engagement: we watch alone, we take action alone, we even share inspirational stories Notes alone, clicking away at a laptop screen or mobile 1. Dan Ariely, “You Are What You Measure,” Harvard interface.2 Atomistic engagement can move fast Business Review, June 2010, hbr.org/2010/06 and can be harnessed by smart, nimble nonprofits. /column-you-are-what-you-measure. But a deep, committed supporter base provides 2. Micah L. Sifry, The Big Disconnect: Why the Inter- heft and force. The mightiest organizations in the net Hasn’t Transformed Politics (Yet) (New York and years to come will harness both. London: OR Books, 2014). To be sure, listening without conversation is To comment on this article, write to us at feedback preferable to barely listening at all. And that’s @npqmag.org. Order reprints from http://​store.nonprofit where most nonprofits find themselves today: quarterly.org, using code 230403. In a Nutshell Nonprofit users of social media must rethink the meaning of listening in a social media setting. Listening in a social media setting is iterative, and includes a repetition of what one has heard with steadily advancing meaning. The rules of public engagement are adjusting, due to changing politics and a rapidly evolving media landscape. Reacting to continuing change by scrambling to keep up is not an effective strategy. Careful “listening” on social media, curation of channels that surface information about coming changes, and engagement with information to extract meaning can help nonprofits to stay a step ahead of changing norms. Nonprofits that anticipate change and position themselves as a resource in a changing climate will have an advantage, and this is where digital listening can be of significant use. Given the relatively easy availability of analytics and other data, nonprofits should ramp up their testing of strategies for engagement through social media. Is your circle getting bigger? Are your stakeholders responding to you? Are they taking you up on invitations for other types of engagement?22 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

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Online Organizations and Movements Defending Underage Migrants across Free Online Spaces: Behind the Scenes of a “Non-Organization” by Philippe Eynaud, Damien Mourey, and Nathalie Raulet-Croset“ABCD” has no hierarchy, legal structure, financial means, or official positions or roles.So how does this CSO continue to expand and function at a high level? As the authorsexplain, its streamlined nature supports its organizing via a web of online and physical socialspaces; its self-regulation emerges dynamically at the local level and then diffuses nationally;rules emerge organically via the exchanges of information across the network; and itsregulation processes are due to both human agency and technological and spatial agency. Editors’ note: This article is based on a chapter in Francois-Xavier Vaujany and Nathalie Mitev, eds., Materiality and Space: Organizations, Artefacts and Practices (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave TMacMillan, 2013), pp. 157–78. recursive (looping) relationship between mobi- he most visible part of an open and widely lizing (front-stage) and organizing (backstage) based social movement relates to its activities.2 We are interested here in the creation mobilizing activities and framing pro- and unfolding over time of the political agency of cesses to engender mass resistance.1 Yet a social movement is also characterized by a civil society organizations (CSOs).3 More specifi- cally, we want to demonstrate that this politicalPhilippe Eynaud is professor at the Université Panthéon agency takes shape within the recursive rela-Sorbonne, Sorbonne Business School. Damien Mourey is tionship between the organizing and mobilizingassociate professor at the Université Panthéon Sorbonne, processes. We study types of CSOs combining aSorbonne Business School. Nathalie Raulet-Croset strong organizational identity as perceived fromis associate professor at the Université Panthéon Sor- the outside with a diversity of identities within.bonne, Sorbonne Business School, and at i3-CRG Ecole We claim that the political agency, which is viewedPolytechnique. as a “distributed and plural agency,” is based on24 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  “WORKING ON WINGS TO FLY” BY DEBORAH MARIS LADER/WWW.DEBORAHMARISLADER.COM



The quest for massive the organization.4 We therefore define a particular of pluralism among members—all are risks to anand far-reaching form of political agency, a “distributed political open social movement where almost anyone canmobilization is a agency,” that is a specific trait of some CSOs. To become a member through online registration topowerful strategy more deeply understand the emerging process any existing e-mail list.9 Yet, these self-proclaimedfor advocacy and action, of this “distributed political agency,” we take the “no rules” organizations cannot thrive and staybut it goes hand in theoretical perspective on regulation elaborated true to themselves without rules, even if the latterhand with significant by French sociologist Jean-Daniel Reynaud. We are informal and invisible from the outside. Rulesrisks of losing control. analyze regulation processes that may be control are essential in maintaining an organization’s fun- based (hierarchical) but may also be coproduced damental core values such as pluralism, openness, by members of the organization and therefore be agility, and resistance. Therefore, such organiza- autonomous (diffuse and organic). Such pro- tions offer interesting organizational contexts for cesses enable the relationship between mobiliz- studying their underlying regulation processes, ing and organizing.5 which cannot be understood through classic dual oppositions of formal/informal, effective/affective, We propose that this type of organization forms local/global rules. a distributed political agency by combining the two regulating processes. The latter (autonomous) In this article, we describe an emblematic emphasizes organizing processes, and shows that French organization whose actions sometimes an organization shapes its own identity through its border legality: a citizen’s movement defending internal debates. This perspective highlights the undocumented migrant students. This organi- importance of social interaction, as it is this inter- zation, which we will call “ABCD” to preserve nal debate that shapes the organization. Focus its anonymity, is a collection of different cells is placed on connections between actors and that continue to expand by adding newly formed actions. The organization is viewed as a “distrib- local cells across the country. Every cell unfolds uted and plural agency”6 or as an “action net,”7 all within social spaces of exchange and interac- contributing to the creation and nurturing of both tion of two different forms: e-mail lists and the organizational identity and that of the actors. regular face-to-face meetings. We analyze how these face-to-face and online social spaces relate The formal and structural components of to the organization’s regulation processes. We social movement organizations are rather elusive focus in particular on how regulation processes and scant: their militants explicitly emphasize the contribute to defining communities (which can egalitarian, horizontal, democratic, and transpar- be considered as places of regulation in the orga- ent way of making decisions and taking action. nization), and, in return, how these processes are They also pride themselves on not being similar to influenced by the existence of these communi- any other existing organizational form, and often ties. We explore the recursive interplay between vow to disappear when their mission has been ful- mobilizing activities and organizing processes of filled.8 Moreover, in this day and age, most social this politically driven CSO. More specifically, we movements resort to easy-to-use online technol- investigate how this so-called “non-organization” ogy, and their members become online users. This manages to balance its political dimension and online nature has reinforced the trend in social agency both externally and internally. And, we movements toward bare-bones formal organiza- demonstrate that the making of its political tional features and lack of formal rules. agency is both distributed across the organization and articulated to make up a consistent whole. These flexible organizations are highly responsive and can mobilize quickly. The quest First, we show that this organization—with for massive and far-reaching mobilization is a its bare-bones organizational features and popu- powerful strategy for advocacy and action, but it lated by an array of local cells, each developing goes hand in hand with significant risks of losing its own identity—preserves its global identity control. Mission drift, the push for more-powerful and develops informal control through a joint governance structures, anarchic growth, contro- regulation process combining autonomous and versies within the movement, the maintenance26 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

control-based rules. Second, in analyzing the func- ground, and areas of convergence. Once a rule is Communities gettioning of this organization—which relies on a set defined and accepted within a community, abiding defined throughof tools revolving around the use of information by it produces both a belonging to the commu- conflicts, and they maysystems and a set of social spaces—we argue that nity and the resolution of the conflict(s), even if later oppose oneprocesses of regulation are also enacted through temporarily. another. Throughthe material side of these tools and social spaces, negotiation, actorsand are not just the result of human agency. We “Control-Based Rules” Versus establish a communitythen identify how human agency and material “Autonomous Rules” by discovering commonagency entwine with regulation processes, and we interests, commonhighlight in particular the role of “broker” played Reynaud demonstrates that two apparently con- ground, and areas ofby specific actors at the interface of the different tradictory and complex phenomena coexist in convergence.communities. organizations—those of control and autonomy. He focuses on the interplay that fosters a dynamicA Process Approach to Producing Rules creation of rules. The theory of social regulation originates from the study of industrial relations.Rules are often considered as orders or injunc- This explains why Reynaud associates specifictions prescribing behaviors in the workplace, and rules with categories of actors in an organization.are viewed as somewhat immutable. From that He studies forms of control that spread across anperspective, rules enable collective action, since organization, and his thinking sets control-basedthey provide stability and order actors’ conduct in rules (which originate from management, arethe workplace. Yet another perspective on rules, based on hierarchical power, and go from the toporiginating from Reynaud, focuses on “social regu- to the bottom of any organization) in oppositionlation”—that is, the process of producing rules. to autonomous rules (which are produced locallyFrom this perspective, rules are considered “a by groups of workers themselves). This approachguide for action, a standard enabling an informed goes beyond a dual perspective that would merelyjudgment, a model orienting action.”10 A rule oppose global to local dimensions of regulation.“advises the making of a decision as it often allows Indeed, it shows that the combination of differentone to define the ongoing situation, to differentiate forms of legitimacy—ones that would be rational–from different cases and to specify the meaning legal and others that would point to more spe-of the facts under review.”11 Reynaud argues that cific and scattered forms of legitimacy—producesthe production of rules defines both the actors these local and more informal regulations. Thesupporting the rules and the communities that distinction between control-based and autono-get formed around the rules and stabilize in time mous rules is related to an actor’s strategic ori-through their use. As a result, a rule is both an entation and position within the organization.outcome, since it manifests the rationality and the As argued by Reynaud, “[A] rule is not by itself alogic of a community, and also the condition for control-based or an autonomous rule. It becomesbuilding and maintaining this community, whose such only through the organizational place of themembers accept this common rule.12 Viewed as a actor issuing it and through the way the rule isprocess, rule making fosters dynamism and initia- used in practice. Control and autonomy thereforetives in organizations, especially when rules are point to the use of a rule, not to its nature.”14made “autonomously” and not hierarchically. Yves Lichtenberger also indicates that a control Three concepts are articulated in this theory of rule establishes a relationship of subordination,social regulation: conflict, negotiation, and rule.13 whereas an autonomous rule establishes a rela-Conflicts are viewed as inevitable, since any actor tionship of solidarity.15 An autonomous rule knitspromotes his or her own agenda and tries to make together a community of peers. It is an obligationothers accept it. Communities get defined through that actors create for themselves, and implies theconflicts, and they may later oppose one another. involvement and engagement of actors. As a result,Through negotiation, actors establish a commu- forms of disengagement in organizations couldnity by discovering common interests, common endanger the existence of autonomous rules.WINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​27

Whether one considers More broadly, in order to understand regulation communities of this organization to exchangean organization through processes, it is paramount to identify the actors and interact either within their own communityits technologies or issuing a rule, their position within the organi- or across communities. The definition of com-through its managerial zation, and, more important, the communities munities not only fosters the emergence of rulestools, its written records defined by the emergence of a new rule. This theo- but also contributes to their strength and stabi-or even speeches, retical perspective on control and regulation that lization. As a result, we seek to address the fol-materiality needs to be make way for both local emergence and global lowing questions:conceived of as a control seems rather appealing when undertaking • How does a community—both in its material“material agency” that study of a particular type of organization: thosegets entangled with claiming both a hierarchy-free mode of organiz- dimension and as a purposeful project of col-“human agency.” Indeed, ing that limits as much as possible control-based lective joint action—participate in the processobjects, tools, and spaces rules (derived from a rational–legal form of legiti- of regulation?are not neutral. macy) and also their determination to grant their • How do control-based rules emerge within a members maximum autonomy. Such organiza- “non-organization,” where autonomous rules tions exist in particular in social movements. usually prevail? On what basis do these latter rules rely? Considering the Socio-Material Dimension of Rules The Case Context: Defense of Underage Migrants in France Combining the study of regulation processes and the materiality in organizations could prove As we introduced earlier, ABCD is a CSO defend- a fruitful avenue of research. Organizations ing undocumented migrant students in France. have different forms of materiality. Whether one Its members advocate an egalitarian, horizontal, considers an organization through its technolo- and transparent way of making decisions inter- gies or through its managerial tools,16 its written nally (no spokesperson, no hierarchy, anyone records or even speeches, materiality needs may become a member through open, online to be conceived of as a “material agency” that registration to existing e-mail lists, and so on). gets entangled with “human agency.”17 Indeed, This approach goes hand in hand with the consti- objects, tools, and spaces are not neutral. They tutive and founding choice of developing social combine with human actions, influencing them spaces online (such as an informative website and revealing qualities that shape and model and dozens of autonomous and loosely coupled collective joint action. Material agency can be e-mail lists hosted on a server lent by an indepen- defined as “the capacity for non-human entities dent media organization). When dealing with an to act on their own, apart from human interven- undocumented migrant student under threat of tion,”18 through their performativity.19 Material- deportation, ABCD’s militants resort to diverse ity, then, is not just stand-alone decor, a mere and far-reaching mobilization activities: writing, element of context that can be observed from the mailing, and taking to the streets. They pursue outside. On the contrary, a managerial practice is national coverage, give primacy to on-the-ground defined through its entwinement with material- activities and to their collective ability to respond ity. As a result, regulation viewed as a practice is to quickly evolving situations, trigger blitz and also anchored in the material side of organiza- symbolic operations, write open letters to politi- tional life. And as regulation defines communities cians, and develop strategic uses of media (they within an organization, we argue that the material have a taste for staging resistance actions with dimension of communities (via the physical and high media impact). They then contribute to two online spaces) is also articulated by regulation complementary objectives: rolling out massive processes. The organization we describe here mobilization at specific and crucial moments to is not structured by formal rules or hierarchy increase pressure on governmental authorities but around spaces of a different nature (online and their representatives, and resisting the politi- and face-to-face) that allow members of different cal rhetoric relayed by public authorities justifying their administrative actions in the name of the law.28 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

The Underage Migrant’s Story had received a deportation letter—“Obligation Founding members ofThat Started Everything to Leave French Territory”—because she had ABCD are known for theirFounding members of ABCD are known for their recently turned eighteen (marking the end of her strong militancy. Whenstrong militancy. When ABCD was founded, in protection from deportation) and did not have the ABCD was founded, in2004, one could already perceive the beginnings documents that would permit her to stay in the 2004, one could alreadyof these far-reaching mobilization activities that country. Mobilization at the high school prompted perceive the beginningstoday form the most visible part of this organiza- a quick response from the local authorities, who of these far-reachingtion. Several local mobilization activities were overturned the decision.20 mobilization activitiessimultaneously performed back then, in high that today form the mostschools in Paris and its suburbs. One of ABCD’s Her situation was sorted out. We threw a visible part of thisfounding members, who we will call “Interviewee party at the high school, as the headmaster organization.B,” described how it all began. At the time, she supported our efforts, to celebrate her legal-was the elected representative of a parents’ asso- ization. And during the party, eight other stu-ciation in one of the high schools. She discov- dents came to see me. They said they wereered that her son had given his canteen card to in the same situation. And we realized thata Congolese girl who could not afford to pay for if there were eight other undocumented stu-meals because she had been left alone in Paris— dents in that high school, there must be situ-although under the supervision of a friend of her ations like these in every high school. Thisparents—with no financial resources or official was indeed true, but we had just discovereddocuments. The parents’ friend had taken unsuc- it. (Interviewee B)cessful action to obtain free access to the canteenfor the student. The student explained that she Another founding member, “Interviewee R,” described a mobilization activity in the nameMASTER OF ARTS INPublic Policy and Administration• Build a broad, highly relevant skill set for a career in nearly any type of organization: government, nonprofits, business and private enterprise• Learn analytic methods, statistics, qualitative and quantitative research• Understand, manage and lead organizational change• Strengthen critical thinking, leadership and communication skills• Earn your Northwestern University master’s degree on campus or entirely online• Choose the new Global Health specialization or one of three other specializationsApply today — the spring quarter application deadline is January 15.mppaonline.northwestern.edu • 312-503-2579WINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​29

The fact that no of undocumented migrant students in his high kids enrolled at schools, or their parents,undocumented migrant school, and concluded: would be expelled until June 2006. In fact,student and no migrant he made a big mistake when he specifiedfamilies with students We told ourselves that what was happen- a deadline to this moratorium. We cam-enrolled in intermediate ing more and more frequently in our high paigned against it, declaring that startingor senior secondary school could not be an isolated situation July 1, kids were going to be hunted down.French schools have been and must be happening everywhere. We It led him to issue a circular legalizing bothdeported since ABCD was wrote up a call for action. Then, we got in students enrolled at French schools andformed proves the touch with other people, some of whom are their parents. We call it the “Rachel andeffectiveness of this still members of our network. Jonathan Circular.” (Interviewee B)social movement. As a result, in June 2004, teachers from various The group was determined to fight for all high schools created ABCD. These teachers had cases and to use all means at their disposal all had to deal with situations in which an under- to do so. For example, at one point, a migrant age migrant student came of age and therefore student who was being deported and had already was liable to be expelled if he or she did not boarded a plane was retrieved at the last minute, possess the required documents. Over the years, following pressure put on state representatives the effectiveness of ABCD’s advocacy of undocu- (they didn’t want the negative publicity). ABCD mented migrant students has continued unabated, members accompany all migrant students to the and ABCD expanded the fight to make sure the préfecture (official headquarters) when the latter students’ undocumented migrant parents would receive notification to appear, and provide them not be deported, either. The following story dem- with legal and administrative assistance. They onstrates how ABCD draws attention to specific have also adopted proactive tactics, building a cases, gets press coverage, and pressures state case before a migrant student comes of age in representatives: order to amass all the documents they will need to later win a case in court. History of their stay in In the summer of 2005, two young people France, report cards, letters of recommendation from the town of Sens, “Rachel” and “Jona- from their teachers, school attendance sheets, than,” ran away from home because their signed petitions—all become part of the evidence mother was being held in detention. They they will display at the préfecture and, if neces- came into contact with a man, who, upon sary, in court in order to obtain legal status for discovering their illegal status, did not bring the student. Later, they guide the student through them to the police but instead called us. the administrative steps to acquire French citi- We hid them for a while. There were press zenship. They organize sponsorship days, when conferences and we got media coverage high-profile politicians agree to sponsor a migrant because journalists wanted the story. We student and vouch for him or her. Thus, the group moved the kids from one place to another seeks to act before any migrant student under many times over. We made various appoint- their supervision even receives a deportation ments with journalists, and brought them to letter, as they know their actions may dissuade meet the kids. (Interviewee B) public authorities from beginning the deportation process, understanding that they will be given a The fact that no undocumented migrant hard time otherwise. student and no migrant families with students enrolled in intermediate or senior secondary The Recursive Relationship between French schools have been deported since ABCD Mobilizing and Organizing was formed proves the effectiveness of this social These mobilizing activities are the most visible movement. ABCD pushed very hard, and even got part of the organization. However, other, far less politicians to issue an administrative circular: visible activities relate to organizing processes The Minister for Home Affairs issued a cir- cular dated October 31, 2005, saying that no30 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

that enable effective mobilization and at the same Then, we studied the operating mode of One of the mosttime deliver organizational flexibility. ABCD is a several local cells both in and outside Paris. We important achievementsrelatively unstructured organization. Members conducted two interviews with volunteers in each of ABCD over the yearsdo not engage in routine work that could make cell, and attended various meetings and partici- has been its ability tothem predictable, they do not accept any financial pated in events organized locally—for example, maintain a diversity ofcontributions, and they refuse “experts.” There we attended a party that took place in a high political sensibilities andis no hierarchy, formal rules can be counted on school’s faculty lounge to celebrate a staff mem- reasons for engagementthe fingers of one hand, and there is no screen- ber’s legalization brought about by the local cell. across its membership,ing procedure for registering new members to These observations were helpful in understand- and at the same time aany existing e-mail list. The organization quali- ing ABCD’s internal organization and also facili- strong consistency in thefies as a “non-organization” in the sense that its tated our interpretations of the formal interviews. ways operational actionsmembers reject hierarchy, formal rules, official get done effectively onleaders, and the like. (This does not mean that it Finally, a large part of our analysis was based the ground.is an organization in waiting.) on data extracted from our participation in several e-mail lists. Each researcher signed up on differ- This “non-organization” keeps expanding by ent lists (national, regional, local) as a participant.adding permanent new cells to its loosely struc- (We did not have access to some of the more con-tured network across French territory. Each new fidential e-mail lists.) We had access to a numbercell covers a new geographical area and joins of open lists, but each of us focused on one listthe organization by adopting its brand name in particular. It was a way for us to develop anand linking its own e-mail lists to other existing empathic approach and to take into account thee-mail lists at different territorial levels (national intrinsic nature of each online space. By discussingor local). The analysis of this organization shows our experiences, we were able to analyze contro-that there are both a set of e-mail lists and a set of versies popping up on the e-mail lists and reflectperiodic meetings associated with each of those more specifically on what might be the right “bro-lists—network members communicate through kering” between online spaces in such instances.the lists and during physical meetings. Having On a practical level, content analysis of the listsstudied ABCD’s organizing process through the was a way for us to stay in touch with ABCD’slens of its underlying regulation processes, we daily round and to have direct access to regularbelieve these social spaces can be viewed as exchanges between members.communities in the sense given by Reynaud: eachgroup of actors is a community that is related to An Organization Made Up of aa given social space and defines its own rules of Set of Local Communitiesjoint collective action. One of the most important achievements of ABCDThe Methodological Approach over the years has been its ability to maintain aTo undertake our research, we used an inter- diversity of political sensibilities and reasons forpretive case study approach, gathering multiple engagement across its membership, and at thesources of evidence. This included interviews, same time a strong consistency in the ways opera-activity observation, and e-mail list analysis. tional actions get done effectively on the ground. Preserving a pluralist membership—ranging from First, we conducted eight in-depth, semi- Christians to far-left activists—while at the samedirected interviews with key members of ABCD, time delivering effective mobilizations, is no meancovering different geographical areas and levels feat. To address this issue, ABCD members haveof responsibility (national, regional, local). These adopted specific organizing processes that cannotinterviewees are considered by many to be be analyzed through traditional lenses. Membersfounding members. Some questions probed the readily admit that ABCD is a “non-organization”:members’ use of and opinions on e-mail lists. Inter- as described earlier, there is no hierarchy, no legalviews lasted between one and two hours, and the structure, no financial means, no spokesperson,interviews were then recorded and transcribed. no official positions or roles, no formal rules, noWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​31

“Everyone acts as he or screening or recruitment processes, no account- controversies vis-à-vis what ABCD stands for.she sees fit and when he ing practices, and so on. This organization also However, there does exist a global identity sharedor she thinks it’s right to displays a dynamic growth that has developed by the members of the organization:do so. Our cause is what in a rather anarchic way. In this next section, weunifies us. This cause is describe the nature of ABCD and how the rules There is no such thing as a head office.so compelling and allowing for both its functioning and its growth Everyone does what suits him or her best.beyond discussion that get articulated. (Interviewee R)there is generalconsensus on the modes The Relationship between ABCD’s Global Identity Everyone acts as he or she sees fit and whenof mobilization and and the Specific Identities of Its Local Cells he or she thinks it’s right to do so. Our causegoals being pursued.” As we learned from the interviews, ABCD has a is what unifies us. This cause is so compel- global identity. ABCD is supported by members’ ling and beyond discussion that there is shared values around the defense of undocu- general consensus on the modes of mobili- mented immigrants. It is also linked by its oper- zation and goals being pursued: releasing a ating modes, as some members have expressed. detainee from a detention center, prevent- For instance, participation in the e-mail lists and ing someone from being deported . . . this is their uses are at the heart of the members’ sense our leitmotif, and there has never been any of belonging to the same organization. disagreement about that. (Interviewee S) What unifies everyone are methods and Beyond what is felt in common and the sharing e-mail lists. (Interviewee R) of values, we argue that ABCD’s regulation pro- cesses are what allow for both the coexistence However, the identities and operating modes of different cells and their connectedness with of local cells can differ from one other. ABCD one another, which make up a consistent whole. gathers members from all walks of life and politi- cal sensibilities, and promotes engagement. Every Each Local Cell Develops Specific Regulations local ABCD cell gathers members having similar for Both Physical (Face-to-Face) and views as to how to do things—but, needless to Artifactual (E-Mail) Social Spaces say, there are different opinions and views of the We identified different types of social spaces world across cells. Members act under different within ABCD—face-to-face and artifactual. ideologies, which run the gamut from Christian Modes of participation and gaining access to beliefs to far-left political ideas. Beyond these ide- social spaces within the movement rest upon ological gaps and differences in value systems, we informal rules that are created during face-to-face also observed different organizational practices. meetings. The creation of, management of, and As one member put it: access to e-mail lists in particular are decided on during such meetings. There is a leitmotif at ABCD: “The one who says it is the one who does it.” Then People do as they please where they are. everyone creates his or her own list. This Thus, as in Paris there is a city e-mail list, explains why we have completely different we decided that the Paris list would be the ways of functioning depending on the cell. main one for spreading general information. (Interviewee S) Moderators of other, sub–e-mail lists go to that main list and forward information and The differences are definitely a strength, as messages to their sublists. Some people, varied modes of mobilizing can be combined however, do not want to manage several (intervention from the church, support from dif- e-mail lists, and do not register with the ferent political parties and trade unions, and so main list. (Interviewee B) on). They are also a weakness, as it is difficult to speak in the name of ABCD as a whole, since Face-to-face meetings play a distinct role, there may be strong internal disagreements and allowing for freer and unconstrained debate. As32 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

an interviewee explained, not everything can different kinds of social spaces. E-mail lists are Only those on thebe said through an e-mail list. In addition, the generated to support regular in-person meetings. e-mail lists are invited tofrequency of meetings differs from one list to Growth may be linked to territorial expansion participate in meetings.another: the more local the list, the more intense (a new geographical area covered) or to a novel Local cells are delineatedthe need to meet and share information on spe- thematic forum (ad hoc social spaces created to by the creation of cell-cific cases. meet a new need). As explained by a member of specific e-mail lists, the organization: which in turn define We do not tell the whole story on our e-mail their respective cell lists. That’s why face-to-face meetings are A group can be made up of three people. members. so important. In Paris, we meet every week. Hence, many groups are being created all There are also complementary meetings. the time. At first, they work in their own During face-to-face meetings, everybody corner, alone, and stay at the level of their can voice freely. There is nothing to high school, their village. And, little by fear. People know that the minutes of little, they learn one day that there is an the meeting will never disclose all that e-mail list, and they register. Then they has been said (unlike on e-mail lists). realize that they can use the resources from (Interviewee B) the movement and that we do not ask for anything in return. They can benefit from Therefore, each cell has specific organizational our resources, ask us whatever they want,practices and rules of functioning that qualify as but in return we ask for nothing, absolutelyautonomous rules.21 As a member of a local cell nothing—they do as they see fit. (Inter-that was involved in a dispute with another local viewee S)cell from the same Paris suburb described it: The problem is, we do not have the same way There exists a sort of to-and-fro movement of looking at the world. In a nutshell, they between face-to-face spaces and artifactual ones say that what we do is useless, because they (e-mail lists). These lists were initially gener- think our actions are not likely to change ated to address the needs triggered by physical the law. (Because we go to the préfecture meeting spaces: with migrant students to help them defend their cases, they say we accept the admin- The truth is, these e-mail lists have been istrative procedure.) We agree to disagree created to support new and evolving needs on the most effective way to achieve our felt by groups of members. There is the “Ile joint goals. We believe we can help change de France” list, as an in-person meeting the law but that we also have to engage in happens to take place once a month at this a case-by-case approach to defend these regional level, and so it made sense to create people. (Interviewee H) a list to support these regular meetings. Then there is the “Paris” list. Then, e-mail These rules and practices characterize the lists were created for each Paris district.singular function of a community materially con- And probably even more [narrowed-down]tained within a local e-mail list. Only those on local e-mail lists were created, as well.the e-mail lists are invited to participate in meet- Every collective of members has createdings. Local cells are delineated by the creation of a specific e-mail list to address its needs.cell-specific e-mail lists, which in turn define their (Interviewee S)respective cell members. As a result, an unknown number of e-mail listsAdding Both Independent and Connected New have seen the light of day at different territorialCells Drives the Growth of the Organization levels across France—ranging from a very broadThe organization evolves via the creation of new national level to such narrow cellular levels as acells that goes hand in hand with the creation of single high school.WINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​33

The Organization Is Based on the Interplay e-mail lists, however, but rather via phone calls and Articulation between Social Spaces and text messages. All lists do not have the same purpose and the We identified different categories of e-mail same degree of openness. Some e-mail lists lists and their different specificities in terms created for coordinating members’ actions and of level of access and purpose. For each list, making joint decisions cannot be accessed by all we identified specific rules of functioning (see members freely. In these cases, there is a sort of Table 1). Physical meetings corresponding to co-optation that happens, in which one member different territorial levels of e-mail lists are gets enrolled by other ones and thus gains access. identified in Table 2. Physical social spaces are There are also thematic e-mail lists (such as the also diverse, and match or echo the discussions “young-adults-having-come-of-age” lists); there held on e-mail lists, and e-mail lists—which, as are ad hoc lists to manage specific events (such discussed earlier, can be considered artifactual as confrontations with public authorities). Calls social spaces—echo physical social spaces. For for a demonstration are not generally done via example, in a meeting at a regional level (Ile de Table 1: Categories and Specifics of E-Mail ListsCategory of e-mail lists Specifics and rulesNational • Open to anyone • Effective for raising support for mobilizing activities • No decision making on this list • Willingness to seek the largest consensus to take into account the diversity of political leanings and motivations of membersCoordination • Limited access for discussion but became open after consultation following requests of members. The process by which access was(national level) opened up echoes the symbolic dimension of freedom of the organization:“Nothing is secret, nothing is concealed.” • Decision making. Examples of decisions include requests for financial aid, for equipment purchases, position of ABCD regarding the signing of a petition or participation in a call for action, etc.Regional (such as • Open to anyoneIle de France) • Information exchange • Mobilizing activitiesParis (city level) • Open only to Parisian members • Information exchange • Mobilizing activities • Discussion forumLocal (such as • Open only to local membershigh school list) • Information exchange • Discussion forum • Learning/knowledge creationThematic (different • Open to all members concerned with the themeterritorial levels) • Specific discussion forum (knowledge transfer to deal with specific situations having a legal dimension) • Routine work. Legal dimension for defending cases is sometimes paramount to building a strong caseAd hoc (local level) • Open to selected members • Specific event (confidentiality requested)34 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

Category of meetings Table 2: Categories and Descriptions of Meetings [W]e also identified a setNational of informal rules thatRegional Descriptions define specific modes ofLocal functioning at the global Open meeting, to decide on the mobilization themes; social places where decisions are made level of the organization.Thematic (local) These rules are similar to Open meeting, to decide on the mobilization themes; social places where decisions are made a form of control-basedDemonstration (local) regulation, as they Open meeting, to decide on the mobilization themes; social places where decisions are made prescribe features ofTraining (local) decision-making For instance,“Young-adults-coming-of-age”; detailed knowledge about the law; expertise and processes within the learning how to build a case organization. Social spaces for staging a demonstration/voicing Social spaces for learning and mobilizing:“We also have training sessions about the legal rights for foreigners, about what ABCD is, about citizenship and naturalization. We bring in people involved in education: teachers, nurses, etc.”(Interviewee A)France), the decision to organize what members Regulation Processes: Insights from Withinwere calling the “Métèque Parade” was made. Ane-mail containing the minutes of that meeting, The Emergence of Control-Baseda call for mobilization, and the specifics of the Rules at the Global Levelupcoming event were forwarded to different Beyond local regulation processes shaping spe-e-mail lists. However, not everyone was on board cific communities of members, we also identi-with the parade, as some disliked the negative fied a set of informal rules that define specificconnotations associated with the word métèque, modes of functioning at the global level of theand did not want to be a part of it.22 Five e-mails organization. These rules are similar to a form ofexpressing discontent and protesting against the control-based regulation, as they prescribe fea-name could be traced to the “Ile de France” list. tures of decision-making processes within theThe same thing happened at the local level, as organization. The rules apply to a specific nationalmembers of the ninety-three local e-mail lists for list: the coordination list.the Ile de France region expressed yet more res-ervations. The issue sparked a controversy within These rules can be viewed as control-basedthe movement. In order to clear the air, the local rules for the organization, even if they are notcollective that triggered the idea of the “Métèque linked to a specific category of actors having aParade” at the regional meeting paid a visit to the higher hierarchical position. In reality, some actorsmembers of the ninety-three e-mail lists against have a more powerful “go” than others, in partic-the parade and explained in detail what it was all ular the founding members. Some autonomousabout. Discussion of this hot issue, which began rules have morphed into control rules over time.on the e-mail list, was then openly debated duringan in-person meeting to reach a final decision. The Emergence of Control Rules Due to the Activity of Switchers/Brokers There are “meetings” that are places of reflec- The distinction between autonomous and controltion, decision making, or exchanges: national, rules, if analytically precise, is not clear-cut onregional, local meetings. There are also “learn- the ground. These rules are enmeshed with oneing” spaces, such as the thematic meetings per- another, and some scholars stress that their statustaining to young adults coming of age, mentioned may change over time. An autonomous rule mayearlier, where members submit cases, elaborate become a control rule if those supporting the ruleon solutions, and benefit from the expertise of impose it on newcomers.23 In that case, the relation-those present. Other social spaces are sites for ship of solidarity that characterizes autonomousstaging demonstrations—meetings in préfectures, rules transforms itself into a relationship of sub-at airports, at courts of justice—where ABCD’s ordination. We have noticed such transformationpresence can be noted and direct showdown with occurring at the interplay between different e-mailopponents can be instigated. lists and different territorial levels, due to the work of particular actors. In fact, some members actWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​35

Different types of actors as “switchers” or “brokers” between spaces, and control-based rules. Among members, some havewho play these broker some act as “watchers” on specific lists. Every day, more influence in the network (the foundingroles emerge through for one to two hours, these brokers and watchers members) and some will attain more over timethe regulation process, screen all e-mails received on all the lists they are (those very active):and some gain members of and decide whether or not they wantimportance over time. to pass along some messages to other e-mail lists. There are the founding members who areThey become They also contribute to maintaining the specific still here and know why and how ABCD wasambassadors of new functioning and identity of the organization at the created. As a result, there are no commonrules, and they permit national level. So they play the role of watcher/ values but common founding principles.the transformation of broker/translator/regulator between physical and (Interviewee S)these autonomous rules online spaces and also between the different ter-into control-based rules. ritorial levels of spaces. In the following quote, a Some members are more active, and there- member explains how he “translates” the ABCD fore they centralize and have all the mean- national decisions to the members of his local cell. ingful information—they get experience. In doing so, he reinforces the control-based rules (Interviewee R) at the national level: Other actors within different territorial levels There will soon be a national call for action. appear to be in charge of ensuring that the rules It is most likely that among the ninety-three are followed. Because of the intrinsic complexity [local e-mail lists], some members think of information exchanges from one e-mail list to the text of the press release is too politi- another, a zone of uncertainty exists between dif- cally timid. When it is released, I will write ferent social spaces. There are movements across and send targeted e-mails to explain why e-mail lists—some pieces of information are for- it is so, and lower the temperature. (Inter- warded up to the regional level or to the national viewee A) level if they are deemed interesting: Different types of actors who play these broker There are regional lists where pieces of roles emerge through the regulation process, and information are transferred. For instance, some gain importance over time. They become the two Chechen twins coming into ambassadors of new rules, and they permit the France for health treatment. Cases like transformation of these autonomous rules into this are pushed up to the regional level. (Interviewee A) Verbatim Pertaining to Rules Formulation of Rules “We make a decision through e-mails. Everybody answers freely when, for Rule: Every member answers individually example, somebody proposes an action and asks for a go, and we get around and freely to any proposal made by fifteen answers backing the call for action; then we stop answering except if another member. we disagree with it.”(Interviewee B) “When there is an emergency, like when an illegal immigrant is boarding a Rule: In case of urgency in the making of plane to be expelled from France, we need at least three go-aheads. We need a decision, three go-aheads expressed go-aheads, otherwise someone could do something wrong.”(Interviewee B) by members on the coordination list are necessary to confirm the call for action. “[The coordination] list, as we are all spread across France, is the list where Rule: The coordination list is the list for decisions are made. I do not mean this is a democratic process, as this is not decision making. the right term: we do not have elections or representatives. But all those involved within the movement and willing to express their opinion on questions engaging ABCD as a whole register on this list.”(Interviewee S)36 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

As explained by a member, the strength of to the coordination list. I am in charge of “At the beginning, e-mailthe network relies on the free access and free forwarding messages and letting people lists were a catastrophe,transfer of information from one e-mail list to know if they are forwarding messages to because people wereanother. This free transfer is an opportunity for the wrong list. I am a sort of “guard of all expressing themselves aseveryone to spread control-based rules. The fol- lists.” I was given this task; I have to remind if they were individuallowing excerpts highlight the free transfer from members regularly how the coordination actors. We had to makeone e-mail list to another: list works. (Interviewee S) clear that we are not acting alone on a list. We You see, in Paris, people get arrested At the beginning, e-mail lists were a catas- all share a common goal.” every day. So, we are not going to bother trophe, because people were expressing the Marseilles cell with our daily arrests. themselves as if they were individual actors. But when there is nothing much left we We had to make clear that we are not acting can do—when all legal means have been alone on a list. We all share a common goal; explored to no avail—we will put the case we are a family with members contributing on the national list to get reactions. Every- to the same thing (although not necessar- one does this spontaneously. The strength ily by the same means). Thus, there were of our network is that e-mails are forwarded times when, regarding specific questions or from one list to another. Sometimes I would questions that were too vague and loose, we not have chosen to forward something but had arguments and severe tellings-off on a I understand why another member did. list, and we knew that behind these disputes (Interviewee A) were major ideological and political differ- ences. But we felt that people who were Each group decides, “Hey, who will be not into that sort of thing would leave, and in charge of transferring from one list to gradually we managed to introduce some another this month?” That person reviews sort of Internet etiquette. We floated the lists and selects messages to be forwarded idea that it would be good to have some sort to his or her group’s list. This is how we of common principles to abide by on e-mail wanted it to be. There is no pyramid; every- lists. Of course, we could not say bluntly body is responsible for his or her actions that those overstepping the red lines would and group, and everyone has to search for be kicked out, but we had to get there one the information he or she needs. There are way or the other. (Interviewee S) three main places to look for information: national, Ile de France, and Paris. When you Discussion register on these three lists, you are up to date. (Interviewee S) This case study provides new insights into the means social movements use to better manage However, some actors send heads-up mes- the backstage of their protest work. In particular,sages when inappropriate comments come to this study opens up different theoretical perspec-light on a list. (This is the case with the coordi- tives for analyzing how regulation processes—pernation e-mail list at the national level.) By doing Reynaud’s perspective—contribute to organizingso, they reinforce the autonomous rules and these social movement organizations, which aretransform them into control-based rules, espe- often based on very minor organizational and hier-cially when the rule concerns the transfer of archical structuring.information from one e-mail list to another. Thefollowing excerpts show the gradual emergence First, our qualitative methodology (interviews,of control-based rules: participant observation, analysis of e-mail list contents and interaction) enables us to specify Some members still do not understand, for in detail the organizing processes of ABCD and instance, that when there is a link to a peti- its informal and tacit regulation processes for tion for Mr. X, it should not be forwarded making decisions and taking action. We argue thatWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​37

This research field the organization’s long-lasting, online-enabled contribute to their definition and stabilization.24work demonstrates that resisting and mobilizing activities are sustained We have shown that the different social spacescontrol-based rules by organizing processes that allow it to operate can be considered communities, and that thecan be produced in effectively within a pluralist social movement. regulation in each of these local cells is autono-a nonhierarchical Organizing processes manifest themselves at two mous and specific to the identity of each cell. Inorganization. This does levels. On the one hand, they enable ABCD’s col- this sense, the autonomous rules appear to origi-not mean that these lective ability to rapidly connect existing social nate from solidarity at the local level, evolvingrules are not effective. spaces—be they online or physical ones—with dynamically and characterizing the communityIndeed, strikingly, our one another. The latter are at best loosely coupled from which it emerges.25results demonstrate with one another at some moment, and they havethat autonomous rules sometimes remained dormant for a long period of So we argue that the coexistence of the wholecan become, over time, time—but they can rapidly be merged, reshaped, identity of the organization and the multiplea relevant means of and extended for short periods. If these connec- identities of its constituent communities occurscontrol. tions are not routine based and are not prescribed, through a joint regulation process. In tradi- they nonetheless rely on informal rules. On the tional organizations, top managers support the other hand, organizing processes make it possible control-based rules because of their position in to maintain the diversity of political sensibilities the chain of command. In this “non-organization” across members that is so essential for ABCD’s case study, we noted that control-based rules are ability to mobilize effectively. produced in an informal way due to the help of human actors playing different roles, such as We propose that the organization of this social “watcher” or “broker.” Regulation here is not a movement be viewed as a set of social spaces—be top-down process but rather relies on the interplay they “real” or artifactual ones—and that the orga- among the different cells composing the organiza- nizational work lies in the connections between tion. This research field work demonstrates that the different social spaces and is not top down. We control-based rules can be produced in a nonhier­ observed that organizing manifests itself through archical organization. This does not mean that the connections between online and mate- these rules are not effective. Indeed, strikingly, our rial spaces, and also between the social spaces results demonstrate that autonomous rules can constituted at different territorial levels. These become, over time, a relevant means of control. connections make it possible to diffuse values and relevant pieces of knowledge across social Third, the case study shows that this social spaces. The flexibility of organizing processes regulation is not only the result of human actions enables everyone to use everyone’s skills and to but also of the material dimension of the organiza- contribute what they can. It allows creativity, as tion.26 In fact, regulation is produced in the inter- each cell develops its own specific identity and play of physical social spaces and online ones, functioning mode; it also allows learning through and in the interplay of different territorial social the connections among different social spaces; spaces (local, national, regional). The material and finally, it prevents the main risk of losing dimension of these spaces, which occurs through control, as control-based rules emerge progres- both the e-mail lists and the choice of a territorial sively, particularly at the connecting points of the action, contributes to delineating communities different cells. Thus, we demonstrate that the flex- within the organization and also supports the ibility of the organization is based on an informal emergence of autonomous rules. regulation process that combines autonomous rules and control-based rules. The influence of the material organizational dimension on regulation can also be observed in Second, to deepen the specifics of the joint the context of the emergence of control-based regulatory process in such “non-organizations,” rules: first, rules, which emerge at the national we mobilize the idea defended by Reynaud that level, bring a stronger control-based view; second, the autonomous rules in organizations emerge the definition of exchange zones among differ- in informal communities and that these rules ent territorial levels is the starting point for the creation of these rules. These applied rules get38 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

progressively solidified in time, making up for the socio-material perspective and can be viewed as We have found that thesocial movement’s lack of formal structure and a genre that shapes and is shaped by individuals’ genre created by ABCDexplicit rules. communicative actions.27 We have found that the allows its members to genre created by ABCD allows its members to act act efficiently according So, materiality triggers the emergence of rules efficiently according to rules that are not explicit to rules that are notas they get created within local communities but and to contribute to the definition of the specific explicit and to contributealso as they structure the passing of informa- identity of the whole organization. to the definition of thetion from one community to another. Thus, as specific identity of thewe have shown, regulation processes are not • • • whole organization.only created by human actors (as suggested byReynaud) but also are supported by a material, We have explored regulation practices within antechnological, and spatial agency within the emblematic French civil society organization thatorganization. defends undocumented migrant students and is engaged in large-scale resistance against French Finally, we have shown how the e-mail lists give immigration policies. More specifically, we havemateriality to the necessary regulation process. In focused on how such a movement gets regulateda way, the tools used by ABCD’s members (with when hardly any trait of a classical formal orga-their horizontal orientation) match their ideolog- nization can be found in our case study (no hier-ical expectations. Even though most members archy, no formal rules, no legal form, no financialare not digital natives, they all use Internet-based means, and the like). Maintaining a pluralist basetools regularly. Some spend over an hour a day of members while at the same time deliveringwith these tools. Therefore, these tools entail effective, on-the-ground mobilization is perhapsspecific practices. Following Wanda Orlikowski’s its most dramatic achievement.theory, such practices can be approached from aThe Nonprofit Quarterly, known as the Harvard Business Review for thenonprofit sector, has for over a decadehelped executive nonprofit leadership manage the rapidly changing environment facing the civil sector. Subscribe Today! Order online at NonprofitQuarterly.orgWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​39

Our first question was how such a community Notes participates in the process of self-regulation. We 1. Robert D. Benford and David A. Snow, “Framing have shown that ABCD is a collection of local Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and cells. Each cell is a community in itself. When Assessment,” Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): a cell is created, members first share common 611–39. ground, then a social space, then an e-mail list, 2. Christoph Haug, “Organizing Spaces: Meeting and then specific practices. The regulation Arenas as a Social Movement Infrastructure between process emerges within the local community, Organization, Network, and Institution,” Organiza- which in turn has a stabilizing effect on it. ABCD tion Studies 34, no. 5/6 (May/June, 2013): 705–32. volunteers usually rally around a project of 3. Marta Reuter, Filip Wijkström, and Michael Meyer, human rights, but they always do it at a local level: “Who Calls the Shots? The Real Normative Power of the emerging autonomous rules are grounded in Civil Society,” in Matthias Freise and Thorsten Hall- spatial materiality. The global regulation process mann, eds., Modernizing Democracy: Associations of ABCD is therefore the consequence of online and Associating in the 21st Century (New York: and face-to-face exchanges between and across Springer, 2014), 71–82. its different cells. 4. Daniel Robichaud and François Cooren, eds., Orga- nization and Organizing: Materiality, Agency, and Our second question was how it was that Discourse (New York: Routledge, 2013). control-based rules could emerge in a “non- 5. Jean-Daniel Reynaud, “Conflit et régulation sociale: organization” (where autonomous rules usually Esquisse d’une théorie de la régulation conjointe,” prevail), and on what these rules rely. The Revue française de sociologie 20, no. 2 (April-June results of our research show that some implicit 1979): 367–76; Reynaud, “Les régulations dans les control-based rules appear at the national level, organisations: Régulation de contrôle et régulation may sometimes be designed by charismatic autonome,” in “Travail: d’autres jalons,” ed. Jean-René founding members, and are subsequently shared Tréanton, Special Issue, Revue française de sociolo- with everybody. We consider these rules to be gie 29, no. 1 (January-March 1988): 5–18; Reynaud, control-based because of their scale (national Les règles du jeu: L’action collective et la régulation level). But other rules also emerge, thanks to sociale, 3rd ed. (Paris: Armand Colin, 1997; 1st ed., the activity of “brokers.” These actors foster 1987); and Reynaud, “Régulation de contrôle, régu- exchanges and connections among different lation autonome, régulation conjointe,” in Gilbert cells, different levels of the organization, and de Terssac, ed., La théorie de la régulation sociale different territories. Their work creates balance de Jean-Daniel Reynaud: Débats et prolongements for the whole organization, as a large audience is (Paris: La Découverte, 2003), 103–13. kept informed and reminded of the rules. 6. Robichaud and Cooren, eds., Organization and Organizing. We concluded that: 7. Barbara Czarniawska, “Organizations as Obstacles 1. An organization with streamlined features to Organizing,” in Robichaud and Cooren, eds., Orga- can foster its organizing through the articulation of nization and Organizing, 1–22. innumerable online (e-mail lists) and face-to-face 8. Hayagreeva Rao, Calvin Morrill, and Mayer N. Zald, (physical presence) social spaces at various ter- “Power Plays: How Social Movements and Collective ritorial levels. Action Create New Organizational Forms,” Research 2. In this case, regulation comes from auton- in Organizational Behavior 22 (2000): 237–81. omous rules produced dynamically within the 9. Anastasia Kavada, “Email lists and the construction local communities. Control-based rules emerge of an open and multifaceted identity: The case of the throughout the exchanges of information from one London 2004 European Social Forum,” Information, territorial level to another. Communication & Society 12, no. 6 (2009): 817–39. 3. Regulation processes (in organizations with 10. Reynaud, Les règles du jeu, 368. (Quotes from an intensive use of information technology) are Reynaud in this paper are translated by the authors.) not only due to human agency but also to techno- logical and spatial agency.40 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

11. Ibid. 19. Andrew Pickering, The Mangle of Practice: Time,12. Yves Lichtenberger, “Régulation(s) et constitution Agency and Science (Chicago: University of Chicagodes acteurs sociaux,” in de Terssac, ed., La théorie de Press, 1995).la régulation sociale de Jean-Daniel Reynaud, 51–60. 20. Undocumented students may attend French school;13. Gilbert de Terssac, “La théorie de la régulation however, police used to target schools in their searchsociale: Repères pour un débat,” in de Terssac, ed., for undocumented families living illegally in France.La théorie de la régulation sociale de Jean-Daniel 21. Reynaud, “Régulation de contrôle, régulation auto-Reynaud, 11–33. nome, régulation conjointe.”14. Reynaud, “Régulation de contrôle, régulation auto- 22. The word métèque derives from ancient Greek, andnome, régulation conjointe.” originally meant an alien without citizenship. The word15. Lichtenberger, “Régulation(s) et constitution des was picked up in France as a pejorative to describeacteurs sociaux.” immigrants.16. Wanda J. Orlikowski, “Material Works: Exploring 23. De Terssac, “La théorie de la régulation sociale:the Situated Entanglement of Technological Perfor- Repères pour un débat.”mativity and Human Agency,” Scandinavian Journal 24. Reynaud, “Conflit et régulation sociale”; andof Information Systems 17, no. 1 (2005): 183–86; and Reynaud, Les règles du jeu.Nathalie Raulet-Croset, “When Urban Space Becomes 25. Lichtenberger, “Régulation(s) et constitution desOrganizational Space: A Space-Based Coordination to acteurs sociaux.”Deal with Volatile and Recurring Problems of Urban 26. Reynaud, “Conflit et régulation sociale.”Incivility,” in François-Xavier de Vaujany and Nathalie 27. Orlikowski, “Material works”; and Wanda J.Mitev, eds., Materiality and Space: Organizations, Orlikowski and JoAnne Yates, “Genre Repertoire: TheArtefacts and Practices (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Structuring of Communicative Practices in Organiza-MacMillan, 2013), 157–78. tions,” Administrative Science Quarterly 39, no. 417. Paul M. Leonardi, “When Flexible Routines Meet (December 1994): 541–74.Flexible Technologies: Affordance, Constraint, and theImbrication of Human and Material Agencies,” MIS To comment on this article, write to us at feedbackQuarterly 35, no. 1 (March 2011): 147–67. @npqmag.org. Order reprints from http://s​ tore.nonprofit18. Ibid. quarterly.org, using code 230404.In a NutshellThe use of social media to knit a network or movement together will have its ownorganizational processes, which we are only on the near horizon of understanding. The cell-based “non-organization” described in this article provides a sense of new approaches to movement buildingthat involve dispersed autonomous parties to coordinate a cohesive campaign.In a time of networked action, we must consider and study how mission-focused groupsestablish norms without direction from a hierarchical structure. What kinds of conversations leadto the establishment of norms and rules? When do you know that a norm has been established, and how is it“enforced”? How does “joint regulation” in such a situation work? Taking a grounded research approach tonoticing the patterns that unfold to create “structure” will be of utmost importance.When positional leadership is absent how is control established? What kinds of leadership work tocohere a “non-organization,” and what does that look like exactly?WINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​41

COLLABORATING FOR EQUITY & JUSTICE Collaborating for Equity and Justice: Moving Beyond Collective Impact by Tom Wolff, Meredith Minkler, Susan M. Wolfe, Bill Berkowitz, Linda Bowen, Frances Dunn Butterfoss, Brian D. Christens, Vincent T. Francisco, Arthur T. Himmelman, and Kien S. Lee While appealing in its simplicity, Collective Impact fails to embrace advocacy and systems change as core strategies, retains a hierarchical approach to community engagement, and does not address the root causes and contexts of social problems. Here, the authors offer six principles that “seek new ways to engage our communities in collaborative action that will lead to transformative changes in power, equity, and justice.“ The United States has historically cannot later be reengineered to mean- developing collaborations that will struggled with how to treat all ingfully share power. In short, coalitions increase the likelihood of systemic and its citizens equitably and fairly and collaborations need a new way of lasting change that ensures equity and while wealth and power are engaging with communities that leads to justice for all community members. concentrated in a very small segment of transformative changes in power, equity, our society. Now, in the face of growing and justice. The principles we developed were also public awareness and outcry about the in response to popular use of what we centuries-long injustices experienced by To that end, a group of us have perceive to be a flawed model: Collective African Americans, Native Americans, developed a set of six principles under Impact (CI). Foundations, government new immigrants, and other marginal- the name “Collaborating for Equity agencies, health systems, researchers, ized groups, we believe that our nation and Justice.” Drawn from decades of and other actors in the past relied on urgently needs collaborative multisector research, organizing, and experience in sophisticated collaborative models, such approaches toward equity and justice. a wide range of fields, these principles as Frances Butterfoss and Michelle Keg- For maximum effectiveness, these facilitate successful cross-sector collab- ler’s Community Coalition Action Theory, approaches must include and prioritize oration for social change in a way that Tom Wolff’s Power of Collaborative Solu- leadership by those most affected by explicitly lifts up equity and justice for tions Model, and Pennie Foster-Fishman injustice and inequity in order to effect all and creates measurable change. We do and Erin Watson’s ABLe Change Frame- structural and systemic changes that not propose one specific model or meth- work.1 However, some leading founda- can support and sustain inclusive and odology, recognizing that no single model tions and important government agencies healthy communities. Traditional com- or methodology can thoroughly address eagerly sought a simpler way to create munity organizing and working for policy the inequity and injustice facing commu- large-scale social change through multi- change will supplement the collaborative nities that have historically experienced sector collaboration. When John Kania approach. We believe that efforts that powerlessness. Instead, we provide prin- and Mark Kramer introduced their model do not start with treating community ciples linked to web-based tools that can of Collective Impact, its five core tenets leaders and residents as equal partners be incorporated into existing and emerg- and basic phases showed similarities to ing models and methodologies, toward earlier models, but it was more appealing 42 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

in its simplicity and marketability.2 The The model’s utility in practice has that promote equity and justice are COLLABORATING FOR EQUITY & JUSTICECI model was introduced in a six-page further been questioned by researchers linked to tools and resources created onessay without pilot testing, evaluation, who attempted to employ and test CI in the Collaborating for Equity and Justiceor significant actual experience in devel- collaborative efforts to address prob- Toolkit website, a new Community Tooloping coalitions, yet government agen- lems such as food insecurity, and found Box WorkStation, aimed at helping col-cies and foundations quickly adopted it less useful than other well-developed, laborative solutions to succeed.7and endorsed it. (It was revised the community-driven models.4 The themesfollowing year, but the revision did not that have emerged from this growing crit- Principle 1: Explicitly address issuessubstantively improve the model.) The ical literature include using a top-down of social and economic injustice andCenters for Disease Control and Preven- business model rather than a community structural racism.tion (CDC), the Health Resources and building and development approach; the As McAfee, Blackwell, and Bell stated inServices Administration (HRSA), and lack of a racial justice core as essential to Equity: The Soul of Collective Impact:philanthropic funders incorporated it the work; omitting creative and diverseinto calls for proposals. Professional contributions from grassroots stakehold- Race remains the fundamentalorganizations also embraced CI. It was ers as equal partners; imposing shared fissure in America; it compoundsthe theme of the 8th Biennial Childhood metrics; and not acknowledging previous and perpetuates disadvantageObesity Conference in 2015 (cospon- research and literature.5 across neighborhoods and genera-sored by Kaiser Permanente and the tions. . . . Racial inequities persistCalifornia Department of Public Health, To their credit, the framers of and in all sorts of policies and prac-among other organizations). later contributors to the CI model have tices, implicitly and explicitly. . . . continued to modify the approach, In fact, racial disparities exist on CI is described as a systematic most recently developing the Collec- every measure of individual andapproach that engages both organiza- tive Impact 3.0 model, which adds community well-being.8tions and individuals affected by a given new conditions, including “communityissue of concern and organizations and aspiration” and “inclusive community The reality is that race/ethnicity andindividuals influencing that issue. Yet engagement,” and has a stated focus on social class are far greater predictorsthe model presents serious limitations, “movement building.”6 Yet, as discussed of social and economic mobility thansuch as its failure to cite advocacy and in this article, the meaning and level of individual ability, motivation, and hardsystems change as core strategies, engage commitment to such phrases—and the work, in part because racial, ethnic,those most affected in the community as lack of meaningful evaluation of the old and class-based inequities are oftenpartners with equal power, and directly or newer renditions of the model—are entrenched in policies and practices.address the causes of social problems deeply problematic. Further, although As Junious Williams and Sarah Marxerand their political, racial, and economic the revisions in CI 3.0 and other sug- have said, “Without rigorous attentioncontexts. Critiques of CI have been gested modifications draw greater atten- to persistent inequities, our initiativesoffered by nonprofit sector leader Vu Le, tion to equity and justice, they do not risk ineffectiveness, irrelevance, andwho stresses the fallacy of the model’s explain how CI’s top-down collaborative improvements that cannot be sustained.”9“Trickle-Down Community Engagement” model, which doesn’t include those mostapproach and “Illusion of Inclusion”; Poli- affected by the issue in shared decision The Collective Impact model not onlycyLink leaders Michael McAfee, Angela making, can be fundamentally reengi- fails to address these inequities and injus-Glover Blackwell, and Judith Bell, who neered after the fact for true inclusion tices but may, in fact, by its very naturestress equity as the missing “soul” of Com- and equity. We have yet to see evidence serve to perpetuate them. For example,munity Impact; Tom Wolff, in “10 Places that CI can accomplish this. the model endorses multisectoral col-Where Collective Impact Gets It Wrong”; laborations consisting of organizationsand Peter Boumgarden and John Branch, We cannot continue to accept or that often are complicit in maintainingwhose article “Collective Impact or Coor- slightly modify the CI model and expect prevailing power dynamics that perpetu-dinated Blindness?” appeared in the Stan- to move forward. We cannot repair a ate racial and other forms of inequityford Social Innovation Review (as did model that is so heavily flawed regard- and injustice. The emphasis on using“Collective Impact,” Kania and Kramer’s ing equity and justice. It is time to move “shared metrics” privileges traditionalfirst essay on the subject).3 beyond Collective Impact. The following data collection for and by those in posi- six principles for collaborative practice tions of power, and controls for the veryWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​43

COLLABORATING FOR EQUITY & JUSTICE contextual variables that often are part impacts communities of color. When Principle 2: Employ a community of the problem. Data on disproportion- the Boston Public Health Commission’s development approach in which resi- ate rates of obesity and diabetes among REACH (Racial and Ethnic Approaches dents have equal power in determin- African Americans, for example, without to Community Health) Coalition was ing the coalition’s or collaborative’s attention to their disproportionate rates launched to address breast and cervical agenda and resource allocation. of residence in low-income food deserts, cancer health disparities, it circulated a Collaborating for Equity and Justice’s may be used to make the case for offer- brochure in the community that stated, second principle focuses on the impor- ing courses in healthy eating rather than “If you’re a black woman living in Boston, tance of using a community develop- working to change the environments and you have a greater chance of dying from ment approach that originates at the policies that cause the lack of access to breast or cervical cancer than a white grassroots level. This approach requires healthy, affordable foods. By contrast, woman. Why? Racism may play a key that collaboratives design and implement data collected by community members in role in determining your health status. It intentional strategies to engage the com- low-income neighborhoods (for example, may affect your access to health services, munity—particularly residents and the amount of shelf space in local stores the kind of treatment you receive, and those most affected by inequities and that is devoted to alcohol, tobacco, and how much stress your body endures.”12 injustices—in ways that are attentive sugary snacks versus healthy foods) have Black women in the community came to to power relations and disparities and been used to help pass and implement the coalition drawn by the honesty and that, ultimately, ensure that residents city-supported healthy retail policies and resonance of that statement. are equal partners.14 This means that programs.10 residents are not merely providing input, We suggest that collaboratives serving as advisors, helping to test ideas, A 2016 review of initiatives incorpo- actively pursue racial justice—which or interpreting information but also are rating Social Determinants of Health we define, per Keith Lawrence and Terry fully involved at every step and in making (SDoH), commissioned by the National Keleher’s Chronic Disparity: Strong and decisions about initiatives and other Academy of Medicine, provided numer- Pervasive Evidence of Racial Inequali- matters that affect their lives.15 ous examples of multisector collabora- ties—as the creation and “proactive tive models.11 While some of these models reinforcement of policies, practices, This also means allocating time, focused on achieving health equity, none attitudes and actions that produce resources, and expertise to prepare of them explicitly named addressing the equitable power, access, opportunities, institutional leaders and residents to role of structural racism as the vehicle treatment, impacts and outcomes for engage meaningfully with each other. through which they would accomplish all”—particularly for communities of Such engagement can be contentious their mission. In fact, the authors omitted color.13 The Boston Public Health Com- and bring to the surface conscious and any mention of structural racism or any mission (BPHC) embodied this approach unconscious racial and other biases, other forms of structural inequities in when mandating a three-day workshop threaten the privilege and power of some their conclusions on addressing SDoH. for commissioners, staff, and commu- individuals and institutions, and inten- Unfortunately, the documents, recom- nity grantees based on a racial justice sify the consequences of internalized mendations, guidelines, and models that framework. Their work then focused oppression and historical trauma. As a such thought leaders put forth too often on addressing the racism inherent in start, white members of the collaborative play a role in perpetuating efforts—from the social determinants of health that must gain understanding of and reflect on the individual to the systems level—to impacted the issues of concern. The their own white privilege. address SDoH while continuing to ignore Boston REACH program was one of the structural racism and other forms of few funded health disparities efforts The other implication is that the structural inequities. in the nation that named racism as the basics of engagement—such as transpor- issue and addressed it directly, includ- tation to meetings, child-care assistance, The principles of Collaborating for ing helping staff respond to the pushback translation of information, interpreta- Equity and Justice suggest that multisec- encountered when the term racism is tion during meetings, and safety of resi- toral, community-led coalitions explicitly explicitly used. (See the Collaborating dents—must be considered and built into address structural racism, defined as the for Equity and Justice Toolkit for tools the process. It means avoiding the use history and current reality of institutional and resources for this principle at www of technical language and professional racism across all institutions, combin- .myctb.org/wst/CEJ/Pages/home.aspx.) jargon in communications and facilitat- ing to create a system that negatively ing meetings in ways that raise, rather 44 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

than dampen, community engagement community leaders is ill defined and learned skills in community organizing, COLLABORATING FOR EQUITY & JUSTICEand power. The intentionality of engaging may well result in the inclusion of a few community-based participatory research,residents as equal partners and paying hand-picked community leaders known and policy advocacy to address thoseattention to the process is very different to represent the status quo rather than concerns. The resultant youth-led coali-from Collective Impact, which advocates the interests of community residents. tion ¡Escuelas, Si! ¡Pintas, No! (Schools,determining a common agenda among Indeed, the community residents and Yes! Prisons, No!) began a multiprongedorganizational leaders and then—and program participants are only brought in campaign, titled No Child Left Behindonly in some cases—bringing some com- once the collaborative is formed and the . . . Bars, that garnered substantial mediamunity representation to the table. Wolff strategies and activities are determined attention and resulted in school districtstates, “Without engaging those most and defined. and other policy changes that substan-directly affected, Collective Impact can tially reduced expulsions and disrupteddevelop neither an adequate understand- Once community collaboratives have the school-to-prison pipeline.21 (See theing of the root causes of the issues nor formed using a top-down approach, Collaborating for Equity and Justicean appropriate vision for a transformed converting them to models that involve Toolkit for tools and resources for thiscommunity. Instead, the process will community residents as equal partners— principle at www.myctb.org/wst/CEJlikely reinforce the dominance of those whereby they have real influence over /Pages/home.aspx.)with privilege.”16 the agenda, activities, and resource allocation—is very unlikely. Numerous Principle 3: Employ community orga- McAfee, Blackwell, and Bell cite tools exist for assessing and addressing nizing as an intentional strategy andOakland, California’s early federal community engagement, from Sherry as part of the process. Work to buildHealthy Start Program to reduce infant Arnstein’s early “ladder of participation” resident leadership and power.mortality among African Americans as and the CDC’s “continuum of community A weakness in most community-baseda classic example of Collective Impact engagement” to the Public Participation coalitions, collaborations, and partner-before the term achieved currency.17 Spectrum developed by the International ships is the absence of community orga-Like the federal program of which it was Association for Public Participation.19 nizing. Community organizing createsa part, the Oakland program empha- These tools help community groups to the power necessary to demand andsized the centrality of high-level com- differentiate between token participation share in decision making. Collaborativesmunity engagement and leadership and authentic, shared decision making. can mistake community participationfrom the outset, with clients and local or community engagement for genuineresidents, community benefit organiza- Around the country, hundreds of community organizing. In such situa-tions (CBOs), service providers, and examples may be found of high-level tions, advice is given to those with exist-other actors working together with the resident participation and leadership in ing decision-making power and authoritycommon goal of reducing infant mortal- collaborations that are focused on crimi- rather than enhancing the power amongity by 50 percent. That this ambitious goal nal justice reform, the rights of people resident leaders in the community.was achieved is a remarkable testament with disabilities, and ending environmen-to the power of collaboration that begins tal racism. Increasingly, youth-focused Brian Christens and Paula Inzeowith community. Sadly, the most recent coalitions, in which adults are trained to identify at least three ways that com-call for applications from Healthy Start’s engage and work respectfully with young munity organizing initiatives differfunding agency (the HRSA), suggests that people as equal partners in working for from Collective Impact and many otherthis focus may be lost. Local Healthy Start change, are gaining traction.20 In such coalition-driven approaches to com-programs are now required to implement coalitions, generational differences and munity change.22 First, communitythe Collective Impact model by setting a development of youth leadership must organizing efforts are intentional aboutgoal and then building “a network of non- be worked out—and all this while ensur- analyzing their community’s powerprofits, government agencies, schools, ing that youth get the support needed to structure and building the power of theirbusinesses, philanthropists, faith com- be successful academically and in life. In initiative to be able to change this powermunities, and key community leaders California’s impoverished Central Valley, structure, when necessary, to achievewho create common strategies and coor- low-income Latino high school–age greater equity and justice. Second, orga-dinate collective activities to achieve youth were helped by two social justice nizing initiatives prioritize leadershipgoals over time.”18 The inclusion of key organizations to share their knowledge by people who are most affected by the about their greatest concerns and theirWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​45

COLLABORATING FOR EQUITY & JUSTICE issues of concern, rather than by those child abuse prevention program in Athol, advocating for such local needs as who are professionally or politically Massachusetts that provides leadership playgrounds, Crime Watch, and street involved in working on those issues. training for program participants (moms improvements, and held an annual city- Third, unlike CI and other approaches and dads), which led to their becoming wide “Neighborhood Expo.” that emphasize only vague collaboration, part of the board and staff of VOC as community organizing initiatives also well as of numerous other community A third strategy is for coalitions to develop a capacity for conflict when it organizations. They began a Valentine’s explore possible synergies with exist- is necessary to drive important changes Day Vigil to prevent domestic violence ing community organizing initiatives. At in policies and systems.23 and child abuse, and joined the advocacy least one of these initiatives now exists efforts of the North Quabbin Community in nearly every midsize to large city in The Collaborating for Equity and Coalition and the legislature for policy the United States, and such initiatives Justice approach recognizes that collab- change on welfare reform, transporta- are increasingly prevalent in many other oratives must build and catalyze leader- tion, and other issues.25 countries.28 For example, collaboratives ship at the grassroots level (and at all working for racial justice and equity levels) to be able to mobilize the com- Another strategy is to dedicate some could seek to link with their local Black munity and its resources, advocate for portion of the collaborative’s resources Lives Matter movements. Rather than change, and engage all residents, insti- to organizing activities, such as hiring a seeking to incorporate these organizing tutions, and systems to define the prob- community organizer to build relation- initiatives as one more partner at the lems and solutions. Many CI efforts and ships with and engage residents as equal table in the coalition, those seeking to similar coalitions involve representatives partners in the process—from identify- collaborate for equity and justice should of powerful institutions who are unlikely ing issues and potential solutions to understand that organizing initiatives to embrace analyses or proposed solu- taking direct actions for community often represent a uniquely important tions that implicate the community’s change. One caution with this approach source of grassroots power. Often, they power structure. Yet, community orga- is that if organizers and organizing ini- can take direct actions and controversial nizing strategies for authentic change are tiatives report directly to the coalition stances that would be very difficult for contingent on a critical understanding of or depend on it for funding, this will many other coalition members to take. community power and how to use it to inevitably stifle the “capacity for con- Collaboratives should therefore seek to advance community-driven solutions to flict” that Christens and Inzeo note as a understand their shared interests with local concerns.24 distinguishing characteristic of organiz- local organizing initiatives and explore ing.26 If collaboratives are truly invested ways to strategically coordinate efforts Coalitions, collaboratives, and part- in a community organizing approach, with them. (See the Collaborating for nerships can learn from and partner with then they must seek to provide enough Equity and Justice Toolkit for tools and community organizing efforts in numer- autonomy and funding to the initiative resources for this principle at www ous ways. One strategy is to provide so that it can take bold, independent .myctb.org/wst/CEJ/Pages/home.aspx.) training for those involved in the coali- action, including potentially challenging tion or partnership so that principles of the coalition or some of the institutions Principle 4. Focus on policy, systems, community organizing can be infused that its members represent. and structural change. into more of the collaborative’s work. For As McAfee, Blackwell, and Bell note, example, members of a coalition might The Northern Berkshire Community “Systems and policy change are inte- seek to develop a deeper relationship Coalition in Massachusetts wanted to gral to advancing racial equity. Without with residents who are directly affected increase the voice of the residents in changing policies and systems, trans- by issues of concern and engage them in the coalition and in the community. After formation at scale cannot be achieved. the coalition as equal partners. When this understanding that the community had Policy offers the most direct route to approach is taken, professionals should previously had a history of strong neigh- measurable progress. But all too often play a supporting role whereby they borhood associations, the coalition hired collective impact practice stops at the share expertise, access, and resources a community organizer to help rebuild programmatic level.” McAfee and his col- but refrain from defining the problems local neighborhood associations to leagues go on to say, “Collective impact and prioritizing the solutions. become a voice in the coalition and the partnerships should plan to amplify the city.27 These new neighborhood associa- possibilities inherent in local successes This approach is well illustrated by tions became a force in the community, Valuing Our Children (VOC), a grassroots 46 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016

and translate the lessons and insights and relationships required to become the bill to provide health insurance for COLLABORATING FOR EQUITY & JUSTICEinto the systems, policy, and structural effective in policy advocacy. Many col- all children in Massachusetts that pavedchange needed to have sustained impact laborative members may be quite unfa- the way for the national Children’s Healthfor whole populations.”29 miliar or uncomfortable with lobbying Insurance Program (CHIP). (See the Col- in any form (ask your members if they laborating for Equity and Justice Toolkit CDC Director Dr. Thomas Frieden have ever called the office of their state for tools and resources for this principleunderscores the importance of this shift representative, and see what happens). at www.myctb.org/wst/CEJ/Pages/homein his 2010 call for public health pro- As readers of the Nonprofit Quarterly .aspx.)grams to move toward policy change as well know, serious challenges exist forthe ultimate outcome of their commu- collaborative efforts to become forces Principle 5: Build on the extensivenity work. In his words, “[A]ddressing for systems change. Among these is community-engaged scholarship andsocioeconomic factors has the greatest the widely held misconception that it research over the last four decadespotential to improve health. . . . Achiev- is illegal for nonprofits to engage in lob- that show what works, that acknowl-ing social and economic change might bying for social change. In many situa- edge the complexities, and that eval-require fundamental societal transforma- tions, such organizations and coalitions uate appropriately.tion. . . . Interventions that address social not only can lobby but also can commit a Perhaps one of the greatest shortcom-determinants of health have the greatest percentage of their budget to such activ- ings of the Collective Impact model ispotential for public health benefit.”30 ity. Collaboratives must be well versed its failure to draw on the scholarship, in the laws and limits on lobbying as a processes, and well-documented out- An illustration of the success that nonprofit, keeping in mind that no limits comes of community-engaged research.collaboratives can have in the arena exist on how much they can share results While CI offered an elegant and simpleof policy and systems change was from data collection, evaluation, and framework, it lacked the substantivethe tobacco-free coalitions’ focus on other means to educate legislators and foundations necessary for success thatsystems change as an effective method advocates about social issues and their could have been drawn from decades offor changing policies and behavior. effective solutions.31 Some nonprofits, of theory development and application andCommunity-wide antismoking poli- course, are very skilled at lobbying and research.33 The result of this shortcom-cies, such as enforcement of banning have excellent relationships with their ing is the formation of community coali-sales to minors and banning smoking in elected officials that are mainly used for tions that are funded and encouraged bybusinesses, were passed by these coali- the interest of their own organization or foundations and government to use ations. These policy changes and public sector rather than the good of the whole top-down approach that likely will main-information campaigns put smoking in community. Collaboratives must learn tain the status quo and do little to allevi-a negative light and have led to cultural how to develop and implement a joint ate the problems they were designed andand behavioral change around tobacco advocacy agenda and follow through to funded to address.usage. Equity and justice will be a greater execute the advocacy plan.challenge, but the tobacco-free coali- The earlier literature and experiencetions illustrate the role that coalitions One way to accomplish this is to ally with collaboratives clarifies the follow-can have in policy and systems change. with statewide or national advocacy ing: (1) the features that lead to collab- groups that are implementing campaigns orative success; (2) the strategies and Fundamental societal transformation, that align with collaborative goals. The processes involved in sustainability ofincluding racial equity and social and Massachusetts AHEC Community Part- collaboratives; and (3) successful modelseconomic justice, requires changes in ners Healthy Communities Coalitions for evaluating collaborative processeslaws, policies, regulations, and practices, worked closely with Health Care For All, and outcomes.including closing loopholes that perpetu- the statewide health advocacy organiza-ate inequities. Within the context of such tion, to lobby for increased healthcare As early as 2000, a comprehensivesystems transformation, the changes in coverage for children and numerous review of the research on collaborativecultural norms that are also imperative other issues over the years.32 These community partnerships, by Stergiosfor racial and economic justice can take AHEC Community Partners coalitions Tsai Roussos and Stephen B. Fawcett,place in a far more effective and sustain- across the state were very active in lob- identified the conditions and factorsable way. bying their local legislators to support that may determine whether collabora- tive partnerships are effective at creating Collaboratives also need help in devel-oping the advocacy and political skillsWINTER 2016 • WWW.NPQMAG.ORG  T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  ​47

COLLABORATING FOR EQUITY & JUSTICE community and systems change. They Fawcett previously identified as critical. engagement and involvement, structure, included: (1) having a clear vision and A good collaborative evaluation design communication effectiveness, and other mission; (2) having an action plan for will include developing frameworks critical factors that contribute to the col- community and systems change; (3) lead- to monitor the partnership’s member- laborative’s success and maintenance.40 ership that was competent in communi- ship and internal dynamics, activity cation, meeting facilitation, negotiation, outputs, and outcomes. It will require Evaluation and measurement for col- and networking; (4) documentation and a developmental approach during the laboratives following the Collaborating evaluation systems that capture inter- formation stages to provide information for Equity and Justice principles require mediate outcomes to help document useful for making corrective midcourse first and foremost that the indicators, progress, celebrate accomplishments, changes and prevent the collaborative outputs, and outcomes are developed identify barriers, and redirect activities from continuing down paths that may be and generated by the local community. when necessary; (5) technical assistance ineffective. Having clearly defined imme- Second, the evaluation design and mea- and support; (6) financial resources; diate, intermediate, and long-term goals surement need to incorporate internal and (7) making outcomes matter.34 In that capture the systems changes and and external factors that include policy separate research of substance abuse problem reduction can help to document and systems change, racial equity, and coalitions, others discovered that those success and maintain member motiva- justice. Third, the evaluation design and coalitions that had the most success in tion and commitment. So, it is important measurement should draw on ecological reducing substance abuse in a commu- that there be a good evaluation and learn- frameworks and community organizing nity were those that openly addressed ing system in place, based on what we literature to conceptualize the change conflicts as they arose.35 know from scholarship and research, model. throughout the process. Understanding and planning for coali- These are just some of the examples tion sustainability is another critical com- One example, with more than that support a case for building on past ponent of long-term coalition success. twenty years of development behind it, scholarship and research regarding what Wolff describes a four-pronged approach is the widely used Community Check works, acknowledging the complexities, to sustainability that fosters: (1) building Box Evaluation System.38 This coali- and including well-designed and imple- community ownership; (2) institutionaliz- tion documentation system is a smart, mented evaluation to build collabora- ing changes; (3) adopting policy changes; helpful, easy-to-use web-based tool that tions for racial equity and social justice. and (4) finding resources.36 Other sus- captures data that show where and how This body of work suggests that effecting tainability resources include a compre- well a group is progressing toward its social and structural change is a complex hensive sustainability manual from the goals. It allows coalitions to collect, store, process that has a higher likelihood of CDC that is being revised, and the Center summarize, and analyze a variety of eval- success when it incorporates features for Civic Partnerships’ Sustainability uation information that is useful for man- from evidence-based research rather toolkit: 10 steps to maintaining your agement, marketing, and demonstration than simply from observation and limited community improvements.37 of impact. This process encourages par- experience. (See the Collaborating for ticipants to offer meaningful evalua- Equity and Justice Toolkit for tools and Overall, Collective Impact’s five core tions, promotes accountability, and drives resources for this principle at www components are oversimplified and continual improvements in their work. .myctb.org/wst/CEJ/Pages/home.aspx.) provide limited guidance for collabora- Most important, the Community Check tive efforts. One of the core features of Box makes it easy to gather informa- Principle 6. Construct core functions the Collective Impact model is a shared tion that documents and highlights col- for the collaborative based on equity measurement system, which is described laborative accomplishments to share and justice that provide basic facili- as being complementary to evaluation. with both the community and funders.39 tating structures and build member This does not adequately address the Likewise, assessment tools such as But- ownership and leadership. need to evaluate the collaborative’s terfoss’s Coalition Member Survey and In Collaborating for Equity and Justice processes and outcomes. A shared mea- Wolff’s Coalition Member Assessment approaches, the role of the convening surement system may provide data, are useful for monitoring coalition effec- group is one of coordination, communi- but it does not provide the evaluative tiveness, planning and implementation, cation, and facilitation. In this role, the framework and well-developed feed- perceived coalition leadership, member convener provides guidance and tools back system needed, which Roussos and for complex change processes that 48 ​T H E   N O N P R O F I T   Q U A R T E R LY  WWW.NPQMAG.ORG • WINTER 2016