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Published by : Written by : Nidhi Aggarwal Edited by : Megha Goel Designed by : Every effort has been made to avoid errors or omissions in the publication. In spite of this, some errors might have crept in. Any mistake, error or discrepancy noted may be brought to our notice and it shall be taken care of in the next edition. It is notified that neither the publishers nor the author or seller will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind, in any manner, therefore.

PREFACE Social Studies is an interesting subject. It helps the students to understand the society and the world in which they live, change in the context of time and space and also in relation to each other. The series for Classes I to 8 has been written in strict conformity with the latest Guidelines and Syllabi issued by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi. In this series, we have endeavoured to provide students an understanding of the society, world and environment around them. The series has been written and edited by the subject experts. The entire text has been presented in an easy language. The exercises given in the books are interactive and versatile. Summary, Interesting Fact and Activity are the key features of the books. Salient Features of this series are : • Easy Language to make the book student-friendly and the text accessible for a wide ability range. • Effort has been made to present the Subject Matter in brief with a thematic approach and in a systematic and logical manner. • Clear and comprehensive maps and judicious use of tables, flow charts and graphics. • Numerous carefully-selected multicoloured illustrations and photographs with detailed Figure Captions given to complement the textual matter. • The main points discussed in each chapter given at the end under the heading Summary for quick revision. • Model Test Papers are given for self evaluation. We hope that this series will encourage students to become better thinkers and creative citizens. Suggestions for the improvement of the book are most welcome and shall be gratefully acknowledged. —Publishers

Unit-1 : History ... 5 ... 9 1. Introducation to History ... 13 2. Life of Early Man ... 17 3. The Earliest Cities of the Indian Subcontinent ... 21 4. The Vedic Age ... 25 5. New Religious Ideas ... 29 6. Janapadas and Mahajanpadas ... 33 7. The First Empire in India ... 37 8. New Empires and Kingdoms ... 43 9. Vital Villages, Thriving Towns 10. Buildings, Paintings and Books ... 48 ... 55 Unit-2 : Geography ... 59 ... 64 11. The Earth in the Solar System ... 70 12. Motion of the Earth 13. Maps ... 76 14. Major Domains of the Earth ... 80 15. Our Beautiful Country ... 86 ... 91 Unit-3 : Civics ... 95 ... 101 16. Diversity ... 104 17. Striving for Equality ... 109 18. Government ... 110 19. Rural Livelihoods ... 111 20. Panchayati Raj 21. Urban Livelihoods 22. Local Self-Government in Urban Areas • Model Test Paper-1 • Model Test Paper-2 • Model Test Paper-3

1 UNIT-1 : HISTORY Introduction to history History is the study of past events, specially the political, social and economic development of a country or a nation. The word ‘History’ comes from the ancient Greek word ‘Histo’ meaning ‘Know this’. It is a continuous and systematic record of past events, which is based on facts and not on imagination. History transacts every significant event that led to an advancement or new ideas in human civilization. A person who studies the subject History as a profession is called a ‘Historian’. Importance of History Man has been constantly evolving from his primitive state into the modern form, from the caves to the modern high rise buildings. As we see people and things around us, we notice that changes have been taking place, often gradually and often through revolutions. Thus, life is an unbroken chain of past, present and future and it is History only that provides us never-ending sources for the study of our past, as it contains all that men have ever done, or as much as we can find out about it. Time Frame in History The historian arranges past events in order of time that is; events that happened first followed by events that happened later. This order is called ‘Chronology’. In History, the years before the birth of Jesus Christ are written as BC, that is ‘Before Christ’. BC is always counted backwards, for example-100 BC comes before 99 BC. The years after the birth of Jesus Christ are written as AD. This stands for two Latin words “Anno Domini” meaning “In the year of our Lord”. These years are counted forward. For example, 2013 AD will come after 2012 AD. Fact Time At present, the term CE is used in place of AD and BCE in place of BC. CE means Common Era and BCE means Before Common Era. Common Era is a measured time beginning with year until the present, year zero is not used. This term is now used everywhere. So, if a child is born in 2008, his year of birth is 2008 CE. Birth of Jesus Social Studies 6 5

Historians have divided history into two parts— Prehistory and History. 1. Prehistory : This refers to that period when the art of writing was unknown. Our information about prehistory depends upon the remains of tools, pottery and weapons that have been excavated. Tools, Pottery and Weapons 2. History : This refers to the period after the invention of writing. History deals with the period of written records of the past events. The written records provide details such as dates of events, names of people and places and so on. Sources of History The sources of history can be divided into two categories—Archaeological sources and Literary sources. 1. Archaeological Sources Sanchi Stupa The study of material remains of past human existence is called Archaeology. These remains include weapons, tools, coins, writings on objects, buildings, articles of daily use, etc. These are called archaeological sources. A person, who studies such remains is called an archaeologist. An evidence from excavations tells us many things about the people of ancient times. (a) Monuments : Temples, forts, palaces and other constructions give us a lot of information about the culture, society and lifestyle of the ancient people. Any building of historical significance is considered to be a monument. The Sanchi Stupa, the university at Nalanda and the Ashoka pillars are some examples of Indian monuments built during the ancient period. (b) Coins : The study of coins is known as Numismatics. Thousands Ancient Coins of ancient Indian coins have been discovered, which give us an idea about the economic condition and currency system prevalent during those times. Coins often bear images of gods, goddesses and religious symbols which tell us about the religious beliefs of those times. (c) Inscriptions : Inscriptions are writings on hard surface like stone, Inscriptions metal, rocks or pillars. They include records of victories in battles, orders of the kings, records of donations to the Social Studies 6 temples, etc. They tell us about the names and dates of the kings, their kingdoms, important events of a certain period, etc. For example-we come to know about the great king Ashoka and his policy of peace and non-violence from the rock and pillar inscriptions of Ashoka. 6

(d) Tools and Implements : Tools were used by hunters and food gatherers of the past. They give detail about the life and occupation of people of the early age. 2. Literary Sources Tools All written records of the past are known as Literary sources or Manuscripts. In ancient India, before paper came into use, manuscripts were written on materials such as bhojpatra (birch bark), palm leaves, copper plates, etc. Literary sources are of two kinds— religious and secular. (a) Religious Literature : Writings on religious themes, are called religious literature. The Vedas of the Hindus, the Pitakas of the Buddhists and the Angas of the Jains are examples of Indian works of religious literature. They tell us about the religious beliefs, society, customs and traditions of that time. (b) Secular Literature : Literature which is not connected with religion is called secular literature. This include stories, plays, poems, drama, accounts of foreign travellers, biographies of kings and books on politics and science. Some Fact Time examples of secular literature are Kautilya’s • The Ramayana and the Mahabharata ‘Arthashastra’ on the theory of administration, are the longest poems in the world. Kalidasa’s famous play ‘Abhigyan Shakuntalam’ and the ‘Indika’ of Megasthenes. These are the • Coins of Indian rulers have been found rich sources of the history of that time. in many countries. This indicated that India had trade relations with foreign countries. • History is the study of past events. • The word ‘History’ comes from the ancient Greek word ‘Histo’ meaning ‘Know this’. • It is history only that provides us never-ending sources for the study of our past. • Historians have divided history into two parts— Prehistory and History. • There are two types of sources of history—Archaeological and Literary sources. • Coins, monuments, tools and inscriptions come under archaeological sources. • Poems, plays and manuscripts are the examples of literary sources. A. Tick () the correct option : (c) past events (d) none of these 1. History is a systematic description of: (a) present events (b) recent events (b) Ramayan 2. Kautilya wrote: (d) None of these (a) Arthashastra 7 (c) Abhigyan Shakuntalam Social Studies 6

3. The study of material remains of past human existence is called: (a) Geography (b) Archaeology (c) Padology (d) Gerentology (d) none of these 4. A Historian studies the source materials and draws: (d) none of these (a) sources (b) effects (c) conclusion 5. Before the invention of paper, people wrote on: (a) cloth (b) bhojpatra (c) notebooks B. Fill in the blanks : 1. A person who studies history subject as a profession is called _____________________. 2. A person who studies _____________________ is called an Archaeologist. 3. Any building of historical significance is considered to be a _____________________. 4. The study of _____________________ is known as numismatics. 5. All _____________________ of the past are known as literary sources or manuscripts. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. AD is always counted backwards. 2. History is the study of recent events. 3. Poems, plays, manuscripts are examples of literary sources. 4. Indika was written by Kalidas. 5. Writings on religious themes are called religious literature. D. Define the following : ________________________________________ ________________________________________ 1. Chronology ________________________________________ 2. History ________________________________________ 3. Numismatics ________________________________________ 4. Monuments 5. Manuscript E. Answer these Questions : 1. How does the study of history help us? 2. What is Prehistory? 3. What are the literary sources of Indian history? 4. Briefly describe how the archeological source materials help us to learn about past. Life Skills & Values • Take a coin and study it carefully. List the information that you can get from it; like— the metal that has been used, dates, languages, pictures, etc. • Visit a historical monument in your city. Write a short report on the variety of information that you have gathered or could derive from this visit. • Prepare a class project on the variety of information obtained about society and culture from the study of any one of the great epics–Ramayana or Mahabharata. 8 Social Studies 6

2 life of early man Around two million years ago, when people did not know the art of growing food, making tools, domesticating animals and they were not aware about the use of fire, they used to live a life of nomads. Nomads are people who move from one place to another in search of food, shelter or suitable climate. They moved from place to place for hunting wild animals, birds and gathering fruits, nuts, roots, seeds and leaves. Because of their lifestyle, they were called hunters and food gatherers. These hunters and food gatherers had to move from place to place for the following reasons : • They ate wild fruits and roots of plants, so they led a wandering life in search of places from where they could procure their food easily. • Many plants and trees bear fruits in a particular season. So, they moved seasonally in search of food. • Animals move from place to place—either in search of smaller prey or in search of grass and leaves. That is why those who hunted them had to follow their movements. • People, animals and plants need water to survive; Early Man people living on river banks would have had to go in search of water during the dry seasons as some rivers are seasonal while other perennial. From this we can understand that the early man was a hunter, nomadic and food gatherer and he was not a producer of food as he did not know how to produce. Fact Time In India, a large number of stone age tools have been found buried in a cave in Ratnagiri on the coast of Maharashtra. This cave seems to be the first evidence of a cave shelter by early man in India. The tools seem to be around ninety thousand years old. The Stone Age : The pre-historic age is also known as the stone age because stone was mostly used in every activity. Early men used stones to cut fruits and roots and also used to hunt animals for their meat. Stones were even used for chopping trees to clear forests. Later the wood of these trees was used as firewood. Thus, early humans were entirely dependent on stones for their living. The stone age is divided into four phases: 1. Palaeolithic Age or Old Stone Age 2. Mesolithic Age or Midde Stone Age 3. Neolithic Age or New Stone Age 4. Chalcolithic Age or Copper Age 1. Palaeolithic Age : The ‘Palaeolithic’ term has been derived from two Greek words, ‘Palaeo’ meaning ‘Old’ and ‘lithos’ meaning ‘stone’. This period extends from 2 million years ago to about 12000 years ago. This period is called the Old Stone Age because men at that time Social Studies 6 9

used crude, unpolished stone tools. They had no knowledge to give shape to or polish the stone tools. They mainly used hand axes, cleavers, blades, choppers and scrapers. Their tools were made of hard rock called ‘quartzite’, hence Paleolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite Men’. Palaeolithic Age Tools The Palaeolithic Age in India has been divided into three phases according to the type of stone tools and changes in climate—Early or Lower Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic. Many Palaeolithic tools have been found in India from the sites like Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh), Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Bori (Maharashtra) and Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh). Fact Time During Palaeolithic period, many parts of the Earth were covered with ice and the climate was severely cold. So, this period is also called the ‘Ice Age’. 2. Mesolithic Age : The period when we find environmental changes, beginning about 12,000 years ago till about 10,000 years ago is called the Mesolithic Age or Middle Stone Age. The Climate now became warm and dry. Grasslands developed in many areas and animals that survived on grass like deer, sheep, cattle and goat increased in numbers. During this period, men learned to make smaller, sharper Mesolithic Tools and more efficient tools called ‘Microliths’. They made hammers, sickles, scrapers and arrow heads and also made bow and arrow which made them easy to hunt. Hook and baits were used for fishing. In the Mesolithic Age, men were becoming more experienced about their surroundings. They were learning the food habits and the breeding seasons of animals like goat and sheep. Due to the climatic change—rice, wheat, barley, etc began to be grown. Now they were learning; where these grains would grow and when they would ripe. They were, thus progressing towards agriculture and food production. Various Mesolithic sites are found in the Chhota Nagpur region of Jharkhand, Central India and also South of the Krishna river. 3. Neolithic Age : About 10,000 years ago, our ancestors progressed to the Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age. Man’s life changed in this period due to major achievements like the beginning of agriculture, the invention of the wheel and the making of pottery. Now tools became better. Axes, spears, sickles, bows and arrows were main tools. These Neolithic Tools tools were much sharper and better polished. Such tools have been found in sites at Mehrgarh (Pakistan). Burzahom and Gufkral (Jammu and Kashmir), Maski and Piklihal (Karnataka). 10 Social Studies 6

Man had a settled life and learned to domesticate animals. Dog, donkey, cattle, sheep and horse were domesticated. Man started settling down in villages. He regarded Earth as his mother and worshipped her. The Neolithic man believed in life after death. The dead were buried along with the objects that they used in their life like beads, pots, tools etc. It was believed that they might need them in another life. Chalcolithic Age : Man’s lifestyle changed significantly after he learnt to use metals. While baking clay pots in hot furnaces, man discovered that metal is produced when the ore present in clay melts. Copper was the first metal to be used by man. The period during which man used both copper and stone tools is called the ‘Chalcolithic Age’ or Copper Age. ‘Chalco’ means copper. It marked the transition from the Stone Age to the age of metals. Many tools like axes and knives were made out of copper. As time passed, men started mixing copper with other metals to make stronger tools. Chhota Nagpur and Gangetic plains are the sites, where the remains of Chalcolithic Age were found. The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery of which black and red pottery was most popular. They generally lived in thatched houses. They venerated the mother goddess and worshipped the bull. • Around two million years ago people were Nomads. • The early man belonged to the prehistoric period. This period is also called the Stone Age. • Stone Age is divided into four phases. Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, Neolithic Age and Chalcolithic Age. • In Palaeolithic Age, man used crude and unpolished stone tools. • During the Mesolithic Age, man learned to make smaller, sharper and more efficient tools called ‘Microliths’. • Man’s life changed in the Neolithic Age due to major achievements like the beginning of agriculture, the inven- tion of the wheel and the making of pottery. • Copper was the first metal discovered by early man in the Chalcolithic age. A. Tick () the correct option : 1. Which was the era before Neolithic period? (a) Microliths (b) Mesolithic period (c) Palaeolithic period (d) Bronze period 11 2. Which kind of tools were used widely in ancient times? (a) Tools made of stone (b) Tools made of wood (c) Tools made of bronze (d) Tools made of steel 3. Where did hunter-gatherers live? (a) Near forested area (b) Near sources of water (c) Places where stones were easily available (d) None of these 4. What was the use of fire in the earlier times? (a) To burn the forests (b) To scare away wild animals (c) As source of light and to cook meat (d) (b) and (c) both Social Studies 6

5. Prehistoric age is also called the: (c) metal age (d) none of these (a) stone age (b) wood age B. Fill in the blanks : 1. _______________ are people, who move from one place to another in search of food and shelters. 2. The Neolithic age is also known as the _____________________. 3. _____________________ believed in life after death. 4. Stone Age is divided into _____________________ phases. 5. _____________________ was the first metal discovered by early man in the Chalcolithic Age. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. In earlier times, stones were even used for chopping trees to clear forests. 2. Palaeolithic men are also called Quartzite men. 3. In the Neolithic Age, men were becoming more experienced about their surroundings. 4. Iron was the first metal to be used by man. 5. The Chalcolithic people used black and red pottery. D. Match the following : Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’ 1. Chalcolithic (a) Crude stone tools 2. Neolithic (b) Microliths 3. Mesolithic (c) Invention of copper 4. Palaeolithic (d) Invention of wheel E. Answer these Questions : 1. What kind of tools did the early man make? 2. Which was the first metal discovered by man? 3. What were the main crops grown by the early man? 4. Write a short note on Neolithic Age. 5. What is meant by Stone Age? 6. Describe main achievements in the Mesolithic period. Life Skills & Values • Make a pot out of clay and inscribe on it a design of Palaeolithic Age. • On an outline map of India, mark and name any five places where prehistoric man lived. • Suppose, You and your classmates are early men, who have discovered fire. Divide the class into groups of five and enact the ways in which you use the fire. 12 Social Studies 6

3 the earliest cities of the Indian subcontient As early man started producing food, he began to lead a semi-settled life. The first villages were naturally set up in the fertile river-valleys. Then man learnt the use of metals, like copper and Bronze. Better tools and fertile lands led to surplus production of food-grains. So some people could leave food production and shift to other craft and trade. The exchange of goods led to the growth of trade and trade centres. The trade centres where a large number of people settled developed into cities. Civilisation : The word ‘Civilisation’ comes from the Latin word ‘Civics’, meaning citizen. City life requires administrative bodies, language, script and forms of organised worship and cultural expression. The sum of such aspects of organised life in a society is called civilisation. The earliest cities of the Indian subcontinent came up in the North-West in the region drained by the river Indus and its tributaries. About 4500 years ago, a great civilisation flourished in this region. Indus Valley Civilisation In India, the first developed cities were found in the valley of river Indus (also called Sindhu). So it was named Indus Valley Civilisation. It is also called the Harappan Civilisation as Harappa was the first site of this civilisation to be excavated. The ancient civilisation included urban centres such as Kalibangan, Dholavira, Rupar, Lothal, Rakhigarhi in modern day India and Harappa, Ganweriwala, Mohenjodaro in modern day Pakistan. Lothal was the only city with dockyard facility. The Indus Valley Civilisation included most of Pakistan, extending Cities Found in Indus Valley Civilisation from Baluchistan to Sindh, and extending into modern day Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Fact Time Punjab. The credit of the remarkable discovery goes to The grid layout of the cities of the Indus Raibahadur Dayaram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerjee. Valley Civilisation along with their In 1921, Raibahadur Dayaram Sahni found a number advanced drainage system, has made of seals near the ruins of Harappa on the banks of them the first truly planned cities in the world. the river Ravi. Rakhal Das Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro on the banks of river Indus in 1922. Main Features of the Civilisation Town Planning : Most of the cities of this civilisation were divided into two parts. The Western part was built on a higher ground called the upper part or Citadel and the Eastern part was called the Lower Town. The Citadel had high walls which provided protection during the floods. It contained important buildings like the granary, large assembly halls, fire altars, the Social Studies 6 13

Great Bath of Mohenjodaro. Most probably the ruling class lived in the Citadel. The lower town contained the houses and workplaces of the common people. In the lower town, all the houses were connected directly to the well planned drainage system of covered drains and soak pits. Drainage System : It is one of the most impressive achievements of the Harappan Civilisation. Drains were made of well-baked bricks and were generally covered with bricks which could be lifted easily for cleaning the drain. Every house had drains which were connected to the main drain of street. It had excellent water supply. Drainage System The Great Bath : A unique structure of the civilisation is the famous Great Bath of Mohenjodaro. This was lined with bricks, coated with plaster and made water-tight with a layer of natural tar. It was connected to a well for water inlet. Dirty water was drained out through drains constructed in its massive walls. There were rooms on all sides. These The Great Bath side rooms were used for changing clothes. These bath were generally used for religious bathing. Perhaps important people took a dip in this tank on special occasions. It was an example of beautiful brickworks. Well Planned Houses : The residential buildings were strong and sturdy as they were made of baked bricks. The walls were strong and thick. Some houses were one or two storey high, showing advanced knowledge of construction. Each house had a bathroom, a kitchen and a large courtyard. Most houses also had a well, it suggested that the people were aware of water conservation. Economic Life The Harappans were agriculturalists. Their economy was entirely dominated by horticulture. Wheat and barley were the main crops. Many of the Harappan seals had pictures of animals such as elephants, tigers and rhinoceroses that imply a wet and marshy environment. These people harvested various crops, such as cotton, peas and sesame. The Harappans had commercial links Harappans Seals with Rajasthan, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Iran. Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dying. Pottery was an important industry. The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal-making and terracotta manufacturing. Administration Since we are unable to decipher script of Indus Valley Civilisation, it is quite difficult to claim exactly the government system. Most probably, the cities were administered by a committee of people consisting of rich merchants. A stone statue have been found which the 14 Social Studies 6

archaeologists have labelled as the priest king. So did the priests play an important role in administering the city. A variety of tasks such as regulation of trade, collection of taxes and maintenance of law and order was looked after by administration. Religion The Indus people worshipped nature in the form of animals, birds and trees. For example, the humped bull, the dove and the peepal tree were held sacred. A mother Goddess was also worshipped. Also a male deity surrounded by animals can be seen in a seal. Many people have named this three-headed Pashupati seal and Mother Goddess figure ‘Pashupati’. The Indus people believed in life after death. They buried their dead, often in huge burial urns along with food, ornaments and the articles used by them in their daily life. No temple structures have been identified among the remains. Some scholars believe that the great bath at Mohenjodaro was used during religious ceremonies. Oval-shaped structures containing ash have been found at some sites like Banawali, Kalibangan and Lothal. These are believed to have been fire altars. Decline of Civilisation The civilisation flourished between 2500 to 1500 BC. Around 1500 BC, there were various signs of trouble. Raw materials stopped being brought from outside. People left many of the cities. The unique drainage system broke down. Some scholars suggest that the end of civilisation could have taken place due to natural disasters such as earthquake, flood, diseases or change in the course of the river Indus. In some sites like Naland Dabarkot, a layer of ash has been found which people believe could have been due to large scale burning down of settlements. Large scale grazing might have led to drying up of land which could have lost its fertility. • In India, the civilisation first grow near the bank of river Indus. So it is called Indus Valley Civilisation. It is also called the Harappan Civilisation. • The credit of this remarkable discovery goes to Raibahadur Dayaram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerjee. • The cities were well planned. They were divided into two parts–the citadel and the lower town. • The unique feature of Harappan civilisation was the excellent drainage system. • The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro was generally used for religious bathing. • Wheat and barley were the main crops. • The Indus people worshipped Pashupati, Mother Goddess, the nature and believed in life after death. A. Tick () the correct option : 1. The word civilisation comes from the Latin word: (a) Civils (b) Civics (c) Cities (d) Citizen Social Studies 6 15

2. The first cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation excavated were: (a) Lothal (b) Harappa (c) Mohenjodaro (d) both (a) and (b) 3. What were the main crops? (a) Wheat (b) Barley (c) Rice (d) Both (a) and (b) 4. Where is the site of Harappa located? (a) Larkana (b) Dholavira (c) Lothal (d) Rupar 5. What is one of the most impressive achievements of the Harappan Civilisation? (a) its crafts and industries (b) its trade networks (c) its drainage system (d) all of these B. Fill in the blanks : 1. In India, the first developed cities were found in the valley of river _____________________. 2. Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the _____________________. 3. _____________________ discovered Mohenjodaro on the banks of river Indus in 1922. 4. The Indus people worshipped nature in the form of _____________________. 5. Mohenjodaro means _____________________. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. Harappan Civilisation flourished on the bank of the River Ganges. 2. Every city in Indus valley Civilisation had a great bath. 3. In the Indus Valley Civilisation, houses were made of mud bricks. 4. Mohenjodaro and Harappa are situated in India. 5. The Great Bath has been found at Kalibangan. D. Match the following : (a) Seals 1. Citadel (b) Rajasthan 2. Script (c) Grain Storage 3. Granary (d) Acropolis 4. Kalibangan (e) Pictographic 5. Terracotta E. Answer these Questions : 1. Name some important cities of Indus Valley Civilisation. 2. What was a citadel? 3. Describe the Great Bath. 4. Describe the main features of town planning of Harappan Civilisation. 5. What do you know about the religious beliefs of the Harappans? 6. Write briefly about the economic life of people of Indus Valley Civilisation. 7. When and how did the Indus Valley Civilisation decline? Life Skills & Values • On the map of India, mark the extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Name and locate its five major sites. 16 Social Studies 6

4 the vedic age After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation, came the Aryans around 1500 BC. With the arrival of Aryans, India took a step forward from a semi nomadic life to a more settled life. In Indian history, the period 1500 BC to 600 BC is called the Vedic Age as most of the information about this period is derived from Vedic literature. This literature includes the four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), the Puranas, and the epics—Ramayan and Mahabharata. The Aryans : Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of the Aryans. However the Central Asia Theory, given by Max Muller is the most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia. A group of these people entered India around 1500 BC and first settled down around the region of Punjab. They kept on coming in groups. They also known as Indo-Aryans. The Four Vedas The word ‘Veda’ means wisdom, knowledge or vision. There are four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharva-veda. They contain hymns in praise of various Gods and Goddesses. These hymns were recited and passed from one generation to the next. These Vedas were composed in Sanskrit and are the literary sources of this period. 1. The Rigveda : It is the oldest and most important Veda. It was composed about 3500 years ago by the Aryans. It is divided into 10 mandalas or books and contain 1028 hymns. These hymns are in praise of different Gods and Goddesses and dedicated to 33 different Gods, called Sukta or ‘well said’. The most often addressed Gods are Indra (a warrior God), Agni (fire God) and Soma (a plant from which a special drink was prepared). The hymns were generally composed by rishis (sages). Some were composed by learned women like Gargi and Vishveshwara. Initially, the Rigveda was not in written form but was passed on orally. Knowledge passed on in this way is known as shruti. The Vedic teacher took great care to teach students to pronounce words and memorise hymns correctly. 2. The Samaveda : It is concerned with upasana, i.e., communication with God. It is also important from the view point of the history of music as the hymns are in musical rhythm. It is purely a liturgical collection of melodies (saman). 3. The Yajurveda : It is generally called the book of ‘sacrificial prayers’. It consists of principles and practices of Yajnas. It includes the customs and habits of the people in general. There were simple sacrifices performed by everyone and grand sacrifices were done by the kings and wealthy people. 4. The Atharvaveda : It deals with knowledge in general and medical science in particular. It ranks as the oldest work of Indian medicines. It contains hymns, mantras and incantations, largely outside the scope of Yajna. Social Studies 6 17

Fact Time About 2000 years ago, a famous physician named ‘Charaka’, wrote a book on medicine known as the ‘Charaka Samhita’. He stated that human body has only 360 bones, but only 200 bones are recognised in modern anatomy. Life of the People Initially the Aryans lived in the villages. Their primary loyalty was towards their respective clans. The village was called ‘Grama’. The family was the smallest unit and society was called Kula. The eldest member of a family was called grahapati. Women were respected and no religious ceremony was complete without the participation of the women of the family. Many hymns of Rigveda have been composed by women indicating that some of them received good education. Women could attend political assemblies. Therefore, it is well evident that women enjoyed high status. There are no evidences of child marriage in Rigveda and the practice of widow marriage has been mentioned. Political Life : The Political unit of the Aryans were divided into tribe or Janas. Each tribe was headed by a king called Rajan. His prestige depended on the extent of the area he controlled. The Rajan was selected by the members of his tribe. The king was the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought wars and offered prayers of Gods on behalf of the tribes. Senapati was incharge of military responsibility and the purohita was given the responsibility of managing religious duties. The political system was democratic and the members of the Jana took part in decision making through two popular assemblies—Samiti and Sabha. Any person could give his suggestions in Samiti, but only the elders of the families could become the members of the Sabha. The king did not maintain any regular or standing army but in times of war, he organised a people’s army or military. But as kingdoms became more powerful economically, gradually regular standing armies were set up. Economic Life : There are some strong archaeological evidences found during excavations, which prove that seeds were either cultivated of pulses, peas, millets and sesame. There is evidence that fruits such as amla, jamun, dates, ber and a variety of berries were collected. They ate vegetables, fruits, meat and drunk milk. The ox, horse, cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog and fish were many animals which domesticated in those times. There were many groups of artisans like weavers, potters, tanners, carpenters, goldsmiths and ironsmiths. Social Life : In the Vedic period, differences based on occupations started. Priests, scholars and teachers were called the Brahamanas, the warriors were called Kshatriyas, the common people involved in production such as craft, trade and agriculture, were called the Vaishyas. At the lowest rung of the social ladder were the Shudras, whose duty was to serve the upper castes and did menial jobs. Fact Time • The Aryans first settled in the area known as ‘Saptasindhu’, the land near seven rivers—the Indus and its tributaries. • The princesses were allowed to choose their husbands by Swayamvara. 18 Social Studies 6

Religion In the beginning, the Aryans worshipped the forces of nature such as Prithvi (Earth), Agni (fire), Surya (Sun), Indra (rain), Vayu (wind) and Varun (sky). The Aryans offered prayers and sacrifices. Initially, there were very few rituals. But as the Aryans settled down, offerings and sacrifices became elaborate, complex and expensive. Now new Gods like Brahma as the creator of the universe, Vishnu as the preserver and Shiva as the destroyer became prominent. Sacrifice assumed great importance and religious worship became very complex. Education : Girls received education at home. A boy spent his student life in a Gurukul, where the guru (teacher) lived with his family and pupils. The pupils served the guru in return for the knowledge gained. Knowledge was passed on orally in Sanskrit. Most of this knowledge was from Vedic literature. Grammer, astronomy, medicine, the art of warfare, music and architecture were also taught. Boys were taught at Gurukul • In Indian history, the period 1500 BC to 600 BC is called the Vedic Age. • The Aryans first settled down around the region of Punjab in India. • There are four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. • The head of the Aryan tribe or Jana was the Rajan, who protected his people. • The political system was democratic and the Rajan took decisions after consulting the popular assemblies– Samiti and Sabha. • The Aryan society was divided according to occupations; like—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. • The people of Vedic Age worshipped the forces of nature, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. A. Tick () the correct option : (d) None of these 1. In Indian history, the period 1500 BC to 600 BC is called the: (a) Vedic age (b) Later Vedic Age (c) Gupta Period 19 Social Studies 6

2. Which Veda was not in written form? (a) Rigveda (b) Samaveda (c) Atharvaveda (d) None of these 3. Which is the oldest and most important Veda? (a) Rigveda (b) Samaveda (c) Atharvaveda (d) None of these 4. Later Vedic Aryans worshipped: (a) Vishnu (b) Agni (c) Prithvi (d) None of these B. Fill in the blanks : 1. The four Vedas are _____________________. 2. _____________________ is generally called the book of sacrificial prayers. 3. The Atharvaveda deals with knowledge in general and _____________________ in particular. 4. Tribes were headed by _____________________ called Rajan. 5. The political unit of the Aryans were divided into _____________________. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. The Samaveda is concerned with upasana. 2. The Gurukul system was not prevalent in Vedic period. 3. Rigveda consists of hymns in praise of God and Goddesses. 4. Vedic people used to speak Sanskrit. 5. Women were given high status during Aryan period. D. Match the following : Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’ 1. Agni (a) Sabha 2. Prithvi (b) Fire 3. Assembly (c) Earth 4. System of education (d) Protector 5. Vishnu (e) Gurukul E. Answer these Questions : 1. What are Vedas? 2. How many Vedas are there? Name them. 3. How was the social life of the Vedic people? 4. What do you know about Aryans? 5. Describe the religious life of the Vedic people. 6. How was the economic life of the Vedic people? 7. What was the political life of the Vedic people? 8. What were the main occupations of the Vedic period? Life Skills & Values • Make a project on the political life of the Vedic period. Social Studies 6 • Make a project on the economic life of the Vedic period. 20

5 new religious ideas By the 6th Century BC, religious worship in India had become extremely ritualistic and society was bound by rigid caste rules. Animal sacrifices were performed at every occasion. Frequent wars among the Mahajanpadas had created an atmosphere of mistrust and political conflict. Dissatisfied with such conditions, many thinkers went to forests to meditate in peace and seek enlightenment. Some of them shared their knowledge and philosophical ideas and won followers. We know about these new ideas from the Upanishads and from the Buddhist and Jain religious texts. The Upanishads The literal meaning of Upanishad is ‘approaching and sitting near’ and the text contain conversation between teachers and students. Mostly the ideas were presented in form of simple dialogues to make it easier and appealing to understand. There are about 108 Upanishads. The Upanishads are the chief sources of information about Hindu philosophy. They explain the relation between matter, soul and God. They deal with the well-known Hindu principles of Karma, salvation and methods of attainment. The Upanishads assert that there is only one creator, who is true. The Gods referred to in the Upanishads are—Agni, the god of fire; Vayu, the God of wind; Indra, the God of destruction; Savitri, the Sun Goddess; Brahma, the Creator and Vishnu the Preserver. According to Vedic belief—when a person dies, his atma (soul) is reborn in another living form. As a result, the atma remains bound to a cycle of repeated deaths and births. The Upanishads state that the atma can attain moksha (ultimate freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth), when it unites with Brahma. This can be achieved through the complete understanding and continuous awareness of Brahma. The Upanishads are the last section of the Vedic literature. They are also known as the Vedanta. Usually learned Brahmans participated in philosophical discussions. Women and lower-caste people rarely participated, but there were some exceptions; for instance—Gargi a learned and very intelligent lady, impressed even the sages with her questions. Again, according to one of the Upanishads: Satyakama Jabala, a great thinker and philosopher was the son of a low-caste woman named Jabala. He was taught by Rishi Gautama, who being impressed by Satyakama’s truthfulness about his low birth, accepted him as a student. Rabindranath Tagore’s poem ‘Brahman’, written in the modern period, also describes this episode. The four Stages of Life : In Upanishadic times, the life of an upper-caste man was divided into four stages called ashramas. These were: 1. Brahmacharya Ashram – Period of studentship and discipline 2. Grihastha-Ashram – Period of householder 3. Vanaprastha Ashram – Period of retreat and leading a life of forest – Period of renunciation and period of freeing onself from all 4. Sanyas-Ashram attachment to the world. Social Studies 6 21

Buddhism The founder of Buddhism, Gautama Buddha whose original name was Siddhartha, born at Lumbini (Nepal), near Kapilvastu around 563 BC. Gautama was the son of a Chief of Shakya clan, King Shuddhodana. Initially, he led a life of luxury. He was married to a princess, Yashodhara and had a son named Rahul. He always wanted to find out the true meaning of life. At a very young age of 30, he left home in search of knowledge. He travelled for years, meeting people trying to know their thinkings and Fact Time also tried to solve their problems. Finally he sat under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar and • Buddhist Literature consists of Tri resolved not to get up until he had found answers Pitakas-Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and to all his questions. He remained there in deep Abhidhamna Pitaka. • The Angas and Purvas are the religious text of the Jain literature. The religious meditation for 49 days. At the end of this period, literature has been written in a form of he attained enlightenment and became known as Prakrit called ardh-magadh. the Buddha (the Enlightened One). The Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. He then wandered for 40 years, preaching Buddhism. The Buddha preached in the common man’s language, as he wanted his message to reach everyone. The Buddha died around the age of 80 at Kusinagar in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Buddha’s Teachings : Buddha said that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is because human beings have unending desires. Buddha taught that this constant craving could be overcome by following a life A Statue of Buddha of Middle path. The basic teachings of Buddha are called the four Noble Truths. These can be summarised as: • There is suffering everywhere in the world. • Suffering is caused by desire. • Man’s aim in life is to end suffering. • By following the Middle Path, which is called Eight-fold Path or Ashtangika Marga. One can get rid of suffering. The Eight-fold Path consists the following: Right view, Right intention, Right speech, Right action, Right living, Right effort, Right mindfulness and Right meditation, which help leading a balanced life of Moderation. This will help in ending man’s never-ending desires. Jainism A Statue of Mahavira Jainism was founded by Vardhamana Mahavira of the Vajji gana-sangha. He was born in 540 BC at Kundalavana near Vaishali in Bihar. Mahavira’s father was the head of a famous Kshatriya clan and mother was a Lichchhavi princess. Mahavira left his home at the age of 30 and wandered for 12 years in search of knowledge. In the 13th year of his asceticism, he attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya) and he was called the Jina, which means the conqueror and his followers were called Jains. Mahavira claimed to be 22 Social Studies 6

the 24th Tirthankara (seeker of truth). He recognised 23 other Tirthankaras, who lived before him. Mahavira died at Pawapuri near Rajgir, at the age of 72. Teachings of Mahavira : Mahavira taught very simple doctrines such as: • He taught that men and women should leave their homes to know the truth. • He asked people to follow ahimsa—not hurting or killing beings. • Mahavira taught that “all beings long to live.” Mahavira’s teachings were based on three thoughts which are called Triratna or three jewels. These were: Right faith, Right knowledge and Right Action. Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God. He believed in the theory of ‘Karma’. According to him, the highest goal to be achieved was Supreme Knowledge. Principles of Jainism : Mahavira preached his disciples to follow the five principles. They are: 1. Ahimsa – not to injure any living beings. 2. Satya – to speak truth 3. Asteya – not to steal 4. Aparigraha (non-possession) -not to own property 5. Brahmacharya – to lead a virtuous life Mahavira and his followers used Prakrit language, which was the language of the ordinary people so that common people could understand their teachings without any difficulty. A large number of monks and nuns became members of the Jain Mathas and devoted themselves to the propagation of its teachings among the people. Jainism was supported by several royal families, traders, farmers, who were either related to Mahavira and his supporters also greatly contributed to the popularity of Jainism. • The literal meaning of Upanishad is ‘approaching and sitting near’. • The Upanishads are the chief sources of information about Hindu philosophy. • According to Upanishads, the life of an upper-caste man of that times was divided into 4 stages called ashram (Brahmacharya, Garihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyas). • The basic teachings of Buddha are called the four Noble Truths. • Mahavira believed in the theory of Karma. • Mahavira’s teachings are called Triratna or Three jewels. A. Tick () the correct option : 1. Which text contains conversation between teachers and students? (a) Upanishad (b) Ramayan (c) Mahabharta (d) None of these 2. Vardhmana Mahavira was born in: (a) 100 BC (b) 230 BC (c) 540 BC (d) 790 BC Social Studies 6 23

3. Buddha and Mahavira did not believe in: (a) God (b) performing rituals (c) Karma (d) All of these 4. Jainism accepted: (a) Truth (b) Ahimsa (c) Austerity (d) both (a) and (b) 5. In Jainism, the three jewels of life include: (a) Right knowledge (b) Right Belief (c) Right Talk (d) all of these B. Fill in the blanks : 1. The literal meaning of _____________________ is approaching and sitting near. 2. There are about _____________________ Upnishads. 3. Suffering is caused by _____________________. 4. _____________________ claimed to be the 24th Tirthankara. 5. The basic teachings of Buddha are called _____________________. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. The Upnishads are also called the Vedanta. 2. Mahavira and his followers used Prakrit language. 3. Gautama Buddha’s original name was Siddhartha. 4. Buddhist literature consists of Tri Pitakas. 5. Mahavira died around the age of 80 at Patna. D. Match the following : Column ‘B’ Column ‘A’ (a) Vayu (b) Indra 1. The creator (c) Vishnu 2. The preserver (d) Brahma 3. The God of Destruction 4. The God of Wind E. Answer these Questions : 1. How many Upnaishads are there? 2. What was the name of Buddha’s son? 3. State the Eightfold Path. 4. What is the meaning of Upanishad? 5. What were the main teachings of Buddha? 6. What are the principles of Jainism? 7. What are the essence of the Upanishads? 8. What were the main teachings of Mahavira? Life Skills & Values • Find out the countries where Buddhism is practicised as major religion even today. Divide the class in groups and have a class presentation on these countries. • Take up any three ideas or teachings of Buddhism or Jainism mentioned in the lesson and discuss on it. 24 Social Studies 6

6 janapadas and mahajanapadsa In later Vedic period, the large-scale use of iron tools helped to clean the dense forests of North of the Ganga. Some of the states grew up into powerful empires. They had a separate government for administration and were independent from any external control. Farming in these fertile areas yields rich crops. So, the Aryans rapidly expanded their territories eastwards. Janapadas : From the 6th Century BC onwards, the widespread use of iron in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar created conditions for the formation of large territorial states. The farmer could produce more food grains and the extra produce was collected by the princes to meet their military and administrative needs. This gave rise to proper settlements called Janapadas. The term ‘Janapada’ literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact that Janapada is derived from Jana suggests the taking of land by a Jana tribe for a settled way of life. The main sources of information of this period are the Vedic and Buddhist texts. The Vedic texts like Upanishads give information about the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas. Various ancient settlements were discovered by the archaeologists such as Purana Qila in Delhi and Hastinapur near Meerut and Atranjikhera in Uttar Pradesh. The animal and plant remains show that the people reared mainly cattle and cultivated crops such as barley, rice, wheat, sugarcane, pulses and peas. The remains of pottery found at the sites are of two main types—a type of grey pottery with painted designs, known as Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and red pottery. Mahajanapadas The Janapadas were always fighting themselves for territory or for the control of rivers, through which they could carry on trade. The Janapadas that became powerful were called the Mahajanpadas. There were altogether 16 Mahajanpadas. Among the important Mahajanapadas were Magadh, Vajji, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. There were frequent wars among the Mahajanpadas. Ultimately Magadh emerged as the major power. Republics and Monarchies The republics were ruled by a groups of powerful The Sixteen Mahajanpadas people elected by the common people of a republic. Kingship was not hereditary and all 25 decisions were taken democratically. Shakyas and Lichchhavis were the important republics of the 6th Century BC. Social Studies 6

In the monarchial Mahajanpadas, the head of the state was a Monarch or a king. He was a hereditary ruler with the throne passing from father to son. For example, Magadh and Avanti were two monarchies. Main Features of the Mahajanpadas Most Mahajanpadas had a capital city and were fortified. Huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. It not only provided security but also clearly demarked their area and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. In these Mahajanpadas, the kings maintained large well equipped armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and were maintained by their king throughout the year. There were 16 Mahajanpadas in the Early 6th Century BC 1. Anga – Bhagalpur in Bihar 2. Magadha – Patna in Bihar 3. Kashi – Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh 4. Kosala – Awadh-Lucknow region of Uttar Pradesh 5. Vajji or Vrijji – North Bihar 6. Malla – Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh 7. Chedi – East of Bundelkhand 8. Vatsa – Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh 9. Kuru – Delhi 10. Panchala – Bareilly 11. Matsya – Jaipur in Rajasthan 12. Surasena – Mathura in Uttar Pradesh 13. Asmaka – Godavari Valley 14. Avanti – Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh 15. Gandhara – Rawalpindi and Kabul 16. Kamboja – Afghanistan (Now in Pakistan) Economic and Social Life : Agriculture prospered in most of the Mahajanpadas as they were located in fertile areas. The republics, however, were mostly in less fertile or hilly regions. Many canals and wells were dug to improve irrigation. The farmers learnt to use manure. The improved farming techniques improved the quality and quantity of crops produced. Trade and commerce flourished in this period due to the introduction of money. Metal coins made of silver and copper were introduced. These are called Punch marked coins because these metals were punched with images such as tree, bull, fish, elephant, etc. The introduction of money-economy led to the growth of trade and commerce. Punch Marked Coin Fact Time Buddhist go to temple, not at a special time or day, but when they can. It is common for Buddhists to go on a full moon day. A Buddhist temple is called Vihara and is a place for education. Buddha is known as a teacher not a God. The people led a very simple life at that time. People were liberal and broad minded. They had high ethical and moral values. People had made great progress in the field of education. Indian society at that time was divided into four varnas—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The society was becoming more and more unequal day by day. Taxes : To maintain the big states and the large armies, the kings collected taxes regularly. Taxes on crops were the most important because farming was the main occupation. Generally it was 1/6th of what was produced. Craftmen used to pay taxes in the form of free labour to 26 Social Studies 6

the king. There were taxes on goods bought and sold. Pastoral people paid taxes in the form of animals and animal produce like milk or ghee. Even hunters and forest dwellers gave forest produce as taxes. Taxes were paid by the farmers, artisans (craftsmen) and traders. Taxes could be paid both in cash and kind. Administration : The Mahajanpadas had rich resources, which enabled their rulers to maintain elaborate systems of administration. The Mahajanpadas were mostly monarchies. The king maintained a large, well-equipped and regularly paid army during war and peace. Ministers were appointed to help in the administration. Brahamans were important and powerful. The king often gave tax-free villages to Brahmans. A village was administered by the village headman, who had direct access to the king. The king was advised by the priest or purohita and assisted by the ministers or amatyas. The Monarchy of Magadha The monarchy of Magadha emerged as the most powerful and important Mahajanpada by the 6th Century BC. It was located in the Gangetic Valley which was immensely fertile and produced a variety of paddy crops. Causes of Magadha’s Success Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position because rich iron deposits were situated near Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha. The easy availability of rich iron-ore in the neighbourhood enabled the Magadhan rulers to make effective weapons and defeat their rivals. Magadha had efficient rulers, who increased its power and prosperity. Among these rulers were Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda. They expanded Magadha’s territories through wars and alliances. Bimbisara and his successor Ajatashatru had their capital at Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) in Bihar. They built roads and canals and promoted river trade. Ajatashatru fortified Patliputra (modern Patna), from where he could control the Gangetic Plain and the trade along the Ganga. Thus, by 6th Century BC, the Aryans had progressed from a nomadic pastoral economy of cattle rearing to a fully active urban economy. This was possible because of surplus agricultural production and trade and commerce. • The Aryans had spread throughout Northern India by 6th Century BC. • The term ‘Janapada’ literally means the foothold of a tribe. • The Janapadas that became powerful were called the Mahajanpadas and there were altogether 16 Mahajanpadas. • Out of these 16 Mahajanpadas, Magadha became most powerful due to various causes. • Most of them were monarchies and some were republican too. • Society were divided into four Varnas–Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. • Taxes were paid by the farmers, artisans (craftsmen) and traders. A. Tick () the correct option : (c) janapada (d) both (a) and (c) 1. Vedic texts give information about the: (a) mahajanapad (b) castes 27 Social Studies 6

2. Magadha had large deposits of: (a) copper (b) gold (c) iron ore (d) none of these (d) Avanti 3. Which of these became the most popular kingdom? (d) Palam (d) all of these (a) Vajji (b) Magadha (c) Kosala 4. Now Patliputra is known as: (a) Panaji (b) Patna (c) Videh 5. In Later Vedic period, taxes collected by the king were spent on: (a) army (b) building roads (c) canals B. Fill in the blanks : 1. The term ‘Janapada’ means _____________________. 2. There were altogether _____________________ Mahajanapadas. 3. _____________________ and __________ were the important republics of the 6th Century BC. 4. In the _____________________ the head of the state was a _____________________. 5. Coins of silver and copper began to be used as a _____________________. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. Most Mahajanapadas had a capital city and were fortified. 2. Magadha and Avanti were monarchies. 3. Vajji was a confederacy of the clans–the Lichchhavis. 4. The king often gave tax-free villages to Brahmans. 5. The king had absolute powers. D. Match the following : Column ‘B’ Column ‘A’ (a) Magadh’s ruler (b) a town 1. Jantripka (c) Magadha republic 2. Vajji (d) one of the 16 mahajanapadas 3. Magadha 4. Bimbisara E. Answer these Questions : 1. Describe the janapadas and mahajanapadas? 2. What are the sources that tell us about the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas? 3. Write the names of Mahajanapadas of the early 6th Century BC. 4. What were the sources of revenue in that period? 5. Write a note on economic conditions during later Vedic period. 6. What was the social condition in 600 BC? 7. What were the causes of Magadha’s success? Life Skills & Values • Imagine that you are a citizen of Vaishali, you are attending a meeting which is discussing how to increase the amount of taxation. Describe your role and how the final decision is taken. • In the outline map of India, locate and name any five Mahajanapadas. 28 Social Studies 6

7 the first empire in india The Magadha Kingdom grew and became a big empire under the Mauryans in the 4th Century BC and it was the first empire of Indian sub-continent. Magadha not only established control over the other Mahajanpadas, but also drew tributes from remote regions beyond the Mahajanpadas. It thus became the centre of an empire whose military strength was acknowledged by all and nobody dared to challeng it. First of all Mauryans ruled over the whole of the Indian sub-continent. Moreover, all the power was in the hands of the emperor, who ruled from the capital Pataliputra. The Mauryan Empire When Alexander, the world famous Greek conqueror, attacked India in 326 BC, the Nanda rulers were ruling Magadha. Their rule had become unpopular, taking advantage of this, an ambitious youth named Chandra-gupta Maurya succeeded in overthrowing the Nandas and in founding the Mauryan dynasty. His guide and mentor was a Brahmana called Kautilya, also known as Chanakya—the author of Arthashastra. The first Mauryan ruler, Chandragupta established his capital at Pataliputra. He expanded his empire from North to South and East to West including Afghanistan and Baluchistan. The Mauryan Empire was the first empire in Indian history. The three most important rulers of this dynasty were Chandragupta Maurya, his son Bindusara and Bindusara’s son Ashoka. Bindusara : Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara. Bindusara ruled from 297 to 273 BC. He was also a great conqueror and extended the empire from the Hindukush in the West to Bengal in the East and from the Himalayas in North to the present Karnataka in the South. At the time of his death, almost the entire sub-continent came under the Mauryan rule. Ashoka (269-232 BC) Ashoka Emperor Ashoka is remembered as one of the greatest rulers of India. He was the first Indian king to speak directly to his subjects, through his inscriptions, which carried his messages. His inscriptions on pillars and rocks are found in various parts of India. Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain by his father, Bindusara. He was at Ujjain, when Bindusara died in 272 BC. But he came to the throne in 269 BC. He continued his father’s footsteps and conquered more territories. The Kalinga War (261 BC) The Kalinga War was a turning point in Ashoka’s life. Thousands on both sides were killed and wounded during the Kalinga war. The bloodshed and the wailing of widows and orphans completely changed Ashoka’s attitude towards expansion through war. He gave up war and adopted the path of peaceful conquest. He called this new policy dhammavijaya. Social Studies 6 29

Ashoka’s Dhamma Policy : The Word dhamma was derived from the Sanskrit word dharma, meaning religious duty. After the war, Ashoka became a follower of Buddhism and began to preach this religion. Its main principles were: • To follow the path of ahimsa and non-violence. Fact Time • People should respect their elders and other Megasthenese was the ambassador religions. of Seleucus Nicator in the court of Changragupta for five years. On his • People should live in peace and harmony. return home, he wrote a book called • Masters should be kind to their servants. Indika, in which he gave an account • The poor and the disabled should be given special of the life and society at Pataliputra and the Mauryan Empire. consideration. Spread of Dhamma : Ashoka issued edicts (royal orders) to spread the message of dhamma. He had his edicts engraved on pillars and rocks, and set up in public places all over the empire. Most of the edicts were written in Prakrit, using the Brahmi script. In his edicts, Ashoka addressed himself as the father of his people. Ashoka appointed special officer called Dhamma Mahamatta to interpret and carry out royal orders. The Ashokan Pillar at firoz Ashoka also sent his officials to spread Dhamma to Syria, Greece, Egypt Shah Kotla, Delhi and Sri Lanka. Administration of the Mauryas When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. So, the Mauryas were a dynasty. We know from Arthashastra that the administration of Pataliputra, the capital of the Mauryans was given to six committees. These committees looked after sanitation, care of foreigners, registration of births and deaths, regulation of weight and measures. Thus, you may notice that issues which are relevant even today were taken up by the committees. Most probably, the other towns were also managed in a similar manner. The Emperor was the final decision maker, but he was also assisted by a council of ministers. An empire was divided into a number of Asjoka’s Empire provinces : each placed under a prince of the royal family, who could be trusted and be loyal to the emperor. 30 Social Studies 6

The Parishad advised the king almost on all matters. The Parishad consisted of senior ministers, intellectuals and junior ministers. Chanakya was the Chief advisor and Chief Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. The most striking feature of Chandragupta Maurya’s administration was the maintenance of a huge army. The army comprised of infantry, cavalry and elephants. In addition to this, it seems that the Mauryans also maintained navy. Art and Architecture in the Mauryan Empire The Mauryans built many palaces, stupas, Viharas and pillars. A stupa is a domed structure of bricks and stone. The most famous stupa is at Sanchi, near Bhopal, started by Ashoka. It was later enlarged. There are beautiful carved gateways on four sides. Rocks cut caves were made into Viharas, during the Mauryan times. The best known are at Barabar and Nagarjuna hills near Gaya in Dhamejh Stupa at Sarnath Bihar. Another unique contribution of the Mauryans were the highly polished Ashokan pillars. The pillar was generally a single stone, weighing about 50 tons and more than 30 feet tall. It had to be chiselled, shaped and polished. The capital of the column was crowned with the figures of bulls and lions. Decline of the Mauryas : Ashoka was succeeded by a series of weak rulers. As a result, the system of administration began to collapse. In 185 BC, Brihadratha, the last Maurya ruler, was murdered by Pushyamitra Shunga. Thus, the Mauryan dynasty came to an end. After the Mauryas, a number of dynasties arose. Among them were the Shungas and Kanvas in the North and the Satavahanas in the Deccan. • The first empire of Indian history was the Mauryan Empire. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. • Chandragupta Maurya ruled his vast empire with a very efficient administrative and military system. • Ashoka adopted the role of a father to his subjects and tried to promote welfare for all. • Ashoka’s moral code of conduct called Dhamma, was meant to establish peace and harmony in society. A. Tick () the correct option : 1. Who founded Mauryan empire? (a) Chandragupta (b) Bindusara (c) Chanakya (d) None of these 2. Chandragupta’s guide and mentor was: (a) Ashoka (b) Bindusara (c) Bimbasara (d) Chanakya 3. Who was the first Indian king to speak directly to his subjects, through his inscriptions? (a) Ashoka (b) Bindusara (c) Chandragupta (d) None of these Social Studies 6 31

4. Which event changed Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (a) Kalinga war (b) Panipat war (c) Chausa war (d) None of these (d) None of these 5. Which was the first empire of Indian sub-continent? (a) Vajji (b) Magadha (c) Avanti B. Fill in the blanks : 1. Alexander, the Greek conqueror, attacked India in _____________________. 2. The first Mauryan ruler, Chandragupta established his capital at _____________________. 3. The word Dhamma was derived from the Sanskrit word _____________________. 4. _____________________ issued edicts (royal orders) to spread the message of dhamma. 5. In his edicts, Ashoka addressed himself as the _____________________ of his people. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara. 2. Ashoka did not practise dhamma in his own life. 3. The Mauryan provinces were directly ruled by the king. 4. Bindusara ruled from 227 to 213 BC. 5. The Mauryan empire was the first empire in Indian history. D. Match the following : Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’ 1. Chandragupta (a) Dhammavijaya 2. Chanakya (b) Founder of the Mauryan empire 3. Ashoka adopted the policy (c) Arthshastra 4. Brihadratha (d) The last Mauryan ruler E. Answer these Questions : 1. Who was the founder of the Mauryan empire? 2. Who was Kautilya? 3. Who attacked Kalinga? 4. Who was Alexander? 5. Write a short note on Kalinga war. 6. Describe about Ashoka’s Dhamma policy. 7. Describe the administration of the Mauryas. 8. What was Dhamma? 9. Write a short note on art and architecture in the Mauryan empire. Life Skills & Values • Just imagine that you are a citizen of Kalinga. Describe the condition of Kalinga after the war. Describe the conversation you had with king Ashoka’s messengers who arrived with the message of Dhamma. • On an outline map of India, locate and label two pillars and two rock edicts of Ashoka. • On an outline map of India, mark the boundaries of Ashokan Empire. 32 Social Studies 6

8 new empires and kingdoms After the breakup of the Mauryan empire, the Satavahanas and the Kushanas arose as two important political powers. Both these empires came to an end in the middle of the 3rd Century AD. On the ruins of the Kushanas, arose the empire of the Guptas. After the Mauryan empire, it was the second most powerful empire of ancient India. The Gupta empire kept Northern India politically united. The Gupta Empire The Gupta period lasted for more than 200 years from AD 320 to AD 540 and the period is described as the ‘Golden Age of Indian Culture’. The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Srigupta. Chandragupta I was the first important ruler of the Gupta dynasty. Other two important rulers of this dynasty were Samudragupta and Chandragupta Vikramaditya. The post Gupta period saw the rise of many small kingdoms in North and South India. These included the kingdom of Harsha in the North and that of the Chalukyas and Pallavas in the Deccan and the South respectively. Chandragupta I (AD 320-335) Magadh, which had lost importance during the Kushana period, again rose to prominence during the reign of Chandragupta I. Chandragupta I ruled from Pataliputra. His marriage with Kumaradevi—a Lichchhavi princess, increased the political prestige of the Guptas. He extended his influence over Prayag (Allahabad) and Saketa (Ayodhya) in UP. He adopted the lofty title of Maharajadhiraja. Samudragupta (AD 335-380) Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta, often regarded as the greatest ruler of the Gupta dynasty. His court poet Harisena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of his patron. In a long inscription at the Prayag Prashasti Pillar (at Allahabad), the poet enumerated the people and countries that were conquered by Samudragupta. Samudragupta believed in the policy of war and conquest and because of his bravery and generalship, he is called the ‘Napolean of India’. We get information about Samudragupta’s reign mainly from coins and inscriptions. The Allahabad Prashasti bears a long list of rulers, who fought against Samudragupta and were defeated. Samudragupta annexed the region around Delhi, the Western part of UP and parts of Bengal. He wisely decided not to annex territories that would be difficult to rule directly from Magadha. Instead, he established indirect control over these territories and drew tributes from them. Chandragupta Vikramaditya Samudragupta’s son Chandragupta II is also known as Vikramaditya. There are inscriptions about him at Udayagiri, Mathura, Sanchi and on the iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi. Chandragupta Social Studies 6 33

II defeated the Shakas of Gujarat, Saurashtra, Malwa and annexed their territories. He made the trading town of Ujjain as his second capital. This further strengthened his control over trade. He promoted learning and art. He is said to have patronised nine renowned scholars, poets and artists, who were called the navaratna (nine gems). The poet Kalidasa is said to have been one of them. India After the Guptas : After the decline of the Gupta empire, some smaller kingdoms arose in North and South India. Among them, the prominent ones were the kingdom of Harsha in the North and that of the Chalukyas and Pallavas in South India. Harshavardhana (AD 606-647) In the AD 606, Harshavardhana became the ruler of Thanesvar in modern Haryana. He succeeded his brother Rajyavardhana, who had avenged the murder of his sister’s husband, the ruler of Kannauj, but had himself got killed. Harsha united the kingdoms of Thanesvar and Kannauj and made Kannauj as his capital. Kannauj was relatively safe from foreign invasions as it was not very close to the North-West Frontier. The Gangetic Plain could also be better supervised from here. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang was a guest at Harsha’s court and stayed in the country for about 15 years. Hiuen Tsang wrote in detail on Harsha’s administration and court life. Information about Harsha’s reign is also available in Harsha’s biography Harshacharita written by Banabhatta. Harsha’s empire extended from the Himalayas in the North to the river Narmada in the South and from Punjab in the West to Bengal in the East. Harsha restored the conquered territories to their rulers as long as they promised to pay him The Empire of Harsha regular tributes. Harsha led a campaign into the Deccan but was defeated on the bank of the Narmada by the Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II. The Chalukyas and Pallavas In the Deccan, the Chalukyas played an important role for about two centuries until AD 757. They set up their kingdom in Western Deccan towards the beginning of the sixth century AD. They established their capital at Vatapi (modern Badami) in Northern Mysore. The Most renowned Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We come to know about him in Parashasti written by Ravi Kirti, his court poet. He defeated Harsha’s army and checked his advance towards the Deccan. He fought successfully against the other Deccan Kingdoms of Rashtrakuta and Pallava dynasties. The downfall of the Chalukyas began after the death of Pulakesin II. 34 Social Studies 6

In the sixth century AD, another powerful dynasty called the Pallavas arose. They controlled both Southern Andhra and Northern Tamil Nadu. They set up their capital at Kanchi or modern Kanchipuram in the Kaveri delta which became town of temples and Vedic learning. The two great rulers of Pallava dynasty were Mahendravarman and Narasimhavarman. Mahendrvarman was a contemporary of both Harsha and Pulakeshin II. He fought a battle against Pulakeshin II, but he was defeated, ultimately Narasimha-varman I defeated the Chalukyan king Pulakeshin II and captured Vatapi. After this victory, he took the title of Vatapikonda or the conqueror of Vatapi. He also led successful expeditions to Sri Lanka. Both the rulers of Pallava tried to establish supremacy over the land lying between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. Their struggle for political power continued till the middle of eighth century AD, after that both the powers declined. Life of the People Our knowledge about the life of the people of the time is drawn mainly from literary works such as Kalidasa’s plays, Banabhatta’s Harshacharita and the accounts of foreign travellers like Hiuen Tsang. In Kalidasa’s plays, the king and most brahmins were shown speaking Sanskrit, while women and men used Prakrit language. Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Several irrigation works and especially huge tanks were constructed. Banana, coconut, mango and rice were cultivated. Trade inland as well as overseas flourished. Bhakti-An Important Religious Development Both under Chalukyas and Pallavas apart from Vedic Sacrifices, the worship of Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva came into existance. The Alvar saints who were great devotees of Lord Vishnu, popularised the worship of God. The worship of Shiva was popularised by Nayanar saints. From Seventh Century AD onwards, the Bhakti movement began to become popular in South India and the Alvars and Nayanars paved the way towards it through their simple religious teachings, rejection of rituals and complicated ceremonies and criticism of the caste system. Thus, after the decline of the Guptas, a number of kingdoms arose in North and South India, but none of them could become powerful empires. However, they made significant contributions in the political, economic and cultural life of India. • The Gupta Empire was the second most powerful empire after the Mauryan empire. • Sources like the Allahabad Pillar inscription, account of Fa-Hien and works of Kalidasa tell us about the Guptas. • The first important ruler of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I. Samudragupta was the most powerful con- queror of his dynasty. He is called the ‘Napoleon of India’. • The Gupta period excelled in art, literature, science and mathematics and is known as the ‘Golden Age of India’. • In the Deccan, the Chalukyas played an important role for about two centuries until 757 AD. • The Alvar saints who were great devotees of Lord Vishnu, popularised the worship of God. Social Studies 6 35

A. Tick () the correct option : 1. The founder of the Gupta dynasty was: (a) Chandragupta (b) Srigupta (d) Chandragupta Vikramaditya (c) Samundragupta 2. Nalanda University was established by: (a) Kumargupta (b) Samudragupta (c) Srigupta (d) Chandragupta I 3. Hiven Tsang was a: (a) Senapati (b) Hindu Saint (d) None of these (c) Foreign traveller 4. Who defeated Harshavardhana? (a) Narsimhavarman (b) Mahendraverman (d) Pulakeshin II (c) Srigupta B. Fill in the blanks : 1. _____________________ was the first important ruler of the Gupta dynasty. 2. Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son _____________________. 3. Samudragupta is called the _____________________. 4. _____________________ is also known as Vikramaditya. 5. The most renowned Chalukya ruler was _____________________. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. Srigupta was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty. 2. Chandragupta II assumed the title of Vikramaditya. 3. Chalukyas established their capital at Vatapi. 4. Mahendravarman was a Chalukyan ruler. 5. Alwar saints were great devotees of Lord Shiva. D. Match the following : 1. Kalidasa (a) Harisena 2. Nayanars (b) Ravi Kirti 3. Harshacharita (c) Worship of Shiva 4. Prayag Prashasti (d) Banabhatta 5. Prashasti of Pulakeshin II (e) Chandragupta II E. Answer these Questions : 1. What was the extent of Harshavardhana’s empire? 2. Name the famous poets of Gupta period. 3. Describe the Gupta Empire. 4. Who is called the ‘Napolean of India’? 5. What do you know about Harshavardhana? 6. Write a note on—'Bhakti-An Important Religious Development'. Life Skills & Values • On an outline map of India, mark the territories occupied by the Guptas, Chalukyas, Pallavas and Harshavardhana. 36 Social Studies 6

9 9 vital villages, thriving towns The early men did not have equipped strong claws to fight. They could not even run fast like tigers or lions. They were not equipped to protect themselves from the dangers. So they invented stone tools to live more comfortably and to protect themselves from the dangerous animals. Stone tools helped them doing many other activities like hunting animals, cutting the flesh and so on. Though early tools were not very fine and sharp, but the use of stone tools proved to be an important step in the evolution of man and technology. It helped the early man to survive smartly in the dangerous world. Evolution of Tools Flourishing Villages So many towns could not have existed without the support and back-up from prosperous villages which produced surplus agriculture produces and could supply food to the growing number of towns and cities. Surplus production was mainly possible due to the use of Iron tools and implements. Axes for clearing forests and iron ploughshare brought more land into cultivation and increased agricultural production. Apart from better and stronger implements made of iron, agriculture also flourished due to the system of transplantation and improved methods of irrigation by canals, wells and artificial lakes. It was often the responsibility of the kings to build canals and tanks. In return, the farmers had to pay taxes to the kings. Beginning of Agriculture Iron Tools Who Lived in the Villages? There were at least three kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. Social Studies 6 37

In the Southern India (Tamil Region) 1. Ordinary ploughmen also known as Uzhavar. 2. Large landowners also known as Vellalar. 3. Landless labourers, including slaves, known as Kadaisiyar and Adimai. In the Northern Part of the Country People used to follow the same profession for generations what their parents or grandparents had. In simple words, the post or profession was hereditary. The village headman or the largest landowner was known as the grama bhojaka. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village as he was considered economically powerful. He would sometimes perform the duties of a policeman and a judge also. The independent smaller landowners and farmers were known as grihapatis. People without land were called dasa Karmakara and to earn their living, they had to work on others fields. Apart from these, in most villages, there were also some crafts persons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. etc. Fact Time Some of the earliest works in Tamil, Known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai. Finding out about Cities You may have heard of the Jatakas. The Jataka stories are extremely popular folktales. These were composed by ordinary people. The tales are based upon the events that took place during the many births of the Buddha. Each tale has a deep meaning and moral attached to Buddhist traditions. For the historians, the Jataka tales are an invaluable source as they throw light upon the every day thought and life of the people of the period. Many valuable information about the development of Indian sculpture, social and economic conditions of northern and southern India of that time are known from the Greek accounts. The Roman and Greek traders, travellers came to the coastal kingdom especially to the Chola empire. They traded Ring well found in Delhi : In what ways, do you think this system of with the modern Tamil Nadu and mixed with drainge was different from that of the Harapans? the culture and tradition of India. Their stay influenced Indian culture, art, agriculture, etc. They tell us of the developed condition of goods, many crafts, existence of a brisk trade with the outside world and about the general prosperous condition of the country. 38 Social Studies 6

In many cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other. These are known as ring wells. The exploration of the cities and main towns/commercial centres came through the sailor and explorers. One of the detailed accounts has been found written by an unknown Greek sailor. He described all the ports that he had visited. Coins Trade prospered in this period due to the introduction of coins. These coins were called punch-marked coins because the designs were punched on the coins made of silver or copper. Cities with Many Functions Coins The Greeks greatly contributed to the development of Taxila, Gandhara and Mathura as the centres of art in India. They gave birth to Gandhara School of Art. It is partly Indian and partly Greek. Stone images and statues of the Buddha were carved. Mathura, which was the centre for indigenous school of art was also influenced by the invasions. A number of images of terracotta and red sandstone, which have definite Saka-Kushana influence, have survived. The Mathura school became first to make faces and figures of Buddha. A broken statue of ‘The Mathura school of Art’ began about the end of the Ist century Kanishka BC and it was flourishing in the reign of Kanishka. Its work is known by its material of white-spotted red stone. The Mathura art is Indian in thought and style. The images of the Buddha, Boddhisatvas and some images of kings were made in this style by the artists. A headless statue of Kanishka has been found which is a notable example of Mathura art. Crafts and Craftsperson Extremely Fine pottery, known as the Northern black Polished has been discovered by the Archaeologists. It is called so because it is found in the northern part of the subcontinent. It is black in colour and has a fine polish. Various available texts reveal that manufacturing of cloth was also an important activity during that time and both men and women worked in the cloth industry. The two important cloth manufacturing centers were Varanasi in the North and Madurai in the South. During this period, many crafts persons and merchants formed associations known as shrenis. Their function was to provide training, procure material, and Social Studies 6 39

distribute the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also functioned as banks, where rich people deposited their money. This was invested and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. Black colour pottery Northern Black polished ware Rules For Spinning and Weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra. They describe spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women, servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women, who are not permitted to leave their homes, can send maid servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent and take the finished work back to him. Women, who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case, the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than work, he should be punished. Case Study Kaveripattinam (Tamil Nadu) The Sangam texts provide us the information about the city of Kaveripattinam or Puhar. This city is situated on the eastern coast of Tamil Nadu at the entrance point of river Kaveri into the Bay of Bengal. The big ships used to bring the merchendise goods from distant places and entered the port without much effort. According to the texts, the markets of Kaveripattinam were surrounded by platforms. These platforms had tall mansions over them made up of wide hallways and corridors. 40 Social Studies 6

Arikamedu Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse was found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae and stamped red glazed pottery known as Arretine ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps glassware and gems have also been found at site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions • There was surplus agricultural production due to iron implements, transplantation and irrigation facilities. • Trade and commerce grew in towns due to the introduction of punch marked coins. • The independent smalller landowners and farmers were known as grihapatis and people without land were called as Das Karmakara. • Many crafts persons and merchants formed associations known as shrenis. • Mathura, which was the centre for indigenous school of art was also influenced by the invasions. • Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A. Tick () the correct option : 1. Mathura was an important: (a) port (b) village (c) religious centre (d) forested area 2. Punch marked coins were made of: (a) silver (b) gold (c) tin (d) ivory 3. Ring wells were used for: (a) bathing (b) washing clothes (c) irrigation (d) drainage Social Studies 6 41

4. In the Tamil region, large landowners were also known as: (a) Vellalar (b) Uzhavar (c) Kadaisiyar (d) adimai 5. The village headman or the largest landowner was known as: (a) Grama Bhojaka (b) Bhojaka (c) Dasa Karmakara (d) Grihapatis B. Fill in the blanks : 1. Ordinary ploughmen also known as _____________________. 2. Landless, labourers, including slaves known as _____________________ and ___________________. 3. The jataka stories are extremely popular _____________________. 4. The Greeks greatly contributed to the development of _____________________. 5. Rules for spinning and weaving are from _____________________. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. Shrenis were associations of Herders. 2. Sangam literature was composed around 500 years ago. 3. Mathura school became first to make faces and figures of Buddha. 4. The Jataka tales are an invaluable source for scientist. 5. Arikamedu, on the southeast coast of India is the most famous archaeological site in southern India. D. Match the following : Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’ 1. Mathura (a) Silver 2. Shrenis (b) Craftspersons 3. Kaveripattinam (c) Tamil Nadu 4. Punch-marked coins (d) Religious centre E. Answer these Questions : 1. How did the stone tools help the early man? 2. Write a short note on the ring wells. 3. Name three different kinds of people living in the villages of Tamil region? 4. What is meant by Sangam literature? 5. Why Mathura was an important city? 6. Write about the trade activities in Arikamedu. 7. Write a short note on crafts and craftsperson. Life Skills & Values • List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different. 42 Social Studies 6

1 0 buildings, paintings and books Buildings in Brick and Stone The skills of our craftspersons prove that architecture had reached high degree of excellence during the Gupta period. the perfection which the art of sculpture attained during this period suggests that it had a long period of continues and steady development. The artistic remains of this period may be described as temples, stupas, pillars, palaces and caves. These buildings are made up of stones and bricks. Temples and Stupas Some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built in the shrines to worship gods such as Vishnu, Shiva and Durga. The most important Feature of the temple was the garbhagriha, room where the image of the chief deity was placed and the priests would perform religious rituals and devotees offer worship to the deity. Most temples also had an open space (hall) known as the Mandapa where people could assemble and even did some religious ceremonies. Often a tower, known as the The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, which required careful planning. They were built to mark it out as a sacred place. The Iron Pillar Different archaeological sources like historical sites, monuments, domes, architecture, sculpture, paintings, literature, etc. provide us useful information for the reconstruction of history of ancient India. Most of the monuments of ancient India have perished due to climatic conditions. But whatever is still intact, gives us useful information about the ancient Indian history, for example, the iron pillar of Delhi at Mehrauli. The iron pillar at Mehrauli Mehrauli Iron Pillar, Delhi near Delhi is a wonderful example of the metallurgical skill of the Gupta crafts persons. It is made of iron, 7.2 m high and weighs over 3 tonnes. It was made about 1500 years ago. However, the scholars have not been able to identify the king Chandra mentioned on the Mehrauli Pillar Inscription and there is a lot of controversy among scholars on this point. Iron pillar is a solid shaft of pure, rustless wrought iron, 40 centimeters in diameter. It is still standing with the least sign of rusting or corrosion, though it has been exposed to the sun, rain and storm for the last over 1500 years. In the Gupta period, the art of casting metals reached a degree of development which may well be regarded as wonderful. Social Studies 6 43

Fact Time Archaeological evidence for the Gupta architecture is, however, poor. The Gupta shrines have been discovered in the jungles of central India, especially in Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. They include those as Bhitargaon in Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh). How were Stupas and Temples Built Kings and queens used to spend money from their treasury in order to build temples and monuments. The craft persons who worked to build those splendid structures were paid from the treasury. The kings and queens were very particular about constructing these structures. They would get the best quality stone excavated and transported to the site, often carefully chosen for the new building. Then the rough blocks of stone were shaped and carved into pillars and panels for walls, floors and ceilings and then these were placed in their right place. So it was quite an expensive affair. Whenever the devotees would come to visit the temple or the stupa, they were expected to bring gifts with them, which were used to decorate the buildings. An ivory masterpiece was one such example which was gifted by an association of ivory workers, for one of the beautiful gateways at Sanchi. other donors were merchants, farmers, garland makers, perfumers, smiths and the common men and women. The names of the donors were inscribed on the pillars, railings and walls. Painting Ajanta is a place, where several caves were hollowed Paintings from Ajanta cave out of the hills, centuries ago. The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta times is provided by Ajanta paintings. These paintings depict various events in the life of Buddha. These paintings are lively and natural. The colours used in it are vivid even after 1500 years. Those colours were made of plants and minerals, but there is no record about the artists who created them. The World of Books The book provides useful information in understanding the history of any period. The books also throw useful light on the condition of the society of historic period. The two great best-known epics of the Aryans, the Ramayan and the Mahabharata contain a great deal of mythology and legends and they also throw useful light on the condition of the society in the post vedic period. Epics are grand, long compositions about heroic characters and include stories of social and political conditions of the people and Gods. In the seventh century BC, the Tamil language had taken a definite shape. Tamil, Malayalam, Kannad and Telugu have been the principal languages of the land. But Tamil is the oldest and purest. The Tamil literature is the richest and best as far as the epics are concerned. It has five famous epics. The Silappaddikaram and the Manimekalam are the famous Tamil 44 Social Studies 6

epics, composed by Elango and Sattanar respectively in the first or second century AD. Many of the Tamil works were composed by Jain and Buddhist scholars. In the field of literature, the Mauryan Age witnessed remarkable progress. Literary works were produced in Sanskrit, Prakrit as well as Pali. Some of the important literary works produced during the Mauryan period include Arthashastra of Kautilya, Ashtadhyayi of Panini, Kalpasutra of Dadrabhu, etc. The Arthashastra is divided into 15 Adhikaranas with 180 Prakarans. This work is a combination of Sutra and Bhashya Sutra probably applies to the headings of Prakaranas and Bhashya is a commentary on it with a certain mixture of verses. The purpose of the work is to lay down means for the acquisition and maintenance of dominion over the Earth. During the Gupta period, literary works of both secular and religious nature were written. Dramatists and poets such as Kalidasa, Bhasya, Vishakhadatta and Harisena composed many famous works. The Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana were complied during this time. Many law books such as those of Yajnavalkaya, Brishaspati were written too. Preserving Old Stories Other Hindu religious stories include the Puranas. Purana literally means old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati and how they were to be worshipped. It also explains about the creation of the world and about kings. The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit language. Everybody The Purana including women and shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas, were allowed to hear Puranas. They were recited in temples by priests, and people used to come to listen to them. Two Sanskrit epics : The Mahabharata and Ramayana were quite popular among the masses. You also must have heard about a war fought between the cousins (the Kauravas and pandavas) to gain control of the throne of the Kurus and their capital, Hastinapur. The Ramayan is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Scene From the epic, Ramayana Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana. Rama fought a battle to get her back. He won and returned to Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala, after his victory. Valmiki is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayan. Both the Puranas and the Mahabharata are supposed to have Valmiki been compiled by Vyasa. Science, Mathematics and Medicine Astronomy, Medicine and Mathematics made great progress in ancient India. In the field of Mathematics, the Indians made three special contributions—the notation system, decimal system and the use of zero. The Arab traders learnt these concepts from India and spread them to the western world. Social Studies 6 45

The famous mathematician and astronomer Aryabhatta discovered the cause of solar and lunar eclipses. The circumference of the Earth that he measured is considered to be correct even now. He pointed out that the Sun is stationary and the Earth rotates. He wrote a book called Aryabhatiyam in which he wrote his astronomical and mathematical theories. Aryabhatta In Medicine, Indian physicians could diagnose diseases and prescribe medicines for their cure. The two famous physicians of ancient India were Sushruta and Charaka. Sushruta had written about surgery. Charaka in his book ‘Charaka Samhita’ has described various kinds of diseases including leprosy and tuberculosis. His book contains the names of a large number of plants and herbs to be used as medicines. • The cultural heritage of India is unique and is spread over a vast geographical area. • Stupas were raised all over India by Ashoka in honour of Buddha. • Ancient India excelled in art and architecture too. The Ajanta and Ellora caves, the stupas, the Pallava and Cha- lukya temples contributed a lot to Indian culture and heritage. • The most important feature of the temple was the garbhagriha, a room where the image of the chief deity was placed and priests would perform religious rituals, and devotees offer worship to the deity. • Our literary tradition is very rich and old in the form of religion and literature. • In the Knowledge of science, mathematics and medicine, India was at the top. Physicians like Sushruta, Chara- ka, Mathematician and astronomers like Aryabhatta are world famous even today. A. Tick () the correct option : 1. Who was the author of the Ramayan? (a) Sattanar (b) Valmiki (c) Vyas (d) Kalidasa 2. In which language did Kalidasa write his plays and dramas? (a) Prakrit (b) Pali (c) Sanskrit (d) Tamil 3. Whose name is inscribed on the Iron pillar at Mehrauli? (a) Samudragupta (b) Chandra of Gupta dynasty (c) Ashoka (d) None of these 4. The Puranas were written in: (a) Hindi (b) Sanskrit (c) Tamil (d) None of these 5. Who was the author of the Mahabharata? (a) Valmiki (b) Kalidasa (c) Vyasa (d) Sattanar B. Fill in the blanks : 1. The _____________________ was a room where the image of the chief deity was placed. 2. _____________________ is divided into 15 Adhikaranas with 180 Prakarans. 46 Social Studies 6

3. The _____________________ of Mehrauli is a wonderful example of the metallurgical skill of the Gupta crafts person. 4. The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta times is provided by _____________________. 5. The Mahabharat and Ramayana epics were wrote in _____________________ language. C. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false : 1. Sanchi Stupa is located in Madhya Pradesh. 2. Iron Pillar is 17.2 m high. 3. The book provides useful information in understanding the history of any period. 4. Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. 5. Chanakya discovered the cause of solar and lunar eclipse. D. Match the following : Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’ 1. Stupa (a) Tower 2. Shikhara (b) Mound 3. Garbhagriha (c) Place where the image of the deity is installed 4. Pradakshina Patha (d) Place in temple where people could assemble 5. Mandapa (e) Circular path around the stupa E. Answer these Questions : 1. What do you mean by ‘Garbhagriha’? 2. Where is the ‘Iron Pillar’ situated? 3. What are Epics? 4. Describe the specific features of Indian Stupas. 5. Write about the Ajanta’s paintings. 6. Which is the oldest South Indian language? Give two examples of the epics of this language. Life Skills & Values • Get pictures of old monuments, temples, paintings, buildings and paste them in your scrapbook. • Find out the names of some old and modern artists in the field of architecture and painting and compare their work. Social Studies 6 47

1 1 UNIT-2 : geography the earth in the solar system Sky is an endless ceiling, where we see many shiny objects. All these objects are called celestial bodies or heavenly bodies. The heavenly bodies include the stars, planets, satellites, asteroids, comets, meteors, etc. The sun is also a star and our Earth is a planet. Stars The celestial bodies which have their own light, are called stars. Stars are made of hot and glowing gases and produce heat and light. Stars look very small because they are so far away from us. The sun looks bigger than other stars because it is closer to the earth. Our sun and all the stars belong to a galaxy. There are millions of galaxies in the universe. Our solar system belongs to the Milky Way Galaxy, popularly known as the Milky Way (Akash Ganga). The Milky Way has about 10,000 crore stars. Short astronomical distances, such as the distance from the earth to the sun, can be measured in kilometres. The distance is equal to 148,800,000 kilometres. But even the kilometre is too small to measure the distance between stars. So astronomers use a unit of distance called the light year for this purpose. A light year is the distance light travels in one year. Light travels at about 300,000 kilometres per second. So in one year, light travels a distance of about 9.5 trillion kilometres. Calculating distance of 1 light year distance = ( 300,000 × 60 × 60 × 24 × 365) Speed 1 min 1 hr 1 day 1 year per second Fact Time = 9.4608 × 1012 km Earlier, Pluto was ninth planet of our solar system, but now it is = 9.5 trillion km (rounded up) The Solar System considered as a dwarf planet. The solar system consists of the sun, the eight planets, their satellites and thousands of other smaller bodies. The four planets that are nearest to the sun, are called inner planets. In order of distance from the sun, they are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are outer planets. Mercury is closest to the sun and has almost no atmosphere because it has been burned off by the Sun. Venus is considered as Earth’s twin because its size and shape are very much similar to that of the Earth. Star, The Milky Way The Sun 48 Social Studies 6

The Solar System 1. The Sun How much do you know about this giant ball of energy in the sky? Yes, we are talking about the sun. The sun is a star, a hot ball of glowing gases, mainly of hydrogen and helium in the heart of our solar system. Our sun is the only source of light and heat without which we would not be able to live. All the lives on the earth depend on the energy that comes from the sun. It controls our climate and weather. The sun is the nearest star to the earth. It is about 150 million km away from the earth. Weight of the sun is 3,00,000 times of the earth’s weight. The temperature at the surface of the sun is about 6000°C while at the centre of the sun, it is about 15,000,000°C (15 million°C). The sun is the centre of our solar system. All the planets revolve around it. Fact Time 2. Planets The moon is the only place in our solar system, other than The word planet has been derived from the Greek word earth, where humans have ‘planetai’ meaning ‘wanderers’. They are heavenly bodies visited. On July 29, 1969, which revolve around the sun in an orbit. They do not have astronauts Neil Armstrong and their own heat and light. They shine merely by the reflection Edwin Aldrin landed the Lunar of the sun light. They are made up of solid materials. While Module of Apollo 11 on the revolving around the sun, the planets also rotate on their moon’s surface. own axis. 1. The Mercury : It is the closest planet to the sun. It is the smallest planet in the solar system. Its day temperature is about 400°C and night temperature is –70°C. It has no moon. 2. The Venus : It is the second planet from the sun. It is very hot. It is also called evening star or morning star, so it is known as the jewel of the sky. It is very similar to the Earth, so it is called Earth’s sister. It has no moon and rotates from east to west. It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. 3. The Earth : The earth is the third planet from the sun. It is the fifth largest planet in our solar system. It is a unique planet because life is known to exist only on this planet. It is spherical in shape, but slightly flattened at the poles, so scientists have described it as Geoid which means an earth-like shape. It appears blue in colour. This is because Social Studies 6 49

of presence of water on two-thirds surface of the Earth. It is, therefore, called a ‘Blue Planet’ which sustains all types of life. Necessary conditions for existence of life on the Earth : • It has moderate temperature. It is neither too hot nor too cold because it has the right distance from the sun. • It has right gravitational force. The Earth • Availability of water and air makes life possible here. • A blanket of ozone layer protects us from the harmful radiations of the sun. 4. The Mars : It is the fourth planet from the sun. It is also known as the red planet due to its colour. Its size is almost half of the size of the Earth. It has two moons. It is named by the Romans in honour of their God of War and also the largest. 5. The Jupiter : It is the fifth planet from the sun. It has 50 confirmed moons and 14 provisional moons. It has colourful latitudinal bands of atmospheric clouds. It is named after the ruler of the Roman gods. 6. The Saturn : It is the sixth planet from the sun. It is the second largest planet in the solar system. It has 53 confirmed moons and 9 provisional moons. It has bright rings made of icy particles around its equator. It is named after Jupiter’s father in Roman mythology. Planets Distance from the Time for one Time for one Satellites sun (in Million km) (Moons) revolution rotation Mercury 57.6 88 days 58.6 days No Venus 107.5 225 days 243 days No Earth 149.8 365 ¼ days 23.93 hours 1 Mars 225.6 687 days 24.62 hours 2 Jupiter 772.8 11.11 years 9.93 hours 64 Saturn 1417.6 29.5 years 10.66 hours 62 Uranus 2852.8 84 years 17.24 hours 27 Neptune 4497.0 165 years 16.11 hours 13 7. The Uranus : It is the seventh planet from the sun. It also has rings around its equator. It is the third largest planet in the solar system. It has 27 moons. It is named after the Greek God of the sky. 8. The Neptune : It is the eighth planet from the sun. Its colour is blue due to methane gas. It has 13 moons. It is almost similar in size to Uranus. It is named after the Roman God of the sea. 50 Social Studies 6