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Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 48 (3) : 387-393, 2014 Biological Characterisation of Tomato Leaf Curl New Delhi Virus Infecting Bottle Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) from Karnataka R. RAJESHWARI AND M. KRISHNA REDDY Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 ABSTRACT Bottle gourd (Lagenaria Siceraria) is an important vegetable crop in India and was observed to be affected by yellow mosaic virus disease in the vegetable growing areas of Karnataka. Diseased plants show yellow mottling, vein clearing and complete chlorosis of the plant. Infected plants are stunted and flowers drop prematurely, greatly reducing yields. Incidence of the disease varied from 4.7 to 36 per cent. Diseased plants are infected by a begomovirus, Tomato Leaf Curl New Delhi Virus which is transmitted readily and in a presistent manner by the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci. Transmission of ToLCNDV requires minimum acquisition and inoculation access periods of 30 mins and 10 min, respectively. ToLCNDV has a narrow host range consisting of cucurbit species but not tomato and tobacco.BOTTLE gourd (Lagenaria Siceraria), a popular whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Lazarowitz et al., 1992).cucurbitaceous vegetable is grown through out India. B. tabaci is the vector of several viruses of which theIn northern India, bottle gourd is cultivated during begomoviruses are the most numerous andsummer-rainy seasons under hot and humid conditions. economically most significant. Viruses of the genusSeveral viruses, like cucumber mosaic virus, cucumber Begomovirus (family Geminiviridae) typically havegreen mottle mosaic virus, papaya ring spot virus-W, bipartite, circular single-stranded DNA (ssDNA)watermelon mosaic virus and zucchini yellow mosaic genomes with all function required for replication,virus are known to affect bottle gourd cultivation in control of gene expression and encapcapsidationIndia. During the last two decades, begomoviruses encoded on DNA A and genes involved in intra - andhave emerged as a severe constraint in cultivation of intercellular movement encoded on DNA B (Harrisoncucurbits in India (Varma and Malathi, 2003). and Robinson, 2002). The virus-vector relationships and host range of ToLCNDV infecting bottle gourd The diseases caused by begomoviruses have have not been studied in detail. This paper presentsbeen reported in bitter gourd, chayote, cucumber, information on the symptomatology, virus-vectormuskmelon, pumpkin and sponge gourd (mandal et al., relationship and host reange of ToLCNDV infecting2004). Many different begomoviruses infecting bottle gourd.cucurbits have been reported from other countries suchas squash leaf curl yunnan virus from China (Xie et MATERIAL AND METHODSal., 2003) ; melon chlorotic leaf curl virus fromGuatemala ; (Brown et al., 2001) ; chayote yellow Origins and maintenance of PYVMV isolatesmosaic virus from Nigeria, Tomato Leaf Curl New and whitefly culture : Infected bottle gourd seedlingsDelhi Virus (ToLCNDV) from Thailand, watermelon with leaves showing typical yellow mosaic viruschlorotic curly stunt virus from Sudan and Iran, squash disease symptoms were collected from farmer’s’ fieldleaf curl Philippines virus from the Philippines, cucurbit in Bangalore district of Karnataka. The virus wasleaf curl virus, cucurbit leaf crumple virus, squash leaf transmitted from the source material to healthy bottlecurl virus and squash mind leaf curl virus (Brown gourd seedlings (var. Arka Bahar) using B. tabaci andet al., 2002) from USA and luffa yellow mosaic virus all plants were maintained in insect-proof glasshouses.from Vietnam. The genus Begomovirus, family The B. tabaci adults used for the transmissionGeminivirideae, consists of a group of viruses infecting experiments were derived from a culture establisheddicot plants, which are exclusively transmitted by originally from horsegram [Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc.] at Hebbal, Bangalore, and since

388 R. RAJESHWARI AND M. KRISHNA REDDYmaintained on cotton (gossypium hirsutum L. cv . Host range : Thirty crop plants, 5 ornamentalsLaxmi) plants in wooden cages (45 × 45 × 30 cm) and six weeds belonging to nine different families growncovered with 40 - mesh size nylon net (Muniyappa et were tested for their susceptibility to ToLCNDV. Twoal., 2000). The whitefly colony has been characterized to three week-old plants were inoculated with the virusby partial sequencing of the cytochrome oxidase I gene. using 15-20 viruliferous adult whiteflies per plant,It was indigenous Indian B. tabaci type (Maruthi et providing AAP and IAP of 24 h.al., 2005). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Virus Transmission : Adult whiteflies werecollected from the colony and place in a plastic tube, Virus-vector relationships : Single whiteflieswhich was then attached to infected twig of were able to transmit ToLCNDV with 30 per centToLCNDV infected bottle gourd plant var. Arka Bahar. efficiency, which increased to 60 per cent when threeWhiteflies were given an acquisition access period whiteflies were caged on healthy pumpkin seedlings.(AAP) of 24 h. One-week old healthy bottle gourd A 100 per cent effieiency of transmission wasseedlings were enclosed in cylindrical plastic cages (3 achieved with five or more whiteflies pretest plant. Acm × 8 cm), into which 10 viruliferous whiteflies were minimum period of 30 min was necessary for whitefliesreleased. Whiteflies were allowed a 24 h inoculation to acquire ToLCNDV, but only 2 per cent of whitefliesaccess period (IAP) before being removed. Plants transmitted the virus (Table I). An AAP of at least 6 hwere sprayed with Imidochlorprid (0.3 %) and the was required for 100 per cent transmission efficiency.appearance of characteristic yellow mosaic disease Viruliferous whiteflies required a minimum IAP of 10symptoms were recorded at weekly intervals for three min to achieve only 1 per cent transmission efficiency,months post inoculation. whereas, a 6h IAP resulted in 100 per cent transmission (Table II). The susceptibility of the bottle gourd plants Virus-vector transmission parameters : To to ToLCNDV was directly proportional to their agetest the effect of B. tabaci number on ToLCNDV (Table III). All one week-old seedlings were infectedtransmission, one, two, three, five, and 10 viruliferous by ToLCNDV and expressed symptoms as early aswhiteflies were used per plant. For each group ofinsects, 10 healthy bottle gourd plants were inoculated. TABLE I To determine the minimum AAP of ToLCNDV, Determination of minimum numer of B. tabaciadult whiteflies were transferred to diseased bottle required for trasnsmission of bottle gourdgourd plants and allowed AAPs of 5, 10, 15 and 30 isolate of ToLCNDVmin, and 1, 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h. Groups of 10 whiteflieswere then transferred to healthy bottle gourd test plants No. of No. of plants Per cent(10 plants per replicate) for a 24 h IAP. whiteflies infected / transmission inoculated To estimate the minimum IAP, adult whiteflieswere given a 24 h AAP on a symptomatic bottle gourd 1 (3/10) 30plant. Groups of 10 whiteflies were then transferredto healthy bottle gourd plants for 5, 10, 15 and 30 min, 2 (4/10) 40and 1, 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h (10 plants per treatment). 3 (8/10) 80 Effect of plant age on susceptibility toinfection : Bottle gourd plants, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 5 (10/10) 100weeks after germination were inoculated withToLCNDV using 10 viruliferous whiteflies per plant. 10 (10/10) 100Whiteflies were given a 24 h AAP and were alloweda 24 h IAP, 10 plants in each age group were tested 15 (10/10) 100 20 (10/10) 100 Acquisition and incoulation access periods of 24 h each

BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISATION OF TOMATO LEAF CURL NEW DELHI VIRUS INFECTING BOTTLE GOURD 389 TABLE II seven days after inoculation (Table IV). A decreasing percentage of subsequent age groups became infected Determination of acquisition access and and plants that did, required a progressively longer timeinoculation access periods for transmission of period to express symptoms. The number of six week- old plants that became infected was only 20 per cent bottle gourd isolate of ToLCNDV compared to 100 per cent for one week-old plants that became infected was only 20 per cent compared to No. of plants infected / inoculated 100 per cent for one week-old plants. This paper reports a new disease of bottle gourd from southernTime Acquisiotion Inoculation India. access period access period The disease is designated as Bottle gourd yellow5 Min 0 (0/10) 0 (0/10) mosaic virus disease due to the characteristic symptoms, chlorotic mottling, mild curling and crinkling10 Min 0 (0/10) 10 (1/10) in leaf size, and stunting of plants. The disease is highly15 Min 10 (1/10) 20 (2/10) destructive when plants are infected at early stage of30 Min 30 (3/10) 40 (4/10) growth, as the affected plants become unproductive1h 50 (5/10) 50 (5/10) and die prematurely. Symptoms of the disease are2h 60 (6/10) 60 (6/10) similar to yellow mosaic virus disease described on3h 80 (8/10) 90 (9/10) pumpkin (Muniyappa et al., 2003) which also results6h 100 (10/10) 100 (10/10) in mottling, curling of leaves and stunting of plants. In12 h 100 (10/10) 100 (10/10) general, however, the result were similar in that the16 h 100 (10/10) 100 (10/10) virus transmission frequency increased with longerAAP24 h 100 (10/10) 100 (10/10) and IAP up to a maximum at 6 h. In addition, the results are in general agreement with the results obtained forAcquisition and incoulation access periods of 24 h each other begomoviruses in southern India (NateshanFigures in the paranthesis indicates et al., 1996 and Muniyappa et al., 2000)No. of plants infected / inoculated Host Range : Only four of 11 cucurbit species TABLE III inoculated with ToLCNDV and were virus hosts (Table IV). Following infection with ToLCNDV, faintEffect of plant age on susceptibility to bottle vein clearing symptoms developed first in the tertiary gourd isolate of ToLCNDV veins of the younger leaves of bottle gourd plants. The symptoms extended gradually to secondary andAge of No. of plants Per cent Days for first primary veins as a prominent vein yellowing and later,plants infected / transmitting symptom coalesced to a yellow mosaic (Fig. 1A). As disease(weeks) inoculated symptoms progressed, vein yellowing developed on B. tabaci expression older leaves causing early senescence, and plant growth was retarded. In contrast, ToLCNDV infected1 10/10 100 9-12 squash (Fig. 1D), ridge gourd (Fig. 1C), pumpkin (Fig.2 6/10 60 13-15 1B), cucumber (Fig. 1E) and showed vein clearing,3 4/10 40 19-22 yellow mosaic, leaf distortion symptoms. The virus4 2/10 20 24-25 associated with the disease of bottle gourd did not infect5 0/10 0 - tomato and tobacco by whitefly inoculation, indicating6 0/10 0 - differences between the viruses or their strains causingAcquisition and incoulation access periods of 24 h each these diseases. The yellow vein mosaic disease of10-15 viruliferous B. tabaci per plant pumpkin reported from southern India was shown to induce only mild mosaic symptoms on bottle gourd and

390 R. RAJESHWARI AND M. KRISHNA REDDY Fig. 1. Different symptom types produced by ToLCNDV (A) Bottle gourd showing characteristic yellow mosaic symptom (B) Vein clearing and yellow mosaic in pumpkin (C) Yellow mosaic in ridge gourd (D) Vein yellowing and yellow mosaic in squash and (E) Yellow mosaic in cucumber

TABLE IVHost range of bottle gourd isolate of ToLCNDV assessed by symptom expression after virus transmission by B. tabaci Host species Common Family Per cent Symptom Days of BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISATION OF TOMATO LEAF CURL NEW DELHI VIRUS INFECTING BOTTLE GOURD inoculated name infection sypmtom 3 5 expression 1 2 4Crop plants Cucurbitaceae Leaf curl and 6Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. Ridge gourd 100 (10/10) Yellow Mosaic Cucurbitaceae - 12-15Momordica charantia L. Bitter gourd Cucurbitaceae 0/10 ( 0 )Trichosanthes Snake gourd 0/10 ( 0 ) -Cucumerina L. CucurbitaceaeSechium edule L. Chayote Cucurbitaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem. Sponge gourd Cucurbitaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Benincasa hispida (thunb.) Cogn. Ash gourd Cucurbitaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Coccinia Cordifolia L. Ivy / scarlet gourd Cucurbitaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Cucumis sativus L. Cucumber Cucurbitaceae 100 (10/10) Yellow Mosaic 10-15Cucumis sativus L. Gherkin Cucurbitaceae 100 (10/10) - -Cucurbita moschata Duch. ex Poir Pumpkin Cucurbitaceae 100 (10/10) Vein Clearing 11-13Cucurbita pepo L. Squash 100 (10/10) Chlorosis and - Cucurbitaceae Yellow MosaicCitrullus Vulgaris Schrad. Watermelon Cucurbitaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Cucumis Melo L. Musk Melon Cucurbitaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - - Round Melon 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Praecitrullus Solanaceaefistulosuos L. Tomato Solanaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Lycopersicon esculentum Mill Bell pepper Solanaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Capsicum annuum L. Chilli Solanaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Capsicum annuum L. Egg Plant Solanaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Solanum Melongena L. Tobacco 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Nicotiana Benthamiana Domin 391

12 3 4 5 6 392 R. RAJESHWARI AND M. KRISHNA REDDYNicotiana glutinosa L. - Solanaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Nicotiana rustica L. - Solanaceae 0/10 ( 0 ) - -Nicotiana sylves Speg. - Solanaceae 0 (0/10) - -Nicotiana tabacum L. - Solanaceae 0 (0/10) - -Var. Samsun - 0 (0/10) - -Var. White Burley - - 0 (0/10) - -Var. Xanthi - - 0 (0/10) - -Carica papaya L. Papaya Caricaceae 0 (0/10) - -Gossypium barbadense L. Cotton Malvaceae 0 (0/10) - -Abelmoschus Esculentus Moench Lady’s Finger Malvaceae 0 (0/10) - -Amaranthus Caudatus L. Amaranthus Malvaceae 0 (0/10) - -Ornamentals Holly Hock Malvaceae 0 (0/10) - -Althaea rosea Cav. Periwinkle Apocynaceae 0 (0/10) - -Catharanthus roseus (L.) Don Cosmos Apiaceae 0 (0/10) - -Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. Marigold Asteraceae 0 (0/10) - -Tagetes erecta L. Zinnia Asteraceae 0 (0/10) - -Zinnia elegans Jacq. Chenopodiaceae Asteraceae 0 (0/10) - -Weeds 0 (0/10)Ageratum conyzoides L. 0 (0/10) - - Euphorbiaceae 0 (0/10) - -Chenopodium amaranticolor Euphorbiaceae 0 (0/10) - -Coste & Ryne. Malvaceae 0 (0/10) - -Croton bonplandianum Baill. AsteraceaeEuphorbia geniculata Orteg.Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.)Parthenium hysterophorus L.

BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISATION OF TOMATO LEAF CURL NEW DELHI VIRUS INFECTING BOTTLE GOURD 393no symptoms on tomato following whitefly inoculation MUNIYAPPA, V. VENKATESH, H. M., RAMAPPA, H. K.,(Muniyappa et al., 2003). KULKARNI, R. S., ZEIDAN, M ., TARBA, GHANIM, M. AND CZOSNEK, H., 2000, Tomato leaf curl virus from REFERENCES Bangalore (ToLCV-Ban4): sequence comparison with Indian ToLCV isolates, detection in plants and insects,BROWN, J. K., IDRIS, A. M. AND ROGAN, D., 2001, Melon and vector relationships. Arch. Virol., 145: 1583 - 1598. chlorotic leaf curl virus-a new Begomovirus associated with Bemisia tabaci infestations in MUNIYAPPA, V., MARUTHI, M. N., BABITHA, C. R., COLVIN, J., Guatemala. Plant Dis, 85: 1027. BRIDDON, R. W. AND RANGASWAMY, K.T., 2003, Characterisation of pumpkin yellow vein mosaic virusBROWN, J. K., IDRIS, A. M., ALTERI, C. AND STENGER. D. C., from India. Ann. Appl. Biol., 142: 323-331. 2002, Emergence of a new cucurbit- infecting begomovirus species capable of forming viable NATESHAN, H. M., MUNIYAPPA, V., SWANSON, M. M. AND reassortants with related viruses in the squash leaf HARRISON, B. D., 1996, Host-range, vector relations curl virus cluster. Phytopathology, 92: 734-42. and serological relationships of cotton leaf curl virus from southern India. Annals of Applied Biology, 128HARRISON, B. D. AND ROBINSON, D. J., 2002, Green shoots of : 233 – 244. geminivirology. Physiol. Mol. Pl. Pathol., 60: 215-218. VARMA, A. AND MALATHI, V. G., 2003, Emerging geminivirus problem: a serious threat to sustainable cropLAZAROWITZ, S. G., 1992, Geminiviruses: genome structure production. Ann. Appl. Biol., 142: 145 - 64. and gene functions. Crit. Rev Sci., 11: 327-49. XIE, Y. AND ZHOU, X. P., 2003, Molecular characterization ofMANDAL, B., MANDAL, S., SOHRAB, S. S., PUN, K. B. AND squash leaf curl Yunnan virus, a new begomovirus VARMA, A., 2004, A new yellow mosaic disease of and evidence for recombination. Arch. Virol., 148: chayote in india. Plant Pathol, 53: 797. 2047 - 2054.MARUTHI, M. N., REKHA, A. R., CORK, A.,COLVIN, J., ALAM, S. N. AND KADER, K. A., 2005, First report of Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus infecting tomato in Bangladesh. Plant Dis., Cab Abstract APS. 58: 335.(Received : July, 2014 Accepted : August, 2014)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 48 (3) : 394-399, 2014Population Dynamics of Pigeonpea Sterility Mosaic Virus Disease Vector Aceria cajani M. S. PALLAVI AND H. K. RAMAPPADepartment of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 ABSTRACT The experiment was conducted at University of Agricultural Science, GKVK campus during Kharif 2012and 2013. Vegetative buds (unopened leaf) of the top canopy and trifoliate leaf of upper canopy harbouredrelatively more number of mites viz., 56.7, 46.51 per trifoliate leaf, respectively compared to vegetative bud andleaves at the middle (38.90 and 27.80 mite / trifoliate leaf). Lowest number of mites were recorded in the lower stratain both leaves and vegetative buds (12.59, 21.60 mites). The basal quarter of leaflet (A) recorded maximum numberof mites (17.48) followed by middle and terminal portions (14.20 and 8.60, respectively). Younger leaves harbouredmore mites (64.00 mite / trifoliate leaf) as compared to middle age (32.00 mite / trifoliate leaf) and older age (29.00mites / trifoliate leaf). ICP 7035 was free from vector mite. Four varieties viz., BRG 3, IPA 8F, IPA 15F and Baharrecorded >1 mites / trifoliate leaf, 14 varieties recorded 1-5 mites / trifoliate leaf, ICP 8863 supported the maximumnumber of mites (14.01 mites / trifoliate leaf).PIGEONPEA (Cajanus cajan [L.] Millsp) is an important et al., 1984) is one of the major biotic factors, whichdrought resistant pulse crop cultivated mainly for its leads to heavy yield losses and hence poses a bigprotein-enriched seeds in the semi-arid tropical and challenge for pigeonpea production in the Indiansubtropical regions between 25° N and 30° S in Asia, sub-continent.Africa and America (Van der Maesen, 1990).Pigeonpea in India is mainly grown in the semi-arid In nature the causal agent of SMD is transmittedregions of the states, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya by the eriophyid mite Aceria cajani ChannabasavannaPradesh, Gujarath, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh (Seth, 1962), but, it is not transmitted through seed,because of its drought resistance. The simultaneous pollen or soil (Reddy et al., 1998). The mite vectoruse of pigeonpea for food, fodder and fuel, its ability to host-specific and because of this, the natural host rangeameliorate soils and its use as a hardy crop on marginal of SMD is restricted to pigeonpea and a few of itssoils fitting into many intercropping systems make wild relatives (Reddy et al., 1998).pigeonpea an important crop in the semi-arid tropics. In spite of various control measures, SMD has Although, India leads the world both in area and continued to be major constraint in pigeonpeaproduction of pigeonpea, its productivity is lower than production. A lot of variations exists among the geneticthe world average which may be attributed to various background of different varieties in different regions.abiotic (eg., drought, salinity and water-logging) and These variations renders it difficult to evolve a commonbiotic (eg., disease like Fusarium wilt, sterility mosaic managment strategy to control SMD epidemics.and insects like pod borers) factors. Among diseases, Therefore, it is necessay to know the severity of diseaseFusarium wilt and sterility mosaic are the major and factors associated with disease development whichconstraints to pigeonpea production in the country. This helps in devising suitable managment practices.is a matter of concern since the domestic demand ofpigonpea is rapidly increasing. MATERIAL AND METHODS Sterility Mosaic Disease (SMD), considered as Intraplant distribution of Aceria cajani onthe “green plague of pigeonpea” caused by pigeonpea pigeonpeasterility mosaic virus (PPSMV) (Jones et al., 2004)and the virus is transmitted by the vector eriophyid Pigeonpea leaf samples were drawn from top,mite. Aceria cajani Channabasavanna (Kannaiyan middle and lower canopies of 110 days old SMD

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF PIGEONPEA STERILITY MOSAIC VIRUS DISEASE VECTOR Aceria cajani 395infected plants of susceptible variety ICP 8863 during the number of mites under a stereo-binocularthe month of September 2013. Ten sterility mosaic microscope and mite population was expressed as theinfected plants were selected at random and from each number of mites per trifoliate leaf.plant three branches contained trifoliate leaves andgrowing tip (vegetative bud). Each leaflet was further RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONdivided into three equal portions from the proximal endas, A(basal portion at the petiole end), B (middle portion Distribution of mite vector Aceria cajani onand C (terminal portion at the tip). In order to know pigeonpeathe distribution of mites in different age of the leaf,three types of leaves were selected based on the age Canopy Level : Vegetative buds (un-openedof the leaf, young, middle and old. Mite population was leaf) of the top canopy and trifoliate leaf of upperrecorded from above portions under a stereo-binocular canopy harboured relatively more number of mite viz.,microscope. Such observations were recorded from 56.7, 46.51 per trifoliate leaf, respectively comparedtrifoliate leaves of all the 10 branches sampled from to vegetative bud and leaves at the middle (38.90 andthree canopy levels. The mite populations were then 27.80 mites / trifoliate leaf). Lowest numbers of mitessubjected to √x + 0.5 transformation and the data were recorded in the lower strata in both leaves andwere analyzed statistically by following the technique vegetative buds (12.59, 21.60 mites) (Table I)of Analysis of Variance for Factorial Design with threedifferent factors as below and results were interpreted At the canopy level, both trifoliate leaves andat 5 per cent level of significance. vegetative buds from the top canopy harboured significantly more number of mites compared to those Factor 1: Plant canopy-3 levels (top, middle and from the middle and lower canopy which indicated thelower) preference of the mite vector for the top canopy (Table I). The mean number of mites observed on the Factor 2 : Portion of the leaflet-3 levels (basal top canopy was 51.61 per trifoliate leaf. Theportion at the petiole end, middle portion and terminal corresponding mean mite populations from the middleportion at the tip) canopy and lower canopy were 33.35 and 17.10 per trifoliate, respectively. Factor 3 : Age of the leaf-3 ages (young, middleand old) Population of Aceria cajani concentrated more in the top canopy of vegetative buds of un-opened leaf Experimental plot consisted of twenty local and compared to middle and lower canopy. Trifoliate leavespopular varieties (ICP 8863, BDN 2, TTB7, ICPL from the top canopy harboured significantly more2376, BDN1, BRG2, ICP 7035, PUSA 992, HY 3C , number of mites compared to those from the middleVIPULA, MAL 13, BRG 3, IPA 8F, IPA 15F, BSMR and lower canopy which indicated the preference of853, ICP 8858, BSMR 736, BRG 10-2, BRG-1, the mite vector for the top canopy. Vishwa Dhar andBAHAR) raised during Kharif 2012 and 2013 were Rathore (1994) and Narayanaswamy (2004) found thatused for this study. Above mentioned varieties were younger leaves of sterility mosaic infected plantsown during the month of July 2012 and September supported higher mite population than the matured2013, but were subjected to natural infection i.e., leaves. Reddy et al. (1999) also observed significantlywithout stapling with mosaic infected leaves harbouring more number of mites on trifoliate leaves in the topvector mites. The vector mite population were recorded strata compared to those in middle and bottom strata.at 15 days intervals, starting from 45 DAS up to 110DAS. Fifteen trifoliate leaves and a growing tip sampled Portion on the leaflet : Vector mite preferredform each of the five randomly selected plants were the basal quarter of the leaflet at all the canopy levelsbrought to the laboratory in polythene bags to record (Table II). The basal quarter of leaflet recorded

396 M. S. PALLAVI AND H. K. RAMAPPA TABLE I TABLE IIDistribution of vector mite A. cajani at different Distribution of vector mite A. cajani (number of canopy levels of pigeonpea plant mites) in different portions of leaflet at different Canopy level canopy levels of pigeonpea plantCanopy Leaves Vegetative Mean Portion Canopy level level buds of leaflet Mean A (basal portion Top Middle Lower of leaftlet)Upper 46.51 56.70 51.61 18.60 17.34 16.50 17.48Middle (6.70) (7.52) (7.18) B (middle portion (4.31) (4.16) (4.06) (4.18)Lower of leaftlet)SEm 27.80 38.90 33.35 15.20 14.66 12.73 14.20 (5.09) (6.23) (5.78) (3.89) (3.82) (3.56) (3.76) 12.59 21.60 17.10 (3.40) (4.64) (4.14) 0.31 0.38 0.53CD @ 0.05 0.92 1.13 1.601 C (terminal portion 10.00 8.80 6.98 8.59 of leaftlet) (3.16) (2.91) (2.64) (2.93) Figures in parenthesis are √ X + 0.5 transformed values SEM 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.25 CD for comparing canopy levels - (0.05) CD @ 0.05 0.42 0.42 0.48 0.73maximum number of mite (17.48) followed by middleand terminal (14.20 and 8.60, respectively). Lower half of the leaflet accommodated more Figures in Parenthesis are √ X + 0.5 transformed valuesnumber of mite population on the leaflet and this maybe adopted or made used for a more precise estimation *CD for comparing different portions of the leaflet withinof mite vector population. a canopy level-(0.05) Vector mite preferred the basal portion of the viz., BRG 3, IPA 8F, IPA 15F and Bahar recorded < 1younger leaflet recorded significantly more number of mites / trifoliate leaf. 14 varities recordedmites followed by middle and terminal portions of the 1-5 mites / trifoliate leaf. ICP 8863 supported theleaflet. Thus the basal half of the leaflet harbouring maximum number of mites (14.01 / trifoliate leaf).more mite population on leaflet is suggested forsampling as this give a more reliable estimate of mite During the year 2013, almost similar trend waspopulation on leaflet is suggested for sampling as this followed in previous year for the abundance of mitegive a more reliable estimate of mite population. on different varieties (Table V). Two varieties BRG 3Vishwa Dhar and Rathore (1994) also noted that vectormite population were more concentrated towards the TABLE IIIpetiole end of younger leaves of sterility mosaicinfected plants. Distribution of A. cajani population on leaves of different ages in pigeonpea Age of Leaves : Younger leaves harboured more Age of Mitemite (64.00 mites/trifoliate leaf) as compared to middle leaves populationage (32.00 mites/trifoliate leaf) and older age (29.00mites/trifoliate leaf) (Table III). Young 64 Middle 32 Behaviour of vector Aceria cajani on popular Old 29and cultivated varieties of pigeonpea : ICP 7035was free from vector mite (Table IV). Four varieties

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF PIGEONPEA STERILITY MOSAIC VIRUS DISEASE VECTOR Aceria cajani 397 TABLE IVBehaviour of mite vector A. cajani on local and popular varieties of pigeonpea during Kharif 2012 Mean number of mites / trifoliate leaf at DAS Mean no. of mites overVarieties 45 60 75 90 110 different intervalsICP 8863 0.00 2.40 14.17 26.50 27.00 14.01BDN 2TTB 7 0.00 0.00 1.00 4.00 1.00 1.20ICPL 2376BDN 1 0.00 0.00 2.33 2.50 3.20 1.61BRG2ICP 7035 0.00 0.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 1.20PUSA 992HY3C 1.00 1.00 18.20 1.83 2.00 4.81VIPULAMAL 13 0.00 0.00 1.25 1.50 2.50 1.05BRG3IPA 8F 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00IPA 15FBSMR 853 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 3.00 1.00ICP 8858BSMR 736 0.00 1.00 12.67 1.00 1.50 3.23BRG 10-2BRG-1 0.00 0.00 1.00 2.30 4.20 1.50BAHAR 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.60 2.00 2.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.20 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.83 1.00 0.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.20 0.44 0.00 1.00 2.00 5.00 1.00 1.80 0.00 3.33 5.00 0.50 1.20 2.01 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.80 5.00 1.36 0.00 0.67 2.00 1.83 1.20 1.14 0.00 1.80 1.00 1.17 1.60 1.11 0.00 0.00 2.50 2.00 0.00 0.90and IPA 8F were recorded no mite. Six varieties Table VI indicated that 5 varieties viz., ICP 7035, IPArecorded <1 mite / trifoliate leaf and 8 varieties recorded 8F, BRG 3, Bahar and IPA 15F showed resistant to1-5 mite / trifoliate leaf. Maximum number of mite the vector and remaining 15 verities were susceptible.were recorded in three varieties viz., ICP 8863 (13.58mites / trifoliate leaf), TTB 7 (8.47 mites / trifoliate Preference of mite vector A. cajani on popularleaf), WRP 1 (7.25 mites / trifoliate leaf) and PUSA and cultivated pigeonpea varieties during kharif 2012992 (5.17 mites / trifoliate leaf). revealed that ICP-7035 was completely free from the mite population and showed resistant reaction to Single mite vector is sufficient to transmit the disease. Whereas, other SMD resistant varietiesdisease effectively (Janarthan et al., 1973; Reddy BRG3, IPA8F, Bahar recorded <1 mites / trifoliate leaf.et al., 1998; Kulkarni, 2002), pigeonpea lines / varieties The SMD susceptible varieties harboured higherharbouring <1 mites / trifoliate leaf were grouped as number of mite population. During the year 2013,resistant to mite, while those > 1 mites / trifoliate leaf almost similar trend was observed as in previous year.were grouped as susceptible. The data from the But the two varieties viz., BRG3 and IPA 8F harboured

398 M. S. PALLAVI AND H. K. RAMAPPA TABLE V Behaviour of mite vector A. cajani on local and popular pigeonpea genotypes during kharif 2013 Mean number of mites / trifoliate leaf at DAS Mean no. of mites overVarieties 45 60 75 90 110 different intervalsICP 8863 0.0 2.6 3.20 26.00ICP 7035 22.5 13.58IPA 15F 0.0 0.00 1.20 1.60 1.00 0.95WRP-1 0.00 0.30IPA-8F 0.0 0.00 0.00 1.20 3.30 7.25BRG-2 0.00 0.00BRG-10-2 0.0 3.20 12.00 10.50 0.00 0.62BRG-2 3.20 1.38BRG-3 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.40 1.08BSMR-736 0.00 0.00MAL 13 0.0 0.00 1.60 0.90 0.00 0.25PUSA 992 1.30 1.10HY3C 0.0 0.00 0.60 3.10 8.20 5.17BDN-1 2.10 1.82VIPULA 0.0 0.00 0.40 1.60 0.50 0.7BSMR 853 0.60 1.02TTB7 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.10 1.72BAHAR 5.10 8.47BDN-2 0.0 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.30 0.73ICPL 2376 2.50 1.06 0.0 0.30 1.20 1.60 3.00 1.20 0.0 1.20 4.00 7.30 0.0 0.00 1.20 4.00 0.0 0.50 1.00 1.00 0.0 1.00 1.50 1.00 0.0 1.60 3.00 1.20 0.0 8.00 10.20 10.60 0.0 0.00 1.00 1.50 0.0 0.00 1.00 1.80 0.00 0.00 2.00 1.00 TABLE VIGouping of pigeonpea genotypes based on number of mites present per trifoliate leaf Resistant No. of Susceptible (>1 mite per No. of (<1 mite / genotypes trifoliate leaf) genotypestrifoliate leaf)ICP 7035, IPA8F, 5 ICP 8863, TTB 7, ICPL 2376, BDN 1, 15BRG3, Bahar, PUSA 992, HY3C, VIPULA, BRG2,IPA 15F IPL 87119, BSMR 853, ICP 8858, BSMR 736, BRG-1, BDN2,BRG 10-2

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF PIGEONPEA STERILITY MOSAIC VIRUS DISEASE VECTOR Aceria cajani 399no mites and ICP7035 had <1 mites / trifoliate leaf. REFERENCESOther varieties with susceptible reaction to SMD, themean number of vector recorded was high. The higher ANONYMOUS, 1993, Ann progr. Rep. of AICRP on Agril.incidence of disease and mite vector during kharif 2013 Acarology for the year 1992-93, UAS, GKVK,is attributed to the time of sowing i.e., during middle Bangalore, 68 pp.of July compared to lower incidence during kharif 2012,when the crop was sown during September. Supporting ANONYMOUS, 1995, Ann. progr. Rep. of AICRP on Agril.this, Anon. (1993 and 1995) reported that varieties Acarology for the year 1994-95,UAS, GKVK,TTB7, ICP 8863 and CORG - 11 sown up to the middle Bangalore, 57pp.of July often recorded higher incidence of both diseaseand mite vector compared to sowing beyond July. JANARTHAN, R., SAMUEL, G. S., SUBRAMANIAN, K. S.,Narayanaswamy (2004) reported that pigeonpea line NAVANEETHAN, G. AND KANDASWAMY, T. K., 1973,TT202 was resistant to both pigeonpea sterility mosaic A report on the Survey of sterility mosiac diseasedisease (<10 % disease) and vector, Aceria cajani incidence on redgram in Tamil Nadu, Madras Agri. J.,(<1 mite / leaf). 14 entries including ICP 7035, BRG 2, 60: 41:44.though moderately resistant to disease, harboured goodnumber of mites. ICP 8863 and TTB 7 supported good JONES, A.T., KUMAR, P. L., SAXENA, K. B., KULKARNI, N. K.,number of vector mites and also suffered heavily due MUNIYAPPA, V. AND FARID WALIYAR, 2004, Sterilityto PPSMD. In case of sterility mosaic resistant mosaic disease the “Green Plague” of pigeonpea,genotypes the leaf cuticle and epidermal cell wall advances in understanding the etiology, transmissionthickness were found to be more than in susceptible and control of a major virus disease, Plant Disease,genotypes, which prevented the mite to feed on these 88 (5): 436-445.lines. The thick cuticle prevented the short mite styletsreaching the epidermal cells, preventing feeding KANNAIYAN, J., NENE, Y. L., REDDY, M. V., RYAN, J. G ANDaltogether (Reddy et al., 1995). RAJU, T. N., 1984, Prevalence of pigeonpea disease and associated crop losses in Asia, Africa and the Vegetative buds (un-opened leaf) and trifoliate Americas. Trop. Pest Manage., 30: 62-71.leaves of the top canopy of sterility mosaic infectedpigeonpea plants found harboured significantly more KULKARNI, N. K., KUMAR, P. L., MUNIYAPPA, V., JONES, A. T.number of vector mites compared to those from the AND REDDY, D. V. R., 2002, Transmission of pigeonpeamiddle and lower canopy. Mite vector population on sterility mosaic virus by the eriophid mite, Aceriathe basal portion to leaflet encountered significantly cajani ( Acari : Arthropoda). Plant Disease, 86:more number of mites (8.59 to 17.48) followed by other 1297-1302.successive portions of the leaflet. Five varieties wereresistant to mite vector and harboured <1 mite per NARAYANASWAMY, C. A., 2004, Studies on Aceria cajanitrifoliate leaf, while, 15 varities were susceptible (Acari: Eriophydae), mite vector of sterility mosaicrecording > 1 mite per trifoliate leaf. All the five mite disease with special references to varietal screeningresistant varieties viz., ICP 7.35, IPA 8F, BRG3, Bahar and its interplant distribution. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis,and IPA 15F also showed resistant and moderate Uni. Agri. Sci., Bangalore.resistant to the disease and 15 varieties weresusceptible to sterility mosaic disease with > 30 per REDDY, M. V., JAIN, K. C., CHAUHAN, Y. S. AND SINGH, L.,1995.cent disease incidence. Wilt and sterility mosaic disease resistant pigeonpea genotype ICPL 87119 benefits farmers in Medak district of Andhra Pradesh, India. Inter Chickpea Pigeonpea Newsl., 2: 71-72. SETH, M. L. 1962, Transmission of pigeonpea sterility by an eriophyid mite. Indian Phytopath., 15: 225-227. VAN DER MAESEN, L. J. G., 1990, pigeonpea: origin, history, evolution and taxonomy. In: The pigeonpea, Y. L.Nene, S. D. Hall, & V. K. Sheila (Eds.), pp 15-16, Wallingford:CAB International. VISHWA DHAR AND RATHORE, Y. S., 1994, Pattern of population distribution of Aceria cajani on pigeonpea plant. Indian J.pulses Res.,7 (2): 137-143.(Received : August, 2014 Accepted : September, 2014)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 48 (3) : 400-405, 2014Genetic Studies on Litter and Reproductive Traits of Large White Yorkshire Sows M. VASUNDARA DEVI, M. R. JAYASHANKAR AND V. MANJUNATH Department of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 ABSTRACT Data relating to 130 sows, 19 boars from 400 farrowings spread over a period from 1984 to 1992 wereutilized to study genetic and non-genetic effects in variation of litter size and weight at birth and at weaning. Theoverall litter size at birth (LSB) was 6.83 ± 6.13 piglets. The effects of period and season of farrowings and breedinggroup on litter size at birth were non- significant (P>0.05). The overall least squares mean of litter size at weaning(LWW) was 4.93 ± 0.12 and was significantly (P<0.05) affected by inbreeding. Litter weight at birth (LWB) had aleast square mean of 7.81 ± .16 kg and it was significantly (P<0.05) affected by period of farrowing. The mean LWBof non-inbred sows was 8.22 ± 0.19 kg and that of inbred sows was - 7.41 ± 0.29 kg. The overall least square meanfor litter weight at weaning (LWW) was 39.36 ± 1.25 kg and inbreeding of sow exerted significant effect on LWW.The LWB and LWW were significantly affected by period of farrowing. The litter size at birth and at weaning andlitter weight at birth and at weaning was not significantly affected by season of birth. Least squares mean of ageat first farrowing (AFF) was 407.24 ± 4.76 days, and overall mean inter farrowing period (IFP) was 183.33 ± 1.96days. The length of IFP decreased from first to fifth IFP. AFF and IFP were not influenced by genetic group,season or period of farrowing (birth).LARGE White Yorkshire is one of the important exotic sows, 19 boars and 2209 piglets from 400 farrowing’s,breeds, which has performed better and thrived well spread over a period of nine years from 1984 to 1992in all zones of Karnataka. Hence, they are exclusively were compiled and classified into season-wise basedused both in pure breeding or upgrading of local pigs. on meteorological parameters viz., Summer (MarchHowever, breeding with lesser number of animals with to June), Monsoon (July to October) and Winterin a closed farm leads to mating of closely related (November to February) and period - wise at threeanimal’s results in un-international inbreeding. Earlier years: Interval viz., Period-I (1984-86), Period-IIstudies using, inbred lines of pigs have demonstrated (1987-89) and Period-III (1990-92) and for IFP, dataseveral adverse effects of enforced homozygocity on were recorded from first to fifth inter farrowing period.performance. Inbred sows have been reported to shed Further, the data were classified into two groups inbredlesser number of ova and higher embryonic mortality, and non-inbred sows in order to study the effect ofthan other out-bred counterparts. The present study inbreeding on sows litter and reproductive traits.was undertaken to investigate the level of inbreedingin a population of sows and its effect on their Least square analysis of variance forperformance with respect to litter size at birth (LSB- disproportionate / unequal sub-class frequencies asborn alive), litter size at weaning (LSW), litter weight suggested by Harvey (1987) was followed to detectat birth (LWB), litter weight at weaning (LWW) and the significant source of non-genetic variation. Thealso reproductive traits as age at first farrowing (AFF) following fixed effect model was used for analysis ofand inter farrowing period (IFP). litter traits and age at first farrowing, MATERIALS AND METHODS Yjjk1 = μ + Bi + Sj + Pk + Eijkl Where, Data on Large White Yorkshire breed of sowsmaintained at swine unit, Department of Animal Yijk1 = the record of lth individual belonging to jthGenetics and Breeding, Veterinary College, Hebbal, season kth period born in ith breeding group.Bangalore were utilized for the study. The pedigreeinformation on 130 sows were collected to estimate μ = Population mean when equal sub-classinbreeding coefficient. The performance data on 130 frequencies existed among the groups

GENETIC STUDIES ON LITTER AND REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS OF LARGE WHITE YORKSHIRE SOWS 401 Bi = Fixed effect of the ith breeding group birth and at weaning are presented in Table I.(i = 1,2) The least square mean’s for litter size at birth and weaning litter weight at birth and weaning are Sj = Fixed effect of jth season (j = 1,2,3) presented in Table II. The least square mean’s of age at first farrowing(AFF) and inter farrowing’ Pk = Fixed effect of kth period (k = 1,2,3) periods(lFP) are presented in Table III, while inbreeding coefficients of sows listed in Table IV and Eijkl = Random error associated with Yijkl and rate of inbreeding ( Δ F ) in Table V.assumed to be normally and independently distributedwith mean zero and unit variance (σe2) TABLE I The following fixed effect model was used for Mean sqaures from least square analysis ofanalysis of inter farrowing period (IFP) variance for litter traits Yjklm =μ + Bi + Sj + Pk + Fl+ Eijklm Source of df Litter size Litter variance weight Where, At birth 1 16.0709NS 29.546NS Yijklm= the record of mth individual belonging to Breeding groups 2 6.1194NS 38.7753*1th inter farrowing period, jth season and kth period born Periods 2 1.8039NS 4.3167NSin ith breeding group, Seasons 394 6.7342 10.4961 Residual μ = Population mean when equal sub-class 1 30.8014· 3254.5880*frequencies existed among the groups At weaning 2 25.3025 6785.2090 Breeding groups 2 9.4230NS 218.9955NS Bi = Fixed effect of the ith breeding group Periods 359 5.4750 565.3864(i = 1,2) Seasons Residual Sj = Fixed effect of jth season (j = 1,2,3) Pk = Fixed effect of kth period (k = 1,2,3) * - (P<0.05) Fl = Fixed effect of lth inter farrowing period NS - Non-significant(l = 1,2,3,4,5) Overall Performance : The overall least square Eijklm = Random error associated with Yijklm and means obtained for litter size at birth was 6.83 ± 0.13assumed to be normally and independently distributed piglets this value is close to the value reported bywith mean zero and unit variance (σe2) Nagaraja et al. (1992) in Large White Yorkshire pig. The mean computed for litter size at weaning was 4.83 The least squares means of different factors were ± 0.12 piglets. The present estimate was in closesubjected to Least significant difference (LSD) test conformity with those reported by Rai and Desai (1983)(Snedecor and Cochran, 1967) whereever the effects and Nagaraja et al. (1992) in Large White Yorkshirewere found to be significant (P<0.05). pigs. Inbreeding coefficients of breeding sows was The mean litter weight at birth was 7.8 ± 0.16 kgcomputed as per Lush’s modified Wright’s method in the present study which is in close proximity with(Emik and Terril, 1949). Rate of inbreeding per the reports of Rai and Desai (1985) in Large Whitegeneration in sows was estimated as per Lush’s method Yorkshire and Arun Pradeep et al. (2004) in different(1962). breed of pigs. The mean computed for litter weight at weaning was 39.36 ± 1.25 kg was close to the value RESULTS AND DISCUSSION of Arun Pradeep et al. (2004) ) in different breed of pigs. The mean squares from analysis of variance forlitter size at birth and at weaning and litter weight at

402 M. VASUNDARA DEVI et al. TABLE II Least square means for litter size and litter weight at birth and at weaning Litter size Litter weightClassification N at birth N at weaning N at birth N at weaning Overall 400 6.83 ± 0.13 363 4.83 ± 0.12 400 7.81±0.16 400 39.36 ± 1.25 Non-inbred Breeding group In bred 293 7.13± 0.15 a 266 5.28 ± 0.15 a 293 8.22 ± 0.19 a 266 43.73± 1.59 a Period-I Period-II 107 6.53± 0.24 a 99 4.38± 0.22 b 107 7.41 ± 0.29 a 99 34.99 ±1.96 b Period-Ill Period Summer Monsoon 120 6.92± 0.23 a 108 5.38 ±0.23 a 120 8.06 ± 0.30 a 108 48.55 ±2.45 a Winter 126 6.56± 0.25 a 114 4.43± 0.23 b 126 7.14±0.30 b 114 33.21 ±2.01b 154 7.00± 0.20 a 143 4.67 ± 0.19 a 154 8.23 ±0.25 a 143 36.32 ± 2.03b Season 129 6.85± 0.22 a 116 5.14 ±0.23 a 129 7.86 ±0.28 a 116 40.86 ± 2.28 a 129 6.93± 0.23 a 118 4.58 ± 0.21 a 129 7.96 ±0.29 a 118 38.99± 2.57 a 142 6.70± 0.22 a 131 4.76±0.21a 142 7.61 ±0.28 a 131 38.23 ± 1.95 aMeans (u) bearing same superscript with in a sub group are not significantly different from each other* (P<0.05). TABLE III Least square means for age at first farrowing (AFF) and inter farrowing period (IFP) in daysClassification Age at first farrowing Inter farrowing period N N μ ± SE μ ± SEOverall 127 407.24 ± 4.76 285 183.33 ± l.96Non-inbred Breeding groupIn bred 93 397.09 ± 5.66 a 222 186.19±2.06 aPeriod-IPeriod-II 34 417.38 ± 8.43 a 63 180.46 ± 5.05 aPeriod-III PeriodSummerMonsoon 46 422.81 ± 8.47 a 119 177.87 ± 1.74 aWinter 46 397.66 ± 6.20 a 101 187.58 ± 3.74 a 35 401.23 ± 9.91 a 65 184.53 ± 5.32 a Season 27 402.29 ± 8.36 a 61 182.31 ± 3.37 a 62 404.81 ± 7.24 a 153 179.52 ± 2.76 a 38 415.06 ± 8.53 a 71 188.15 ± 4.16 a Inter farrowing period Inter farrowing period - I 103 187.02 ± 2.80 a Inter farrowing period - II 80 190.69 ± 4.96 a Inter farrowing period - III 59 181.18±3.52 a Inter farrowing period - IV 30 182.43 ± 4.01 a Inter farrowing period - V 13 175.31 ± 6.70 aMeans (u) bearing same superscript with in a subgroup are not significantly different from each other * (P<0.05).

GENETIC STUDIES ON LITTER AND REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS OF LARGE WHITE YORKSHIRE SOWS 403 TABLE IV TABLE VCoefficient of inbreeding for inbreed sows Rate of inbreeding (Δ F) in different generations Sow Inbreeding Sow Inbreeding Number of Number of Rate ofNumber Coefficient Number Coefficient breeding Generation breeding inbreeding F1566 0.203 males F1583 0.143 females (ΔF) F1585 0.290F1244 0.125 F1602 0.156 Generation - I 4 24 0.0364F1245 0.125 F1610 0.078 Generation - II 5 37 0.0283F1247 0.125 F1611 0.078 Generation - III 6 38 0.0241F1248 0.062 F1623 0.047 Generation - IV 4 30 0.0354F1255 0.156 F1633 0.140F1271 0.156 F1641 0.140 Effect of Inbreeding: Out of 127 sowsF1340 0.125 F1730 0.219 considered, 34 sows were found to be inbred, whoseF1341 0.125 F1733 0.156 inbreeding coefficient estimated spread from 0.047 toF1343 0.125 F1735 0.094 0.290, with an average inbreeding coefficient of 0.135.F1348 0.125 F1738 0.070F1361 0.156 F1748 0.144 The mean litter size at birth of non-inbred sowsF1365 0.187 F1752 0.156 was 7.13 ± 0.15 piglets as compared to 6.53 ± 0.24F1370 0.078 F1754 0.140 piglets in inbred sows. There was a non-significantF1372 0.156 F2018 0.062 (P>0.05) difference between the inbred and non-inbredF1374 0.156 groups in litter size at birth, indicating the absence ofF1394 0.156 breeding group effect on litter size at birth. This findingF1395 0.156 is in agreement with the reports of Ahn et al. (1989) and Panneerselvam et al. (1991). The overall least squares mean of AFF was407.24 ± 4.76 days, and was in close proximity with The mean litter size at weaning for non-inbredthe reports of Punyakumari (1992) in Desi pigs. The sows was 5.28 ± 0,15 piglets and that of inbred sowspresent estimate was lower than those reported by was 4.38 ± 0,22 piglets. The difference observedRai and Desai (1985) and Nagaraja et al. (1992) in between the breeding groups was significant (P>0.05).Large White Yorkshire pigs. Similar results were reported by Panneerselvam et al. (1991) in Large White Yorkshire pigs. The present The overall mean inter farrowing period observed study indicated that even a low to medium level ofwas 183.33 ± 1.96 days. This was in close proximity inbreeding of sows would reduce litter size at weaningwith Vaclavosky et al. (1989) in different breed of significantly.pigs. The least squares means of the five IFP were inthe range of 175.31± 6.70 ( fifth IFP) to 190.69 ± 4.96 The mean LWB of non-inbred sows wassays (second IFP). The present findings were much 8.22 ± 0.19 kg and that of inbred sows waslower than the earlier findings of Rai and Desai (1985) 7.41 ± 0.29 kg. However, the mean differences wasand Nagaraja et al. (1992) in Large White York Shire statistically non-significant (P>0.05). Panneerselvampigs. The length of IFP decreased from first to fifth et al. (1991) also observed non-significant influenceIFP. The decreasing trend in IFP is desirable and of inbred group on LWB. This observation indicateswould result in increase in litter production. that LWB was least affected by low to moderate level of inbreeding of sows. The mean LWW of non-inbred sows was 43.73 ± 1.59 kg and that of inbred

404 M. VASUNDARA DEVI et al.was 34.99 ± 1.96 kg. The difference between breeding litter size at birth and weaning also on litter weight atgroups was significant (P<0.05). Similar effect was birth and weaning in different breed of pig. The presentreported by Siler (1974) in Large White Yorkshire sows. study AFF and IFP were not significantly affected byThe significant difference observed might be season of birth and this is in close agreement with theattributable to both genetic constitution of the herd and findings of Florea et al. (1988) in Yorkshire pigs.variation in environmental conditions. The presentstudy revealed that low to moderate level of inbreeding Inbreeding coefficient : Out of 127 sowsdid not affect AFF and IFP of sows. considered, 34 sows were found to be inbred, whose inbreeding coefficient estimated ranged from 0.047 to Effect of period of farrowing : The litter size 0.290, with an average inbreeding coefficient of 0.135,at birth was not significantly affected by period of and was in close proximity with those of Siler (1974)farrowing. Similarly non-significant effect of year of and Raghunandan et al. (1981) in different breeds ofbirth on litter size at birth in Large White Yorkshire pigs. The highest coefficient of inbreeding ( 0.203 topigs was also reported by Chabbra et al. (1990). The 0.290) was observed for three sows only (Table IV).period of farrowing significantly influenced litter sizeat weaning and it was lowest for those farrowed during Rate of inbreeding : The estimated rate ofperiod-II (4.43 ± 0.23 piglets). Mishra et al. (1990) inbreeding (Table V) was in the range of 0.0241 toalso reported similar significant effect of period of 0.036 among four generations and was lower thanfarrowing on litter size at weaning in Large White those reported by Okamato and Chiobra (1982) inYorkshire pigs. The possible reason for this effect might Large White Yorkshire pigs.be due to variation in environmental conditions. The present study indicates that mild inbreeding The LWB and LWW were significantly affected may not be detrimental and will not affect performanceby period of farrowing. The significant effect of year of sows, drastically. Low to moderate level ofof farrowing on LWB and LWW was also reported by inbreeding of breeding sows significantly decreasedMishra et al. (1990). The possible reasons for the litter size and litter weight at weaning but had nosignificant effect may be attributed to environmental influence on AFF and IFP. Although, this finding is ofconditions during the respective periods of birth in case use in pig rearing practices, Least Squares Analysis ofin LWB, whereas, LWW is a composite trait which in more data with environmental factors in addition toinfluended by litter size at birth, mothering ability of genetic factor will prove the importance of eliminatingsow and inherited potentialities of piglets for rate of non-genetic factors in enhancing the returns ongain in weight in addition to management factors which investments in pig husbandry.play an important role an expression of this traits. REFERENCES The AFF was not significantly affected by periodof farrowing (birth) and this was in contrary to the AHN, B. S., KIM, N.S., KANG, M. S. AND PARK, T.J., 1989,reports of Das and Mishra (1992). The period of Inbreeding effects on pre and post weaning traits offarrowing (birth) had no significant influence on sows litters in pigs. Korean J. animo Sci., 31: 567-57l.farrowing intervals, while a significant effect wasobserved by Ram et al. (1976) in Yorkshire pigs. ARUN PRADEEP, A. M., GOVINDAIAH, M. G., NAGARAJA, C. S., VASUNDARA DEVI., M AND SUGUNA RAO, S., 2004, Birth Effect of season of farrowing : The litter size weight, weaning weight and pre-weaning pig mortalityand litter weight at birth and also at weaning were not rate of local and improved piglets of coastal Karnatakasignificantly affected by season of birth. This finding region. Indian. J. Ani. Sci. 74(1): 3-6was in agreement with the reports of Chabbra et al.(1990) it Large White Yorkshire pigs. Singh et al. CHABBRA, A.K., BHATIA, S.S., SHARMA, N.K. AND DATTA, O.P.,(1990) reported significant effect of season of birth on 1990, Genetic study of litter traits in Large White Yorkshire pigs. Indian Vet. 1., 67: 715-718 .

GENETIC STUDIES ON LITTER AND REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS OF LARGE WHITE YORKSHIRE SOWS 405DAS, A. K. AND MISHRA, R. R., 1992, Reproductive traits of PUNYAKUMARI., 1992, Genetic studies on some economic Indigenous Pigs. Indian Vet. J., 69: 133-135. traits in indigenous pigs. M. V. Sc. Thesis submitted to Andhra Pradesh Agricultural university.EMIK, L. O. AND TERRIL, C. E., 1949, Systematic procedures for calculating inbreeding coefficients. J. Herid, RAGHUNANDAN, K. V., K RISHNAN NAIR, B. K. AND 40: 51-55. RAJAGOPALARAJA, C. A., 1981, Inbreeding depression of certain economic traits in Large White YorkshireHARVEY, W. R., 1987, Least squres analysis of data with pigs. Kerala J. Vety. Sci., 12: 97-104. unequal sub class numbers. A.R.S.20. United States, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. RAI, A. V. AND DESAI, D. S., 1985, Studies on the economic traits of Large White Yorkshire pigs. Kerala J. Vety.LUSH, J. L., 1962, Animal breeding plans. IIIrd Edition. The Sci., 16: 11-18. Iowa state University press. RAM, BALBIRSINGH AND BALAINE, D. S., 1976, A note on theMISHRA, R. R. AND SHANNA, G. C., 1990, Studies on studies of farrowing interval in Yorkshire pigs. reproductive traits in landrace pigs in India. Indian Haryana Univ. Res., 6 (2) : 167-169. Vet. J., 67: 425-429. SILER, R., 1974, Inbreeding depression of productionMISHRA, R. R., SHIVAPRASAD AND KRISHNALAL, 1990, Factors characters in sows. Zivocisna Vyroba. 18: 595-600 affecting litter size in Large White Yorkshire pigs. (Anim. Breed. Abst. 42: 2742) Indian Vet.J., 67: 517-519. SINGH, K. I., SINGH, R. L., SINGH, S. K., SHARMA, B. D. ANDNAGARAJA, C. S., GOVINDAIAH, M. G. AND JAYASHANKAR, M. DUBEY, C.S., 1990, Body weights and efficiency of R., 1992, A note on economic traits of Yorkshire pigs. feed utilization in pigs. Indian . J. Anim. Sci., 60: Livestock Adviser. XVII: 6-7. 605-608.OKAMATO, A. AND CHIOBRA, H., 1982, Genetic analysis of SNEDECOR, G. W. AND COCHRON, W. G. 1967, Statistical landrace pigs in Togchigi prefecture. Change in the methods (6th edition). Oxford and IBH publishing amount of inbreeding and of relationship in company. foundation pigs. Pig News and Information. 4: 26341. VACLOVASKY, J., MATOUSEK,V., POLANSKY, J. AND JHANKOVA,PANNEERSELVAM, S., NATARAJAN, N., THANGARAJU, P. AND N., 1989, An analysis of reproductive traits in JAYARAJAN, S., 1991, Effect of inbreeding on economic synthetic line. Anim. Breed. Abstr., 60: 71-73. traits in swine. India Vet. J., 68: 847-850 .(Received : May, 2014 Accepted : August, 2014)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 48 (3) : 406-412, 2014 Nutritional Evaluation of Maize (Zea mays) Husk : A New Feed Resource for Small Ruminants B. S. VENKATESH, T. M. PRABHU, R. G. GLORIDOSS, K. CHANDRAPAL SINGH, NAGARAJA RAMAKRISHNAPPA AND G. U. MANJU Department of Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bangalore - 560 024 ABSTRACT Fifteen ram lambs of Mandya (Bannur) sheep of about three months of age were selected and divided into three groups of five each in a completely randomized design. There were three experimental groups comprised of finger millet straw with concentrate feed mixture T1: control), untreated maize husk with concentrate feed mixture T2) and urea (2% W/W) treated maize husk with concentrate feed mixture (T3). The feeding cum growth trial was carried out for a period of twelve weeks with an initial adjustment period of one week. A six days digestion trial was conducted at the end of growth trial. Among the treatment groups no significance difference was observed with respect to the DMI (T1: 425.11, T2: 421.70 & T3: 424.98). The average daily gain (g/h/d) for Tl, T2 and T3 groups was 68.10, 62.86 and 67.14, respectively which did not differ between the treatment groups. The mean FCR (g DMI/g body weight gain) for T1, T2 and T3 groups was 6.40, 7.74 and 5.72, respectively. There was non significant difference in the mean FCR among the treatment groups, indicating the usefulness of maize husk as a roughage source. The mean apparent digestibility (%) of nutrients (DM, OM, EE, NFE and NDF) was almost comparable among the treatment groups. However, there was significant (P<0.05) difference with the digestibility of CP, CF, ADF and cellulose among groups. Cumulative gas (m1l200 mg DM) production and energy density (ME MJ/kg DM) was higher in urea treated maize husk as compared to untreated maize husk (8.25 VS 7.85) or finger millet straw (8.25 VS 7.49). It was concluded from the present study that, either untreated or 2 per cent urea treated maize husk could be a good source of roughage for feeding sheep.THERE are about 74 million sheep (FAO, 2010) in India. (Dzowela, 1987). Maize husk can be a potential sourcewhich are of economic value to the small and marginal of roughage for small ruminants, provided palatabilityfarmers and landless labourers in rural India. Lack of and digestibility is improved somehow. Urea treatmentadequately balanced feeding is the main constraint in or supplementation through maize husk is an effectiveattaining the maximum productivity levels in small method of utilization and better option to improveruminants. Intensive system of sheep rearing is palatability and the nitrogen content, thereby improvebecoming popular because of continuous dwindling of the nutritive value. Since, there is paucity of informationavailable grazing lands. Under these circumstances, on utilization of maize (Zea mays) husk per se or withthere is an opportunity to utilize untapped crop residues urea treatment for small ruminant feeding, the presentas roughage source in the ration of small ruminants. study was undertaken with an objective to study theMaize is the third most important cereal crop of the effect of feeding maize husk per se or urea treatedworld. It is grown in both temperate and tropical maize husk as a source of roughage in comparisoncountries around the world for its grain utility as nutrient with finger millet straw on the growth performancesource both for human and livestock. The major and nutrient utilization in growing ram lambs.residues obtained from this crop are maize stover, husk(covering on seed) and spent cob. Maize crop residues MATERIAL AND METHODSmay be relatively poor in nutritive value compared withsome other locally available crop residues but wide The present study was conducted to compare theavailability, large quantities, easy procurement and conventional finger millet (Eleucine coracona) strawhigher cellulose and hemicellulose reserves enhance based diet with the crop residue maize (Zea mays)their utilization as energy source in small ruminant diet

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF MAIZE (zea mays) HUSK 407husk (MH) per se or urea treated maize husk (UTMH) daily offered quantities of roughage and concentrateas a source of roughage on the performance of growing feed mixture. The lambs were weighed once in a weekram lambs. during morning hours (on the same days and same time) using digital electronic balance of 100 kg capacity. Experimental design : Fifteen ram lambs of Live body weight was recorded before having accessMandya (Bannur) sheep about three months of age to the feed and water. The FCR was determined aswith similar body weight were divided into three groups unit of feed DM consumed (concentrate mixture +of five each in a completely randomized design (CRD), roughage) per unit of body weight gain during theThe feeding trial was carried out for twelve weeks experimental period.with an initial adjustment period of one week. Adigestion trial of six days duration was conducted at Digestion trial : Digestion trial was conductedthe end of the feeding trial. The experimental lambs for six days at the end of experiment. During the trialwere housed in a separate ventilated shed and provided daily intake of roughage and concentrate feed mixtureuniform managemental care. The lambs were tied and quantity of the dung voided was recorded. Samplesindividually to facilitate individual feeding and watering. of feed offered and orts were collected every day andThe diets of the experimental lambs comprised finger were pooled for analysis of chemical constituents andmillet (Eleucine coracona) straw based conventional in vitro studies. The dung from each lamb wasdiet (T1), maize (Zea mays) husk (T2) and 2 per cent collected by harnessing with plastic bag tied around(W/W) urea treated maize husk (T3) as a source of the lumber region of animal, bags were emptied 3-4roughage. All the lambs were fed with same times a day and fecal pellets were stored in plasticconcentrate feed mixture having Maize, Wheat bran, bottles. Faeces stored in bottles were emptied andSoybean meal, Mineral mixture and Common salt at weighed the next day morning. The daily output of48, 32, 16, 2 and 1 per cent, respectively. Diets for the dung (pellets) over 24 h from each lamb was crushedexperimental lambs were formulated individually to and mixed for sub sampling. After proper mixing,meet the energy and protein requirement as per ARC 1/10th of total voided faeces from each lamb was sub(1984). The required quantity of roughage was sampled for dry matter estimation. The samplesweighed and offered to all the individual lambs at collected over six days were pooled: ground to obtaindifferent intervals so as to ensure ad-libitum feeding. a particle size of I mm and stored in a air tightRoughage and concentrate mixture were offered polyethylene covers for further chemical analysis.separately. Hundred grams of fertilizer grade urea was Sampling for nitrogen estimation was done separately,dissolved in 1.25 litre of water and uniformly sprayed 1/100th of total voided faeces was sub sampled in aon 5 kg chaffed maize husk (1-2 inches) with proper plastic air tight container of known weight with 5 ml ofmixing and preserved in the air tight plastic bag and 25 per cent sulphuric acid (H2S04) added every dayoffered to the lambs next day morning. The art of as a preservative. The pooled samples of feed androughage and concentrate feed mixture was weighed dung of individual lambs were subjected to proximateand recorded on the next day morning. analysis (AOAC, 2005). The fiber fractions, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and Feeding cum growth trial : Daily dry matter acid detergent lignin (ADL) were determinedintake through roughage and concentrate mixture was according to Van Soest et al. (1991). Nitrogen in therecorded. Samples of roughage and concentrate dung sample was determined by macro Kjeldhalmixture offered and ort were collected and analyzed method as per the procedure of AOAC (2005).once in a week for the DM estimation. Dry matterwas estimated by drying samples at 100°C overnight In vitro studies : The ME content of fingerin a hot air oven. Each of weekly samples were millet (Eleucine coracona) straw, maize (Zea mays)preserved and pooled for total dry matter estimation husk (MH), 2 per cent (W / W) urea treated maizeat the end of growth trial. Dry matter intake was husk (UTMH) and concentrate feed mixture wascalculated by deducting the left over from the mean determined by rumen in vitro gas production technique

408 B. S. VENKATESH et al.(RIVGP) as per the procedure described by Menke TABLE Iand Steingass (1988). ME was calculated using thefollowing equations. Chemical composition and fiber fractions (%, DMB) of concentrate feed mixture and Concentrate feed mixture roughage ME = 1.06 + 0.1570 GP + 0.0084 CP + 0.022 EE- 0.0081 TA Roughage Roughages Comcentrate T1 T2 T3 feed ME = 2.2 + 0.1357 GP + 0.0057 CP + 0.0002859 Finger Untreated UreaEE2 mixture millet maize treated straw husk maize Where, GP = gas production (m1 / 200 mg DM), huskCP = Crude protein (g / kg DM), EE = Ether extract(g / kg DM), TA = Total ash (g / kg DM), ME = I) Chemical CompositionMetabolizable energy (MJ/kg DM). Organic Matter 90.61 92.00 95.99 96.32 Statistical analysis : The data on various 6.01 1.84 6.10parameters were analyzed by one way ANOVA Crude protein 17.38 0.61 0.56 0.58(Snedecor and Cochran, 1989) and individual 28.12 34.00differences between means were tested using Duncan Ether Extract 2.52 33.50multiple range test using ‘SPSS’Version-17 statisticalpackage and results were interpreted accordingly. Crude Fibre 6.79 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Nitrogen Free 63.92 57.27 60.09 55.46 Extract 9.39 7.99 4.01 3.86 Chemical composition : The chemicalcomposition (Table I) of untreated maize husk or urea Total Ashtreated maize husk obtained in the present study wasalmost comparable with the values reported by II ) Fiber FractionsAkinfemi (2009), Adebowale (1985) and Oji et al.(2007). But the CP value of untreated maize husk Neutral Detergent 29.94 69.32 75.47 74.62(1.84 %) was lower than the value (4%) reported by FibrePhiri et al. (1993). The chemical composition and fiberfractions of finger millet straw were in corroboration Acid Detergent 10.32 41.04 47.27 45.98with the values of Bhatt et al. (2000). Fibre Nutrient and energy intake : There was no Cellulose 9.37 39.99 45.58 44.50significant difference (P<0.05) in total DMI as g per 28.32 28.26 28.64day among the three treatment groups (Table II). Hemi Cellulose 12.62 1.00 0.95 0.98Whereas, the total DMI as per cent of body weightand as g per kg metabolic body weight among the three Acid Detergent 0.65treatment groups was significantly (P<0.05) different. LigninThese findings were in corroboration with the resultsof previous study by Smith et al. (1989) who had Total Silica 1.15 2.75 2.37 2.13reported non significant DMl (g / h / d) values in lambs 0.60 1.07 0.92fed maize stover as roughage source. On the contrary. Biogenic Silica 0.54 2.15 1.30 1.21 Sand Silica 0.61 T1 : Conventional diet, finger millet straw with concentrate feed mixture. T2 : Experimental diet, untreated maize husk with concentrate feed mixture. T3 : Experimental diet, urea treated maize husk with concentrate feed mixture. Mean of two replicates. Variations in duplicate measurements were within ± 3 per cent of the mean. a significant difference (P<0.05) was reported by Oji et al. (2007) where a higher total DMI as g / h / d and as per cent body weight in ram lambs fed urea treated maize crop residues was observed. The ratio of roughage to concentrate feed mixture in total diet of lambs was 53.25:46.66, 52.69:47.20 and 52.74:47.25

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF MAIZE (Zea mays) HUSK 409for T1 T2 and T3, respectively. This ratio can be body weight) among the three treatment groups. Theseconsidered as ideal for lambs with low to moderate findings corroborated with the similar study by Smithrate of growth potential. Sehgal et al. (1983) observed et al. (1989). CP intake was significantly higher in T1that crossbred male lambs on feed lot ration containing (control) and T3 (urea treated) groups than T2roughage to concentrate ratio of 50:50 and having about (untreated) group (Table II). There was no significant14 per cent CP was quite suitable for fat lamb difference in total NDF and ADF intake (as g per day)production. In the present study it was observed that, among the treatment groups. Urea treatment of maizethe urea treatment of maize husk had little influence husk did not significantly improve the intake of OM,on the intake of roughage or total DMI of lambs in T3 NDF or ADF. The ME intake (MJ ME / d / h) of T1,group as compared to the DMI of lambs in T1 or T2 T2 and T3 groups was 3.63, 3.68 and 3.80, respectively.group, which received either finger millet straw or The energy intake of lambs of different groups wasuntreated maize husk as roughage source. There was comparable and match with their growth performance.no significant difference in the overall mean OMI (as The NRC (2001) has stated that the growing animalsg per day, per cent body weight and g per kg metabolic require 3.6 MJ ME per 100 g gain in body weight. TABLE IIDaily mean intake of DM, OM, CP, NDF and ADF in different treatments of growth trialParameter T1 T2 T3 SEM PRoughage 226.39 222.23 224.14 10.08 0.625g per day 1.75a 1.60b 1.66ab 0.06 0.040per cent of body weight 33.12 30.85 31.84 1.24 0.463g per kg W0.75 1998.36 199.05 200.84 1.28 0.446Concentrate 1.53 1.46 1.50 0.03 0.061g per day 28.97 28.03 28.61 0.50 0.619per cent of body weightg per kg W0.75 425.11 421.70 424.98 10.76 0.626 3.29a 3.07b 3.16ab 0.07 0.044Total DMI 62.30a 58.94b 60.46ab 1.39 0.043g per dayper cent of body weight 383.02 389.12 390.96 4.18 0.721g per kg W0.75 2.96 2.84 2.91 0.02 0.088 56.11 54.47 55.71 0.44 0.281Organic Matterg per day 49.16a 39.51b 48.01a 0.018 0.031per cent of body weight 0.40a 0.30b 0.39a 0.023 0.010g per kg W0.75 7.08 5.99 6.90 0.045 0.018Crude Protein 224.87 214.19 222.98 2.90 0.278g per day 1.70a 1.58b 1.66ab 0.02 0.004per cent of body weight 32.43a 30.27b 31.75ab 0.30 0.010g per kg W0.75 120.58 116.44 120.40 1.76 0.558NDF 0.92 0.86 0.90 0.01 0.053g per day 17.37 16.43 17.13 0.19 0.095per cent of body weightg per kg W0.75ADFg per dayper cent of body weightg per kg W0.75SEM : Standard error of meansMean values in a row with different superscripts differ significantly (P< 0.05)

410 B. S. VENKATESH et al. Body weight gain and FCR : The average higher in urea treated (T3) group than control (T1) anddaily body weight gain (g per day) of the lambs did not untreated (T2) (Table III). Similarly, Oji et al. (2007)differ significantly among the treatment groups reported higher digestibility for DM, OM, CP and CF(Table III). In a similar study with Sannen male kids, in ram lambs fed urea treated maize crop residues.identical observations were made (Celik et al., 2003). The digestibility of CP and CF could be influencedOn the contrary, Alhassan (1985) report significant positively with the urea treatment of maize husk at 2difference among young male goats. In the present per cent (W/W) of the DM in the present study. Thestudy, there was non significant (P > 0.05) difference digestibility of ADF and cellulose was significantlyin cumulative average FCR (g DMI / g body weight higher in urea treated (T3) group than control (T1)gain) among the different dietary groups (T1: 6.44. T2: (Table Ill). Similarly, Oji et al. (2007) reported higher7.74 and T3: 5.72). This was in agreement with the digestibility with respect to NDF, ADF and cellulose insimilar observations reported in Sannen male kids ram lambs fed urea treated maize crop residues.(Celik et al., 2003). The efficiency of feed utilization Findings of the digestion trial of this study indicatedof Mandya (Bannur) sheep in this study found that, urea treatment supplementation can increase theto be better (10 VS 6) than Nellore × Deccani digestibility of fiber fractions of maize husk as(Venkateshwaralu et al., 2014) on a similar type of compared to that of conventional finger millet straw.dietary regimen. Higher digestibility for fiber fractions with urea treatment or supplementation might be due to the Nutrient digestibility : The CP digestibility elevation of rumen pH (increased ammonia nitrogenwas higher in control (T1) and urea treated (T3) group supply) and augmentation of fiber fermentation bythan untreated (T2). Whereas, CF digestibility was ruminal microflora. As the microbes are capable of TABLE IIIAverage daily gain (g / h /d) and nutrient digestibility of lambs in different treatments groups during growth trial Attribute T1 T2 T3 SEM PInitial body weight (kg) 10.04 10.48 10.66 0.28 0.673Final body weight (kg) 15.76 15.76 16.30 0.27 0.682Body weight gain (kg) 5.72 5.28 5.64 1.16 0.529Body weight gain (g/h/d) 68.10 62.86 67.14 12.74 0.529Nutrient Digestibility 66.10 66.15 66.27 0.49 0.993Dry Matter 69.11 68.45 69.18 0.53 0.887Organic Matter 63.83a 54.09b 66.49a 1.64 0.005Crude Protein 61.45 68.39 39.57 1.74 0.229Ether Extract 48.32b 53.78b 62.19a 1.60 0.006Crude Fibre 75.21 74.75 71.90 0.81 0.340Nitrogen Free Extract 55.38 54.79 53.58 0.64 0.656NDF 49.18b 52.79ab 53.66a 0.66 0.023ADF 53.83b 58.50a 56.07ab 0.80 0.022Cellulose 62.35 56.09 54.49 1.36 0.092HemicelluloseMean values in a row with different superscripts differ significantly (P< 0.05)

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF MAIZE (Zea mays) HUSK 411utilizing ‘N’ for their growth. NPN substances like ADEBOWALE, E.A., 1985, Maize residues as ruminant feedurea can be substituted for protein, as cheaper resources in Nigeria. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol.,alternative in the diet of ruminants (Woyengo et 13: 237-248.al.,2004). AKINFEMI, A., BABA YEML O. J. AND JONATHAN, S. G., 2009. Bioconversion of maize husk into value added ME prediction by in vitro method : The ME ruminant feed by using white-rot fungus. Revistacontent was increased (7.85 VS 8.25) with higher UDO Agricola., 9 (4): 972-978.RIVGP-24 hour for urea treated maize husk (39.0 IVS 43.70) (Table IV). Similar observations with urea ALHASSAN. W. S., 1985, An overview of recent trends andtreatment to straw were reported by Bakhshali (2011) developments in the use of unconventional feedand Liu et al. (2002). On the contrary, Danish (2010) ingredients for ruminant animals: Applicability to theand Pichad and Metha (2010) observed decrease in Nigerian conditions. Proceedings of Nationalgas production with urea ammoniation of straw. The Workshop on Alternative Formulations of Livestockenergy density of urea treated maize husk was found Feeds in Nigeria. pp: 544-578.to be higher than untreated maize husk or finger milletstraw. ARC., 1984, The nutritive requirements of ruminant livestock. Agricultural Research Council. Common Wealth The results from the present study suggests that Agricultural Bureau, Farnham, Royal, U.K.maize husk, a potential crop residue hitherto not sopopular can be fed as such or with 2 per cent (W /W) BAKHSHALI, K, RAMIN SALAMAT D., NASER. M., MAHAMMAD.urea treatment for sheep under stall fed conditions. S., PARVIZ, N.A. AND SAEID G., 2011, Determination of nutritive value of urea treated canola straw using in vitro gas production technique. Annals of Biological Res.. 2 (4): 218-223. TABLE IV BHATIA, R., KRISHNAMOORTHY, U. AND MOHAMMED, F., 2000, Effcct of feeding tamarind (Tamarindu sindica) seedGas production and predicted ME values of husk as a source of tannin on dry matter intake, roughage and concentrate feed mixture digestibility of nutrients and production performance of crossbred dairy cows in mid-lactation. Ani. Feed Samples RIVGP ME MJ / Sci. Technol., 83: 67-74. (ml/200 kg DMFinger millet straw mg/24h) CELIK, K., ERSOY, L. E. AND SA VRAN, F., 2003, Feeding ofMaize husk 7.49 urea treated wheat straw in Saanen goat male kids.Urea treated maize husk 36.38 7.85 Pakistan J. Nutri. 2: 258-261.Concentrate mixture 8.25 39.01 9.79 DANESH MESGARAN. M., MALAKKHAHI, A. R., HERAVI MOUSSAVI, A., VAKILI, A. AND TAHMASHI, A., 2010. In 43.70 situ ruminal degradation and in vitro gas production of chemically treated sesame stover. J. Anim. and 47.65 Vetey. Advances. 9: 2256-2260. Mean of six replicates, variations in six replicate DZOWELA, B. H. 1987, Efforts of enhance maize stovermeasurements were within ± 3% of the mean. utilization for small holder livestock producers in Malawi. In proceeding of ARNAB Workshop on the REFERENCES Utilization of Agricultural Byproducts as Livestock feed in Africa. P. 27-36.A.O.A.C., 2005, Official methods of analysis. 18th edition. Association of Official Analytical Chemists., FAOSTAT, 2010, The FAO Statistical Database. Food and Washington. D.C. Agri. Org., Rome, Italy.

412 B. S. VENKATESH et al.LIU, J. X., SUSENBETH, A. AND SUDEKUM, K. H., 2002, In vitro SEHGAL. J. P., SINGH MANOHAR, RAWAT, P. S. AND SINGH, R. gas production measurements to evaluate interactions N., 1983, Feedlot performance in growing between untreated and chemically treated rice straws, lambs for mutton production. Indian J. Anim. Sci. grass hay and mulberry leaves. J. Anim. Sci., 53: 715-19. 80: 517-524. SMITH, T., CHAKANYUKA. C., SIBANDA, S. AND MANYUCHI, B.,MENKE, K. H. AND STEINGASS, H., 1988, Estimation of the 1989, Maize stover as a feed for ruminants in energetic feed value from chemical analysis and in overcoming constraints to the efficient utilization of vitro gas production using rumen fluid. Anim. Res. agricultural by- products as animal feed. Eds: SAID, A. Dev., 28: 7- 55. N., DZOWELA, B., ILCA, ADDIS ABABA., pp: 218-231.NRC, 2001, Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 7th revised edition. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. SNEDECOR, G. W. AND COCHRAN, W. G., 1994, Statistical Methods (8th edition). Iowa State University Press,OJI, U. I., ETIM, H. E. AND OKOYE, F. C., 2007, Effects of urea Ames, Iowa, USA. and aqueous ammonia treatment on the composition and nutritive value of maize residues. Small Rumin. VAN SOEST, P. J., ROBERTSON, J. B. AND LEWIS. B.A., 1991, Res., 69 (1-3): 232-236. Methods of dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animalPHIRI, D. M., COULMAN, B., STEPPLER, H.A., KAMARA, C.S. nutrition. J. Dairy Sci., 74: 3583-3597. AND KWESIGA. F., 1993, The effect of feeding maize husk and leucaena as mixture on the voluntary intake VENKATESHWARALU,V., VENKATESHWARALU, M., RAMANA of the husk. Agroforestry system. 23 (1): 79-84. REDDY AND HARIKRISNA, 2014, Effect of feeding maize stover based complete rations on growth and carcassPICHAD KHEJORNSART AND METHA WANAPAT, 2010, Effect of characteristics in Nellore x Deccani rambs lambs. chemical treatment of rice straw on rumen fermentation Indian J. Anim. Nutri. 31 (1): 36-43. characteristics, anaerobic fungal diversity in vitro. J. Anim and Vety. Advan ., 9: 3070-3076. WOYENGO, T. A., GACHUIRI, C. K., WAHOME, R. G. AND MBUGUA, P. N., 2004, Effect of protein supplementation and urea treatment on utilization of maize stover by red maasai sheep, Nairobi, Keenya. South African. J. Anim. Sci., 34.(Received : August, 2014 Accepted : September, 2014)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 48 (3) : 413-419, 2014 Nutritional Evaluation of Azolla (Azolla pinnata) and its Supplementary Effect on In vitro Digestibility of Total Mixed Ration K. KAVYA, T. M. PRABHU, R. G. GLORIDOSS, K. CHANDRAPAL SINGH AND Y. B. RAJESHWARI Department of Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bangalore - 560 024 ABSTRACT The effect of supplementation of azolla on metabolizable energy and digestibility of total mixed ration was evaluated by rumen in vitro gas production technique and modified in vitro two stage digestion technique, respectively. The diet comprised of total mixed ration (TMR), where roughage and concentrate taken in the ratio of 60:40 and concentrate portion of TMR was replaced with 0, 3, 6 and 9 per cent azolla as supplement.The CP, CF, EE, TA, NFE (on % DMB) contents of azolla were found to be 21.66, 15.15, 4.41, 17.84 and 40.79, respectively. The NDF, ADF, ADL, cellulose, hemicellulose and biogenic silica (on % DMB) contents of azolla were found to be 54.86, 36.50, 24.03, 12.54, 18.29 and 3.34, respectively. Azolla contained 1.64 per cent Ca, 0.34 per cent Mg, 2.71 per cent K, 9.1 ppm Cu, 325 ppm Zn, 1569 ppm Fe, 8.11 ppm Co, 5.06 ppm Cr and 2418 ppm Mn and it was found that azolla is rich in essential amino acids. The ME content and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of azolla was found to be 5.44 MJ / kg DM and 54.49 per cent, respectively. There was significant decrease in ME content of diet (TMR) comprising paddy straw supplemented with different levels of azolla (3-9 %) compared to control diet (0 % azolla). There was no significant difference in ME content of the diet (TMR) comprising ragi straw, maize stover, maize husk and sorghum stover supplemented with different levels of azolla (3-9 %) compared to control. It is concluded that, azolla can only serve as a good source of protein, amino acids and minerals with no beneficial effect on digestibility or energy density of TMR.IN India, the cost of conventionally used protein as a source of nutrients for livestock. There are somesupplements in livestock diets have increased over the reports on the use of azolla as feed supplement forpast few years due to their demand, export policy poultry and livestock, in which normal feed proteincoupled with low production and intensive cultivation sources have been replaced by azolla on an iso-of other cash crops. The high cost of feed is largely nitrogenous basis (Chatterjee, 2013). Considering thedue to the exorbitant price and scarcity of conventional above facts, the present study was undertaken tofeed ingredients. Since the cost of feeding is a evaluate nutritive value of azolla and its supplementarysignificant factor dictating the economic viability of effect on in vitro digestibility and metabolizability oflivestock industry, it must be reduced by considering total mixed rations.the locally available non-conventional feed ingredientsin the ration formulation. Azolla is one such non- MATERIAL AND METHODSconventional feed resource which is a free-floatingwater fern containing up to 28 per cent crude protein Crop residues commonly used for ruminantand has a potential to be used as a protein supplement feeding viz., paddy straw, ragi straw, maize stover,in ruminants (Ahirwar et al., 2009). Azolla fixes sorghum stover, maize husk, bengal gram husk wereatmospheric nitrogen in association with nitrogen fixing selected. The crop residues were dried at 65oC for 2blue green algae Anabaena azollae, making it an days and ground to pass through a one mm sieve andexcellent source of protein and amino acids for used for chemical analysis and in vitro studies.livestock. Azolla is considered as the most economic,efficient and sustainable feed supplement for livestock Azolla pinnata was harvested from azolla tanksfeeding (Lumpkin, 1984; Pannaerker, 1988). maintained at the College of Agriculture, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shimoga. The farmers, particularly in South East Asia and Fresh sample of azolla was dried in hot air oven atprobably elsewhere had developed the use of azolla 50oC for 48 h and dried sample was ground to pass

414 K. KAVYA et al.through a one mm sieve and preserved in airtight bottles SC0= sorghum stover + CFM + 0 per cent azolla,at room temperature. SC3= sorghum stover + CFM + 3 per cent azolla, SC6= sorghum stover + CFM + 6 per cent azolla The compound feed mixture (CFM) or SC9= sorghum stover + CFM + 9 per cent azolla.concentrate feed was formulated with 18 per cent CPand 70 per cent TDN using maize, wheat bran, The dried samples of azolla, crop residues andgroundnut cake, common salt and mineral mixture at diets (TMR) were analyzed in duplicate for proximate43, 31, 23, 01 and 02 per cent, respectively. principles (AOAC, 2005) and fibre fractions (Van Soest et al., 1991). The mineral elements of azolla were The total mixed ration (TMR) comprised of estimated by using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomicroughage and CFM taken in the ratio of 60:40. The Emission Spectrophotometry (ICP - AES) (Wallacediet was supplemented with different levels of azolla and Barrett, 1981). The amino acid composition ofranging from 0 - 9 per cent by replacing the CFM azolla was analyzed at Evonik (SEA) Laboratory,portion of TMR. Singapore using the fast and reliable Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (AMINO NIR). Treatment design Determination of ME by rumen in vitro gas Crop Levels of azolla supplementationresidues production technique–RIVGPT (Menke and 0% 3% 6% 9% Steingass, 1988) : A crossbred (Holstein Friesian x Bos indicus) lactating dairy cow, weighing 400 kg, Azolla Azolla Azolla Azolla producing 9 kg milk per day, fitted with a flexible rumen cannula of large diameter (Bar Diamond, Inc. USA),Paddy Straw PC0 PC3 PC6 PC9 served as the donor of the rumen inoculum. It was fedRagi straw RC0 RC3 RC6 RC9 with basal diet consisting of finger millet straw at the MSC3 MSC6 MSC9 rate of 6.5 to 7 kg per day and compounded feedMaize stover MSC0 MHC3 MHC6 MHC9 mixture (maize - 54 %, wheat bran - 41 %, mineralMaize husk MHC0 SC3 SC6 SC9 mixture - 2 %, salt - 1 % and urea - 2 %) of 4.0 kg / day in two equal portions at the time of milking i.e,Sorghum stover SC0 6.00 A.M. and 1.30 P.M. The rumen fluid was collected between 9 A.M. and 9.30 A.M. before offering fingerWhere, millet straw.PC0= paddy straw + CFM + 0 per cent azolla, The rumen inoculum collected fromPC3= paddy straw + CFM + 3 per cent azolla, rumencannulated cow was brought in a closed plasticPC6= paddy straw+ CFM + 6 per cent azolla container (Thermos) pre warmed with hot water.PC9= paddy straw + CFM + 9 per cent azolla, Completely filled container with rumen fluid contentRC0= ragi straw + CFM + 0 per cent azolla, was brought to the laboratory and filtered through fourRC3= ragi straw + CFM + 3 per cent azolla, layers of cheese cloth and then mixed with the mediumRC6= ragi straw + CFM + 6 per cent azolla prepared (Menke and Steingas, 1988). The bufferedRC9= ragi straw + CFM + 9 per cent azolla, rumen fluid was supplied with CO2 to minimize changesMSC0= maize stover + CFM + 0 per cent azolla, in microbial population and to avoid O2 contaminationMSC3= maize stover + CFM + 3 per cent azolla, while handling at 39oC throughout the procedure.MSC6= maize stover + CFM + 6 per cent azollaMSC9=maize stover + CFM + 9 per cent azolla, Air equilibrated samples (200 ± 5mg) wereMHC0= maize husk + CFM + 0 per cent azolla, incubated in 100 ml calibrated glass syringes with 30MHC3= maize husk + CFM + 3 per cent azolla, ml of buffered rumen fluid. There were threeMHC6=maize husk + CFM + 6 per cent azolla replications each for blank and reference standards ofMHC9= maize husk + CFM + 9 per cent azolla, roughage and concentrate (Menke and Steingass,

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF AZOLLA (azolla pinnata) AND ITS SUPPLEMENTARY EFFECT 4151988). The incubation was carried out in a water bath NDF residue = [W3- (W1× C1) / W2×100]maintained at 39oC. The readings of displaced syringeswere recorded at different time intervals over 24 hours Where,period.Whenever the syringe reading approaches 90ml, it was reset to 30 ml and the cumulative gas W1=Empty bag weight, W2=Sample weight,production was measured for 24 hours period. Gasproduction at 24 hours, corrected for the blank and W3=Dried weight of bag with residue afterstandards was used for determination of ME. extraction process, The following equations were used to predict the C1=Blank bag correction (final oven dried weightME content of crop residues and supplemented diets. divided by original blank bag weight). Roughages TDDM (per cent) =100 - NDF residue ME = 2.2 + 0.1357 GP + 0.0057 CP + 0.0002859 ADDM (per cent) =100 - weight of residueEE2 before NDS refluxing For Azolla and CFM The mean values of ME content of various diets ME = 1.06 + 0.1570 GP + 0.0084 CP + 0.022 were subjected to statistical analysis using the softwareEE - 0.0081TA Graph pad prism version 5.0. One way ANOVA was Where, used to test the hypothesis according to the procedures ME= Metabolizable energy (MJ / Kg DM), described by Snedecor and Cochran (1994). Individual GP = Gas production for 24 hours in ml / 200mg differences between the mean values of ME wereDM, tested using Bonferoni ‘t’ test when the treatment CP = Crude protein, effect was significant. EE = Ether extract, TA = Total ash in g / kg DM. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Determination of Apparent digestible dry The proximate principles and fibre fractions of azolla, crop residues and CFM are presented in Tablematter (ADDM) and True digestible dry matter I and II, respectively. The DM content of azolla was found to be very low. The crude protein content of(TDDM) by Modified in vitro two stage digestion azolla obtained in the present study was similar to thetechnique (Goering and Van Soest, 1970) : Air values reported by Alalade and Iyayi (2006) and Mutzarequilibrated samples in duplicates of about 400 ± 5mg et al. (1976), indicating azolla as a good source ofwere weighed in pre-labeled and weighed filter bags protein. The concentration of calcium, magnesium,and sealed with thermo sealer and transferred into potassium, copper, manganese, zinc, iron, cobalt andrespective Erlenmeyer flask and 80 ml of buffered chromium in azolla was 1.64 per cent, 0.43 per cent,rumen fluid was added to each flask. Incubation was 2.71 per cent, 9.1 ppm, 2418 ppm, 325 ppm, 1569 ppm,carried out in the water bath at 39oC for 48 hours, 8.11 ppm and 5.06 ppm, respectively. Azolla is a richblank bags were also kept for incubation. Anaerobic source of both macro and micro mineral elements. Thecondition of the inoculum was maintained by continuous mineral profile obtained in this study was higher thaninfusion of carbon dioxide.After incubation for 48 hours, the reports of Alalade and Iyayi (2006). Thesethe bags were taken out and gently squeezed to remove differences might be due to the variation in the strainexcess liquid, washed with distilled water and dried at of azolla, production practice and sensitivity of the55oC for minimum of 5 hours. After cooling, weights method adopted for mineral quantification.of bags were recorded for calculation of ADDM. Thedried bags were refluxed with neutral detergent The data on amino acid profile (Table III) indicatesolution (NDS) for 1 hour 15 minutes and the bags that lysine, isoleucine, leucine, phenyl alanine, glycine,were washed with hot distilled water and dried at 105oC arginine and valine were predominant in azolla.for 2 to 3 hours. After cooling, weights of bags were However, the concentration of sulphur containing aminotaken for calculation of TDDM. acids like methionine and cystine was comparatively less in Azolla pinnata. Amino acid values obtained in

416 K. KAVYA et al. TABLE IProximate principles (on per cent dry matter basis) of Azolla pinnata, Crop Residues and CFMSamples DM % OM Samples TA NFE CP EE CFAzollapinnata 4.37 82.16 21.66 4.41 15.15 17.84 40.94Paddy strawRagi straw 95.63 84.21 2.51 0.84 35.31 15.79 45.55Maize stoverMaize husk 84.64 89.25 3.55 0.98 32.49 10.75 52.23Sorghum stoverBengal gram husk 94.46 92.80 2.92 0.87 30.51 7.21 58.49CFM 89.72 97.45 1.84 0.61 31.83 2.55 63.17 87.61 93.48 3.25 1.08 30.64 6.52 58.51 87.44 96.38 4.27 0.79 46.72 3.62 44.60 86.74 94.00 17.89 4.08 8.35 6.00 63.68Mean of two replicates. Variations in duplicate measurements were within ± 3 % of the mean TABLE IIFiber fractions, total silica, biogenic silica and san silica contents (on per cent dry matter basis) of Azolla pinnata, crop residues and CFMSamples Azolla Paddy Ragi Maize Maize Sorghum Bengal CFM pinnata straw straw stover husk stover gram huskNDF 54.86 71.50 66.26 70.71 75.71 66.72 71.09 19.80ADF 36.57 50.00 37.33 49.71 42.18 38.21 58.20 10.11ADL 24.03 4.78 5.14 6.26 2.16 4.93 4.76 1.13Hemicellulose 18.29 21.50 28.93 21.00 33.53 28.51 12.89 9.69Cellulose 12.54 45.22 32.19 43.45 40.02 33.28 51.44 8.98Total silica 5.61 10.96 5.38 7.96 3.74 3.66 2.89 2.77Biogenic silica 3.34 6.75 3.13 4.28 2.08 2.48 1.29 1.98Sand silica 2.27 4.21 2.25 3.68 1.66 1.18 1.60 0.79Mean of two replicates. Variations in duplicate measurements were within ± 3 % of the meanthis study were in corroboration with the findings of digestibility and ME content of the diet. The rumen inAlaladeand Iyayi (2006), Beckingham et al. (1978) vitro gas production and ME content of TMR arereported higher concentration of essential amino acids presented in Table V and VI, respectively.in Azolla filiculoides. In vitro gas production, ME content, ADDM per The rumen in vitro net gas production at 24 hours cent and TDDM per cent of Azolla were found to beand predicted ME content of azolla, crop residues and 19.45 ml / 200 mg DM / 24 hours, 5.44 MJ / kg DM,CFM are presented in Table IV. Azolla contained low 29.59 and 54.49 per cent, respectively. The in vitrolevel of organic matter and higher levels of acid net gas production and metabolizable energy densitydetergent lignin and biogenic silica which limits the of azolla obtained in the study were almost similar to the values reported by Beckingham et al. (1978), but,

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF AZOLLA (Azolla pinnata) AND ITS SUPPLEMENTARY EFFECT 417 TABLE III lower than the values reported by Alalade and IyayiAmino acid profile of Azolla pinnata (2006), Parashuramulu and Nagalakshmi (2013), Khatun et al. (1999) and Ramesh (2008). The in vitro Amino acids % AA % in dry matter digestibility of azolla obtained in the present (AA) DMB CP study was almost similar to the value reported by Becerra et al. (1995). Azolla contained low level ofLysine 1.231 4.940 organic matter and higher levels of acid detergent ligninMethionine 0.413 1.657 (24.03 %), biogenic silica (3.34 %) and total ashCystine 0.194 0.778 (17.84%) content. Lignin is considered as anThreonine 1.164 4.671 antinutritive component of forages as it cannot beArginine 1.414 5.674 readily fermented by rumen microbes. It has a negativeIsoleucine 1.160 4.655 impact on ME values of forages (Van Soest, 1994).Leucine 2.072 8.315 Lignin was identified as a dominant factor limiting thePhenylalanine 1.377 5.526 feed value. Apart from high lignin content, higher levelGlycine 1.341 5.381 of biogenic silica and total ash in azolla would alsoSerine 1.124 4.510 have been the reasons for lower ME content andValine 1.445 5.799 digestibility of azolla. In the diet (TMR) comprisingAlanine 1.539 6.176 paddy straw and CFM which was replaced with azollaHistidine 0.488 1.956 at different levels, there was significant (P < 0.05)Proline 1.032 4.141 difference between the control diet and the dietAspartic acid 2.303 9.242 supplemented with 3, 6 and 9 per cent azolla. ThereGlutamic acid 2.740 10.995 was decrease in ME content of all the treatment dietsTotal (without NH3) 21.037 84.418 compared to the control. The results were similar toAmmonia 0.509 2.043 the findings of Kumar et al. (2013) who had reportedTotal 21.546 86.461 that,50% replacement of oil cake with azolla meal reduced the gas production in in vitro condition with TABLE IV no satisfactory significant effect on digestibility. In the diet comprising ragi straw and CFM which wasRumen in viro net gas production at 24 hours replaced with azolla at different levels, there was no (IVGP - 24h) and predicted metabolizable significant difference between the control and the treatment diets. Similar observations were made in caseenergy (ME) content of Azolla pinnata, Crop of all other diets (TMR) supplemented with azolla at residues and CFM different levels. This indicates that, there is no supplementary effect of azolla on TMR, whereSamples Rumen in vitro ME concentrate portion was substituted with azolla at net gas (MJ / kg different levels. Compared to CFM, azolla contained good amount of protein, fibre, lignin and biogenic silica production DM) but, it, had lower energy density because of lower (ml / 200 mg / 24 h) concentration of fermentable organic matter. Therefore, the substitution of CFM with different levels ofazollaAzollapinnata 19.45 5.44 (3 to 9 %) in TMR reduced the energy density of mixedPaddy straw 22.37 5.47 diet.Ragi straw 34.39 7.11Maize stover 30.21 6.56 The present study revealed that, azolla can onlyMaize husk 46.03 8.56 serve as a good source of protein, amino acids andSorghum stover 41.51 8.13 minerals with no beneficial effect on digestibility orBengal gram husk 45.44 8.57 metabolizable energy density of mixed diet.CFM 48.73 9.62 Mean of six replicates. Variations in six replicatemeasurements were within ± 3 % of the mean

418 K. KAVYA et al. TABLE V Rumen in vitro net gas production of diets (TMR) comprising roughage (60 % kept constant) and CFM (31 to 40 %) supplemented with different levels of azolla from 0 to 9 per centSamples Rumen in vitro net gas production (ml / 200 mg DM / 24 b) 0 % Azolla 3 % Azolla 6 % Azolla 9 % AzollaPaddy straw + CFM+ azolla 41.6 39.56 38.01 36.31Ragi straw + CFM+ azolla 43.36 42.16 41.49 40.67Maize stover +CFM + azolla 40.26 39.57 39.00 38.4Maize husk + CFM+ azolla 46.65 46.49 46.14 45.91Sorghum stover +CFM + azolla 47.3 46.9 45.84 44.15Mean of six replicates. Variations in six replicate measurements were within ± 3 % of the mean TABLE VIMetabolizable energy (ME) content of diets (TMR) comprising roughage (60 % kept constant) and CRM (31 to ro %) supplemented with differetn levels of azolla from 0 to 9 per cent Samples ME (MJ / kg DM) (Mean ± SE)Paddy straw + CFM+ azolla 0 % Azolla 3 % Azolla 6 % Azolla 9 % AzollaRagi straw + CFM+ azollaMaize stover +CFM + azolla 7.57a ± 0.03 7.26b ± 0.10 7.03b ± 0.09 6.78b ± 0.02Maize husk+ CFM+ azolla 8.05 ± 0.29 7.91 ± 0.26 7.86 ± 0.21 7.78 ± 0.13Sorghum stover + CFM + azolla 7.65 ± 0.17 7.55 ± 0.09 7.48 ± 0.07 7.40 ± 0.10 8.8 ± 0.02 8.78 ± 0.08 8.74 ± 0.1 8.89 ± 0.13 8.96 ± 0.16 8.91 ± 0.12 8.76 ± 0.19 8.51 ± 0.12Means bearing different superscripts in a row differ significantly, P<0.05 REFERENCES BACERRA, M., PRESTON, T. R. AND OGLE, B., 1995, Effect of replacing whole boiled soya beans with azolla in theA.O.A.C., 2005, Official methods of analysis. Association diets of growing ducks. Livest. Res. Rural Dev., of Official Analytical Chemists.18th Edition., 7: 1-11. Washington, D.C. BOLKA, P. C., 2011. Nutritional evaluation of Azolla (AzollaAHIRWAR, M. K., LEELA, V. AND BALAKRISHNAN, V., 2009, pinnata) in broilers and layers. Ph. D. Thesis, In-vitro fermentation pattern of Azolla pinnata as Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences protein supplement in forage based diet for ruminants. University, Bidar. Indian. Vet. J., 86 (1): 60-62. BECKINGHAM, M. K. W., ELA, S. W., MORIS, J. G. AND GOLDMAN,ALALADE, M. AND IYAYI, E. A., 2006, Chemical composition C. R., 1978, Nutritive value of the Nitrogen-fixing and the feeding value of Azolla (Azolla pinnata) meal aquatic fern Azolla filiculoides. J. Agri. Food Chem., for egg-type chicks. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 5: 137-141. 26: 1230-1234.

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF AZOLLA (Azolla pinnata) AND ITS SUPPLEMENTARY EFFECT 419CHATTERJEE, SHARMA, P., GHOSH, M. K., MANDAL, M. AND PANNAERKER, S., 1988. Azolla as a livestock and poultry ROY, P. K., 2013, Utilization of Azolla microphylla as feed. Livestock Adviser, 13: 22-26. Feed Supplement for Crossbred Cattle. Int. J. Agri. Food Sci. Tech., 4(3): 207-214. PARASHURAMULU, P. S. AND NAGALAKSHMI, D., 2013, Protein fractionation and in vitro digestibility of Azolla inGOERING, H. K. AND VAN SAOEST, P. J., 1970, Forage fibre ruminants. J. Anim. Feed Res., 3(3): 129-132. analyses. Agriculture Handbook No. 379, USDA, Washington, DC. RAMESH, H., 2008, Nutritional evaluation of Azolla (Azolla pinnata) and its supplementary effect on in vitroKHATUN, A., ALI, M. A. AND DINGLE, J. G., 1999, Utilization of digestibility of crop residues. M.V.Sc. Thesis, Azolla (Azolla pinnata) in the diets of laying hen. Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 8 (1) : 43-56. University, Bidar.KUMAR, R., TRIPATHI, P., CHAUDHARY, U. B., GUPTA, B. AND SNEDECOR, G. W. AND COCHRAN, W. G., 1994, Statistical SHARMA, H., 2013, Effect of replacement of oil cake Methods. 8th Edition. Affiliated East – West press Pvt. with azolla meal on in vitro gas, methane production Ltd., New Delhi. and digestibility with rumen liquor of goat. XX Annual Conference of IAAVR, KVAFSU, 16-17 April, VAN SAOEST, P. J., ROBERTTSON, J. B. AND LEWIS, B. A., 1991, Bangalore, India. Methods of dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and non starch polysaccharides in relation to animalLUMPKIN, T. A., 1984, Assessing the potential for Azolla nutrition. J. Dairy. Sci., 74: 3583-3597. use in the humid tropics. Int. Rice Commi. News., 33: 30 - 33. VAN SOEST, P. J., 1994, Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminants. 2nd Ed. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York,MENKE, K. H. AND STEINGASS, H., 1988, Estimation of USA. energetic feed value obtained from chemical analysis and in vitro gas production using rumen fluid. Anim. WALLACE, G. F. AND BARRETT, P., 1981, Analytical methods Res. Devlop., 28: 7-55. development for inductively coupled plasma spectrophotometry, The Perekin-Elmer corporation,MUTZAR,A. J., SLINGER, S. J. AND BURTON, J. H., 1976, Nutritive Norwalk, CT. value of aquatic plants for chicks. J. Poult. Sci., 55: 1917-1992.(Received : July, 2014 Accepted : September, 2014)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 48 (3) : 420-427, 2014 Inter Gender Relationship and Training Needs in Rice Cultivation - A Study in West Garo Hills, Meghalaya PUSPITA DAS Department of Extension and Communication Management, College of Home Science, Central Agricultural University, Tura, Meghalaya ABSTRACT The present study was under taken to explore the work participation and training needs for both the genders in West Garo Hills of Meghalaya. Rice is most widely grown crop in the entire state of Meghalaya. It occupies nearly 50 per cent of the total cultivated area in the state and accounts for nearly 86 per cent of the total production of food grains. It is found from this study that in settled cultivation of paddy women are involved in harvesting and storage, whereas, their counter parts are mostly in sowing and nursery raising. In Shifting cultivation women are mostly involved in threshing, while, their counter parts are in seed selection and treatment. As far as training needs are concerned women need training on plant protection, whereas, their counter parts need training on seed selection and treatment.RICE is a very widely used staple cereal and is a main farming practiced here. The main crop is paddy, wetsource of energy for more than two- thirds of rice cultivation is practiced in the plain areas while inpopulation in India (Mujoo and Ali, 2009). Household the hills the popular practice is jhum or shiftingfood and nutritional security of North-eastern states cultivation. The state has 0.1 million hector under riceof India predominantly depends on rice. Rice is the cultivation which covers mainly rainfed areas.principal food grain crop of the North Eastern hilly Meghalaya is basically an agricultural state with aboutecosystem followed by maize, occupying 3.51 million 80 per cent of its population depending entirely onhectares which accounts for more than 80 per cent of agriculture for their livelihood. Food grain productionthe total cultivated area of the region and 7.8 per cent sector covers an area of over 60 per cent of the totalof the total rice area in India, while, its share in national crop area. With the introduction of different crops ofrice production is only 5.9 per cent. The total rice high yielding varieties in the mid seventies, remarkableproduction of NE region is estimated to be around 5.50 increase in food grain production has been made. Amillion tones with average productivity of 1.57 t/ha, major breakthrough was achieved when High Yieldingwhich is much below the national average of 2.08 t/ha Varieties of paddy such as Masuri, Pankaj, IR-8 and(Pattanayak et al., 2006). other improved varieties specially IR-36 which is suitable for Rabi season, fitting in the multi cropping Rice is the most widely grown crop in the entire system have been widely cultivated all over the feasiblestate of Meghalaya. It occupies nearly 50 per cent of area of the state. Spectacular achievement wasthe total cultivated area in the state and accounts for obtained after introduction of cold tolerant varieties –nearly 86 per cent of the total production of food grains. Megha I and Megha II developed by ICAR NEHThe hilly state characterized by elevated ranges, foot region. The women participate in most of thehills and valleys have less than 10 per cent of the agricultural activities, besides marketing of the producegeographical area under cultivation. The soils are red as agriculture is considered as a family enterprise. Theand yellow, moderately deep, acidic and low West Garo Hills district is the largest producer of ricephosphorus. Shifting cultivation (jhum) is the traditional in the state, accounting for nearly 39 per cent of the total production of rice in the state keeping above points

INTER GENDER RELATIONSHIP AND TRAINING NEEDS IN RICE CULTIVATION 421in view, the study was conducted in West Garo Hills skills and decision making skills to arrive at the mostof Meghalaya. satisfactory solution to practical field problems. Improved rice production to feed current and future In all societies, men and women are assigned generations can be achieved only if the roles,tasks, activities and responsibilities that are socially responsibilities, needs and constraints of women, whodetermined rather than natural. Women participate in carry out a considerable part of rice production aremost of the agricultural operations like manuring, land duly recognized (Sabarwal, et al., 2010). Thepreparation, sowing of seeds, transplanting weeding, information and training needs assessment report willapplying fertilizers, taking care of standing crops, help to understand the system as a whole and serve asharvesting, threshing, carrying the produce from field a baseline for planning and implementation of futureto home, storage of food grains, cattle care and interventions. Mahalakshmi et al. (2009) and Michaelpreparation of manure pit. The success or failure of and Jerry (2010), have emphasized that training needfarm depends mainly on the contribution made by farm assessment is an effective way to identify the criticalwomen (Rani et al., 2001).Women are also the gaps and constraints faced by extension officials inrepository of indigenous species of rice and other seeds technology transfer. Devi and Verma (2009) found thatwhich are more resilient than the High Yielding Varieties in rice cultivation operations most needed and(Mukhim, 2010). Farm produce is marketed commonly interested areas of training were storage and harvesting,by men and that gives them complete control over somewhat needed and interested area were weeding,household finance (Patel, 2012). In NE, farming is still threshing, transplanting, nursery raising, insect pestlargely a feminine activity; from sowing seeds to control, manure and fertilizer application, whereas leasttransplantation of rice and other crops (Mukhim, 2010). needed and interested areas of training were landGender is recognized as the social characteristic that preparation and irrigation.cuts across caste, class, occupation, age and ethnicity.It is the gender that differentiates the roles, People cannot be helped unless they want to helpresponsibilities, resources, constraints and opportunities themselves. Hence, training must start with the needsof women and men in agriculture. By and large of people that are important. People must becomeagriculture in India is an enterprise, which engages convinced that they have a problem and that thewomen and men in different activities with varying programme offered will help them solve it. Peopledegrees of their participation. Meghalaya is not an come from different groups and have different needs.exception to it. Partnership is reflected in all the farming Hence, depending on their age, education, knowledge,activities in India perhaps because agriculture is a attitude, interest their needs differ. Training need alsofamily enterprise. Partnership is also a requirement differs as per the perception of men and womenfor sustainable agricultural development. The farmers. Hence, it is essential that prior to trainingagricultural scenario in our country is unique with its programme, training need assessment should be done.diversified patterns, variation of agro-climatic conditions No training programme would bring changes in theand availability of resources which differentiate the knowledge, attitude and action unless it is need based.human input both by women and men and justifies the In fact the success of training efforts, ultimately dependneed for engendering agriculture. Sensitization of upon the extent to which training needs are truthfullyagriculture extension system will enable them to assessed. In view of above, the present study wasunderstand the concept of gender in agriculture, gender undertaken to explore the work participation androles and gender analysis, gender needs and priorities training needs for both the genders in rice cultivationso that they can be able to indentify barriers of in West Garo Hills of Meghalaya with the followingagricultural development, plan their work and can able objectives:-to give justice to both women and men in the farmingcommunity. To study the socio-economic profile of the respondents. Training normally concentrates on theimprovement of basic skills of operation, interpersonal To study the extent of involvement of Garo women and men in different activities in paddy cultivation and

422 PUSPITA DAS To assess the training needs of the respondents between 20 to 30 years, 33.5 per cent were in the agein the cultivation of major food crop – paddy. group of 31 to 40 years, 25.5 per cent were in the age group of 41 to 50 years, 19.5 per cent were in the age METHODOLOGY group of 51 to 60 years and 8.5 per cent were in the age group of 61 to 70 years. Among their counter Out of seven districts in Meghalaya, Garo Hills is parts, 11 per cent were in the age group of 20 - 30constituted of three districts viz., West Garo Hills, East years, 34.5 per cent in the age group of 31 - 40 years,Garo Hills and South Garo Hills. As this study is 27.5 per cent in the age group of 41 - 50 years, 19.5particularly on Garo tribe, the district West Garo Hills per cent in the age group of 51 - 60 years and only 7.5has been selected from three districts due to easy per cent in the age group of 61 - 70 years. The highestaccessibility to researcher. Out of eight blocks from percentage of respondents (both women and men)West Garo Hills, four blocks were selected by simple were in the age group of 31-40 years and the leastrandom sampling. Two villages from each block were percentage of respondents were in the age group ofselected by simple random sampling methods. The 61 - 70 years. The study shows that most of theselected blocks were Selsella, Gambegre, Rongram respondents are young and in active stage.and Betasing. Under each block the selected villageswere Shyamnagar and Bansidua from Selsella block, The levels of education of the respondents areAmindagre and Gambegre from Gambegre block, an important factor in the decision – making processJendagre and Ganol Apal from Rongram block and of the individual. Educational level of the respondentsRerapara and Damalgre from Betasing block. Total may influence the extent of involvement of an individuallist of farm families (couples) from these eight villages in any specific livelihood. The distribution of thewere prepared and out of which two hundred couples respondents according to their level of education iswere selected randomly from the total list of couples. presented in Table I. The table reveals that highestHence the number of respondents was 400. Data has percentage of respondents was with High Schoolbeen collected through interview method. For this study Education in both the cases, but, percentage varies ina structured interview schedule was prepared on the other level of education. Lowest percentage ofbasis of objectives of the study. To elicit information respondents in women were up to primary levelon involvement in farm activities three point scale was educated, whereas the same was found for their maleused. After taking observation weighted scores were counterpart as illiterate. From the table it is also foundcalculated and accordingly ranking was done. that 33 per cent of women were illiterate, 31 per centInformation on involvement in agriculture activities was of women were up to primary and 36 per cent womencollected for major crop paddy both for shifting were in high school and above (Table I).cultivation and settled agriculture. For identification oftraining areas which had potentiality of improving Age at marriage is a social factor which is relatedefficiency of farm women and their husbands, a list to health, nutrition, work participation and so manywas prepared. The same was discussed with experts. other things. Observations on age at marriages areAccordingly on the basis of in-depth discussion with depicted in Table I. It was observed that majority 65.5experts and extensive literature survey a list of training of women respondents got married at the age ofareas was prepared and data was collected. 15 – 20 %), while it is different in the case of their counterparts. In case of husbands highest percentage RESULTS AND DISCUSSION of respondents got married in between 21 – 25 years. Only 2.5 per cent of women respondents got married Age of the respondents is a significant factor in at the age of 31 – 35, while, in case of husbands theinducing individual to go for different occupations. In age at marriage was 15 – 20 which obtained the lowestthe present study, the respondents were divided into position. The study reveals that most of the womenfive groups such as 20 to 30, 31 to 40, 41 to 50, 51 to respondents got married before their marriageable age60, 61 to 70 years and the results are given in table I. but most of the male respondents got married at properIt was revealed from the table that 13 per cent of the age.respondents (women) were in the age group of

INTER GENDER RELATIONSHIP AND TRAINING NEEDS IN RICE CULTIVATION 423 TABLE I TABLE IIClassification of the respondents based of the Distribution of the respondents according to age, education and age at marriage their participation in training programme (n=400) (n=400) Wife Husband Age group Wife HusbandAge group Fre- Per Fre- Per Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage quencycentage quency centage20 – 30 26 13 22 11 Rubber plantation 9 4.5 20 10 33.5 69 34.531 – 40 67 25.5 55 27.5 Animal husbandry 1 0.5 00 19.5 39 19.5 (General)41 – 50 51 8.5 15 7.551 – 60 39 33 63 31.5 Paddy cultivation 6 3 00 31 65 32.561 - 70 17 36 72 36Level of Education 65.5 18 9 Weaving 1 0.5 00 25 110 55Illiterate 66 7 51 25.5 Value of land 1 0.5 00 2.5 21 10.5Upto Primary 62 Vegetable cultivation 4 2 0 0High school and 72 Early marriage 1 0.5 00aboveAge at marriage Farmer training 0 0 2115 to 20 131 Piggery 0 0 1 0.521 to25 5026 to 30 14 Agricultural Demons31 to 35 5 tration 1 0.5 00 It was observed that highest (4.5 % of the were least exposed to educational film. In case ofrespondents (women) have attended training on Rubber husbands the picture is different. They are highlyplantation while 0.5 per cent of them attended for exposed to radio followed by newspaper. This mayanimal husbandry, weaving, value of land, early happen due to their contact with outside world.marriage and agricultural demonstration. Whereas, Television secured the third rank and educational filmtwo per cent of the respondents have attended the is the lowest rank in terms of exposure to differenttraining on vegetable production. In case of husbands, media.highest percentage of respondents have participatedin training for rubber plantation followed by general Table IV reveals that, threshing is the activity infarmers training. Overall participation rate in the which women were mostly involved followed by seedtraining programme is very poor. selection and treatment and the third activity is seed or grain storage. The wide array of varieties in North It was observed that women and men are exposed East India reflects the women’s knowledge of seedsto different mass media. It was revealed from the and plant breeding.Table III that 16.5 per cent women respondents werenever watched television, whereas, 49, 14.5, 20 of them After storage the involvement of women werewatched television, rarely, occasionally and daily, more in land preparation followed by harvesting, salesrespectively, thus watching television among all other and purchase, plant protection measures, manuringmass media secured the first rank, followed by listening respectively. Sowing and nursery raising andof radio. Among different mass media respondents

424 PUSPITA DAS TABLE III Distribution of the respondents according to their mass media exposure (n=400) Wife Husband Activities Daily Occasionaly Rarely Never Rank Daily Occasionaly Rarely Never RankNews paper II 14(7) 31(15.5) 68(34) 87(43.5) III 37(18.5) 28(14) 68(34) 67(33.5)Farm magazine 0 0 22(11) 178(89) V 0 0 23(11.5) 177(88.5) VFolder/leaflets 0 0 32(16) 168(84) IV 0 0 32(16) 168(84) IVRadio 28(14) 38(19) 78(55) 56(28) II 48(24) 22(11) 69(34.5) 61(30.5) ITelevision 40(20) 29(14.5) 98(49) 33(16.5) I 19(9.5) 22(11) 103(51.5) 56(28) IIIEducational film 0 1(0) 12(6) 187(93.5) VI 0 0 13(6.5) 187(93.5) VI(Figures in parenthesis indicates percentage) TABLE IV Involvement in shifting cultivation of paddy Wife Husband (n=400) No Seldom AlwaysActivities Rank IILand preparation 27(13.5) 26(13) 147(73.5) Rank No Seldon Always IV 91(45.5) 65(32.5) 44(22) ISeed selection and 19(9.5) 30(15) 151(75.5) II 84(42) 71(35.5) 45(22.5) VIItreatment X IXSowing and 179(89.5) 17(8.5) 4(2) IX 182(91) 4(2) 14(7)nursery raising X 192(96) 5(2.5) 3(1.5) VIII VIII 191(95.5) VITransplanting 182(91) 12(6) 6(3) VII 187(93.5) 6(3) 3(1.5) V V 158(79) 6(3) 7(3.5) IIIManuring 170(85) 23(11.5) 7(3.5) I 119(59.5) 18(9) 24(12) IV III 96(48) 42(21) 39(19.5)Plant protection 162(81) 15(7.5) 23(11.5) VI 121(60.5) 58(29) 46(23) 26(13) 53(26.5)Harvesting 30(15) 36(18) 134(67)Threshing 13(6.5) 4(2) 183(91.5)Seed and grain storage 23(11.5) 30(15) 147(73.5)Sale and purchase 138(69) 23(11.5) 39(19.5)(Figures in parenthesis indicates percentage)

INTER GENDER RELATIONSHIP AND TRAINING NEEDS IN RICE CULTIVATION 425transplanting are the activities in which they are least sowing and nursery raising, followed by seed selectioninvolved. It is also clear that involvement of husbands’ and treatment, land preparation, transplanting, seed andwere more in seed selection and treatment, land grain storage, threshing, harvesting, sales and purchase,preparation, seed or grains storage, sales and purchase, plant protection and manuring, respectively. If wethreshing, harvesting, sowing and nursery, plant analyze the gender based involvement in settledprotection, manuring and transplanting, respectively in cultivation of paddy it can be observed that womenorder. have maximum involvement in harvesting, seeds and grains storage while men have maximum involvement While analyzing inter gender relationship in shifting in sowing and nursery raising. Threshing obtainedcultivation of paddy, it is observed that threshing is the second rank as far as involvement of wives ismain area in which women are involved while men concerned, whereas, seeds selection and treatmentare involved in seed selection and treatment and land ranked the same for men. In case of settled cultivationpreparation. Threshing obtained first rank for women of paddy, plant protection measures is the least involvedwhile fifth rank for men. Similarly, land preparation areas for women and manuring is for men. Thus, it isscored second rank for men while it scored fourth observed that extent of involvement differs activity wiseposition for wives. Hence, the extent of involvement as far as settled cultivation of paddy is concerned.varies as far as gender is concerned in shifting Similar results was recorded by Mukhim (2005) thatcultivation of paddy. women are the backbone of the agricultural economy in Meghalaya. 43 per cent or more women are engaged It is clear from the Table V, that in settled as agricultural workers. They spend on an averagecultivation of paddy there are two activities in which about 10 hours daily working in the fields during thewomen were involved with equal and highest degree planting, weeding and harvesting season. Their majorand those two were seed and grain storage and work comprises rice sowing, transplanting, followedharvesting followed by threshing, transplanting, seed by weeding, then harvesting and winnowing and finallyselection and treatment, sowing and nursery raising, pounding the rice to separate it from the husk. Menland preparation, sales and purchase, respectively. In make bunds in the fields and they plough the land. Theyplant protection measure their involvement is lowest. also take part in sowing seeds.In case of their counter parts, they are involved in TABLE V Involvement in settled cultivation of paddy (n=400) Wife HusbandActivities No Seldom Always Rank No Seldon Always RankLand Preparation 141(70.5) 25(12.5) 34(17) VI 51(25.5) 18(9) 131(65.5) IIISeed selection and 50(25) 56(28) 94(47) IV 50(25) 15(7.5) 135(67.5) IItreatment 104(52) 50(25) I 27(13.5) 136(68) IVSowing and nursery raising46(23) V 47(23.5) 20(10) 133(66.5) X 9(4.5) 12(6) IXTransplanting 37(18.5) 15(7.5) 6(3) III 58(29) 25(12.5) 117(58.5) VII 22(11) 150(75) VIManuring 179(89.5) 149(74.5) VIII 165(82.5) 10(5) 25(12.5) V 18(9) 153(76.5) VIIIPlant protection measures179(89.5) 16(8) 30(15) IX 129(64.5) 33(16.5) 38(19) 22(11)Harvesting 28(14) I 89(44.5) 45(22.5) 66(33)Threshing 33(16.5) II 76(38) 22(11) 102(51)Seed and grain storage 31(15.5) I 66(33) 22(11) 112(56)Sales and purchase 148(74) VII 107(53.5) 16(8) 77(38.5)(Figures in parenthesis indicates percentage)

426 PUSPITA DAS It is observed from the Table VI that for women training both first and second rank are equal for bothranked plant protection measures has first training need husbands and wives, i.e., plant protection measuresin shifting cultivation of paddy followed by land and harvesting, respectively. The table reveals thatpreparation, whereas, manuring ranked last. Women plant protection measures ranked first followed byrespondents have opined that plant protection measures harvesting, threshing, land preparation, sowing andis the area in which the training is highly required nursery raising, seed selection and treatment, manuringfollowed by land preparation, seed selection and and seed and grain storage, whereas, sales andtreatment, harvesting, sowing and nursery raising, purchase ranked last in terms of training need of womenthreshing, seed and grain storage, transplanting and respondents. For their male counterparts, besides plantsales and purchase, respectively. Manuring is the protection measures, other preferred traning areas arelowest rank as far as training need of women is land preparation, sowing and nursery raising,concerned. It is clear from the above table that training transplanting, seed selection and treatment, threshing,needs of male respondents are different from women. seed and grain storage, manuring and sales andSeed selection ranked first as per their perception purchase, respectively.followed by harvesting, sowing and nursery raising,land preparation, plant protection measure, threshing, It can be concluded that as men and women aretransplanting, manuring, seed and grain storage and playing specific roles in paddy cultivation and they havesales and purchase, respectively. It is also observed different needs also, extension functionaries andthat inter gender need varies like wives give most development professional should be trained on genderpriority to plant protection measures, whereas, husband roles and training needs in agriculture to harness theirgive to seed selection. Female respondents give least potentialities. While organizing training programmes onpriority to manuring, while, their male counter parts to rice cultivation importance to be given to arrangesales and purchase. training programmes on plant protection measures in general and for women participants in particular. Interestingly, it is observed from the Table VII Besides that for women participants training onthat in settled cultivation of paddy, priority area of harvesting and storage are important, while, for men TABLE VI Training needs in shifting cultivation of paddy (n=400)Activities Wife Husband No Moderate Most No Moderate Most Rank RankLand preparation 22(11) 13(6.5) 165(82.5) II 39(19.5) 28(14) 133(66.5) IVSeedSelection and 26(13) 8(4) 166(83) III 29(14.5) 28(14) 143(71.5) Itreatment 31(15.5) 21(10.5) 148(74) V 28(14) 34(17) 138(69) IIISowing and nursery 49(24.5) 27(13.5) 124(62) VIII 49(24.5) 46(23) 105(52.5) VIIraising 23(11.5) 111(55.5) 67(33.5) 36(18) 97(48.5) VIII 66(33) XTransplanting 12(6) 172(86) 40(20) 30(15) 130(65) V 16(8) 32(16) 145(72.5) I 34(17) 20(10) 146(73) IIManuring 23(11.5) 23(11.5) IV 40(20) 34(17) 126(63) VI 33(16.5) 42(21) 114(72) VI 80(40) 26(13) IXPlant protection 31(15.5) 128(64) VII 85(42.5) 20(10) 94(47) Xmeasures 30(15) 113(56.5) IX 95(47.5) 56(28)HarvestingThreshingSeed and grain storageSales and purchase(Figures in parenthesis indicates percentage)

INTER GENDER RELATIONSHIP AND TRAINING NEEDS IN RICE CULTIVATION 427 TABLE VII (n=400) Training needs in settled cultivation of paddy Rank Wife Husband III No Moderate Most VIActivities IV V Rank No Moderate Most IX ILand preparation 25(12.5) 45(22.5) 130(65) IV 41(20.5) 26(13) 133(66.5) II 25(12.5) 104(52) VII 42(21) 60(30) 98(49) VIISeed selection 71(35.5) 37(18.5) 128(64) 42(21) 119(59.5) 120(60) V 39(19.5) 42(21) 115(57.5) VIIISowing and nursery 35(17.5) 34(17) 99(49.5) VI 43(21.5) 34(17) 81(40.5) X 32(16) 198(99) VIII 85(42.5) 1(0.5) 199(99.5)Transplanting 46(23) 181(90.5) 21(10.5) 161(80.5) 2(1) 172(86) I 0 20(10) 111(55.5)Manuring 69(73.5) 14(7) II 18(9) 22(11) 89(44.5) 18(9) 68(34) III 69(34.5) 40(20) 40(20)Plant protection measures 0 63(31.5) 50(25) IX 89(44.5) 60(30) X 120(60)Harvesting 5(2.5)Threshing 10(5)Seed and grain storage 69(34.5)Sales and purchase 90(45)(Figures in parenthesis indicates percentage)seed selection and treatment is the important training MUKHIM, P. M., 2010, Women and Livelihood Issues.Yojanatopic as far as shifting cultivation is concerned. (December, 2010). P-37. REFERENCES PATEL, A., 2012, Empowering women in Agriculture.Yojana (June, 2012). P-20.DEVI, U. AND VERMA, S. K., 2009,Technological training need and interest of the farm women for different crop PATTANAYAK, A, BUJARBARUAH, K. M., SHARMA, Y. P., cultivation operations of Haryana state. Asian J. Home NGACHAN, S. V., DHIMAN, K. R., MUNDA, G. C., AZAD Science, Vol. 4 (1): 50. THAKUR, N. S., SATAPATHY, K. K., RAO, M.V., 2006, Technology for increased production of upland riceMAHALAKSHMI, P., DEBORAL, V., KRISHNAN, M. AND and low land water logged rice. Proc. Annual Rice RAVISHANKAR, T., 2009, Needs Assessment of ICT Workshop, Hyderabad. April, 9-13. Users for Implementation of Aquacultural Development projects in Coastal Areas. Fish. Tech. RANI, S., DEVI, P. AND TANDON, C., 2001, Characteristics of 46 (1): 73-78. rural women influencing their participation in major cash crop production and homestead activities. AllMICHAEL, S. H. AND JERRY, G., 2010, A Needs Assessment of India co-ordinated Research Project, 2001. Aquacultural Extension Agents, Specialists, and Program Administrators in Extension Programming. SABARWAL, K., KAUSHIK, S. AND YADAV, B., 2010, Inter Gender J. Extension, 48 (2): 1-11. Discrimination in wages of paddy cultivation. Asian J. Home Science, Vol. 4 (2): 377MUJOO, R. AND ALI, S., 2009, Molecular degradation of rice starch during processing to flakes. J. Sci. Food. Agric., 79:941-949 (Received : November, 2013 Accepted : July, 2014)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 48 (3) : 428-434, 2014 Knowledge of Farmers on Recommended Agricultural Inputs in Sugarcane B. B. SUPRIYA, T. N. ANAND, M. T. LAKSHMINARAYAN AND S. V. SURESHA Department of Agricultural Extension, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 ABSTRACT The present study was conducted in ten villages of K.R.Pet taluk in Mandya district of Karnataka State during 2012-2013 to assess the knowledge level of farmers on recommended agricultural inputs in sugarcane cultivation. Eighty two sugarcane farmers were interviewed using a pre-tested schedule. The results revealed that 57.32 per cent of the sugarcane farmers had high level of knowledge on recommended inputs followed by medium (23.17 %) and low (19.51 %) levels of knowledge on agricultural inputs in sugarcane cultivation. All the sugarcane farmers had correct knowledge on planting material, whereas, a vast majority of the sugarcane farmers had corrected knowledge on weed management (95.18 %) and farm yard manure (75.00 %). A majority of over 90 per cent of the sugarcane farmers had incorrect knowledge on Phosphorous solubalizing bacteria ( 97.56 %) and cultivating beans (95.12 %) and soya bean (97.56 %) as mixed crops. Age, education, farming experience, extension contact, extension participation, mass media exposure, innovativeness and management orientation of sugarcane farmers had significant relationship with the knowledge level on recommended agricultural inputs in sugarcane cultivation.IN India, sugarcane is cultivated on an area of 4.94 Considering the importance of recommendedmillion hectares in 2011 with a production of 339.17 package of practices in increasing tonnage ofmillion tonnes with an average productivity of 68.6 sugarcane crop without causing any damage to thetonnes / ha, though, there is a wide variation with soil and also with a little added cost of cultivation,productivity across different regions (Anonymous, scientists have been advocating a good number of2011). India accounted for about 19.7 per cent of total technologies for general adoption by the farmers. Therearea and 17.7 per cent of total production of the world is a wide gap existing between available sugarcane(Anonymous, 2011). The main sugarcane growing technologies and its adoption in farmers field. It maystates in India are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil be because of poor extension efforts in the diffusionNadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Bihar, of improved sugarcane cultivation technologies, lackGujarat and Punjab. of knowledge on improved technologies, limited availability of suitable varieties and necessary inputs Karnataka is a leading sugarcane growing state at the right time. In some instances, there has been awith high sugarcane production potentialities slow adoption of recommended sugarcane technologiesparticularly in the sugarcane growing Cauvery by the farmers. Possession of knowledge is a perquisitecommand area. In the state, it is cultivated on four for adoption of sugarcane technologies. In thislakh hectares area with productivity of 90 tonnes per backdrop, the present investigation was undertakenha which is well above the national average (68.6 with the following specific objectives.tonnes / ha). However, there is still a lot of scope forincreasing the productivity as compared to 1. To study the personal, socio-economic andneighbouring Tamil Nadu state, where the productivity psychological characteristics of the sugarcane farmersis highest (109 t / ha) in the country. In Karnataka, themajor sugarcane growing districts are Belgaum and 2. To assess the knowledge level of farmers onMandya. These two districts account for around 44 recommended agricultural inputs in sugarcaneper cent to the total sugarcane production in Karnataka, cultivationMandya being the second largest producer ofsugarcane after Belgaum. 3. To understand the relationship between the personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics of sugarcane growers and their

KNOWLEDGE OF FARMERS ON RECOMMENDED AGRICULTURAL INPUTS IN SUGARCANE 429knowledge level of farmers on recommended results in Table I revealed that, a large number ofagricultural inputs in sugarcane cultivation sugarcane farmers were young aged (34.14 %), had medium level of education (59.75 %), owned small 4. To document the farmers’ practices in size land holding (40.24 %) with a low level of annualcultivation of sugarcane income (39.02 %). The results also reveal that more number of sugarcane farmers had low level of METHODOLOGY extension participation (39.02 %), and management orientation (37.80 %). The table also reveals that, a The present study was carried out in Mandya more number of sugarcane farmers were havingdistrict of Karnataka state during 2012-13. K.R.Pet medium level of extension contact (43.90 %), masstaluk was randomly selected for the study from among media exposure (44.17 %) and innovativenessthe seven taluks of Mandya district. Eighty two (42.68%).sugarcane farmers were randomly selected from tenvillages of K.R.Pet taluk. Expost facto research design The results observed in respect of the profile ofwas employed for conducting the study. the farmers is quite obvious that the young farmers involved in cultivation is less since majority of youth Knowledge on recommended inputs in are searching for jobs in urban areas and also studiessugarcane cultivation (Dependent variable) : A indicated that they are gradually losing interest inlist of recommended inputs for cultivation of sugarcane farming. Further, the fragmentation of land holdingwas prepared by referring package of practices booklet among the members of the family might have lead topublished by University of Agricultural Sciences, the reduced level of land holding. However, theBangalore. Totally, 12 agricultural inputs were listed, sugarcane being a cash crop the farmers are normallyA score of ‘one’ and ‘zero’ were assigned for each of innovative and having good extension contact, massthe correct and incorrect responses, respectively. The media exposure and management orientation.score of all the individual statements of inputs weresummed up to get the overall knowledge score of the The results of the study are in line with the studiessugarcane growers on inputs of sugarcane cultivation. of Ganesh Prasad (2010) and Sujay Kumar (2012).Thus, the total score ranged from 0 to 12 for 12agricultural inputs listed for the study. Based on the Knowledge of farmers on recommendedtotal score the respondents were categorized as low, agricultural inputs in sugarcane cultivation : Themedium and high knowledge levels by considering results in Table II indicated that all the sugarcanemean (5.05) and standard deviation (1.92) as a measure farmers had correct knowledge on quantity of plantingof check. material. In nutrient management, a majority of the sugarcane growers (76.83 %) had correct knowledge Information regarding ten selected socio- about quantity of farm yard manure. A majority of theeconomic and psychological characteristics (Age, sugarcane farmer had incorrect knowledge abouteducation, land holding, farming experience, annual quantity of PSB application (97.56 %), azatobacterincome, extension contact, extension participation, (71.95 %) and N, P, K, fertilizers (70.73 %). In weedmass media exposure, innovativeness and management management, a great majority (95.12 %) of theorientation) of sugarcane farmers was collected using sugarcane farmer had correct knowledge about quantitystructured schedule with suitable scales. of herbicides application. In plant protection, a majority of the sugarcane farmers had incorrect knowledge The collected data was scored, tabulated and about quantity of fungicides (86.59 %) and quantityanalyzed using frequency, percentage, mean, standard of insecticides (52.44 %). In mixed crops, a greatdeviation and zero order correlation test. majority of the sugarcane farmers had incorrect RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Personal, socio-economic and psychologicalcharacteristics of the sugarcane farmers : The

430 B. B. SUPRIYA et al. TABLE IPersonal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics of sugarcane farmers (n=82) Characteristics Sugarcane farmers Mean Standard DeviationAge Number Per centYoung (< 38 years)Middle (38 to 50 years) 28 34.14 44.56 12.04Old (> 50 years) 29 35.36 25 30.50EducationLow (< 1.75 score) 20 24.39 2.38 1.26Medium (1.75 to 3.00 score) 49 59.75High (> 3.00 score) 13 15.86 5.36 4.24Land holding 31 37.80 21.49 11.96Marginal (< 3.24 acres) 33 40.24Small (3.24 to 7.48 acres) 18 21.96 2.17 1.37Big (> 7.48 acres) 27 32.92 8.14 2.33Farming experience 28 34.16Less (< 15.50 score) 27 32.92 3.87 2.81Medium (15.50 to 27.47 score)More (> 27.47score) 32 39.02 9.25 2.36 26 31.70Annual income (Rs. in lakhs) 24 29.28 4.04 1.31Low (< Rs.1,48,000)Medium (Rs.1,48,000 to Rs.2,86,000) 21 25.60 50.87 7.14High (> 2,86,000) 39 47.58 22 26.82Extension contactLow (< 7.71 score) 32 39.02Medium (7.71 to 10.26 score) 28 34.16High (> 10.26 score) 22 26.82Extension participation 19 23.17Low (< 2.47 score) 36 43.90Medium (2.47 to 5.27 score) 27 32.93High (> 5.27 score 27 32.92Mass media exposure 35 42.68Low (< 8.07 score) 20 24.40Medium (8.07 to 10.43 score)High (> 10.43 score) 31 37.50 26 31.70Innovativeness 25 30.50Low (< 3.38 score)Medium (3.38 to 4.70 score)High (> 4.70 score)Management orientationLow (< 47.3 score)Medium (47.3 to 54.44 score)High (> 54.44 score)

KNOWLEDGE OF FARMERS ON RECOMMENDED AGRICULTURAL INPUTS IN SUGARCANE 431 TABLE IIKnowledge of sugarcane farmers on recommended inputs in sugarcane cultivation (n=82) Sugarcane farmersRecommended inputs Correct Incorrect Knowledge Knowledge Number Per cent Number Per cent ––Planting Material 19 23.17a) Number of three eye buded sitts 82 100.00 58 70.73 58 70.73(10,000 - 12,000) 58 70.73 59 71.95Nutrient Management 80 97.56a) Farm Yard manure (10 tonnes) 63 76.83 4 4.88 24 29.27b) N 100kg 24 29.27 24 29.27P 40kg 23 28.05 2 2.44K 50kg 78 95.12c) Bio - Fertilizers : Azatobacter 1KgPhosphorous solubalizing bacteria 4 KgWeed Management2 , 4 - D 2Kg or Atrazine 1Kgor Diuron 1Kg or Metribuzine 0.6KgPlant Protectiona) Insectidies` Endosulfon - 35 E.C. 600ml 39 47.56 43 52.44or Trichograma 30.000or micromos egohotos 500-1000b) FungicidesMercuric compound 3% 1 Kgor Carbendazim 0.5 Kg 20 24.39 62 75.61or Copper oxy chloride 3.6 Kg 4 4.88 78 95.12 2 2.44 80 97.56or Mancozeb 2.8 KgMixed crops : Beans 20KgSoyabean 10Kgknowledge about quantity of seeds used for soybean (70.73 %). This trend may explained with the factsand beans (97.56 and 95.12 %, respectively). that the fertilizers are being calculated in terms of quantity of straight fertilizers and the present trend of The results indicated that, all the sugarcane using complex fertilizers confuse the farmers aboutfarmers had the correct knowledge of quantity of exact dose to be applied in different frequencies andplanting material. It is needless to say that the crop is quantities. Because of the complexity involved in thebeing cultivated under the direct supervision of technology the knowledge level of farmers is quite lessextension staff of the sugarcane factories and the when compared to other technologies. In weedcompany itself will supply the required number of sets management, a great majority (95.12 %) of thein order to maintain optimum plant population in the sugarcane farmers had the correct knowledge aboutfield. In nutrient management, a majority of the quantity of herbicides application. The crucial factorsugarcane farmers had incorrect knowledge about in cultivation is the weed management or otherwise itquantity of bio-fertilizers and N, P, K, fertilizers will reduce the yield drastically. Hence, the farmers

432 B. B. SUPRIYA et al.were motivated to get correct knowledge on the recommended agricultural inputs in sugarcanequantity of herbicides to be used. In plant protection, cultivation : The Table IV indicates the zero ordera majority of the sugarcane farmers had incorrect correlation coefficient between the personal, socio-knowledge about quantity of fungicides. This can be economic and psychological characteristics ofexplained with the reasons that the use of fungicides sugarcane farmers and their knowledge onarises only with its incidence and normally they will be recommended agricultural inputs in sugarcaneguided by the dealers to buy the fungicides. Under cultivation. Age, education, farming experience,such circumstances it may not required by the farmers extension contact, extension participation, mass mediato have the correct knowledge. In mixed crops, a great exposure, innovativeness and management orientationmajority of sugarcane growers had incorrect knowledge of farmers had significant relationship with theirabout quantity of seeds used for soybean and beans knowledge level on recommended agricultural inputs(97.56 and 95.12 %, respectively). It is not surprising in sugarcane cultivation. Whereas, land holding andthat majority of the farmers will have the mixed crops annual income of farmers had no significanteither to use it as a green manure or to reduce the relationship with their knowledge level onincidence of the weeds rather than income. recommended agricultural inputs in sugarcane cultivation. The possible reasons for the personal, socio- Overall knowledge of sugarcane farmers on economic and psychological characteristics of sugarcane farmers having significant relationship withrecommended inputs in cultivation of the knowledge level is explained in ensuing paragraphs.sugarcane : From the Table III, it is observed that,57.32 per cent of the sugarcane farmers had high level Age and experience go together in the farmingof knowledge on recommended inputs followed by profession as the latter would normally depend on themedium (23.17 %) and low (19.51 %) levels of other. Farmers who have been cultivating sugarcaneknowledge on agricultural inputs in sugarcane since their early years must have been aware of thecultivation. Sugarcane is an important cash crop in recommended inputs resulting in increased knowledgethe Cauvery Command area wherein the farmersmainly depend on the crop for the economic TABLE IVrequirement of their family. Hence, it is obvious thatthe farmers need to understand the scientific cultivation Zero order correlation between the personal,practices which include inputs, or otherwise they mayget low yield and returns. socio-economic and psychological characteristics of sugarcane farmers and their knowledge on recommended inputs Relationship between the personal, socio- in sugarcaneeconomic and psychological characteristics ofsugarcane farmers and their knowledge on (n=82) Characteristics Correlation value (r value) TABLE IIIOverall knowledge fo sugarcane farmers on Age 0.227*recommended inputs in sugarcane cultivation Education 0.316** Land Holding 0.012NS (n=82) Farming experience 0.206* Annual income 0.201NSKnowledge level Sugarcane farmers Extension contact 0.416** Number Per cent Extension participation 0.399** Mass media exposure 0.207*Low (< 4.09 Score) 16 19.51 Innovativeness 0.368**Medium (4.09 to 6.00 Score) 19 23.17 Management orientation 0.318**High (> 6.00 Score) 47 57.32Total 82 100.00 NS - Non Significant; * Significant at 5 per cent level ; ** Significant at 1 per cent level

KNOWLEDGE OF FARMERS ON RECOMMENDED AGRICULTURAL INPUTS IN SUGARCANE 433on the recommended inputs. Education provides an sugarcane crop is a long duration (11 to 16 months)opportunity to farmers for exposing themselves to mass one it requires thorough knowledge on improvedmedia which carry messages on recommended inputs technologies including the recommended inputs. Inresulting in acquiring increased knowledge among order to possess good knowledge and manage thefarmers on recommended inputs. Collecting recommended inputs efficiently, the sugarcane farmersinformation on recommended inputs from research might have contacted regularly the extension agency,laboratories and disseminating the same to the farmers participated in extension activities and have exposedis possible through extension agency. Farmers with high themselves to mass media.level of extension agency contact will consequentlyhave correct knowledge on recommended inputs. Documentation of the farmers’ practices inParticipation in extension activities promotes the sugarcane cultivation : From the Table V it isacquisition of knowledge on recommended inputs observed that 6.10 per cent of the sugarcane growersresulting in higher and sustainable yields. The higher were using one eye budded setts and they opined that,levels of mass media use would facilitate the farmers it is cost effective and saves 66 per cent setts.to develop habits of gathering more information aboutrecommended inputs through radio, television, About 15.85 per cent of the sugarcane growersnewspaper and other literature. Farmers with higher followed 4ft spacing and the respondents opined that,levels of mass media use will have correct knowledge (a) yield increases as compared to spacing of 3 ft andon recommended inputs. The farmers who is proned 5 ft, (b) reduces plant material cost, (c) intercrops canto innovations will likely to gather more information on also be taken up in 4 ft planting, and (d) plant populationrecommended inputs leading to increased correct also more.knowledge on recommended inputs. Since the A majority of the sugarcane growers (73.17 %) were using phorate to control wooly aphid and root TABLE V Documentation of farmers’ practices in sugarcane cultivationPractices Sugarcane farmers Advantages / Reasons No. Per centPlant Material : Use of one eye 5 6.10 Cost effective (66% savings in setts)buded setts 13 15.85 a) Yield increases compare to 3 ft and 5 ftSpacing : ( 4 Feet ) b) Reduces plant material cost. c) Intercrops can also take like in 5 ft PlanningPlant Protection : Use of Phorate 8 60 73.17 d) Plant population also more compare to 5 ftto 10 Kg per acre toControl wooly aphid and a) Effective control of root grub and wooly aphidRoot grub b) Both the pest can be controlled effectively with Gypsum application 38 46.34 the same cost, time and labour Inter Crops : c) Easy for soil application a) Maize 11 13.41 For zinc deficiency supplied by sugarcane factories b) Bhendi 21 25.60 a) Gives additional yield Drip Irrigation 7 8.54 b) These intercrops fetched higher return than thefurrow method of other crops Since they are irrigating sugarcane through bore well, this method of irrigation saves water as compared to furrow method of irrigation

434 B. B. SUPRIYA et al.grub and the respondents opined that, (a) effective (70.73 %). The extension workers and sugar factorycontrol of root grub and wooly aphid, (b) both the pests personnel should educate the sugarcane farmers aboutcan be controlled effectively with the same cost, time the importance of the above practices in increasingand labour, (c) easy for soil application. the tonnage of sugarcane. The knowledge level of sugarcane farmers on the recommended inputs could In first crop 46.34 per cent of sugarcane be increased by providing ample opportunities by Farmgrowers were used gypsum for zinc deficiency Universities, Karnataka State Department ofsince it is supplied by sugarcane factories. Agriculture and Sugar factory etc. to the farmers to participate in training and extension activities like Only 13.41 and 25.60 per cent of the sugarcane discussion meetings, demonstrations, field visits, videogrowers were growing maize and bhendi, respectively conferencing, krishimela etc.as inter crop and the respondents opined that, intercropsgives additional yield and fetches higher return than The sugarcane farmers were practising the usethe other crops. of one eye budded setts and drip irrigation, in addition to use of gypsum and phorate and cultivating maize About 8.54 per cent of sugarcane growers were and bhendi. The farm scientists may conduct researchfollowing drip irrigation. These respondents were on these practices to know their impact on cane yield.irrigating sugarcane through bore well. They opinedthat drip method of irrigation saves water compare to REFERENCESfurrow method of irrigation. ANONYMOUS, 2011, Food and Agriculture Organization of The findings are on par with the findings of United Nations. Statistical data base (www.fao. Org.)Namadev Shinde et al. (2009) and Rajula Shanthyet al. (2012). GANESH PRASAD, T. S., 2010, A study on knowledge, adoption and economic performance of sugarcane These farmers’ practice needs to be tested and growers in Cauvery, Tunga and Ghata prabhavalidated by farm scientists for large scale adoption. command areas of Karnataka. Ph. D. Thesis (Unpub), Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore. It is heartening to note that a vast majority offarmers (80.49 %) had high to medium levels of NAMADEV A. SHINDE, PATIL, B. L., MURTHY, C. AND MAMLEknowledge on recommended inputs in sugarcane DESAI, N. R., 2009,A study on income and employmentcultivation. Age, education, farming experience, generation under sugarcane based intercroppingextension contact, extension participation, mass media systems, Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 22 (4): 929-930.exposure, innovativeness and management orientationof sugarcane farmers had significant relationship with RAJULA SHANTHY, T., THIAGARAJAN, R. AND MUKUNTHAN, N.,the knowledge level on recommended agricultural 2012, Farmers’ perceptions about white woolly aphidinputs in sugarcane cultivation. in sugarcane and its management practices, Indian J. Extn. Edu.12 (1): 1-7. The results also revealed that a majority of over70 per cent of the sugarcane farmers had incorrect SUJAY KUMAR, S., 2012, Participation and time utilizationknowledge on Phosphorous solubalizing bacteria pattern of rural youth in organic sugarcane cultivation(97.56 %), cultivating beans (95.12 %) and soya bean under Cauvery command area of Karnataka, M.Sc.(97.56 %) as mixed crops, fungicides (75.61 %) (Agri.) Thesis (Unpub.), Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore.bio-fertilizers (71.95 %) and NPK fertilizers(Received : December, 2013 Accepted : August, 2014)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 48 (3) : 435-442, 2014 Adoption of Recommended Cultivation Practices by Arecanut Growers in North Kanara District of Karnataka State VINAYAK N. NAYAK, N. S. SHIVALINGE GOWDA, M. T. LAKSHMINARAYAN AND V. L. MADHUPRASAD Department of Agricultural Extension, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065 ABSTRACT The present study was carried in two taluks of North Kanara district of Karnataka state during 2013-2014 to know the adoption level of recommended cultivation practices by arecanut growers. A total of 120 areacanut growers were interviewed using a pre-tested interview schedule. It was found that majority (70.00 %) of the arecanut growers fell under low to medium adoption category of recommended cultivation practices. Annual income, social participation, economic motivation, scientific orientation, education, farming experience, mass media participation and extension system link of arecanut growers were having positive and significant relationship with the adoption level. It was found that all the 15 personal, psychological and socio-economic characteristics of arecanut growers has contributed to 71 per cent of the variation in the adoption of recommended cultivation practices. The major production problems faced by arecanut growers are untimely and inadequate supply of inputs and erratic power supply.Arecanut is a common masticator nut consumed by income to the National Economy is significantall sections of the population cutting across caste, class, (Prakash, 2012).region, religion, age and gender in India. Arecanutforms an essential requisite for several religious and In spite of all its advantages, arecanut growerssocial ceremonies and its use dates back to Vedic period are unable to meet the demand fully and its enormouswith high antiquities. People across many parts of the potentiality is being neglected. Demand for arecanutworld use arecanut. India is the largest arecanut products has increased steadily in India.Arecanut beingproducing country and Karnataka is the major arecanut a ‘habitual’ item, its consumption is ‘income elasticproducing state in India. According to the Directorate and price inelastic’ i.e., for an increase in the income,of Arecanut and Spice Development Board, Calicut, its consumption increase more than proportionately andthe area under arecanut in the country is around 4.00 for a given level of price raise, proportionately lesslakh hectares with a production of around 4.78 lakh reduction in consumption takes place. Consumption ofmetric tonnes during the year 2009. Karnataka and arecanut in India has increased from 2.50 lakh tonsKerala together account for nearly 70 per cent of area during 1991-92 to around 5.2 lakh tons in 2009-10 withand production of arecanut. In Karnataka, as per the annual growth rate of around five per cent ( Prakash,State Department of Horticulture, around 1.84 lakh 2012).hectares of area is under arecanut cultivation whichforms about 46 per cent of all India total (4.01 lakh The Government of India, as well as thehectares). Its contribution to total production is around Government of the Karnataka have initiated many2.24 lakh metric tonnes that forms 47 per cent of all horticultural programmes to increase the productionIndia production in 2009-10. The top seven districts of plantation crops. A good number of improvedsuch as Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Davangere, Dakshina production technologies are recommended to getKannada, Tumkur, Chitradurga and North Kanara maximum benefits, yet the growers are not followingoccupy about 89.00 per cent of the area under arecanut all the recommended technologies. Against thisand contribute around 91.00 per cent of arecanut background ,the present study has been taken up withproduction in the state. Being a high valued crop, its the following specific objectives:contribution in terms of livelihood, employment and

436 VINAYAK N. NAYAK et al. 1. To know the adoption level of recommended concerned Assistant Horticultural Officer of thecultivation practices by arecanut growers. Department of Horticulture. From each village, 15 arecanut growers were selected randomly. Thus, the 2. To find out the relationship between personal, total respondents identified for the study were 120.psychological and socio-economic characteristics with Relevant data was collected using a pre-testedthe adoption level of arecanut growers. interview schedule. 3. To identify the production problems faced by Adoption of recommended cultivation practicesarecanut growers (Dependent variable) : Adoption level of the respondents with regard to recommended cultivation METHODOLOGY practices of arecanut was measured taking into consideration the recommended practices published in The present study was carried out in North the package of practices of University of HorticulturalKanara district of Karnataka state during 2013-2014. Sciences, Bagalkot, University ofAgricultural Sciences,North Kanara district of Karnataka was selected for Dharwad and Central Plantation Crops Researchthe study because the district is one of the major Institute Regional Station, Vittal, Karnataka. A totalproducers of arecanut and also, arecanut is the of 19 recommended practices were selected for thetraditional and principle horticultural crop of the district. study and were classified into seven major practicesAccording to Karnataka State Department of (Planting in main field, spacing and alignment, manuresHorticulture, the arecanut is cultivated in North Kanara and fertilizers application, irrigation and drainage,district in an area of 17,075 hectares and production intercropping, plant protection and harvesting practices)of 42,640 metric tonnes, during 2011-12. to know the practice-wise level of adoption of recommended cultivation practices. The following Out of 11 taluks in North Kanara district, two weightage was given for response categories for eachtaluks viz., Sirsi and Siddapur were selected based on of the 19 recommended cultivation practices.the criteria of maximum area under arecanut cultivation.As per the statistics provided by the Karnataka State Particulars ScoreDepartment of Horticulture, Sirsi and Siddapur taluksof North Kanara district had 5,586 and 3,393 hectares Full adoption 2of area under arecanut, contributing to 32.71 and 19.87 Partial adoption 1per cent of the overall area, respectively under arecanut Non adoption 0in the district during the year 2011-12 A list of Grama Panchayats coming under Sirsi The scores of the respondents for each practiceand Siddapur taluks with considerable area under were computed separately. The procedure followedarecanut was prepared. Two Grama Panchayats were by Sengupta (1967) for the calculation of adoptionselected from each of the sampled two taluks. From quotient was used to measure the adoption level ofeach Grama Panchayat, two villages which had each respondent.maximum area under arecanut were chosen for thestudy. Thus, eight villages were selected for the study Adoption Adoption score obtained ×100from four Grama Panchayats in two taluks of North quotient = by the respondentsKanara district. Maximum adoption score A list of arecanut growers were prepared for each one could getof the selected eight villages in consultation with