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THE CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES 249 See also: Jean-Jacques Rousseau 118–25 ■ Ito Hirobumi 195 ■ Sun Yat-Sen 212–13 recognized an independent Turkish only be built upon a state’s There is only one power. state, and Atatürk was elected its unconditional power to govern That is national sovereignty. first president. itself, or “the sovereignty of the There is only one authority. people.” This, he insisted, could Sovereign will of the people not be granted or negotiated, but That is the presence, Atatürk was determined to establish had to be wrested by force. conscience, and heart a modern nation-state amid the ruins of the feudal Ottoman empire, Sovereignty meant, first of all, of the nation. which had undergone little democratic self-rule, free from any Mustafa Kemal Atatürk industrial development. He believed other authority (including the that a balanced and equitable sultan-caliph), from religious modernization as the imposition of society, which could deliver the interference in government, and the will of a secular urban elite on essential guarantees of freedom from outside powers. Atatürk’s an illiterate and deeply religious and justice for individuals, could “Kemalist” nationalism saw the rural culture. Atatürk’s ability to Turkish state as a sovereign unity harness the support of the armed In accordance with Atatürk’s strict of territory and people that forces enabled him to shape the secularist ideals, the Muslim hijab, or respected the same right to new Turkish republic as a secular, headscarf, is banned in many Turkish independence in all other nations. Western-looking nation-state, but institutions such as universities. This Although an alliance with those tensions between rural Islamists policy is a source of ongoing dispute. outside powers, or “civilization,” and the secularist military and would act as an ongoing support urban elites persist to this day. ■ for the new nation, the nation would still have to bring itself into being, politically, culturally, and economically, through revolutionary, self-imposed reforms. This concept of the sovereign power of a people to reform their own state was alien to the bulk of the population. Many in poor rural areas saw Atatürk’s program of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Mustafa Kemal was born in Turkey to independence in 1923, Salonica, Greece in 1881. He was becoming the first president of a distinguished student at military the new, secular state. He was school, excelling in mathematics given the name “Atatürk,” and literature, and completed meaning “Father of the Turks” his studies in the School of the in 1934 by the Turkish General Staff in Constantinople. parliament. He died in 1938 of He quickly rose through the cirrhosis of the liver, after many ranks and took command of the years of heavy drinking. Seventh Army during World War I, but resigned from the Key works Ottoman army in 1919 to head a resistance movement against 1918 A Chat with the Chief the occupying forces. Commander 1927 Nutuk (transcript of a From an early age, Kemal speech to the Grand National had taken part in underground Assembly of Turkey) opposition groups, and he led

250 EUROPE HAS BEEN LEFT WITHOUT A MORAL CODE JOSÉ ORTEGA Y GASSET (1883–1955) IN CONTEXT P hilosopher José Ortega “mass-man” and “noble-man” on y Gasset first rose to the basis of their allegiance to IDEOLOGY prominence during the moral codes based on tradition. In Liberalism 1920s, a period of great social his book The Rise of the Masses, he unrest in Spain. The monarchy explained that “to live as one likes FOCUS was losing its authority following is plebian; the noble man aspires to Pro-intellectualism unrest in Spanish Morocco, and the order and law.”. Discipline and dictatorial regime of Miguel Primo service bring nobility, he believed. BEFORE de Rivera had deepened divisions He saw the accession to power 380 BCE Plato advocates rule between left- and right-wing forces. of the masses and their increased by philosopher kings. These divisions would eventually tendency towards rebellion— lead to civil war in 1936. through strikes and other forms 1917 In Spain, news of the of social unrest—as highly Russian Revolution instills fear World War I had been a period problematic, calling it one of “the in Primo de Rivera’s regime, of economic boom in neutral Spain, greatest crises that can afflict which consolidates its power which supplied both sides during people, nations, and civilizations.” by control of the masses. the conflict. As a result, the country had rapidly industrialized, and the To Ortega y Gasset, the threat AFTER swelling masses of the workers posed by the masses was linked to 1936–1939 The Spanish Civil were becoming increasingly a wider demoralization in postwar War results in the deaths of powerful. Concessions were won, more than 200,000 people. and a strike in Barcelona in 1919 led to Spain becoming the first 1979 French philosopher country to institute an eight-hour Pierre Bourdieu examines the day for all workers. ways that power and social positioning have an influence Rise of the masses The European stands on aesthetics. As worker power increased, the alone, without any question of social class was at 2002 US historian John the center of philosophical and living ghosts by his side. Lukacs publishes At the sociological debate in Europe, but José Ortega y Gasset End of an Age, arguing Ortega y Gasset challenged the that the modern bourgeois idea that social classes are purely age is coming to an end. a result of an economic divide. Rather, he distinguished between

THE CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES 251 See also: Plato 34–39 ■ Immanuel Kant 126–29 ■ Friedrich Nietzsche 196–99 ■ Michael Oakeshott 276–77 The rise to power …has led to the decline of in Europe of the the true intellectual industrial masses… and the rise of the pseudo-intellectual. Europe has The pseudo-intellectual José Ortega y Gasset been left without has no sense of tradition, Ortega y Gasset was born a moral code. purpose, or morality. in Madrid to a political family with a deep liberal tradition. Europe, which had lost its sense of civilization or in the establishment His mother’s family owned purpose in the world. The decline of a real sense of public opinion. the newspaper El Imparcial, of imperial power, coupled with As such, he views the masses while his father edited it. the devastation of the war, had as highly prone to violence. In He studied philosophy in left Europe no longer believing in his eyes, a Europe without real Spain and continued his itself, despite remaining a strong intellectuals, dominated by education in Germany at industrial force. disinterested masses, is Leipzig, Nuremberg, Cologne, somewhere that risks losing its Berlin, and Marburg, where he Pseudo-intellectuals place and purpose in the world. became deeply influenced by Ortega y Gasset argued that the the neo-Kantian tradition. rise of the masses is accompanied Ortega y Gasset’s philosophy by the decline of the intellectual. remains influential today. His In 1910, Ortega y Gasset This signals the triumph of the followers stress the links between became full professor of pseudo-intellectual—a vulgar man economic class and culture. ■ metaphysics in Madrid. He with no interest in traditions or later founded the magazine moral codes, who sees himself as Following World War I, workers— Revista de Occidente, which superior. The pseudo-intellectual such as these striking metal workers in published work by some of represents a new force of history: France—won significant concessions the most important figures one without a sense of direction. and began to wield political power. in philosophy at the time. Elected to Congress in 1931 For Ortega y Gasset, the masses after the fall of the monarchy lack purpose and imagination and and de Rivera’s dictatorship, limit themselves to demands for he removed himself from a share in the fruits of progress politics after having served without understanding the for less than a year. He left classical scientific traditions that Spain at the outbreak of the made progress possible in the Civil War and traveled to first place. The masses are not Buenos Aires, Argentina, only interested in the principles of to return to Europe in 1942. Key works 1930 The Revolt of the Masses 1937 Invertebrate Spain 1969 Some Lessons in Metaphysics

252 WE ARE 400 MILLION PEOPLE ASKING FOR LIBERTY MARCUS GARVEY (1887–1940) IN CONTEXT I n the early 20th century, I am the equal of any Jamaican activist Marcus white man; I want you IDEOLOGY Garvey gave black people in to feel the same way. Black nationalism the Americas a rousing response to white supremacy. He founded Marcus Garvey FOCUS the Universal Negro Improvement Social activism Association in 1914, and called for the term “African fundamentalism”, the “400 million” Africans around Garvey promoted a sense of black BEFORE the world to unite in a commitment selfhood, rooted in the belief that 16th century The Maafa, to liberate the African continent ancient African civilizations that or African Holocaust, of – and their own lives – from racial had declined would be regenerated. transatlantic slavery begins. oppression. Two years later, he took his campaign to the United States, Garvey’s radical message – and 1865 The 13th Amendment where he organized businesses to the mismanagement of his many makes slavery illegal employ African-Americans. blacks-only businesses – attracted throughout the US. the ire of rival black leaders and Confident that black people the US government. Yet he was the 1917 The city of East St Louis could advance through any cultural, first to insist on black power, and explodes in one of the worst political, or intellectual field they the first to articulate the African race riots in US history. chose, Garvey put race first, liberation proposition that animates individual self-determination next, African nationalists to this day. ■ AFTER and black nationhood last. He 1960s The “Black is Beautiful” envisaged a United States of Africa movement gathers pace. that would preserve the interests of all black people, galvanized by an 1963 Martin Luther King almost religious sense of racial delivers his “I Have a Dream” redemption. The “New Negro” speech at a vast civil rights consciousness would borrow from march in Washington, DC. existing intellectual traditions, yet forge its own racial interpretation 1965 US Congress passes the of international politics. Coining Voting Rights Act, outlawing discrimination that prevented See also: John C. Calhoun 161 ■ Jomo Kenyatta 258 ■ Nelson Mandela 294–95 ■ African-Americans from Malcolm X 308–09 ■ Martin Luther King 316–21 exercising their vote.

THE CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES 253 INDIA CANNOT REALLY BE FREE UNLESS SEPARATED FROM THE BRITISH EMPIRE MANABENDRA NATH ROY (1887–1954) IN CONTEXT I n 1931, after returning to East India Company—whose India from a tour of the world’s administration was backed by a IDEOLOGY communist governments, large army—and, ultimately, Revolutionary socialism Indian activist and political theorist to the British Crown. M.N. Roy was charged by the FOCUS British with “conspiring to deprive Arguing that the British Permanent revolution the King Emperor of his sovereignty government in India had not been in India,” under the notorious established for the purpose of BEFORE Section 121-A of the Penal Code. advancing the well-being of its 1617 The Mughal emperor Tried in prison instead of a court— people, but solely for the benefit of a permits the English East India and allowed no defense statement, “plutocratic dictatorship,” Roy held Company to trade in India. witnesses, or jury—Roy was that the interests of the Indian sentenced to 12 years in squalid people could only be served by an 1776 America’s Declaration of jails that would ruin his health. absolute severance from the British, Independence asserts people’s by force if necessary. ■ right to govern themselves. Ironically, in Roy’s writings on British sovereignty in India, he had Once we have 1858 The Indian Rebellion always grounded his arguments consciously set our results in the British Crown on English principles of justice. feet on the right road, assuming direct rule of the Raj. Accused by the authorities of nothing can daunt us. advocating violence, he held that 1921 Mahatma Gandhi is the use of force was honorable M. N. Roy elected leader of the Indian when employed to defend the National Congress and urges “pauperized” masses of India nonviolent civil disobedience. against despotism, and was dishonorable when employed to AFTER oppress those masses. Over three 1947 The Indian centuries, the British had acquired Independence Act brings “this valuable possession” through the British Raj to an end. the “quiet” transfer of power from the declining Mughal empire to the 1961 Frantz Fanon’s Wretched of the Earth analyzes See also: Mahatma Gandhi 220–25 ■ Paulo Freire 297 ■ Frantz Fanon 304–07 the violence of colonialism and the need for armed resistance.

254 IN CONTEXT SOVEREIGN IDEOLOGY IS HEWHO Conservatism DECIDES ON THE EXCEPTION FOCUS Extrajudicial power CARL SCHMITT (1888–1985) BEFORE 1532 In The Prince, Niccolò Machiavelli lays out the principles of sovereignty. 1651 Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan uses the concept of the social contract to justify the power of the sovereign. 1934 Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany. AFTER 2001 John Mearsheimer uses Schmitt’s theories to justify “offensive realism,” where states are ever- prepared for war. 2001 The Patriot Act in the US establishes a permanent installment of martial law and emergency powers. C arl Schmitt was a German political theorist and lawyer whose work during the early 20th century established him as a leading critic of liberalism and parliamentary democracy. Schmitt saw the “exception” (Ernstfall)—unexpected events—as a quintessential characteristic of political life. For this reason he disagreed with the liberal idea that the law is the best guarantor of individual liberty. While the law is able to provide a framework through which to manage “normal” states of affair, Schmitt argued that it was not designed to deal with “exceptional” circumstances such as coups d’etat, revolutions, or war.

THE CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES 255 See also: Niccolò Machiavelli 74–81 ■ Thomas Hobbes 96–103 ■ Giovanni Carl Schmitt Gentile 238–39 ■ José Ortega Y Gasset 250–51 ■ Adolf Hitler 337 Born into a devout Catholic The political life The judgments of the family in Plettenberg, of a country always courts depend on Germany, Carl Schmitt includes exceptional later renounced his faith, historical precedents, although elements of his circumstances. so can only be applied in understanding of the divine “normal” situations. remained in his work. He studied law and later taught When an exceptional situation occurs… at several universities. In 1933, he joined the Nazi …one person must be able to operate above the law, party and was appointed suspending it and taking all steps necessary to save the state. State Councillor for Prussia. However, in 1936 he was denounced by the SS and expelled from the Nazi party. Schmitt continued to work as a professor in Berlin, but at the end of World War II, he was interned for two years for his Nazi connections. In 1946 he returned to Plettenberg, where, shunned by the international community, he continued to study law until his death, at 95. The only person capable of this is the sovereign. Key works Sovereign is he who decides on the exception. 1922 Political Theology: He saw legal theory as too far between both friends and enemies. Four Chapters on the removed from legal practice and He anticipated this struggle at Concept of Sovereignty changing social norms. It was unfit both the international level—with 1928 The Concept of to deal with the unexpected turns feuding nations—and the domestic the Political of history, many of which could level—with feuding individuals. 1932 Legality and Legitimacy threaten the very existence Schmitt disagreed with Thomas of the state. A president, he argued, Hobbes’s vision of nature as being The exception is more is better able to guard a country’s a state of “all against all,” and its interesting than the rule. constitution than a court, and implication that coexistence is The rule proves nothing; the so should necessarily be above impossible without the rule of law. exception proves everything. the law. The ruler should On the other hand, he argued that be the ultimate lawmaker in liberals had done humanity, and Carl Schmitt exceptional situations. the nation-state in particular, a disservice by promoting the A constant struggle possibility of a perpetually peaceful Schmitt’s criticism of liberalism world. He saw World War I as a was directly tied to his unique consequence of liberalism’s failure understanding of “the political” as to recognize the possibility of the constant possibility of struggle enmity, and blamed liberals for ❯❯

256 CARL SCHMITT According to Schmitt, Exceptional circumstances its citizens. Schmitt thought that it is up to the sovereign to the true power of a sovereign decide whether circumstances emerges in exceptional are normal (when the rule of law circumstances, when decisions suffices) or exceptional (when need to be based entirely on the sovereign must take new grounds. It is only in these ultimate authority). circumstances that the sovereign becomes a true lawmaker as Normal circumstances opposed to a law-preserver, and is thus able to mobilize the population against a designated enemy. Schmitt concluded that sovereign power, in its full form, requires the exercise of violence, even when not otherwise legitimate under the law. Rule of law Sovereign as lawmaker Defending Hitler The limits of Schmitt’s theory both misunderstanding the realms of civil society or commerce. became apparent with his defense true nature of politics and being The law might work adequately of Hitler’s policies and rise to insincere with regard to the true through the courts and their power. Schmitt justified “the Night nature of the political. Under an associated bureaucracy under of the Long Knives”—when around assumption of perpetual peace normal conditions, but in politics, 85 of Hitler’s political opponents and friendliness, he said, states exceptional conditions—even were murdered—as “the highest are less likely to be prepared for chaos—can erupt, and the courts form of administrative justice.” In the exceptional, and so risk the are not equipped to make good Schmitt’s eyes, Hitler was acting as lives of their citizens. or rapid judgments under these a true sovereign, taking matters conditions. Someone must be into his own hands under Schmitt argued instead that the entitled to suspend the law during exceptional circumstances that possibility of enmity always exists exceptional circumstances. threatened the very existence of alongside the possibility of alliance Schmitt claimed this was part the German state. Violence against and neutrality. He envisioned the of the sovereign’s role: he or she the left-wing arm of the Nazi party, individual as potentially dangerous; possesses the ultimate authority to as well as Jews, was justified in and consequently this provides a decide when times are “normal” Schmitt’s eyes by the supposed constant political danger, with and when they are “exceptional,” threat they posed to the state. the ever-present possibility of and as such, can dictate when war. Schmitt considered that this certain laws are to be applied Schmitt’s personal support for constant possibility should be the and when they are not. the Nazi regime strongly suggests ultimate guide for the sovereign, that, for him, the survival of the who must at all times be prepared By placing life above liberty, state was more important than for it. The political sphere is Schmitt argued that the legitimacy the liberty of the individuals within necessarily an antagonistic world, of the sovereign relies not upon it—and sometimes more important not merely an independent domain his application of the law, but upon than the lives of the citizens of the in which citizens interact, like the his ability to protect the state and state. However, this prioritization of the preservation of the state at all costs fails to take into account the fact that, just like individuals, the state also changes; it is not a monolithic entity whose character is set and forever perfect. It can— and many would say should—be questioned at any point in time.

THE CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES 257 The state of exception two forms of nihilism: a “brutal” because it leads to consequences is not a dictatorship… nihilism, as expressed by the Nazi that cannot be undone upon the but a space devoid of law. and Marxist regimes, which seeks restoration of the law. Giorgio Agamben to destroy all previous traditions, history, and moral standards; and Schmitt’s concept of the Contemporary exceptions a “gentle” nihilism, as expressed exception became particularly Schmitt’s inability to see the in Western liberal democracies, pertinent after 9/11, when it was radical effect of his theory, or which establishes a value-free used by conservatives and left- that genocide is not an acceptable and aimless egalitarianism. For wing political thinkers to justify or form of violence under any Strauss, both are equally dangerous denounce anti-terrorist measures circumstances, led to his being in that they destroy the possibility such as the Patriot Act in the shunned by the academic and for human excellence. United States. The conservatives intellectual world. However, in the used the idea of exceptionality to late 20th century, a revival of Italian political philosopher justify violations of personal interest in his work was led by Giorgio Agamben argues that liberties such as increased various authors who saw Schmitt’s Schmitt’s state of exception is not a surveillance and longer detention contribution to legal and political state where the law is suspended— times without trial. Left-wing philosophy as significant, despite hiding somewhere until it can be scholars argued against these very his shortcomings. Schmitt’s reestablished—but rather a state same practices, pointing out the understanding of the “political,” completely devoid of law, in which dangers of suspending protections the “friend–enemy distinction,” the sovereign holds ultimate against human rights violations. and the “exceptional” was used by authority over the lives of citizens. these writers to better understand Considering the Nazi concentration The existence of camps such as the conditions under which modern camps created during World War II, those at Guantánamo Bay serves states operate and political leaders Agamben argues that the prisoners to demonstrate the dangers of make decisions. in these camps lost all human labeling an event “exceptional” qualities and became “bare life”— and apportioning it exceptional US philosopher Leo Strauss built they were alive, but stripped of all measures, in particular the on Schmitt’s critique of liberalism, human and legal rights. He sees the rewriting of rules by the executive arguing that it tended toward creation of a state of exception as without any checks in place. More extreme relativism and nihilism by particularly dangerous, because its than 10 years later, the state of completely disregarding the reality effects compound in unpredictable exception declared after 9/11 “on the ground”—it focuses not on ways: the “temporary” suspension of remains more or less in place, with what is, but on what ought to be. the law is never really “temporary,” worrying consequences that show Strauss distinguished between no signs of abating. ■ Leading Nazis were put on trial at Nuremberg at the end of World War II. Schmitt was investigated for his role as a propagandist for the regime, but eventually escaped trial.

258 COMMUNISM IS AS BAD AS IMPERIALISM JOMO KENYATTA (1894–1978) IN CONTEXT J omo Kenyatta was one of the rule in Africa, and promoted the leading figures in Kenya’s idea of Kenyan independence IDEOLOGY independence from British through the establishment of Post-colonialism colonial rule, becoming its first the Kenyan African National prime minister and president in Union. Pursuing a mixed-market FOCUS the post-colonial era. A political economic program, Kenya Conservative moderate, he pursued a program was opened up to foreign pan-Africanism of gradual change, rather than investment and developed dramatic revolution. a foreign policy that was pro- BEFORE Western and anti-communist. 1895 The protectorate of External threats British East Africa emerges Kenyatta’s ideas melded anti- Post-colonial nations, Kenyatta from British trading interests colonialism and anti-communism. believed, were in danger of in East Africa. He was fiercely opposed to white becoming exploited by external forces in order to consolidate the 1952–59 Kenya is in a state position of other nations on the of emergency during a pro- world stage. To secure genuine independence rebellion by independence, it would not be the Mau Mau. possible to tolerate the external influence that came hand-in-hand 1961 In Belgrade in modern- with Soviet communism. In day Serbia, the Non-Aligned this sense, the threats posed by Movement is founded for communism could be as restrictive countries wishing to be to Kenyan self-determination as independent of superpowers. colonial rule. ■ AFTER Leaders of newly independent 1963 The Organization of East African states—Julian Nyerere of African Unity (OAU) is Tanganyika, Milton Obote of Uganda, founded to oppose and Kenyatta—met in Nairobi in 1964 colonialism in Africa. to discuss their post-colonial future. 1968 Britain’s last African See also: Manabendra Nath Roy 253 ■ Nelson Mandela 294–95 ■ colonies gain independence. Frantz Fanon 304–07 ■ Che Guevara 312–13

THE CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES 259 THE STATE MUST BE CONCEIVED OF AS AN “EDUCATOR” ANTONIO GRAMSCI (1891–1937) IN CONTEXT I talian Marxist theorist Antonio A human mass does not Gramsci, while exposing the ‘distinguish’ itself, does IDEOLOGY imbalances between the not become independent… Marxism industrialized north and rural south without organizing itself: of Italy, identified that the struggle and there is no organization FOCUS to tackle the dominance of the Cultural hegemony ruling classes was a cultural battle without intellectuals. as much as a revolutionary one. Antonio Gramsci BEFORE 1867 Karl Marx completes Gramsci developed the notion the first volume of Capital, of “cultural hegemony,” referring in which he analyzes the to the ideological and cultural capitalist system and the control of the working classes ways in which the masses that goes beyond coercion to the are exploited by the rich. development of systems of thought—reinforcing the position 1929 José Ortega y Gasset of the powerful through consent. laments the demise of the intellectual as the working The role of intellectuals education was vital. Gramsci had class grows in power. For Gramsci, no government, a particular view of the role of regardless of how powerful it is, intellectuals in this context. He AFTER can sustain its control by force felt that intellectuals could exist 1980 Michel Foucault alone. Legitimacy and popular at all levels of society, rather than describes the ways in which consent are also required. By solely as a traditional elite, and power is distributed across viewing the functions of the state that the development of this society in institutions such as a means of educating and capacity among the working class as schools and the family. indoctrinating society into was necessary to the success subservience, Gramsci radically of any attempt to counter the 1991 The Lega Nord altered Marxist thought. He saw hegemony of the ruling classes. ■ (Northern League) is that in order to tackle the grip of founded on a platform of cultural hegemony on society, greater autonomy for the industrialized north of Italy. See also: Karl Marx 188–93 ■ Vladimir Lenin 226–33 ■ Rosa Luxemburg 234–35 ■ Michel Foucault 310–11

POLITICAL POWER GROWS OUT OF THE BARREL OF A GUN MAO ZEDONG (1893–1976)



262 MAO ZEDONG A t the beginning of the in Russia were now a matter of 20th century, Chinese intense interest because of the IN CONTEXT students and intellectuals, perceived similarities between the including the young Mao Zedong, two backward giants. Traveling to IDEOLOGY began to learn of the socialist Beijing, Mao became the assistant Marxism-Leninism ideologies on the rise in Europe, and protégé of the university and apply them to China. At librarian Li Dazhao, an early FOCUS the time, Marxism was not as Chinese communist who was Modernization of China compelling to these young Chinese studying, holding seminars, and as Mikhail Bakunin’s theory of writing about the Russian BEFORE anarchism and other schools of revolutionary movement. 1912 The Republic of China is Utopian socialist thought. Marx had established, bringing to an stipulated that a sound capitalist Mao took Marxist and Leninist end more than 2,000 years of economy was the necessary basis ideas and adapted them to resolve imperial rule. for a socialist revolution, but China the problem of a workers’ revolution was still primarily agrarian and in a land of peasants. Lenin’s 1919 The May Fourth feudal, with no modern industry theory of imperialism envisioned Movement politicizes events in or urban working class. communism spreading through China, leading directly to the developing countries and gradually foundation of the Communist Revolutionary inspiration surrounding the capitalist West. Party of China in 1921. Before the Russian Revolution in Mao believed that countries still 1917, there was little to encourage mired in feudalism would skip the AFTER disaffected Chinese intellectuals capitalist stage of development and 1966–76 Mao’s Cultural in Marx’s conviction that the move straight into full socialism. Revolution, the suppression processes of capitalist production An elite vanguard party with a of supposedly capitalist, must achieve critical mass before a higher class “consciousness” traditional, and cultural workers’ revolution could succeed. would instill revolutionary values elements in China, leads Looking back on the immense and a proletarian identity in to factional strife and huge changes he had carved out on the the peasantry. loss of life. Chinese political landscape, Mao would later assert that the Bolshevik Politicization of the people 1977 Deng Xiaoping uprising struck political thinkers in The excitement generated by the implements a program China like a “thunderbolt.” Events Russian Revolution might have of economic liberalization, been confined to university leading to rapid growth. China is an agrarian rather Political power Therefore peasants than an industrial society. grows out of the are China’s barrel of a gun. In order to get rid of proletariat class. the gun, it is necessary Peasants have no power to take up the gun. against armed capitalist exploiters.

THE CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES 263 See also: Karl Marx 188–93 ■ Sun Yat-Sen 212–13 ■ Vladimir Lenin 226–33 ■ Joseph Stalin 240–41 ■ Leon Trotsky 242–45 ■ Che Guevara 312–13 ■ Ho Chi Minh 337 Rice farmers and other peasants handed over their land to cooperatives in a collectivization program that would form a key part of Mao’s drive to reform China’s rural economy. discussion groups had it not been but their objections had no effect 1923 he was elected to the party’s for the Western Allies’ heedless on the actions of the Allies. The Central Committee. He spent the betrayal of Chinese interests real significance of the May Fourth 1920s organizing labor strikes, following World War I. More than Movement was that vast numbers studying, and developing his ideas. 140,000 Chinese laborers had been of Chinese people began to think It became clear to him that in shipped to France to support the about their precarious lives and China, it would have to be a rural war effort of the Triple Entente — the vulnerability of their country and not an urban proletariat who Britain, France, and Russia— to threats from the outside world. would carry out the revolution. with the understanding that, It was a significant turning point among other things, the German for Chinese political thought, Crucible of communism protectorate of Shandong on the in which Western-style liberal The CPC shared the ideological northeast coast of China would be democracy lost much of its appeal, outlook of Marxist-Leninism with returned to Chinese hands after the and Marxist-Leninist concepts the Kuonmintang (KMT)—China’s war. Instead, the Allies gave the gained traction. nationalist and antimonarchist territory to Japan at the Versailles party founded by Sun Yat-Sen, with Peace Conference of 1919. Mao was one of the radical links to Soviet Russia—and both intellectuals who came to the had the overall aim of national Students across China protested fore at this time and went on to unification. However, the against their country’s “spineless” organize peasants and workers in Communists’ popular movement capitulation. City workers and the Communist Party. He would of peasants and workers was too businessmen in Shanghai joined never forget the lesson of Shandong: radical for the KMT, who turned them, and a coalition of diverse to negotiate from a position of on their CPC allies in 1927, groups united as the May Fourth weakness was to lose. The ultimate crushing them and suppressing Movement to force the government power in politics is the power of their organizations in the cities. to accede to their demands. China’s armed force. Mao would be ruthless This violent conflict was the representatives at Versailles both in seeking armed power and crucible from which the doctrine refused to sign the peace treaty, in his willingness to use it. of “Maoism” emerged as a guerrilla-style rural Marxian It is very difficult for the In 1921, Mao attended the First revolutionary strategy. ❯❯ laboring people… to awaken Congress of the Communist Party to the importance of having of China (CPC) in Shanghai, and in guns in their own hands. Mao Zedong

264 MAO ZEDONG Without an army for the people, there is nothing for the people. Mao Zedong Mao’s cult of personality was relentlessly reinforced by mass demonstrations of crowds carrying posters of their leader and copies of his Little Red Book of quotations. In 1934 and 1935, Mao—now the forces led by Chiang Kaishek. They With the peasant-proletariat armed chairman of the Chinese Soviet crossed 18 mountain ranges and 24 and powerful, Mao—now known as Republic, a small republic declared major rivers, and only one-tenth of “The Great Helmsman”—did bring in the mountainous region of the original force of 80,000 soldiers about many changes for the good. Jiangxi, southeast China— and workers who set out from Among other measures, he banned cemented his position as foremost Jiangxi in October 1934 survived arranged marriages and promoted among Chinese communists the march to reach Shanghai a the status of women, doubled during “The Long March.” The year later. Mao’s supremacy was school attendance, raised literacy, first of a series of marches, this sealed, and he became leader of the and created universal housing. 6,000-mile (9,600-km) ordeal, CPC in November 1935. Following However, Mao’s admiration for lasting over a year, was ostensibly Japan’s defeat by the Allies in Stalin and his infatuation with undertaken to repel Japanese World War II, the resumption of Marxian language and theories invaders, but it also served as a civil war in China, and the eventual of revolution disguised the many military retreat by the Communists’ surrender of Nationalist forces, thousands of brutal killings that he Red Army to evade the Nationalist the communist People’s Republic and his forces committed on the of China was finally established in road to power. There were to be Politics is war without 1949, with Mao at the helm. many millions more—some from bloodshed, while war is the violent repression of those politics with bloodshed. The Great Helmsman deemed opponents of China, and In 1938, in his concluding remarks some from neglect. In the space of Mao Zedong to the Sixth Plenary Session of the three decades, Mao forced the Sixth Central Committee of the country to almost complete self- CPC, Mao expounded on his theory sufficiency, but at an unspeakable of revolution. He maintained that in cost in human life, comforts, a China that was still semifeudal, freedoms, and sanity. the truly revolutionary class was the peasantry, and only military The Five Year Plan launched struggle could achieve revolution; in 1953 achieved spectacular demonstrations, protests, and increases in output, and was strikes would never be enough. followed by the “Great Leap Forward” in 1958. By forcing the

THE CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES 265 Chinese economy to attempt to In contrast to Marx’s conviction Mao Zedong catch up with the West through that socialism would be an mass-labor projects in agriculture, inevitable development from the The son of a prosperous industry, and infrastructure, Mao material and cultural achievements peasant, Mao Zedong was brought about one of the worst of capitalism, Mao correlated the born in Shaoshan, in Hunan catastrophes the world has ever poverty he saw in China with a province, central China, in known. Between 1958 and 1962, moral purity that he believed would 1893. Mao described his at least 45 million Chinese people lead to a socialist Utopia. In 1966, father as a stern disciplinarian —mostly peasants—were tortured, the Cultural Revolution was who beat his children on overworked, starved, or beaten to introduced with the aim of any pretext, while his devout death, a fatality rate only slightly cleansing China of “bourgeois” Buddhist mother would try smaller than the entire death toll influences. Millions were to pacify him. of World War II. “reeducated” through forced labor, and thousands executed. After training as a teacher, The atrocities of this period Mao traveled to Beijing where were carefully cataloged in the Mao in modern China he worked in the university now-reopened Communist Party The politics that for Mao grew “out library. He studied Marxism archives. These records show that of the barrel of a gun” turned out to and went on to become a the “truly revolutionary class”— be the totalitarian politics of terror, founder member of the Mao’s chosen people in the great brutality, fantasy, and deceit. On Chinese Communist Party struggle for social justice—were in his death, the CPC declared that in 1921. After years of civil fact treated as faceless, expendable his ideas would remain “a guide to and national wars, the objects by Mao and the Party. action for a long time to come.” Communists were victorious However, as society evolves and and, under Mao’s leadership, Tractors made in China not only awareness grows of his horrific founded the People’s Republic increased output but symbolized Mao’s crimes, Mao’s influence on Chinese of China in 1949. policy of “maintaining independence thought may finally be cast off. ■ and relying on our own efforts.” Mao set out to ruthlessly modernize China with his “Great Leap Forward” mass labor program, and later the Cultural Revolution. Both initiatives failed, resulting in millions of deaths. Mao died on September 9, 1976. Key works 1937 On Guerrilla Warfare 1964 Little Red Book or Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong

POSTWA POLITIC 1945–PRESENT

R S

268 INTRODUCTION Germany surrenders, Simone de Beauvoir The Cuban missile President followed by Japan, publishes The Second crisis brings John F. Kennedy is Sex, which becomes bringing World War II to relations between assassinated. a close. Europe is an important the USSR and the US feminist resource. partitioned between to breaking point. East and West. 1945 1949 1962 1963 1945 1950–1953 1963 1963 A Labour government The Korean War Kenya declares Martin Luther King is elected in the UK, is fought between independence, leads the March on ushering in a swathe of Western powers and following many reforms that will shape the Washington for modern welfare state. the communist other former Jobs and Freedom. North Korean and European colonies. Chinese forces. H uge industrial and social postwar period, and independence developments in warfare that changes took place in movements gathered support in threatened humanity on a terrifying the years that followed Europe’s colonies. scale. These developments led the end of World War II. The scale many writers to reconsider the and industrialization of warfare, War and the state ethics of warfare. Theorists such as the decline of the great colonial There were many questions for Michael Walzer explored the moral powers, and the ideological battles political thinkers that plainly ramifications of battle, developing between communism and free- stemmed from the experience of the ideas put forward by Thomas market capitalism all had a global conflict. World War II had Aquinas and Augustine of Hippo. profound effect on political thought. seen an unprecedented expansion A world recovering from human of military capacity, with a Other writers, such as Noam tragedy on such a scale urgently dramatic impact on the industrial Chomsky and Smedley D. Butler, needed to be reinterpreted, and base of the major powers. This new explored the configurations of new prescriptions for human environment provided the platform power at play behind the new development and organization for a collision of ideas between East military-industrial complex. were required. and West, and the Korean and In recent years, the emergence Vietnam wars, alongside countless of global terrorism, and the Across western Europe, a new smaller dramas, were in many ways subsequent conflicts in Iraq and political consensus emerged, and proxies for conflict between the Afghanistan, have thrown these mixed economies of private and Soviet Union and the United States. debates into sharp relief. public businesses were developed. At the same time, new demands for The nuclear bombs that had The period immediately civil and human rights emerged brought World War II to an end also after the war also raised serious across the world in the immediate signaled an era of technological questions about the appropriate role of the state. In the postwar

POSTWAR POLITICS 269 Martin Luther King The Iranian Revolution Nelson Mandela is A US-led coalition is assassinated. The brings in a series of released from prison, invades Iraq. Civil Rights Act is passed in the USA. fundamentalist laws precipitating the instituting authoritarian fall of apartheid in rule in Iran. South Africa. 1968 1979 1990 2003 1973 1989 2001 2005 The last US ground The Berlin Wall falls, The 9/11 attacks on the Robert Pape publishes forces withdraw as part of a series of World Trade Center and his analysis of suicide from Vietnam, revolutions across the Pentagon building terrorism, Dying to Win, Eastern Europe, which concludes that it amid public marking the collaspe precipitate the discontent “Global War is a “demand-driven and protest. of Soviet communism. on Terror.” phenomenon.” period, European democracies same time, the battle for civil rights mainstream, green political established the foundations of the gathered pace—with the decline thinkers look set to become welfare state, and across Eastern of colonialism in Africa and the increasingly influential. Europe communism took hold. In popular movement against racial response, political thinkers began discrimination in the United States In the Islamic world, politicians to consider the implications of —driven by thinkers such as Frantz and thinkers have struggled to these developments, particularly Fanon and inspirational activists agree on the place of Islam in in relation to individual liberty. including Nelson Mandela and politics. From Maududi’s vision New understandings of freedom Martin Luther King. Once more, of an Islamic state to Shirin Ebadi’s and justice were developed by questions of power, and particularly consideration of the role of women writers such as Friedrich Hayek, civil and political rights, formed in Islam, and through the rise of John Rawls, and Robert Nozick, the main preoccupation of al-Qaeda to the hope offered by the and the position of individuals political thinkers. “Arab Spring,” this is a dynamic in relation to the state began to and contested political arena. be reconsidered. Global concerns During the 1970s, concern for the The challenges of a globalized Feminism and civil rights environment grew into a political world—with industries, cultures, From the 1960s onward, a new, force, boosted by the ideas about and communication technologies overtly political strand of feminism “deep ecology” of Arne Naess that transcend national boundaries emerged, inspired by writers and coalescing into the green —bring with them fresh sets of such as Simone de Beauvoir, who movement. As issues such as political problems. In particular, questioned the position of women climate change and the end of the financial crisis that erupted in in politics and society. Around the cheap oil increasingly enter the 2007 has led political thinkers to reconsider their positions, seeking new solutions to the new problems. ■

THE CHIEF EVIL IS UNLIMITED GOVERNMENT FRIEDRICH HAYEK (1899–1992)



272 FRIEDRICH HAYEK Free markets respond Central planning cannot to individual needs. respond to the changing IN CONTEXT needs of every individual. IDEOLOGY So markets must be allowed So central planning Neoliberalism to operate freely… involves coercion and curtails the FOCUS freedom of all… Free-market economics …and governments must …and leads to unlimited, BEFORE be limited to allow order to totalitarian government. 1840 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon arise spontaneously in society. advocates a naturally ordered society without authority, The chief evil is unlimited government. arguing that capital is analogous to authority. 1922 Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises criticizes centrally planned economies. 1936 John Maynard Keynes argues that the key to escaping economic depression is government spending. AFTER 1962 US economist Milton Friedman argues that competitive capitalism is essential for political freedom. 1975 British politician Margaret Thatcher hails Hayek as her inspiration. A ustrian-British economist politicians on the right. For this government.” Hayek first came to Friedrich Hayek wrote his reason, it may seem strange that he public prominence in the 1930s, warning against unlimited should have so firmly insisted that when he challenged British government in an appendix called he was not a conservative. Indeed, economist John Maynard Keynes’s “Why I am not a Conservative” such is the apparent ambiguity of ideas for dealing with the Great in his 1960 work, The Constitution his position that many commentators Depression. Keynes argued of Liberty. In 1975, newly elected prefer the term “neoliberal” to that the only way to get out of the British Conservative party leader describe Hayek and others who, downward spiral of unemployment Margaret Thatcher threw this book like Thatcher and US president and sluggish spending was on a table at a meeting with her Ronald Reagan, championed the with large-scale government fellow Conservatives declaring, idea of unfettered free markets. intervention and public works. “This is what we believe.” Hayek insisted that this would Hayek versus Keynes simply bring inflation, and that Thatcher was not the only The principle of free markets is periodic “busts” were an inevitable conservative politician to admire at the heart of Hayek’s insistence —indeed necessary—part of the Hayek’s ideas, and he has emerged that “the chief evil is unlimited business cycle. as something of a hero to many

POSTWAR POLITICS 273 See also: Immanuel Kant 126–29 ■ John Stuart Mill 174–81 ■ Pierre-Joseph Proudhon 183 ■ Ayn Rand 280–81 ■ Mikhail Gorbachev 322 ■ Robert Nozick 326–27 According to Hayek, a free market spontaneously matches the availability of resources to the need for them through supply and demand. The knowledge to make these adjustments deliberately is way beyond the possibility of any individual. When demand for a product …its price Consumers may find it hard More goods are is greater than supply... goes up. to find the goods, and will made to capitalize have to pay a higher price. on profits. When supply of a product is …its price Consumers can easily find the Suppliers make greater than demand... goes down. goods, and may be able to buy less product. them at discounted prices. Keynes’s arguments won over that goods must be in short his famous book The Road to policy makers at the time, but supply; if they fall, goods must Serfdom to warn the people of his Hayek continued to develop his be oversupplied. The market adopted country, Britain, away from ideas. He argued that central also gives people an incentive the dangers of socialism. planning is doomed to failure to respond to this knowledge, because the planners can never boosting production of goods in In The Road to Serfdom, Hayek have all the information required to short supply to take advantage of argues that government control account for the changing needs of the extra profits on offer. Hayek of our economic lives amounts to every individual. It is simply a viewed this price mechanism not totalitarianism, and makes us all ❯❯ delusion to imagine that planners as a deliberate human invention, might have the omniscience to but as an example of order in A claim for equality of cater for so many disparate needs. human society that emerges material position can be spontaneously, like language. met only by a government The gap in the planning is data, with totalitarian powers. and this is where free markets come Loss of freedom in. Individuals have a knowledge Over time, Hayek began to feel Friedrich Hayek of resources and the need for them that the gap between the planned that a central planner can never economy and the free market hope to have. Hayek contended was not simply a matter of bad that the free market reveals this economics but a fundamental knowledge perfectly and continually. issue of political freedom. Planning It does so through the operation of economies means controlling prices, which vary to signal the people’s lives. And so, in 1944, balance between supply and as World War II raged on, he wrote demand. If prices rise, you know

274 FRIEDRICH HAYEK Economic control is not comprehensive economic plan are wary of change. But Hayek merely control of a sector leaves no room for individual has no problem with democracy of human life which can choice in any aspect of life. or change—the problem is a government that is not properly be separated from the Government needs limits kept under control and limited. rest, it is the control of the It is in The Constitution of Liberty He asserts that “nobody is qualified that Hayek’s arguments about the to wield unlimited power”—and means for all our ends. link between free markets and that, he implies, includes “the Friedrich Hayek political freedom are most fully people.” Yet, “the powers which developed. Despite his assertion modern democracy possesses,” serfs. He believed that there was that free markets must be the he concedes, “would be even no fundamental difference in prime mechanism to give order to more intolerable in the hands outcome between socialist central society, he is by no means against of some small elite.” control of the economy and the government. Government’s central fascism of the Nazis, however role, Hayek asserts, should be to Hayek is critical of laws different the intentions behind the maintain the “rule of law,” with intended to remedy a particular policies. For Hayek, to put any as little intervention in people’s fault and believes that government economic master plan into action, lives as possible. It is a “civil use of coercion in society should be even one intended to benefit association” that simply kept to a minimum. He is even everyone, so many key policy provides a framework within more critical of the notion of “social issues must be delegated to which individuals can follow justice.” The market, he says, is a unelected technocrats that such their own projects. game in which “there is no point in a program will be inherently calling the outcome just or unjust.” undemocratic. Moreover, a The foundations of law are He concludes from this that “social common rules of conduct that justice is an empty phrase with no predate government and arise determinable content.” For Hayek, spontaneously. “A judge,” he writes, any attempt to redistribute wealth “is in this sense an institution of a —for instance, by raising taxes spontaneous order.” This is where to pay for the provision of social Hayek’s claim that he is not a welfare—is a threat to freedom. conservative comes in. He argues All that is needed is a basic safety that conservatives are frightened of net to provide “protection against democracy, and blame the evils of acts of desperation by the needy.” the times on its rise, because they For a long time, Hayek’s ideas had only a few disciples, and Keynesian economics dominated the policies of Western governments in the postwar years. Many countries established welfare states despite Hayek’s warnings against it. But the oil shortage and economic downturn of the 1970s persuaded some to look again at Hayek’s ideas, and in 1974, to the surprise of many, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics. In postwar Europe, the ideas of John Maynard Keynes won out over those of Hayek. Key industries such as the railways were run by state-owned companies.

POSTWAR POLITICS 275 From this point on, Hayek’s ideas Ronald Reagan and Margaret arguing against. Hayek was became the rallying point for those Thatcher both enthusiastically himself personally associated who championed unregulated free embraced Hayek’s message that with these regimes, though he markets as the route to economic government should be shrunk, cutting always insisted that he was only prosperity and individual liberty. taxes and state-provided services. giving economic advice. In the 1980s, Reagan and Thatcher pursued policies intended to roll David Steel, who argued that Hayek remains a highly back the welfare state, reducing liberty is possible only with controversial figure, championed taxation and cutting regulations. “social justice and an equitable by free marketeers and many Many of the leaders of the distribution of wealth and power, politicians on the right as a revolutions against communist which in turn require a degree of defender of liberty, and despised by rule in eastern Europe were also active government intervention.” many on the left, who feel his ideas inspired by Hayek’s thinking. More damning still from a liberal lie behind a shift toward hardline point of view is the association of capitalism around the world that Shock policies Hayek’s ideas with what Canadian has brought misery to many and Hayek’s claim to be a liberal has journalist Naomi Klein describes as dramatically increased the gap been criticized by many, including the “shock doctrine.” In this, people between rich and poor. ■ former British Liberal Party leader are persuaded to accept, “for their own ultimate good,” a range of A government big enough extreme free-market measures— to give you everything such as rapid deregulation, the you want is strong selling of state industries, and high enough to take unemployment—by being put in everything you have. a state of shock, either through Gerald Ford economic hardship or brutal government policies. Hayek’s free-market ideology became associated with a number of brutal military dictatorships in South America, such as that of General Augusto Pinochet in Chile—apparently just the kind of totalitarian regime Hayek was Friedrich Hayek Born in Vienna in 1899, Friedrich lecture on Mises’s theory of August von Hayek entered the business cycles, and began his University of Vienna just after sparring with Keynes on the World War I, when it was one of causes of the Depression. In the three best places in the world 1947, with Mises, he founded to study economics. Though the Mont Pèlerin Society of enrolled as a law student, he libertarians. Three years later, was fascinated by economics and he joined the Chicago school of psychology, and the poverty of free-market economists, along postwar Vienna urged him to a with Milton Friedman. By his socialist solution. Then in 1922, death in 1992, Hayek’s ideas after reading Ludwig von Mises’s had become highly influential. Socialism, a devastating critique of central planning, Hayek Key works enrolled in Mises’s economics class. In 1931, he moved to the 1944 The Road to Serfdom London School of Economics to 1960 The Constitution of Liberty

276 PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT AND RATIONALIST POLITICS DO NOT BELONG TO THE SAME SYSTEM MICHAEL OAKESHOTT (1901–1990) IN CONTEXT Parliamentary institutions Rationalist politics is grew out of the practical based on ideology IDEOLOGY and abstract notions. Conservatism art of governing. FOCUS They have existed for It engages in destruction Practical experience generations and govern and the creation of based on experience a new order. BEFORE 1532 Machiavelli’s The Prince and history. analyzes the usually violent means by which men seize, Parliamentary government and rationalist retain, and lose political power. politics do not belong to the same system. 1689 Britain’s Bill of Rights T he political extremism that that Marxist and fascist leaders limits the monarchy’s powers. engulfed much of the world had seized on the thought of in the 20th century, with political theorists like “an infection,” 1848 Marx and Engels publish the rise of Hitler in Germany, with disastrous consequences for the Communist Manifesto, Stalin in Russia, and Mao in China, millions. Oakeshott named this which Oakeshott believes stirred Michael Oakeshott’s career- contagious disease “rationalism.” is used unthinkingly as a “rule long investigation into the nature of book” for political action. political ideologies and their impact Tracing the emergence of on the lives of nations. He considered British parliamentary institutions AFTER to the “least rationalistic period 1975 In Cambodia, Pol Pot proclaims “Year Zero,” erasing history. His Maoist regime kills 2 million people in 3 years. 1997 China’s principle of “One Country, Two Systems” allows for Hong Kong’s free-market economy after Britain returns the territory to China.

POSTWAR POLITICS 277 See also: Niccolò Machiavelli 74–81 ■ Thomas Hobbes 96–103 ■ Edmund Burke 130–33 ■ Georg Hegel 156–59 ■ Karl Marx 188–93 of politics—the Middle Ages,” Oakeshott likened political life Oakeshott explained that in to a ship on rough seas. Predicting Britain, Parliament had not exactly how the waves will form developed following a rationalist is impossible, so negotiating the or ideological order. Rather, the storms requires experience. imperative to limit political power and protect against tyranny acted as a deterrent, stabilizing Britain against the rationalist absolutisms that gripped Europe. Fixed beliefs Oakeshott declared that “men sail In political activity, Oakeshott saw rationalism in a boundless and bottomless sea”— then, men sail on politics as a fog obscuring the meaning that the world is hard to a boundless and real-life, day-to-day practicalities fathom and that attempts to make bottomless sea. that all politicians and parties sense of society’s behavior Michael Oakeshott must address. The rationalist’s inevitably distort and simplify the actions are a response to his fixed facts. He was wary of ideologies, theoretical beliefs rather than to Professor of Political Science. seeing them as abstract, fixed objective or “practical” experience. He published widely on the beliefs that cannot explain what is He must memorize a rule book, philosophy of history, religion, inexplicable. Allergic to uncertainty, such as Marx and Engels’s aesthetics, and law as well they convert complex situations into Communist Manifesto, before he as politics. His influence on simple formulas. The rationalist can navigate the waters in which Conservative party politics in politician’s impulse is to act from he finds himself, and so he is Britain led Prime Minister within the “authority of his own constantly detached from reality, Margaret Thatcher to put him reason”—the only authority he operating through an ideological forward for knighthood, which recognizes. He acts as though he fog of abstract theories. he declined, not seeing his work understands the world and can see as political in nature. He retired how it should be changed. It is very Michael Oakeshott in 1968, and died in 1990. dangerous in politics, Oakeshott believed, to act according to an Michael Oakeshott was born in Key works artificial ideology rather than real London in 1901 to a civil servant experience of government. Practical and a former nurse. He studied 1933 Experience and Its Modes knowledge is the best guide and history at the University of 1962 Rationalism in Politics and ideology is false knowledge. Cambridge, graduating in 1925. Other Essays He remained in academia for 1975 On Human Conduct Although Oakeshott was known the next half century, barring as a conservative theorist, and his his covert role in World War II thinking has been appropriated when he served with British by elements of modern-day intelligence as part of the conservatism, this is an ideological “Phantom” reconnaissance label that he did not recognize, and unit in Belgium and France. he did not pledge public support for conservative political parties. ■ Oakeshott taught at both Cambridge and Oxford universities, after which he moved to the London School of Economics and was made

278 THE OBJECTIVE OF THE ISLAMIC JIHAD IS TO ELIMINATE THE RULE OF AN UN-ISLAMIC SYSTEM ABUL ALA MAUDUDI (1903–1979) IN CONTEXT Islam is not just a religion, it is a revolutionary program of life. IDEOLOGY Islamic fundamentalism Muslims must carry out its revolutionary program. APPROACH Jihad is the revolutionary struggle Jihad that the Islamic party uses to achieve its goal. BEFORE Islam’s purpose is an Islamic 622–632 CE The first Muslim state, and the destruction of states commonwealth, in Medina under Muhammad, unites that oppose this. separate tribes under the umbrella of faith. T he genesis of the global and—in India—the question of Islamic revival in the 20th nationalism. The political party 1906 The All-India Muslim century has often been Jama’at-i-Islami, founded by League is founded by Aga traced to the rejection of European Maulana Abul Ala Maududi in Khan III. colonialism and Western decadence 1941, became a revolutionary force in Africa and Asia. However, it at the vanguard of the Muslim AFTER was also linked to internal issues reawakening in India. Addressing 1979 In Pakistan, General Zia of communal politics, Muslim what he saw as a deep intellectual ul-Haq puts some of Maududi’s identity, the dynamics of power in uncertainty and political anxiety ideas into practice as Islamic a multiethnic, multifaith society, among Indian Muslims after the Sharia-based criminal punishments become law. 1988 Osama bin Laden forms al-Qaeda, calling for a global jihad and the imposition of Sharia law across the world. 1990 The Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam cites Sharia law as its sole source.

POSTWAR POLITICS 279 See also: Muhammad 56–57 ■ Karl Marx 188–93 ■ Theodor Herzl 208–09 ■ Mahatma Gandhi 220–25 ■ Ali Shariati 323 ■ Shirin Ebadi 328 rule of the British Raj, Maududi saw their “base” as the masses of The Islamic revolution in Iran, led formulated a fresh perspective the working class in every country. by Ruhollah Khomeini, ushered in the on Islam designed to reverse the Maududi saw the world population world’s first Islamic republic in 1979. decline in Muslim political power of Muslims as his “base” in the A state run on Islamic religious lines by forging a new universal same way. If united ideologically, was Maududi’s lifelong goal. ideological brotherhood. Muslims would eventually be politically indivisible, rendering rather than as an evolutionary The Islamic state secular nation-states irrelevant. advance of civilization and reason. Always more of a scholar and a The Islamic jihad (holy war) was not Meanwhile, the fundamentalist mujaddid (reformer) than a practical, only a struggle to evolve spiritually, Muslims in Maududi’s slipstream hands-on politician, Maududi it was also a political struggle to see the ongoing interference of remained detached from specific impose an all-encompassing Islamic Western countries in the internal political and social issues. Instead, ideology. This would focus on politics of the Middle East as the he concentrated on communicating Islamic control of state resources, continuation of colonial domination, his vision of the ideal Islamic state. so that finally the kingdom of God and believe that only Islamic Every element of this state would would be established on Earth. government ruling through Sharia be informed “from above” by the law (canonical law based on the laws of din (religion), not by secular In 1947, on the Partition of India teachings of the Quran), as Western principles of democratic and Pakistan on religious lines, the interpreted by Muslim clerics, governance. The Islamic state British Raj was dissolved. Although can govern mankind. ■ would therefore be innately his party did not back Partition, democratic because it directly criticizing its leaders’ policies as reflected the will of Allah. insufficiently Islamic, Maududi moved to Pakistan, determined to This holy community could make it an Islamic state. come into being only if its citizens were converted from ignorance and Criticism of the approach error to an uncompromising and Western critics of Maududi’s call for purer understanding of Islam as a an Islamic world order claim that whole way of life. Maududi had Islam sees its own history as a long studied European socialists, who descent from ideal beginnings, Abul Ala Maududi quickly began to urge India’s Islam does not intend to Muslims to recognize Islam as confine its rule to a single Born in Aurangabad, India, the their only identity. reformer, political philosopher, state or a handful of and theologian Maulana Abul In 1941, Maududi moved to countries. The aim of Ala Maududi belonged to the Pakistan, where he advocated Islam is to bring about Chisti tradition, a mystic Sufi an Islamic state. He was a universal revolution. Islamic order. He was educated arrested and sentenced to death Abul Ala Maududi at home by his religious father. in 1953 for inciting a riot, but the Later, he began to earn his sentence was commuted. He living as a journalist. In 1928, died in New York in 1979. he published Towards Understanding Islam (Risala Key works al Dinyat), earning him a reputation as an Islamic thinker 1928 Towards and writer. Initially he supported Understanding Islam Gandhi’s Indian nationalism, but 1948 Islamic Way of Life 1972 The Meaning of the Quran

280 THERE IS NOTHING TO TAKE A MAN’S FREEDOM AWAY FROM HIM, SAVE OTHER MEN AYN RAND (1905–1982) IN CONTEXT D uring the mid-20th any attempt to control the actions of century, the twin forces of others through regulation corrupted IDEOLOGY fascism and communism the capacity of individuals to work Objectivism led many in the West to question freely as productive members of the ethics of state involvement society. In other words, it was FOCUS in the lives of individuals. important to preserve the freedom Individual liberty of a man from interference by other Russian-American philosopher men. In particular, Rand felt that the BEFORE and novelist Ayn Rand believed in state’s monopoly on the legal use 1917 The young Ayn Rand a form of ethical individualism, of force was immoral, because it witnesses the October which held that the pursuit of self- undermined the practical use of Revolution in Russia. interest was morally right. For Rand, 1930s Fascism rises Reason is the only source In order to be free, across Europe as a series of human knowledge. a man must live of authoritarian states centralize state power. according to reason. AFTER Interference from others, A man can only live 1980s Conservative, free- including the state, restricts according to reason if he market governments—in a man’s ability to pursue his is allowed to pursue his the US under Ronald Reagan, and in the UK own self-interest. own self-interest. under Margaret Thatcher— achieve electoral success. There is nothing to take a man’s freedom away from 2009 The Tea Party movement begins in the US, with a him, save other men. right-wing, conservative, tax-reducing agenda. Late 2000s Renewed interest in Rand’s works follows the global financial crisis.

POSTWAR POLITICS 281 See also: Aristotle 40–43 ■ Friedrich Nietzsche 196–99 ■ Friedrich Hayek 270–75 ■ Robert Nozick 326–27 Atlas supports the world on his shoulders in this sculpture at Rockefeller Center in New York City. Rand believed that businessmen supported the nation in the same way. Man—every man—is an end Objectivism is built on the idea Today, Rand’s ideas resonate in in himself, not the means that reason and rationality are the libertarian and conservative to the ends of others. only absolutes in human life, and movements that advocate a Ayn Rand that as a result, any form of “just shrinking of the state. Others knowing”based on faith or instinct, point out problems such as a lack reason by individuals. Because of such as religion, could not provide of provision for the protection of this, she condemned taxation, as an adequate basis for existence. the weak from the exploitation well as state regulation of business To Rand, unfettered capitalism of the powerful. ■ and most other areas of public life. was the only system of social organization that was compatible Objectivism with the rational nature of human Rand’s main contribution to beings, and collective state action political thought is a doctrine she served only to limit the capabilities called objectivism. She intended of humanity. this to be a practical “philosophy for living on Earth” that provided Her most influential work, a set of principles governing all Atlas Shrugged, articulates this aspects of life, including politics, belief clearly. A novel set in a economics, art, and relationships. United States that is crippled by government intervention and corrupt businessmen, its heroes are the industrialists and entrepreneurs whose productivity underpins society and whose cooperation sustains civilization. Ayn Rand Ayn Rand was born Alisa most enduring legacy. Rand Zinov’yvena Rosenbaum in St. wrote more non-fiction and Petersburg, Russia. The Bolshevik lectured on philosophy, Revolution of 1917 resulted in her promoting objectivism and family losing their business and its application to modern life. enduring a period of extreme Rand’s work has grown in hardship. She completed her influence since her death and education in Russia, studying has been cited as providing a philosophy, history, and cinema, philosophical underpinning to before leaving for the US. modern right-libertarian and conservative politics. Rand worked as a screenwriter in Hollywood before becoming an Key works author in the 1930s. Her novel The Fountainhead appeared in 1943 1943 The Fountainhead and won her fame, but it was 1957 Atlas Shrugged her last work of fiction, Atlas 1964 The Virtue of Selfishness Shrugged, that proved to be her

282 EVERY KNOWN AND ESTABLISHED FACT CAN BE DENIED HANNAH ARENDT (1906–1975) IN CONTEXT T he German political are used as tools in order to justify philosopher Hannah particular political decisions. IDEOLOGY Arendt wrote about the This distortion of historical facts Anti-totalitarianism nature of politics at a particularly was not new in the political tumultuous time: she lived through domain, where lies have always FOCUS the rise and fall of the Nazi regime, played an important part in foreign Truth and myth the Vietnam War, student riots in diplomacy and security. However, Paris, and the assassinations of what was new about the political BEFORE US president John F. Kennedy and lies of the 1960s onward was their 1882 French historian Ernest Martin Luther King. As a Jew living significantly wider scope. Arendt Renan claims that national in Germany, who later moved to notices that they went far beyond identity depends upon a occupied France, and then Chicago, simply keeping state secrets to selective and distorted New York, and Berkeley, Arendt encompassing an entire collective memory of past events. experienced these events firsthand. reality in which facts known to Her political philosophy was everyone are targeted and slowly 1960 Hans-Georg Gadamer informed by these events and their erased, while a different version of publishes Truth and Method portrayal to the general public. historical “reality” is constructed focusing on the importance to replace them. of collective truth creation. In her 1967 essay Truth and Politics, Arendt is particularly This mass manipulation of facts AFTER concerned with the way that and opinions, Arendt notes, is no 1992 British historian Eric historical facts often become longer restricted to totalitarian Hobsbawn states that “no distorted when politicized—they regimes, where oppression is serious historian can be a pervasive and evident, and people committed political nationalist.” may be on guard against continual propaganda, but increasingly takes 1995 British philosopher David place in liberal democracies such Miller argues that myths serve as the US, where doctored reports a valuable social integrative and purposeful misinformation function, despite being untrue. During the war in Vietnam, the US 1998 Jürgen Habermas government supplied misinformation to criticizes Arendt’s stance the public—distorting the facts in the in Truth and Justification. way that Arendt describes—in order to justify their involvement.

POSTWAR POLITICS 283 See also: Ibn Khaldun 72–73 ■ Karl Marx 188–93 ■ José Ortega y Gasset 250–51 ■ Michel Foucault 310–11 ■ Noam Chomsky 314–15 Events occur and become recorded as history. The truth of these events may be distorted to… …justify a …ensure …secure …rewrite Hannah Arendt particular the release of a desired history to political facts at a more response at favor certain Hannah Arendt was born in convenient critical times people or Linden, Germany, in 1906, action. (elections, prioritize to a family of secular Jews. time. certain She grew up in Königsberg war). and Berlin and studied facts. philosophy at the University of Marburg with philosopher Every known and established Martin Heidegger, with fact can be denied. whom she developed a strong intellectual and serve to justify violent political but also to the establishment of romantic relationship, interventions such as the Vietnam an entirely substitute reality that later soured by Heidegger’s War of 1954–75. In free countries, no longer has anything to do with support for the Nazi party. she claims, unwelcome historical factual truth. This, Arendt argues, truths are often transmuted into is particularly dangerous—the Arendt was prohibited from mere opinion, losing their factual substitute reality that justified taking up a teaching position status. For example, it is as though mass killings under the Nazi at a German university due the policies of France and the regime is a good example. What is to her Jewish heritage, and Vatican during World War II “were at stake, Arendt says, is “common during the Nazi regime, not a matter of historical record and factual reality itself.” she fled to Paris and later but a matter of opinion.” the US, where she became Contemporary followers of part of a lively intellectual An alternative reality Arendt point to the 2003 invasion circle. She published many The rewriting of contemporary of Iraq by the US and its allies as highly influential books and history under the very eyes of those an example of this phenomenon. essays, and taught at the who witnessed it, through the Arendt’s arguments might also be University of California, denial or neglect of every known used by Julian Assange, founder Berkeley, the University of and established fact, leads not only of WikiLeaks, to justify the release Chicago, the New School, to the creation of a more flattering of secret documents that contradict Princeton (where she became reality to fit specific political needs, the official version of events given the first female lecturer), by governments around the world. ■ and Yale. She died in 1975 of a heart attack. Key works 1951 The Origins of Totalitarianism 1958 The Human Condition 1962 On Revolution

WHAT IS A WOMAN? SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR (1908–1986)



286 SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR IN CONTEXT A cross the world, women He is the Subject, earn lower incomes he is the Absolute. IDEOLOGY than men, are frequently She is the Other. Existentialist feminism deprived of legal and political Simone de Beauvoir rights, and are subject to various FOCUS forms of cultural oppression. In this gathered pace around the world Freedom of choice context, feminist interpretations of in the 1960s. This new movement political problems have provided considered women’s experience of BEFORE an important contribution to discrimination in the home and the 1791 Olympe de Gouges political theory and inspired workplace, and the often subtle writes the Declaration of the generations of political thinkers. manifestations of unconsciously Rights of Woman and the held prejudices that could not Female Citizen. Throughout the 19th century, necessarily be fixed merely through the concept of feminism had been changes in the law. It took much of 1892 Eugénie Potonié-Pierre growing in force, but there were its intellectual inspiration from the and Léonie Rouzade found deep conceptual divides between work of French philosopher Simone the Federation of French the various feminist groups. Some de Beauvoir. Feminist Societies. supported the concept of “equality through difference,” accepting that Transcending feminism 1944 Women finally win the there are inherent differences Although she is sometimes right to vote in France. between men and women, and that described as the “mother of the these differences constitute the modern women’s movement,” at AFTER strength of their positions in society. 1963 Betty Friedan publishes Others held the view that women The Feminine Mystique, should not be treated differently bringing many of de Beauvoir’s from men at all, and focused first ideas to a wider audience. and foremost on universal suffrage as their main goal, viewing equal 1970 In The Female Eunuch, political rights as the key battle. Australian writer Germaine This battle for rights has since Greer examines the limits become known as “first-wave placed on women’s lives in feminism,” to distinguish it from the consumer societies. “second-wave feminism” movement that had wider political aims and Simone de Beauvoir Simone Lucie-Ernestine-Marie- and by wider political issues Bertrand de Beauvoir was born in such as the international growth Paris in 1908. The daughter of a of communism. Her interest in wealthy family, she was educated the latter led to several books privately and went on to study on the subject. She also wrote philosophy at the Sorbonne. While a number of novels. attending the university, she met Jean-Paul Sartre, who would go on After Sartre’s death in 1980, to become her lifelong companion de Beauvoir’s own health and philosophical counterpart. deteriorated. She died six years later, and was buried in the De Beauvoir openly declared same grave. her atheism when she was a teenager. Her rejection of Key works institutions such as religion later led her to refuse to marry Sartre. 1943 She Came To Stay Her work was inspired both by her 1949 The Second Sex own personal experiences in Paris, 1954 The Mandarins

POSTWAR POLITICS 287 See also: Mary Wollstonecraft 154–55 ■ Georg Hegel 156–59 ■ John Stuart Mill 174–81 ■ Emmeline Pankhurst 207 ■ Shirin Ebadi 328 What is a woman? Being a woman and mysterious essence of femininity— being “feminine” are which can be used to justify inequality. In The Second Sex, she different states. points out that the very fact that she is asking the question “What is Women can choose to A woman is formed by a woman?” is significant, and transcend these limitations. society’s expectations. highlights the inherent “Otherness” of women in society in relation to the time of writing her seminal need to examine this involuntary men. She was one of the first work The Second Sex in 1949, definition—and its deeper writers to fully define the concept of de Beauvoir did not view herself meaning—formed the basis of her “sexism”in society: the prejudices primarily as a “feminist.” She work. For de Beauvoir, it is and assumptions that are made held ambitions to transcend this important to differentiate between about women. She also asks definition, which she felt often the state of being female, and that whether women are born, or became bogged down in its own of being a woman, and her work whether they are created by arguments. Instead, she took a eventually alights on the definition society’s preconceptions, including more subjective approach to the “a human being in the feminine educational expectations and concept of difference, combining condition.” She rejects the theory religious structures, as well as feminist arguments with her of the “eternal feminine”—a historical precedents. She existentialist philosophical outlook. examines how women are However, de Beauvoir was later represented in psychoanalysis, to join the second-wave feminist history, and biology, and draws movement, and was still active in on a variety of sources—literary, support of its arguments in the academic, and anecdotal—to 1970s, examining the wider demonstrate the effects on condition of women in society women of these assumptions. in a series of novels. De Beauvoir’s approach in De Beauvoir realized that when answering the question “What she made an effort to define herself, is a woman?” is guided by her the first phrase that came to her involvement with existentialism, ❯❯ mind was “I am a woman.” Her A woman’s traditional role as wife, homemaker, and mother traps her, according to de Beauvoir, in a place where she is cut off from other women and defined by her husband.

288 SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR De Beauvoir maintained a long-term relationship with Jean-Paul Sartre, but the two never married. She saw their open relationship as an example of freedom of choice for a woman. which is essentially concerned with suggests that these limitations men are “Subjects,” who define the discovery of the self through the lead women to accept mediocrity themselves, while women are freedom of personal choice within and discourage them from pushing “Others,” who are defined by men. society. De Beauvoir sees women’s themselves to achieve more. freedom in this regard as peculiarly De Beauvoir calls this state De Beauvoir questions why restricted. This philosophical “immanence.” By this, she means women generally accept this direction was reinforced by her that women are limited by, and to, position of “Other,” seeking to relationship with Jean-Paul Sartre, their own direct experience of the account for their submissiveness to who she met at the Sorbonne in world. She contrasts this position masculine assumptions. She clearly 1929. He was a leading existentialist with men’s “transcendence,” which states that immanence is not a thinker, and they were to maintain allows them access to any position “moral fault” on the part of women. a long and fruitful intellectual in life that they might choose to She also acknowledges what she dialogue, as well as a complex and take, regardless of the limits of sees as the inherent contradiction lasting personal relationship. their own direct experience. In this, facing women: the impossibility of choosing between herself—as a De Beauvoir’s position is also What a curse to woman—as fundamentally different informed by her left-wing political be a woman! And yet from a man, and herself as a totally convictions. She describes the very worst curse when equal member of the human race. women’s struggles as part of the one is a woman is, in class struggle, and recognizes that fact, not to understand Freedom to choose her own start in life as a member Many aspects of The Second Sex of the bourgeoisie meant that that it is one. were highly controversial, including opportunities were open to her Søren Kierkegaard de Beauvoir’s frank discussion of that were not available to women lesbianism and her open contempt from the lower classes. Ultimately, for marriage, both of which she wanted such freedom of resonated deeply with her own life. opportunity for all women—indeed She refused to marry Sartre on the all people—regardless of class. principle that she did not want their De Beauvoir draws parallels relationship to be restrained by a between a woman’s physical masculine institution. For her, confinement—in a “kitchen or a marriage lay at the heart of women’s boudoir”—and the intellectual subjection to men, binding them in boundaries imposed on her. She a submissive position in society and isolating them from other members of their sex. She believed that only where women remained autonomous might they be able to rise together against their oppression. She felt that if girls were conditioned to find “a pal, a friend, a partner,” rather than “a demigod,” they could enter a relationship on a far more equal footing. Central to de Beauvoir’s thesis is the concept, rooted in existentialism, that women can “choose” to change

POSTWAR POLITICS 289 In human society De Beauvoir has been accused of 1980s, having been unaware for nothing is natural and being against motherhood, in the 30 years of the shortcomings of woman, like much else, same way that she was against the translation, that she wished is a product elaborated marriage. In truth, she was not another one would be made. A anti-motherhood, but she did feel revised version of the book was by civilization. that society did not provide women finally published in 2009. Simone de Beauvoir with the choices to allow them to continue to work, or to have The popularity of The Second their position in society: “If woman children out of wedlock. She saw Sex around the world—despite discovers herself as the inessential, how women might use maternity the shortcomings of the original and never turns into the essential, as a refuge—giving them a clear English translation—led to it it is because she does not bring purpose in life—but end up feeling becoming a major influence on about this transformation herself.” imprisoned by it. Above all, she feminist thinking. De Beauvoir’s In other words, only women could stressed the importance of the analysis of women’s role in society, liberate themselves—they could existence of real choices, and of and its political consequences for not be liberated by men. Taking choosing honestly. both men and women, struck a responsibility for difficult choices chord across the Western world, was a core idea in de Beauvoir’s Reshaping feminist politics and was the starting point for existentialism. Her own choice of It is now widely acknowledged that the radical second-wave feminist relationship in the 1920s was a the first translation of The Second movement. In 1963, US author difficult one, involving a complete Sex into English failed to accurately Betty Friedan took up de Beauvoir’s rejection of the values of her own interpret either the language or the argument that women’s potential upbringing and a disregard for concepts of de Beauvoir’s writing, was being wasted in patriarchal social norms. leading many outside France to societies. This argument was misunderstand her position. De to form the basis for feminist Some of those who read The Beauvoir herself declared in the political thought throughout the Second Sex believed de Beauvoir 1960s and 70s. ■ was saying that women should become like men—that they should De Beauvoir believed that men had the accepted position eschew the “femininity” that had “Subject” within society, while women were classed as “Other.” been enforced on them, and with it their essential differences from Men are free to pick and Limitations lead women to men. However, her main thesis was choose their role in life. accept submissive roles. that collaboration between men and women would eradicate the The Subject The Other conflicts inherent in the accepted position of man as Subject and Only through collaboration between men woman as Object. She explored this and women can gender roles be redefined. possibility in her relationship with Sartre, and attempted to embody in her own life many of the qualities she championed in her writing.

290 IN CONTEXT NO NATURAL IDEOLOGY OBJECT IS Radical environmentalism SOLELY A RESOURCE APPROACH Deep ecology ARNE NAESS (1912–2009) BEFORE 1949 Aldo Leopold’s “Land Ethic” essay, calling for a new ethic in conservation, is posthumously published. 1962 Rachel Carson writes Silent Spring, a key factor in the birth of the environmental movement. AFTER 1992 The first Earth Summit is held in Rio, Brazil, signaling an acknowledgment of environmental issues on a global scale. 1998 The “Red/Green” coalition takes power in Germany, the first time an environmental party is elected to national government. I n recent decades, the economic, social, and political challenges of climate change have provided an imperative for the development of new political ideas. Environmentalism as a political project began in earnest in the 1960s, and has now entered the mainstream of political life. As a field of inquiry, the green movement has developed a variety of offshoots and avenues of thought. The first environmentalists Environmentalism has well- established roots. In the 19th century, thinkers such as the English critics John Ruskin and William Morris were concerned

POSTWAR POLITICS 291 See also: John Locke 104–09 ■ Henry David Thoreau 186–87 ■ Karl Marx 188–93 Mankind forms one part of a fragile ecosystem. Human action is causing irreparable damage to the ecosystem. Shallow ecology holds Deep ecology holds that Arne Naess that current economic and profound social and political change is needed to avert Arne Naess was born near social structures can be an environmental crisis. Oslo, Norway, in 1912. After adapted to solve training in philosophy, he became the youngest ever environmental problems. professor of philosophy at the University of Oslo at the with the growth of industrialization mainstream politics. Arne Naess, age of 27. He maintained a and its subsequent impact on the a Norwegian philosopher and significant academic career, natural world. But it was not until ecologist, credited Silent Spring working particularly in the after World War I that a scientific with providing the inspiration for areas of language and understanding of the extent of the his work, which focused on the semantics. In 1969, he damage humans were causing to philosophical underpinnings for resigned from his position to the environment began to develop. environmentalism. Naess was a devote himself to the study In 1962, American marine biologist philosopher of some renown at of ethical ecology, and the Rachel Carson published her book the University of Oslo, and was promotion of practical Silent Spring, an account of the primarily known for his work on ❯❯ responses to environmental environmental problems caused problems. Retreating to write by the use of industrial pesticides. Earth does not in near solitude, he produced Carson’s work suggested that the belong to humans. nearly 400 articles and unregulated use of pesticides such numerous books. as DDT had a dramatic effect on Arne Naess the natural world. Carson also Outside of his work, included an account of the effects Naess was passionate about of pesticides on humans, placing mountaineering. By the age of mankind within the ecosystem 19, he had built a considerable rather than thinking of man as reputation as a climber, and separate from nature. he lived for a number of years in a remote mountain cabin Carson’s book provided the in rural Norway, where he catalyst for the emergence of the wrote most of his later work. environmental movement in Key works 1973 The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement: A Summary 1989 Ecology, Community and Lifestyle: Outline of an Ecosophy

292 ARNE NAESS The Industrial Revolution changed people’s thinking about the environment. It was seen as a resource to be exploited, an attitude that Naess thought could lead to the destruction of mankind. language. From the 1970s on, problems. He called this framework in a human-centric way. Shallow however, he embarked on a period “Ecosophy T,” the T representing ecology was not without value, but of sustained work on environmental Tvergastein, Naess’s mountain Naess believed it had a tendency and ecological issues, having home. Ecosophy T was based on to focus on superficial solutions to resigned from his position at the the idea that people should accept environmental problems. This view university in 1969, and devoted that all living things—whether of ecology, for Naess, imagined himself to this new avenue of human, animal, or vegetable— mankind as a superior being thought. Naess became a practical have an equal right to life. By within the ecosystem and did not philosopher of environmental understanding oneself as part acknowledge the need for wider ethics, developing new responses of an interconnected whole, the social reform. The broader social, to the ecological problems implications of any action on the philosophical, and political roots of that were being identified. environment become apparent. these problems were left unsolved In particular, he proposed new Where the consequences of human —the primary concern was with ways of conceiving the position of activity are unknown, inaction is the narrow interests of humans, human beings in relation to nature. the only ethical option. rather than nature in its entirety. Fundamental to Naess’s thought Deep ecology In contrast, deep ecology says was the notion that the Earth is Later in his career, Naess that, without dramatic reform of not simply a resource to be used by developed the contrasting notions human behavior, irreparable humans. Humans should consider of “shallow” and “deep” ecology to environmental damage will be themselves as part of a complex, expose the inadequacies of much brought upon the planet. The fast interdependent system rather existing thinking on the subject. pace of human progress and social than consumers of natural goods, For Naess, shallow ecology was change has tilted the delicate and should develop compassion for the belief that environmental balance of nature, with the result nonhumans. To fail to understand problems could be solved by that not only is the natural world this point was to risk destroying capitalism, industry, and human- being damaged, but mankind— the natural world through led intervention. This line of as part of the environment—is narrow-minded, selfish ambition. thinking holds that the structures ushering itself towards destruction. of society provide a suitable Early in his career as an starting point for the solution The supporters of environmentalist, Naess outlined of environmental problems, and shallow ecology think his vision of a framework for imagines environmental issues that reforming human ecological thought that would relations towards nature can provide solutions to society’s be done within the existing structure of society. Arne Naess

POSTWAR POLITICS 293 Resolving environmental issues within current political, economic, and social systems is doomed to failure, according to Naess. What is needed is a new way of looking at the world around us, seeing mankind as a part of the ecological system. With current levels of To avert this crisis, mankind industrialization and use needs to look at alternative means of the Earth’s resources, of energy and goods production that mankind is heading toward an environmental disaster. do not use up the Earth’s resources unnecessarily. Naess proposes that, in order to developed countries as part of a political level. Environmental understand that nature has an a broad-reaching program of reform. issues show no respect for intrinsic value quite separate However, Naess disagreed with the boundaries of national from human beings, a spiritual fundamentalist approaches to governments, and generate a realization must take place, environmentalism, believing that complex set of questions for requiring an understanding of humans could use some of the theorists and practitioners alike. the importance and connection resources provided by nature in The green movement has entered of all life. Human beings must order to maintain a stable society. the political mainstream, both understand that they only inhabit, through formal political parties rather than own, the Earth, and Naess’s influence and advocacy groups such as that only resources that satisfy Despite his preference for gradual Greenpeace and Friends of the vital means must be used. change and his disdain for Earth. Naess’s work has an fundamentalism, Naess’s ideas important place in providing Direct action have been adopted by activists a philosophical underpinning to Naess combined his engagement with more radical perspectives. these developments. His ideas have in environmental thought with a Earth First!, an international attracted controversy, and criticism commitment to direct action. He environmental advocacy group has come from many quarters, once chained himself to rocks near that engages in direct action, has including the accusation that they the Mardalsfossen, a waterfall in a adapted Naess’s ideas to support are disconnected from the reality Norwegian fjord, in a successful their own understanding of deep of socioeconomic factors and given protest against the proposed site ecology. In their version of the to a certain mysticism. Despite of a dam. For Naess, the realization philosophy, deep ecology can be these criticisms, the political that accompanied a deep ecological used to justify political action questions raised by the viewpoint must be used to promote that includes civil disobedience environmental movement, a more ethical and responsible and sabotage. and the place of deep ecological approach to nature. He was in favor perspectives within them, remain of reducing consumerism and the As awareness of environmental significant and seem sure to grow standards of material living in issues grows, Naess’s ideas are in importance in the future. ■ gaining ever-greater resonance at

294 WE ARE NOT ANTI-WHITE, WE ARE AGAINST WHITE SUPREMACY NELSON MANDELA (1918– ) IN CONTEXT Apartheid is an unjust form of T he fight against apartheid racial segregation. in South Africa was one IDEOLOGY of the defining political Racial equality We must protest against this battles of the late 20th century. injustice and inequality. From 1948, the election of the FOCUS apartheid National Party spelled Civil disobedience It is a fight by all the beginning of a period of South Africans for change. oppression by the white minority. BEFORE Nelson Mandela was at the forefront 1948 The Afrikaaner- We are not anti-white, of the resistance, organizing public dominated National Party we are against white protests and mobilizing support is elected to power, marking through his involvement in the the start of apartheid in supremacy. African National Congress (ANC) South Africa. party. This grew in response to the legislation implemented by the new 1961 Frantz Fanon writes government and, by the 1950s, a The Wretched of the Earth, popular movement was taking part outlining the process of armed in the resistance to apartheid, struggle against an oppressor. drawing its inspiration from civil rights leaders such as Mahatma 1963 Martin Luther King Gandhi and Martin Luther King. delivers his “I Have a Dream” speech in Washington, DC. For freedom The strategy pursued by the ANC AFTER was intended to make effective 1993 The Nobel Peace Prize government impossible, through a is awarded to Mandela for his mixture of civil disobedience, the work toward reconciliation mass withdrawal of labor, and in South Africa. public protest. By the mid-1950s the ANC and other groups within 1994 In the country’s first free the anti-apartheid movement and multiracial elections, had articulated their demands Mandela is voted the first black in the Freedom Charter. This president of South Africa. enshrined the values of democracy,

POSTWAR POLITICS 295 See also: Mahatma Gandhi 220–25 ■ Marcus Garvey 252 ■ Frantz Fanon 304–07 ■ Martin Luther King 316–21 participation, and freedom of I have fought against white Nelson Mandela movement and expression, domination, and I have fought which were the mainstays of the Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela protesters’ demands. However, against black domination. I was born in the Transkei, it was treated by the government have cherished the ideal of a South Africa, in 1918. His as an act of treason. democratic and free society. father was advisor to the chief of the Tembu tribe. Mandela From protest to violence Nelson Mandela moved to Johannesburg as a The effect of this dissent on the young man and studied law. apartheid regime was gradual, but Despite the well-organized and He joined the African National telling. By the 1950s, although the active approach of the ANC, Congress (ANC) party in democratic process was still closed dramatic reform was still not 1944 and became involved in to most nonwhites, a number forthcoming, and demands for a full active resistance against the of political parties had begun to extension of voting rights were not apartheid regime’s policies promote some form of democratic met. Instead, as the intensity of in 1948. In 1961, he helped rights—albeit only partial—for protest escalated, the government’s establish the ANC’s military black people in South Africa. response became ever more violent, wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe, culminating in the Sharpeville partly in response to the This was significant since, by Massacre in 1960, when police shot Sharpeville Massacre a year gaining the support of some of the dead 69 people who were protesting earlier. In 1964, he received a politically active white minority, against laws that required black sentence of life imprisonment, the antiapartheid movement was people to carry pass books. remaining incarcerated until able to demonstrate that it was not 1990, and spending 18 years mobilizing along racial lines. However, the struggle against on Robben Island. This fit Mandela’s view of the apartheid was not wholly peaceful struggle, which was inclusive in itself. Like other revolutionary On his release from its vision of a new South Africa. figures, Mandela had come to the prison, Mandela became the He emphasized that the primary conclusion that the only way to figurehead of the dismantling motivation for the protest was to combat the apartheid system was of apartheid, winning the combat racial injustice and white through armed struggle. In 1961, Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 and supremacy, rather than to attack Mandela, with other leaders of the becoming president of South the white minority themselves. ANC, established Umkhonto we Africa in 1994. Since stepping Sizwe, the armed wing of the ANC, down in 1999, he has been The battle to end apartheid was an act which contributed to his involved with a number of not an attack on South Africa’s white later imprisonment. Despite this, causes, including work to minority, Mandela asserted, it was his belief in civil protest and tackle the AIDS pandemic. against injustice, and as such was a the principle of inclusion gained more inclusive call for change. worldwide support, culminating Key works in Mandela’s eventual release and the fall of apartheid. ■ 1965 No Easy Walk to Freedom 1994 Long Walk to Freedom

296 ONLY THE WEAK-MINDED BELIEVE THAT POLITICS IS A PLACE OF COLLABORATION GIANFRANCO MIGLIO (1918–2001) IN CONTEXT I talian politics has a history Car manufacturers such as Fiat of confrontation. Historically, have contributed to northern Italy’s IDEOLOGY Italy was a divided nation, wealth. In Miglio’s view, it was unfair Federalism ruled by a loose coalition of city- that such wealth should subsidize states until the unification of the the poorer south. FOCUS country was completed in 1870. Deunification Between the industrial north interests of Italy’s various regions and the rural south, a long history would not be resolved through BEFORE of inequity and dispute exists, compromise and discussion, but 1532 Niccolò Machiavelli’s with many in the north feeling through the dominance of the The Prince predicts the that unification had brought more powerful groupings. Miglio’s eventual unification of Italy. economic benefits to the south but ideas eventually led him into a disadvantage to their own region. political career, and in the 1990s 1870 The unification of Italy is he was elected to the national completed with the Capture of Gianfranco Miglio was an senate as a radical member of Rome by the Italian army of Italian academic and politician the separatist party Lega Nord King Victor Emmanuel II. whose work examined the (“Northern League”), founded structures of power in political life. in 1991. ■ AFTER Drawing his inspiration from Max 1993 US political scientist Weber and Carl Schmitt, Miglio Robert Putnam publishes argued against the centralization Making Democracy Work, of political resources across Italy which examines the divisions on the basis that this form of in political and civic life collaboration had harmed the across Italy. interests and identity of the north. 1994 The separatist party Northern separatism Lega Nord participates in Miglio believed that collaboration Italian national government was not a desirable feature of for the first time. politics, nor was it possible in the political marketplace. The differing See also: Niccolò Machiavelli 74–81 ■ Max Weber 214–15 ■ Carl Schmitt 254–57

POSTWAR POLITICS 297 DURING THE INITIAL STAGE OF THE STRUGGLE, THE OPPRESSED TEND TO BECOME OPPRESSORS PAULO FREIRE (1921–1997) IN CONTEXT P olitical writers have often of people who would rethink their attempted to understand lives. In this way, oppressors would IDEOLOGY the struggle against stop viewing others as an abstract Radicalism political oppression. Thinkers such grouping and would understand as Karl Marx and Antonio Gramsci their position as individuals who FOCUS framed oppression in terms of two are subject to injustice. Critical education groups of actors—the oppressors and those who are oppressed. Freire saw education as a BEFORE political act in which students 1929–34 Antonio Gramsci Brazilian educator Paulo Freire’s and teachers needed to reflect on writes his Prison Notebooks, work revisited this relationship, their positions and appreciate the outlining his development of concentrating on the conditions environment in which education Marxist thought. needed to break the cycle of takes place. His work has influenced oppression. He believed that the many political theorists. ■ 1930S Brazil suffers act of oppression dehumanizes extreme poverty during both parties and that, once The greatest humanistic the Great Depression. liberated, there is a danger of and historical task of the individuals repeating the injustice oppressed is to liberate AFTER they have experienced. In effect, 1960s While a professor of the oppressed themselves might themselves and their history and philosophy of become oppressors. oppressors as well. education at the University of Recife, Brazil, Freire Genuine liberation Paulo Freire develops a program to This line of thinking held that it deal with mass illiteracy. would take more than just a shift in roles to end oppression and begin 1970s Freire works with the the genuine process of liberation. World Council of Churches, Freire believed that through spending nearly a decade education, humanity could be advising on education reform restored, and that a reform of in a number of countries education could produce a class across the world. See also: Georg Hegel 156–59 ■ Karl Marx 188–93 ■ Antonio Gramsci 259

JUSTICE IS THE FIRST VIRTUE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS JOHN RAWLS (1921–2002)