1 The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence: Research, Theory, and Practice Contact Information: Emotional Intelligence Training & Research Institute (EITRI) P.O. Box 271877 Corpus Christi, TX 78427 888-680-7983 www.eitri.org Editors: Richard Hammett Gary Low Darwin Nelson © 2013 by the Emotional Intelligence Training & Research Institute. All rights reserved. i
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3 The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence (IJTEI) is the official journal of the Emotional Intelligence Training & Research Institute (EITRI). EITRI is a DBA of Emotional Intelligence Learning Systems, Inc. A goal of the journal is to include articles to increase exposure for excellent programs presented at our annual conference. We strive to include articles that provide exemplary research and ‘best practice’ models of transformative emotional intelligence in education, business, and government settings worldwide. Articles not presented at the annual conference may be submitted for consideration and inclusion. Authors should understand that articles are peer-reviewed with evaluations weighted for conference related articles, as well as those articles that include specific transformative models for teaching and learning emotional intelligence. TIJEI’s most recent grading heuristic is available for review online at www.eitri.org. The final decision for including articles rests with the editors. The EITRI association and the journal are supported through member dues and contributions. One copy of the current journal is included as a member benefit. as soon as possible after printing. The journal is available to non-members through direct purchase from EITRI. Otherwise, copies of the journal are sold for $35.00 each and may be purchased from Emotional Intelligence Learning Systems, Inc. For more information, please visit www.eitri.org and www.EiLearningSys.com. EITRI members are responsible for maintaining the accuracy of their own information, including mailing address, in the membership database. The membership database is maintained through the Join Link at http://www.eitri.org/welcome.html. Mailed journals returned due to incorrect address will not be replaced. The journal may be listed in the Current Index to Journals in Education, Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory, Psychological Abstract, EBSCO, and Higher Education Abstracts. Emotional Intelligence Training and Research Institute (EITRI) Published once a year. Printed in the U.S.A. A DBA of Emotional Intelligence Learning Systems, Inc. P.O. Box 271877 Corpus Christi, Texas 78427 Telephone: 1-888-680-7983 Web: www.eitri.org/welcome.html iii
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5 Editors’ Notes teaching College Success. The article shares the author’s experience and the experience of colleagues We would like to extend a warm and personal in teaching new and first-generation college students welcome to EITRI members, institute/conference with EI. participants, friends, and colleagues everywhere to the second issue of The International Journal of A study to enhance the performance of Transformative Emotional Intelligence (TIJTEI). counseling psychology students is presented by a trio of counseling psychology faculty (Monica We are humbled and inspired by our students, Munoz, George Potter, Mary Chavez) in a colleagues, associates, and mentors who bring such predominantly Hispanic graduate program. The interest, passion, and dedication to the scholarship of relationship and implication of EI skills, perceived teaching, learning, coaching, and research to counselor self-efficacy, and empathy dimensions are education, organizations, communities, and families. described from a cohort study of counseling We appreciate the many individuals, educational psychology students. entities, and organizations that encourage research and program development models that improve the Beverly Gammill shares planning and quality of life and productivity of youth and adults implementation of a “soft skills” initiative with EI worldwide. skills in the Quality Enhancement Plan at Galveston College. An English faculty member, Gammill In this second volume, Ashis Sen and Sanjay coordinated the EI Program for students in ENGL Khandagle tell the story and describe the process of 1301. Program activities, assignments, and results a large-scale emotional intelligence project in a are described as well as implications for student and Fortune 500 company. The internal coaching college success. initiative provides a process to develop people through emotional choices and provides a A research study of EI, job satisfaction, gender, foundation for understanding the value of EI for and experience with college teachers in India is education, organizations, and people. presented and described. The data and findings are shared to add to the research of the relationship of EI An article by Judith Cox describes the process to job satisfaction in education and teaching. The and results of validating the Relationship Skills Map global connections of EI to teaching, career success, (RSM) and quantifying emotional intelligence. The work satisfaction are some of the contributions of relationship of the RSM to constructive thinking, this article by PK Tulsi and Parminder Walia. healthy relationships, personality variables, and couple satisfaction provide technical and practical Finally, an article by Rick Hammett describes insights into the value of EI to personal and the background, research, and process in the relationship satisfaction and health. development of Personal Excellence as a new measure of emotional intelligence. The Personal How do leaders develop EI? Using a Excellence measure has emerged as the central qualitative, phenomenological approach, David element in the transformative models and EITRI Rude describes a research project with federal programs of self and leadership development, government leaders. An EI assessment and interview professional coaching, and teaching excellence. process are used to collect information. The process of leadership and EI development is studied and The responsibility in creating a collegial integrated within an organizational context. professional association (EITRI) and journal for training, education, and research applications with Integrating EI to positively affect college culture transformative models of emotional intelligence is and learning environment is the focus of an article daunting and challenging. With your help, ideas, by Fred Hills, Andrew Cano, and Paul Illich. collaborations, and continuing support, we will do McLennan Community College adopted an EI our best. assessment and learning materials in their innovative Learning Environment Adaptability Project (LEAP). We imagine a world in which all people are The article describes the process of planning and collaborative and have the opportunity to enjoy implementing a comprehensive program with EI health and meaningful work. Join us in our small skill sets and skills with students, faculty, staff, and voice in the world of transformative emotional community. Preliminary data and information are intelligence. provided. Warmest personal regards. Transforming education with transformative emotional intelligence is the subject of an article by Rick Hammett, Executive Editor Terry Miller, a community college faculty member Darwin Nelson and Gary Low, Editors v
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7 Letter From A Teacher In 2010, the 5th Personal Excellence Award Binational Mental Health Special Interest was presented to Dr. Art Linskey for his life- Group (Delia Villarreal, Maria Diaz, Darwin long devotion to developing and modeling a Nelson, Cristina Penña, and Mirthala Leal). healthy way of being. Because Dr. Linskey was not able to attend this year's conference due to Quoted below, Dr. Linskey's touching physical health ailments, his award was acceptance letter was read aloud by Dr. Nelson accepted by his close friends from the US- during the conference reception and award Mexico Border Health Association and presentation on February 25, 2010. Excerpt from our April 2010 EI Newsletter - A letter from Dr. Art Linskey At the start of the 21st century, I was finishing 75 years as a member of the human species on planet earth. During the early years of my life, certain questions observed me. \"Why don't we humans relate to each other differently than we do?\" and \"Why do we separate into populations each of which thinks is better than the others?\" Against my parents advice I would, as a child, enter into neighborhoods where the languages, customs, and foods were different from those of my population. I found the best food among the Italian immigrants. When members of my Irish immigrant population would ask my mother, \"Why is Arthur like this?\" she would answer ,\"Nobody knows.\" Later in life, as a public school counselor in New York, I visited most of the families of the African American students and went to the 'black barbershop.' I was a strange white man but was gradually accepted into the Black neighborhood. Later when I was a university professor I applied to be a Fulbright visiting professor in Chile. All Yankees were accepted and I related to the Chileans, not to North Americans. Our first son was born in Santiago, Chile. We considered ourselves Chilean but were sent back to the U.S. by the coming of the advent of the Communist Government. We belonged to the wrong population. Dr. Abraham Maslow helped me in the 1970s with his concept of Gemeinschaft (praying for all humankind) and being loved, relating not to population membership, but to being on quality with the other person or human. In the 1980s and 1990s, Carl Sagan helped me to relate to the Cosmos, of which planet earth was one of billions. Perhaps there are species in the universe that are intelligent enough not to separate themselves into populations which are unfriendly to each other. Before he died in 1996, Dr. Sagan identified three human personalities which we need to overcome. 1.) Dominance hierarchies, 2.) Ethnocentrism, and 3.) Xenophobia (fear of anything strange or different). During the 1st decade of the 21st Century, Drs. Darwin Nelson and Gary Low helped me into a new perception in Emotional Intelligence as a guide in freeing ourselves from the three human properties identified by Dr. Sagan as the inhibitors of intelligent human relations. I sought to involve professionals from other populations, specifically our neighbors in Mexico, in my quest. They are all involved in this conference and I am grateful for your recognition of all of us. ~ Arthur Linskey, Ph.D. We appreciate Dr. Linskey’s friendship and life’s dedication to helping people. His meaningful connections with our transformative model of EI will always be appreciated. Thank you, Dr. Linskey, for all we have learned from you. vii
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9 Preface 2005 Institute for Emotional Intelligence by Gary Low The 2005 – 2nd Annual Institute for Emotional Intelligence was convened on the The Emotional Intelligence Research campus of Texas A&M University-Kingsville Initiative (EIRI) was created and developed by with a theme of “Person-Centered Assessment Darwin Nelson and Gary Low in 2002 at Texas and Transformative Learning”. The theme A&M University-Kingsville. In 2004, they reflected the learner-centered education model planned and convened (with wonderful of emotional intelligence and its importance to assistance of Mona Jackson who coordinated transformative learning and positive change in the inaugural event) the first annual conference education, career, and life. to share and disseminate research with personal and emotional intelligence skills and ‘best Positive contributions of the emotional practice’ applications in education and system and transformative emotional organizational settings. In 2005 Rick Hammett intelligence were illustrated in numerous joined Nelson and Low in their life’s work and programs for individuals, educators, and has provided leadership for the annual institute organizations. and conference. Pathways to positive learning and growth Each year, a theme is carefully selected to need to include courses and programs aimed at illustrate the unique value and overarching learning and teaching EI skill sets and skills. importance of transformative emotional intelligence. One way to gain a personal and The emerging theory and transformative model meaningful perspective of emotional of emotional intelligence, research directions, intelligence as a learned ability is to reflect and applications for schools, community upon conference themes for the essential colleges, universities, and organizations were connection of EI skill sets and skills for high emphasized in programs and discussions. achievement, effective learning, teaching, career success, healthy and productive 2006 Institute for Emotional Intelligence relationships, lifelong learning, and leadership. The 2006 – 3rd Annual Institute for 2004 Institute for Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence was convened at Galveston Hilton Hotel and sponsored by The 2004 – 1st Institute for Emotional Galveston College with a theme of “Catch the Intelligence was convened on the campus of Wave”. The theme reflected the innovative Texas A&M University-Kingsville with a Quality Enhancement Plan adopted by theme of “Positive Assessment and Education Galveston College to emphasize ‘soft skills’ to Model of Emotional Intelligence”. The theme improve student success, teaching and reflected the long-term original research and institutional effectiveness. work of Nelson and Low (and colleagues) beginning in 1977. College leaders and faculty presented rationale, plans, and intervention strategies for Positive assessment with ESAP is the first implementing EI assessment with ESAP and EXPLORE step of the Emotional Learning instruction using Emotional Intelligence: System. Achieving Academic and Career Excellence book and learning guides for students. Emotional Intelligence, as a learned ability, points to the need for extensive The connection of EI skills to curricula development with EI skills, constructive thinking and healthy, productive behaviors, and strategies for person-centered relationships was the focus of several applied learning and teaching. programs in education, counseling, and organizations. Emotional Intelligence: Achieving Academic and Career Excellence, published in Emotional Intelligence for college 2003 by Pearson Education, provides a leadership and EI for strategic planning, QEP, structured learning system for students with the Achieving the Dream, and institutional education model of Emotional Intelligence and effectiveness initiatives were central features of the Emotional Learning System. dialogue. ix
10 2007 Institute for Emotional Intelligence for personal and organizational change, and curricula development with the skill sets and The 2007 – 4th Annual Institute for skills of emotional intelligence. Emotional Intelligence was convened on the campus of Texas A&M University-Kingsville Seymour Epstein, professor emeritus, with a theme of “Emotional Intelligence and University of Massachusetts, presented keynote Leadership: A Vision of Excellence”. The “Cognitive Experiential Self Theory and theme reflected new research into personal Constructive Thinking” based on his long-term excellence and the intricate relationship of EI, research and seminal work in psychology and leadership, and excellence. mental health. Margo Murray, best selling author and Student and College Success with Chief Operating Officer, MMHA, The Emotional Intelligence presentations from Managers’ Mentor, presented an excellent South Texas College, Galveston College, Texas keynote on her seminal work with mentoring A&M University-Kingsville (among others) on topic “Emotional Intelligence and provided model implementations for person- Leadership for World Health”. centered education and applications of student development and support. Leadership development and positive personal change provided a framework for Prospects for transformative emotional understanding the contributions of the intelligence with research-derived ESAP and emotional mind and how the emotional system Personal Excellence Map were focal points for is the lead system for meaningful personal presentations and dialogue. change. Seymour Epstein, distinguished professor Personal Excellence Map was introduced emeritus, University of Massachusetts, and the doctoral dissertation which extended received the third Personal Excellence Award research into personal excellence for for his unique and extraordinary professional leadership, career satisfaction, and developing and lifetime achievements with Cognitive- oneself to the fullest. Experiential-Self Theory for personality and Constructive Thinking as the key to emotional Margo Murray received the first Personal intelligence. Excellence Award for her exemplary work in mentoring with personal and emotional skills 2009 Institute for Emotional Intelligence and for modeling emotional intelligence in her work and life achievements. The 2009 – 6th Annual Institute for Emotional Intelligence was convened at Westin Rick Hammett received the second Galleria Hotel in Houston and sponsored by Personal Excellence Award for his research San Jacinto College-North campus of SJC with emotional intelligence and personal Community College District with a theme of excellence and the publication of Personal “Emotional Intelligence: Healthy People, Excellence Map for self and leadership Organizations, and Communities. The theme development and for modeling emotional reflected the growing research and ‘best intelligence in his career and life achievements. practice’ applications of EI skill sets and skills for personal and organizational health and 2008 Institute for Emotional Intelligence development in U.S. and internationally. The 2008 – 5th Annual Institute for International applications of Emotional Intelligence was convened at transformative emotional intelligence in India Sheraton Hotel in South Padre Island and provided a global influence example with India sponsored by South Texas College with a Forum for EI Learning, EI in HPCL to theme of “Emotional Intelligence and Personal transform a Global Fortune 500 company and Excellence: Building Quality From Within”. publication of Fuelling Success: How HPCL The theme reflected new research and research Helped Its Employees with Emotional directions of transformative emotional Intelligence (Sen, Nelson, and Rao). intelligence and personal excellence for self and leadership development. College and organizational success models illustrated ‘best practice’ approaches Person-centered education and research for person-centered education, courses, and derived change model provided the structure for transformative learning, healthy pathways x
11 programs aimed at improving academic, career, counseling, and educational leadership courses and life success. were illustrated in various presentations from South Texas College, Galveston College, San ESAP and Personal Excellence Map were Antonio College, Coastal Bend College, highlighted in presentations for their use in self Hallmark College, Army and Air Force, Texas and leadership development for AF courses at A&M University-Kingsville, and others. Air University, Maxwell AFB, and Barnes Center. International research and applications of emotional intelligence including Emotional intelligence for healthy and standardization of ESAP in South Africa and EI productive relationships and productivity for in teaching and learning in India were schools, organizations, and communities presented and illustrated. provided focus for presenters and programs in Texas, nationally, and internationally. Doctoral research and implications for curricular developments were presented and Arun Balakrishnan, Chairman and discussed by educational leadership doctoral Managing Director, HPCL, was awarded the coordinator. fourth Personal Excellence Award for his support of visionary work and achievements Dr. Arthur Linskey, Psychologist, Mental with HPCL internal coaches, team, and Health Professional, and Scholar, was awarded employees using emotional intelligence. India the fifth Personal Excellence Award for his Forum for EI Learning was patterned, in part, long-term mental health work and lifetime after Institute for Emotional Intelligence after achievements in service to people and presentations by HPCL internal coaches at 4th communities in South Texas and Northern Annual Institute for Emotional Intelligence on Mexico as well as other locations. Personally campus of Texas A&M University-Kingsville. and professionally, Dr. Linskey modeled emotional intelligence in his work and 2010 Institute for Emotional Intelligence interaction with countless students, colleagues, and clients. The 2010 – 7th Annual Institute for Emotional Intelligence was convened at El 2011 Institute for Emotional Intelligence Tropicano Riverwalk Hotel in San Antonio and sponsored by San Antonio College, Coastal The 2011 – 8th Annual Institute for Bend College, and Hallmark College with a Emotional Intelligence was convened at El theme of “Emotional Intelligence: Developing Tropicano Riverwalk Hotel and sponsored by Excellence in Teaching and Leadership”. The Emotional Intelligence Training and Research theme reflected the growing recognition, Institute (EITRI) and Emotional Intelligence supported by research, of the essential need to Learning Systems with a theme of “Emotional include and integrate EI skill sets and skills Intelligence: Teaching, Mentoring, Coaching”. (behaviorally anchored) in the scholarship of The theme reflected the growing research, teaching and learning as well as in effective practice, and theory of personal and leadership. organizational change using EI-centric models of transformative emotional intelligence. Pre-conference workshops and conference programs were provided on the Life Style Type Indicator (LSTI) was topics of Teaching Excellence and Leadership introduced as a new assessment of healthy Excellence with transformative emotional personality, lifestyle, wellness, and as a intelligence. foundation for EI interventions. The integrating nature of transformative Skills for Career And Life Effectiveness emotional intelligence was illustrated in an (SCALE) online assessment for mentoring and excellent featured program on topic “Emotional coaching for measurement and accountability Intelligence to Institutional Intelligence” by of changes for individuals in organizations VPs for Academic Affairs and VP for were highlighted in presentations. Information Services and Planning, South Texas College. One outcome from presentations was the insight of how similar education and Incorporating EI knowledge, content, organizational issues truly are and how skill sets, and skills into college success, transformative EI is so important to healthy rhetoric and composition, communications, xi
12 and positive changes for individuals and and Person-Centered Education”, and others organizations. illustrate the essential relationship of EI and healthy outcomes. Community college leaders’ issues and challenges were discussed by a distinguished Three new assessments were introduced panel of Deans and VPs for Student Affairs. at the 2012 conference – Resiliency Skills The need for emotionally intelligent leadership Assessment (ReSAP), Service Excellence and inclusion of EI curricula in leadership Skills Assessment Process (ReSAP), and Sales programs emerged. Success Skills Assessment Process (SaSAP). EI programs described teaching, New Well-Being Program integrating ESAP, mentoring, and coaching, and highlighted how ReSAP, and RSM was presented for clients and EI skill sets and skills are essential to meeting consultants for face-to-face and online delivery. the ‘Access’ and ‘Success’ goals of colleges, teachers, and students. Inaugural issue of The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Spud Reynolds, Terry Miller, and Jorge Intelligence was showcased and available at the Botello, College Success faculty at South Texas conference College, were awarded the sixth, seventh, and eighth Personal Excellence Awards to Beverly Gammill of Galveston College recognize the person-centered learning (community college award) was awarded the environment created at South Texas College. ninth Personal Excellence Award for her One of the stated goals of STC is to create a significant work and dedication to improving college-going culture, and the EI-centric student and college success with GC’s Quality curriculum has provided a visible student Enhancement Plan. Ms. Gammill has served as success model for College Success and an inspiration, guide, mentor, and teacher for Developmental Education. Working as a team students, faculty, and staff in various capacities with other faculty, Reynolds, Miller, and of QEP programs. Botello provide exemplary models for students. Dr. Pat Maggard, Air University, 2012 Institute for Emotional Intelligence Maxwell AFB (organizational award), was awarded the tenth Personal Excellence Award The 2012 – 9th Annual Institute for for her tireless work with a focus on excellence Emotional Intelligence was convened at El in planning and implementing EI assessment Tropicano Riverwalk Hotel and sponsored by and curriculum into courses for self and Emotional Intelligence Training and Research leadership development. Dr. Maggard has Institute (EITRI) and Emotional Intelligence presented numerous programs for AF personnel Learning Systems with a theme of “Emotional and instructors and has conducted research to Intelligence: Celebrating Healthy document program effectiveness. Dr. Maggard, Relationships”. The theme reflected the Major Cory Hollon, and Dr. Hammett essential nature of healthy relationships for published a research article for the inaugural health, wellness, and productivity for issue of The International Journal of individuals, work teams, families, and Transformative Emotional Intelligence. organizations in education, business, and learning environments. Dr. Madeline Justice, Texas A&M University-Commerce (university award) was Scholarly and practical intervention awarded the eleventh Personal Excellence programs illustrated the emerging recognition Award for her scholarly research and of transformative emotional intelligence for exemplary teaching using EI assessments and healthy relationships and positive change. curriculum in teacher and educator preparation courses. Dr. Justice has directed and mentored Excellent presentations on topics of doctoral dissertations with EI and published an “Optimizing Emotional Intelligence: article in the inaugural issue of The Inspirations from Neuroscience & the Ancient International Journal of Emotional Intelligence. World”, “Measuring Mentoring Results – with SCALE”, “Establishing Mentoring Processes in 2013 Institute for Emotional Intelligence Schools”, Celebrating Healthy Relationships & Well Being”, “Emotional Intelligence and The 2013 - 10th Annual Institute for Educator Preparation”, “Teaching, Learning, Emotional Intelligence was convened at El Tropicano Riverwalk Hotel and sponsored by xii
13 Emotional Intelligence Training & Research positive and significant relationship of EI skills Institute and Emotional Intelligence Learning and academic achievement. Systems with a theme of “Emotional Intelligence: Pathways to Positive Change”. The 2013 Personal Excellence Awards were The theme reflected the growing research and the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth recipients recognition that the emotional of the EITRI initiated awards of excellence. system(emotional mind) is the lead system for meaningful and positive personal change. 2014 Institute for Emotional Intelligence Programs emphasized the value and 2014 - 11th Annual Institute for person-centered process of self-directed Emotional Intelligence will be convened on the coaching, learner-centered curricula for the beautiful campus of McLennan Community 21st century, model college success initiatives College (MCC), Waco, Texas, and sponsored with EI skill sets, and teaching-learning- by MCC and Emotional Intelligence Training coaching-mentoring with EI. & Research Institute with a theme of “Emotional Intelligence: Creating Cultures of Three outstanding community college Student and Organizational Success”. leaders were recognized as recipients of the 2013 Personal Excellence Awards. Drs. Santos Programs emphasized the innovative, Martinez, Rito Silva, and Robert Vela were comprehensive Learning Environment presented the excellence awards based on their Adaptability Project (LEAP) at McLennan exemplary service to students and higher Community College. Programs focused on EI education, research contributions to emotional contributions and “best practices” in Research, intelligence, and modeling the best of EI in Education & Curricula, Government and their work and life. Organizational Applications, and Professional Coaching. Dr. Santos Martinez, VP, Student Affairs , provided leadership in developing EI initiatives Pre-Conference Institutes on topics: (a) with faculty, student services staff, and students EI Certification; (b) Wellness and Well Being in multiple community college settings. He for Health Professionals; (c) Professional collaborated with Nelson and Low on Coaching were conducted at Waco Hilton Inn. conducting early research with EI skills and with the Personal Responsibility Map. Dr. Martinez always has been focused on building community and the “big picture” of improving student success and experience in higher education. Dr. Rito Silva, Dean, Student Services, Lone Start College - CyFair has been significantly involved in researching personal and emotional skills in both his master’s thesis and dissertation. In his doctoral dissertation of Hispanic leaders in higher education, Dr. Silva found the highest factors of success to be people skills and emotional intelligence. Dr. Silva models the best of EI in his professional work and personal life. Dr. Robert Vela, VP for Student & Academic Success, Chief Academic & Student Affairs Officer, San Antonio College, Alamo Community College District, provides an EI- centric philosophy and professional practice in his work with students, faculty, staff, and community. His doctoral dissertation with the ESAP and first year college students noted the xiii
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15 TABLE OF CONTENTS Title & Information Page Emotional Choices: Pathway to Intrinsic Motivation 1 Ashis Sen and Sanjay Khandagle A story told from the perspective of internal coaches who used emotional intelligence (EI) to lead a coaching initiative to create a culture of success in a fortune 500 corporation as it was challenged to transition from a subsidized to a privatized petroleum refiner and retailer in India. The authors were coaches who were deeply involved in the design and delivery of the EI-centric training in India. The authors attended EITRI's 2007 EI certification workshop and conference in Kingsville, Texas. Upon returning to India they developed an EI association (Forum for Emotional Intelligence Learning-FEIL) and conference patterned after the annual EI conferences held by EITRI. Quantifying Emotional Intelligence: Validating the Relationship Skills Map (RSM) 7 Judith E. Cox The identification and description of the relationship between EI skills, as measured by the RSM, and established measures of experiential intelligence (CTI/Epstein), personality variables (NEO), and dyadic adjustment and relationship satisfaction measured by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). The findings of the study support the initial validation of the RSM and provide important considerations for the positive assessment of healthy relationship skills. Developing Emotional Intelligence In Leaders: A Qualitative Research Approach 21 David A. Rude, The George Washington University Research is presented that explored the experiences of effective U.S. federal government leaders in developing their own emotional intelligence. The contribution to this journal is exploring how emotional intelligence is developed within adults using a qualitative, phenomenological research orientation. Specifically, this study contributes towards a greater understanding of the evolving relationship between EI, adult learning, and leadership; and the vitality of qualitative research. Recommendations for theory and implications for future research and practice are explored. Taking The LEAP: Integrating EI to Positively Affect College Culture 35 Fred Hills, Andrew Cano, and Paul Illich McLennan Community College McLennan Community College (MCC) has embarked on a campus wide initiative to help incoming students adapt to the rigors of the college environment by addressing their emotional intelligence skills. Drawing from the Nelson and Low’s Emotional Intelligence (EI) model, the college's five year plan promotes EI skills in its entry level college success courses and reinforces these skills by restructuring its gateway college level courses to ensure students have frequent opportunities to utilize EI skills throughout the semester. Through this process, MCC is transforming its culture around EI. xv
T1i6tle & Information Page Transformative Emotional Intelligence in Transforming Education 47 Terry Miller This article provides an overview of a faculty member's involvement and experience in teaching many College Success courses and providing (with colleagues) EI workshops with area schools and with other divisions on campus. The current article is related to and builds upon the article titled \"The Transformative Model of Emotional Intelligence: Improving Student Access and Success\" (Low and Hammett, The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence, 1, 23-40). A Pilot Study of Empathy and Counselor Self-Efficacy Among Graduate Students in a PinreadPormedinoamnitnlyanHtilsypHanisipc aCnoicunCsoeulinsgePlinsygcPhsoylocghyolPorgoygPraromgram 51 Mónica E. Muñoz, George Potter, and Mary R. Chavez Emotional intelligence (EI) models suggest that emotional competencies can be developed to achieve optimal performance in various areas. The construct has been linked to successful academic and career performance. One profession that may benefit from targeted training in emotional intelligence skills is counseling psychology. The current study examined the relationships between emotional intelligence skills, perceived counselor self-efficacy, and dispositional empathy dimensions in a first year cohort of counseling psychology graduate students. Identifying those emotional skills most strongly related to feelings of counseling self- efficacy may help in designing targeted training for future programs. Improving Learning Environments for Students 57 Beverly Gammill When Galveston College committed to embedding emotional intelligence in the learning environment in 2005, the focus for improving student success was concentrated at college level classes. However, throughout the past few years, college leadership, faculty, and staff have implemented emotional intelligence concepts in campus activities, in committee work, and in professional development activities. The initial plan for implementation has changed, but emotional intelligence has maintained a significant role as evidenced by the Quality Enhancement Plan. Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction Related to Gender and Experience 63 PK Tulsi and Parminder Walia The objectives of the research included the evaluation of the main and interactional effect of gender and experience on emotional intelligence and job satisfaction of 218 randomly selected college teachers of Chandigarh. Results showed that there was no significant effect of gender on emotional intelligence (F=.26) and job satisfaction (F=. 88), experience had significant effect on emotional intelligence (F=5.13) and job satisfaction (F=8.96). Interactional effect of gender and experience on emotional intelligence (F=.76) and job satisfaction (F=1.59) was found to be insignificant. College teachers with higher level of emotional intelligence showed higher level of job satisfaction than the teachers with lower levels of emotional intelligence. Personal Excellence and Emotional Intelligence: Creating and Validating the Personal EPexrcseollneanlcEe xMcealplence Map (PEM) 77 Richard Hammett, Walden University xvi
17 This study was conducted for the primary purpose of examining the psychometric properties of an a priori measure of emotional intelligence, the 150 item Personal Excellence Inventory (PEI). It was also intended to extend and improve the assessment of transformational emotional intelligence (EI) for professional adults by exploring the a priori model of personal excellence with adult populations. The study resulted in a new Likert scale measure, Personal Excellence Map (PEM). Bibliography of Related Works 103 The following bibliography is offered as listing of completed works related to the transformative models created by Nelson, Low, and their students and colleagues. The first section contains works in the form of books, articles, and papers. Doctoral dissertations and significant master’s theses are contained in the second of two sections. It is our intention to maintain the bibliography related to this EI theory and work on our our website at www.eilearningsys.com/?page_id=65. We will also include updated versions of the bibliography in future volumes of The International Journal of Transformative Emotional Intelligence. xvii
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Pathway to Intrinsic Motivation 1 1 Emotional Choices: Pathway to Intrinsic Motivation Ashis Sen and Sanjay Khandagle A story told from the perspective of internal coaches who used emotional intelligence (EI) to lead a coaching initiative to create a culture of success in a fortune 500 corporation as it was challenged to transition from a subsidized to a privatized petroleum refiner and retailer in India. The authors were coaches who were deeply involved in the design and delivery of the EI-centric training in India. The authors attended EITRI's 2007 EI certification workshop and conference in Kingsville, Texas. Upon returning to India they developed an EI association (Forum for Emotional Intelligence Learning-FEIL) and conference patterned after the annual EI conferences held by EITRI. Try to do what you really want to do. Don’t let people tell you, you can’t do something if that’s what you want to do. My breakthrough came when I realized that it was funnier to tell jokes that I thought were funny than to make other people laugh. I just gave up on other people and tried to amuse myself. Matt Groening—Creator of “The Simpsons” The words of Groening reflect distilled As a practitioner with over two decades of wisdom. Emotions hold us prisoner and emotions organizational experience, I frequently delve into liberate us. Emotions compel us to freeze and real life experiences and look to unearth emotions command action. Positive emotions like structures that give rise to such events. We shall happiness and joy encourage us to explore explore together the structures that make such experiment and give our best. Therefore, to get moments happen. the best of every employee, workplace must generate these emotions. This means work needs I and my fellow coaches have helped about to be a vehicle to satisfy the individual’s personal four thousand people in the last four years aspirations, i.e. it must be personally meaningful (including members from senior, middle to her. Only such work shall be emotionally management and non management people) to engaging. articulate their personal visions and values in numerous workshops at Hindustan Petroleum Without emotional engagement a large part of Corporation Limited a Fortune 500 company of our life would remain hollow and devoid of tales India. Thus, my work includes people from across for our grandchildren. I believe that is too high a societal and educational levels. These workshops price to pay for earning wages. From merely have been conducted both within Hindustan making a living, people must be able to find life Petroleum Corporation Limited, and beyond. and discover meaning in their jobs. Figure 1. HPCL Emotional Intelligence Workshop Participants.
2 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence The Silvassa Story appeared to be chaos with relation to planning production, with different demands being made Today, one of the stories that I talk is about a on the plant as per the changing urgencies of the team of people driven by intrinsic desire to excel, market. who created organizational capability and in the process surmounted several bureaucratic and Disruption in production or distribution at procedural hurdles. In addition, they bettered the Mazgaon affected our marketing plans and time schedules and also had fun. impacted our reputation adversely. Our team deliberated and found to achieve our market It is seen from the story that how people feel potential we would need to augment lubes compelled to assume personal accountability for blending and distribution facilities. We organizational goals and willingly release deliberated on selecting a location for setting up discretionary effort. In fact, when faced with a the lube blending facilities. Two options came up performance challenge they discover joy, learn on Bahadurgarh in North India and Silvassa in the the job and deliver outstanding results. Each team West. Silvassa was geographically closer to member finds deep sense of personal satisfaction Mumbai. and team collective fulfillment. But, there is a catch. The catch is that employees need to be Silvassa had some inherent advantages for involved in formulating the goals. They need to investment. One of the major advantages was that be given the freedom to devise their action plans Silvassa was offering Sales and Income Tax to do so. These simple steps, yet difficult steps holidays. Tax holiday on account of Sales tax was seed intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation for 15 years and Income tax for 5 years. Further, encourages people to take risks and face external since our lube base oil producing Refinery is threats boldly. located at Mumbai the base oil (raw material for our lube plant) would need to be transported to We also shall see how designing and North, in case we selected Bahadurgarh, and most maintaining structures is a leadership task and of the finished products brought back to west. how distributed leadership nurtures and multiplies Secondly transporting bulk oils need payment for team potential and performance. both ways on Return Trip Kilo Meters basis. This would have resulted in substantial transportation The story captured below is as told almost expenses which impact bottom-lines. Thus we verbatim by our General Managers-Lubes Shri finally zeroed in at Silvassa. Sudhakara Rao. He had in 1999-2000 been involved in a project which had been deeply But implementing this action plan was not engaging and personally satisfying to all easy. On records, our production capacity was members. Anecdotes of the story are still fresh in higher than our market share and even with our his mind even after more than half a decade. He growth rate then; the additional facility proposed recalls different facets of story as if they had at Silvassa could not be justified. On paper the happened yesterday. production capacity at Chennai, Budge-Budge and Mazagaon terminals were sufficient to take Quote care of our marketing requirements for quite some years into the future. Around 1996, our major lube blending and distribution terminal located at Mazgaon in This is also borne out from the fact that for Mumbai employed around 500 people and had a about 2-3 years a proposal was being put up for turnover of more than 600 crore1 rupees. Lubes management consideration for an additional lube from the plant were transported to our storage and blending facility and it was not approved. distribution centers spread across India, with major focus on North and West Indian markets. Thereafter Shri K Murali took over as Dy. We had small lube blending facilities in the South General Manager (I/C) Lubes and we took a team (Chennai) and East (Budge-Budge) also. decision to open a Lube Blending and Transporting Terminal. We literally dusted the Mazgaon Terminal was bursting at the seams. files containing the proposal for a new plant. In It was producing almost all the lubricant grades Early 1998 we issued a newspaper advertisement and packages that Hindustan Petroleum marketed. for purchase of Land at Silvassa. I still remember Storage space appeared insufficient, there 1 One crore ruppees is ten million, or about $161,047 at the time of this writing.
Pathway to Intrinsic Motivation 3 vividly how we looked forward to the bids and as (Marketing) again and emphasized the need for soon as the bid date was over all the ten bids acquiring the ten acres of land. He said how much received, were opened. Enthusiasm in the team money do we need to invest? We said 80-90 lacs. was palpable. We celebrated that evening. We felt He smiled and encouraged us to go ahead. we were creating history. When we later went to Silvassa, we came to As stated above, once we were convinced of know that only 45% of the land can be used and opening the new plant we got truly focused and the rest 55% to be used to green belt area. moved quickly. I and Shri Jungu Punegar; Deputy Therefore our procuring 10 acres of land was General Manager- Technical (Member of our actually a boon since the modernized plant that team) went to Silvassa in the next few days. We we envisaged could now come up even with the visited all the ten sites and five of them were strict environmental stipulations. selected on a preliminary basis for further deliberations. Our proposal for purchase of the land and putting up the plant had to be finally approved by We made another visit and brought down the the Committee of Functional Directors (CFD). We list to three sites. Now we needed to negotiate the prepared the proposal. Such presentations are price of land. Accordingly we sought the Director usually made by Executive Directors to the CFD. Marketing’s approval for setting up a negotiating Arun requested me to present the proposal. It was team thru a proposal. In the proposal, we made the gesture of a true leader. I was Dy. General out a case of Return on Investments due to tax Manger-Commercial with a finance background. I benefits available at Silvassa. We consciously would have to learn more than just a few didn’t bring out facts of financial benefits engineering parameters to present and defend the accruing from uninterrupted supplies to the proposal. The entire team veered around to help market since that would bring in unwarranted me. Since, I was passionately involved I learned issues like effective supply management. Once, them; well enough to be confident of presenting Director Marketing was convinced on the the proposal well. financial viability of the project he accorded approval for negotiations for purchase of 5 acres Prior to the CFD meet one of our senior of land with a financial limit of 50 lac2 rupees. finance functionaries Shri C N Rao, commented “Dir (M) has approving authority to appoint a At this juncture, Shri Arun Balakrishnan our negotiating team for purchase of land for an present Director HR took over as GM-Lubes and amount not exceeding 50 lacs but here the got subsequently elevated to Executive Director proposal for the land purchase is 90 lacs.” Direct Sales. He discussed with us and we together prioritized tasks. Silvassa was accorded I defended the proposal stressing that the Top priority to help us improve our performance negotiation done was for 5 acres of land which in the lube market. was less than 50 lacs and the balance 5 acres, the landowner has suomotto offered at the same price. We visited Silvassa again and zeroed on a Thus no procedure has been violated. Probably land adjacent to the road with excellent frontage. sensing my passion and the level of ownership We negotiated with the landowner for purchase of Shri C N Rao laughed. He later helped us to get the land. The Landowner offered 10 acres of land the proposal approved. at that place and clearly indicated his preferences on selling the entire piece of land at one go. This End Quote land would cost us around 80-90 lacs (Ten lacs make a million and ten million a crore). Also, we I believe that when people are charged up and felt a modern plant with green belt and emotionally connected to goals, they get the contemporary amenities needed about 10 acres of courage and the wisdom to achieve what they land. desire. Also, others are always willing to help and commit when they sense high levels of However, our approval was limit for commitment in us. That emotional commitment is negotiations were 50 lacs. This was the approving contagious. limit for any negotiation committee set up by Director (Marketing). We approached Director 2 One lac rupees is one hundred thousand, or about $1,610 at the time of this writing.
4 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence Quote this is a learning experience of building the most modern plant in India. Memories of that meeting are etched deep in my mind. It seems like the meeting took place During the course of our planning there was yesterday. Our then Chairman Shri H. L Zutshi talk that the Govt. of India is not in favor of asked us “ How much do you want to invest and continuing the special economic benefits to what is the pay back period”. I replied “Around Silvassa and may withdraw the same for new 40 crores sir with 2 years pay back time.” Tax units commissioned after 2000. We commissioned benefits that would accrue to us would itself phase-one of the plant before 2000. The passion ensure that the entire investment amount was and commitment of the Engineering team was recouped in about two years. (In fact, even reflected by the early completion of the project. without the tax benefit also we would have had a The plant was constructed in twelve months high IRR.) There was a stunned silence and then against the scheduled construction period of 14 Chairman said “GO AHEAD”. The presentation months. to CFD was over in a few minutes but I relive every moment of it from time to time. The technological leap can be gauged from the fact that 500 people operated our Mazgaon Arun is a true leader. He leads by inspiring facility whereas Silvassa with almost 60% thru- people and turning the limelight on his people. He put of Mazgaon could be run with about 12 loves to see people flower and maximise their people. I, Arun, and GM Engineering Shri S K potential. The leader must create conditions to let Biswas along with B Gururajan (DGM-Product it happen. supply) were present during the inauguration ceremony and we felt oddly connected to that Building a world class Lube plant was a true place. We had all become emotionally engaged to challenge. Here again Arun took the lead of our creation. including others in our group vision. He met the General Manager Engineering, and requested him The plant is a picture of neatness and to build a world class lube blending and symbolic of a great work environment. Some of distribution facility. He added that he was sure the pictures below taken recently show even after that only a world class, state of the art plant 6 years the décor of the plant is maintained well. would satisfy the creative desires of GM There Lube blending area which remains carpeted Engineering. Further he reposed confidence in his reflects the pride people have for in their ability to build one. He also promised all workplace; manifested in its maintenance and resources and help required for the purpose. neatness. This was repeatedly emphasized during my interactions with them. During the project, whatever assistance was sought by GM Engineering was provided by All people in the team have contributed in Direct Sales SBU. Shri S.K. Biswas, General wholeheartedly in this plant including our Manager Engineering truly burnt midnight oil to consultants M/s Balmer Lawrie, the complete study the latest technologies which could be put group of Lubes in HQO like Shri B Gururajan, up in the plant. He contacted numerous vendors to Shri Puneygar, Shri Damle, Shri Inamdar, the see how we could improve our configuration and management team of Mazgaon. We truly treated design a flexible plant in the area available. M/s our contractors and vendors as partners. They Balmer Lawrie was appointed as project were frequently consulted and their opinions consultant. counted. We worked hard and celebrated milestone successes together. On completion of The engineers who constructed the plant were the project all of us had a great dinner together. thrilled to be a part of building the most modern We really partied. We put up a board at the plant plc blending plant at that time and were thankful where we recognized the efforts of all the for having got a chance to work here. Shri Jain contractors by inscribing our names together. The the Project Site In-Charge took the construction Vendors were touched and felt closer to the period of 14 months as a challenge. We knew organization. We understood that emotional even fourteen months would be tough. But the engagement is a product of willful collaboration engineers worked their hearts out. We as the end and mutual respect. users would make continuous demands of additional facilities to be provided in the plant I felt a deep sense of personal satisfaction. So and Mr. Jain would fulfill all of them before time, did my colleagues. As a team we celebrated and with a sense of pride. They said this is not work, each felt we had achieved very personal goals in
the pursuit of organizational objectives. As a Pathway to Intrinsic Motivation 5 finance man, normally I would comment on the fiscal prudence of somebody’s creation. Here I Author Note realized that it was not only the financial prudence of the project that was attracting me, but Ashis Sen is Head – Training and Balanced the project itself. People get connected to their Scorecard (Strategy Building, Translation, creations unconditionally. But as the saying goes Monitoring, and Review) in Hindustan the first creation is in the mind and then in reality. Petroleum Corporation Limited, a Fortune 500 Company. He has functioned as a key End Quote member of the Team of Coaches entrusted with the Change Initiative at HPCL for over It is evident from the above story that when 5 years. His work has been appreciated by we follow our choices we get emotionally both eminent academicians and connected to them. Also, if a team deliberates and practitioners from across the Globe. takes decisions in concert, then individuals continue to treat such decisions as their own. Sanjay Khandagle is serving as Operations Thereafter action becomes focused and debates Officer in Dasoff Petroleum Services, LLC, happen on the best methodologies and not goals. in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). He is a multi skilled executive with twenty years Following such choices also fosters experience in the petroleum industry. His accountability for results and organizational goals multifaceted experiences include working become personal goals. People enhance skills in directly in corporate Engineering, order to achieve the proficiencies required to Operations, Sales, Marketing, Strategic fulfil the role and people are willing to always go HR, Organizational Development, and beyond their roles. The rule books then do not Strategy. He is a Mechanical Engineer with deter and we rise above obstacles and tide over Masters in Business Administration. At the difficulties; with what appears consummate ease. time this article was originally published, Also, such experiences leave us richer and happy. Sanjay was working with Ashis Sen as an Work can indeed become a source of joy and internal coach for HPCL. bestow happiness and fulfilment. Correspondence regarding this article The plant costs have been recouped many should be directed to Ashis Sen, HPCL times as of today from income tax savings for five Petroleum House 7, 17 Jamshedji Tata years on profits and tax benefits. We have also Road, Mumbai, India 400020 or email at recorded very good profits. We have captured [email protected]. higher share of the market. But the financial returns are just one part. The returns in terms of employee happiness, satisfaction, learning and improved customer satisfaction along with improved processes are the real long term returns.
6 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence
Quantifying Emotional Intelligence 7 2 Quantifying Emotional Intelligence: Validating the Relationship Skills Map (RSM) Judith E. Cox Abstract The identification and description of the relationship between EI skills, as measured by the RSM, and established measures of experiential intelligence (CTI/Epstein), personality variables (NEO), and dyadic adjustment and relationship satisfaction measured by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). The findings of the study support the initial validation of the RSM and provide important considerations for the positive assessment of healthy relationship skills. Introduction intelligence as “a person’s capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other Researchers and theorists have been working people and work effectively with them” (Gardner, on various facets of emotional intelligence for 1999, p. 43). Gardner also defined intrapersonal many years. Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000) intelligence as “the capacity to understand have claimed the honor of first developing the oneself, to have an effective working model of concept, and Goleman (1995, 1998, 2006) has oneself — including one’s own desires, fears, and popularized the many facets of the theory. Darwin capacities — and to use such information Nelson defined the term as thinking effectively in regulating one’s own life” (p.43). constructively and acting wisely (Cox & Nelson, These ideas are reflected in the theories of Epstein 2008) and he and Gary Low have collaborated in and Nelson and Nelson. Epstein (2001), the creating measures of emotional intelligence for author of the CTI, developed two aspects of use in counseling, businesses and universities. constructive thinking: Emotional Coping, which Darwin Nelson and Kaye Nelson (2007) created seems to correlate with intrapersonal intelligence the Relationship Skills Map (RSM) for measuring and Behavioral Coping, which seems to correlate emotionally intelligent human relationships in with interpersonal intelligence. The model of both couples and corporate settings. Nelson, Nelson, Nelson, and Cox (2010) and Nelson and Nelson, and Low have been developing measures Nelson’s RSM also has divisions of interpersonal of emotional intelligence since 1977 (Nelson, D. skills (Assertion, Interpersonal Comfort, B., personal communication, September 6, 2010). Empathy, and Interpersonal Influence) as well as intrapersonal skills (Self Esteem and Stress As with all measurement instruments it was Management). necessary to explore the validity and reliability of the RSM. Consequently the RSM was correlated Robert Sternberg (1996) developed skills with the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI), known as practical intelligence and successful the NEO-PI-R (NEO), and the Dyadic Adjustment intelligence. “Successful intelligence is the kind Scale (DAS). The CTI measures constructive and of intelligence used to achieve important destructive thinking patterns, the NEO is a well- goals” (p.12 ). People who know their strengths known measure of personality, and the DAS is a and weaknesses can capitalize on their strengths measure of relationship quality and satisfaction and compensate for their weaknesses so that they that is used throughout the world. achieve what they most desire in spite of many obstacles in their path. Measurement instruments must be reliable. The RSM is available in two forms, Form A and Successfully intelligent people are flexible in Form B. It was thus possible to calculate adapting to the roles they need to fulfill. They equivalent form statistics as well as Cronbach’s recognize that they will have to change the way alphas produced using item analysis within the they work to fit the task and situation at hand, and SPSS 13 for Windows software package. then they analyze what these changes will have to be and make them. (p. 153) A search of the literature accentuated the theories of Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg. Gardner defined interpersonal
8 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence Successful intelligence contains aspects of are two unsuccessful communication styles and Nelson, Nelson, and Cox (2010) especially in Change Orientation indicates the subject’s Nelson’s Time Management, Decision Making, willingness to change. Assertion is Nelson and Drive Strength, and Commitment Ethic skills. Nelson’s preferred communication style because “Smart people allocate time in an effective it neither overpowers the other person, nor lets the manner, spending just as long as a task is other person overpower the speaker. Assertion worth” (Sternberg, 1996, p. 167). Nelson’s Drive communicates clearly what the other person needs Strength is the mental energy focused on goals. to know. “Analytical intelligence . . . involves conscious direction of our mental processes to find a The Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) is thoughtful solution to a problem” (Sternberg, composed of an overall constructive thinking 1996, p. 155). Nelson’s Commitment Ethic is the scale called Global Constructive Thinking (GCT). ability to complete tasks in a dependable manner. Global Constructive Thinking has two subscales, Sternberg (1996) states “Monitoring simply Emotional Coping (EC) and Behavioral Coping means keeping track of our progress during the (BC). Emotional Coping has four subscales: Self- process of problem-solving; evaluation is our Acceptance (SA), Absence of Negative judgment of the quality of our problem-solving Overgeneralization (ANO), Nonsensitivity (NS), process and the solution we have reached” (p. and Absence of Dwelling (AOD). Behavioral 169). Coping has three subscales: Positive Thinking (PT), Action Orientation (AO), and “Successfully intelligent people do not always Conscientiousness (CN). (Epstein, 2001). make the correct decisions, but they monitor and evaluate their decisions and then correct their The CTI also has several negative scales: errors as they discover them” (Sternberg, 1996, p. Personal Superstitious Thinking (PST), 171). Sternberg also points out “that as people Categorical Thinking (CT), Esoteric Thinking grow older, those who truly mature intellectually (ET), and Naïve Optimism (NO). Categorical come to realize that many issues are not black and Thinking has three subscales: Polarized Thinking white” (p. 170). As people explore the truth, they (PD), Distrust of Others (DOO), and Intolerance find themselves progressing dialectically. People (IN). Esoteric Thinking has two subscales: Belief “go from one extreme to the other, but then [they] in the Unusual (BU) and Formal Superstitious find a middle ground that incorporates the best of Thinking (FST). Naïve Optimism has three the two extremes” (p. 170). When successfully- subscales: Over-Optimism (OO), Stereotypical intelligent people are thinking heuristically, they Thinking (ST) and Pollyannaish Thinking (PO) do not “formulate or fixate; they incubate. Faced (Epstein, 2001). with a problem, they analyze it carefully and then use creative strategies to find a solution” (p. 176). Global Constructive Thinking (GCT) is the strongest scale and “includes items from all of the Sternberg (1996) also points out that people main scales except Esoteric Thinking” (Epstein, are not perfect decision-makers. They usually do 2001, p. 3). Epstein believed that “good not have all the information and time they need, constructive thinkers tend to be particularly high nor are they always objective or rational. Often on Emotional and Behavioral coping and low on they settle for the first acceptable or satisfactory Personal Superstitious Thinking and Categorical decision because they do not want to allocate the Thinking. High scores suggest flexible thinkers time or resources to do better. They do what is who adjust their behavior appropriately to meet practical rather than perfect. During the process of the demands of the situation” (p. 3). creative thinking, they encounter ambiguity and must tolerate it until time reveals the direction Personal Superstitious Thinking (PST) they should go. “appears to serve the purpose of reducing the sting of disappointment by dampening the Nelson, Nelson, and Cox (2010) consider expectancy of a favorable outcome . . . It is Time Management, Decision Making, Drive directly associated with pessimism, feelings of Strength and Commitment Ethic to be important helplessness, and depression” (Epstein, 2001, p. life skills which contribute to successful problem 11). Categorical Thinking (CT) is displayed by solving. The RSM also has two relationship skills, people who “tend to view the world in black and Relationship Satisfaction and Intimacy, as well as white terms and overlook finer distinctions . . . three problem areas, Aggression, Deference, and Categorical thinking is associated with distrust Change Orientation. Aggression and Deference and intolerance” (p. 11). Esoteric Thinking (ET) is characteristic of people who believe “in
Quantifying Emotional Intelligence 9 conventional superstitions, astrology, and good Likert scales. For the purpose of this and bad omens” (p. 12) while Naïve Optimism investigation, a total number was developed and (NO) measures the “degree to which people are correlated with the RSM’s 15 scales. This total unrealistically optimistic” (p. 12). score was the only score made available for this study by Marie Yandell Braunstein, who actually The RSM was also correlated with the NEO- gathered the data. (Braunstein, 2007). PI-R, one of the well-known measures of personality. Its authors, McCrae and Costa (2003) Methodology identified five major dimensions of personality: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, Since the purpose of this study was to validate the agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Relationship Skills Map (RSM), Classical Test Neuroticism is a negative scale which is often Theory (CTT), as described by Kline (2005) and inverted to reflect Emotional Stability. DeVellis (2003), was chosen to provide the Neuroticism describes the tendency to feel framework needed to direct the validation unpleasant emotions such as fear, anger, and process. The RSM has already completed several sadness and to let these emotions influence beliefs of the early stages of test development. Its and actions. Extraversion describes the tendency constructs have been defined by Nelson and to enjoy people and brisk activity. Openness Nelson (2007). The constructs have been describes the tendency to enjoy artistic beauty and operationalized into 135 items and the decisions to be curious about life experiences. concerning how to score the test have also been Agreeableness describes people who are made. Pilot tests with the RSM have been considerate, trusting, and willing to help others. conducted to prepare for this study, and the RSM Conscientiousness describes people who are has been used by mental health practitioners for efficient at work, rational, and trustworthy. many years. The next stage of test development has focused on determining the reliability and Finally the RSM was correlated with the validity of the instrument. The procedures chosen Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). Its author was for this process were correlation of the RSM with Spanier (2001). It is “a measure of the quality of the CTI, a measure of emotional intelligence, with adjustment to marriage and similar dyadic the NEO-PI-R, a measure of personality, and with relationships” (p. 1). the DAS, a measure of relationship quality and strength. Instrumentation Research Questions The RSM (Nelson & Nelson, 2007) was available in Form A and Form B, both of which had 135 RQ1: Is the RSM a reliable instrument? items. The items were arranged on a five-point Likert scale ordered as always descriptive of me, RQ2: Is the RSM a valid instrument? almost always descriptive of me, sometimes descriptive of me, seldom descriptive of me, and RQ3: Is there a significant relationship never descriptive of me. The 135 items were arranged in fifteen major scales. between RSM scales and emotional intelligence Altogether the CTI by Epstein (2001) has 108 as measured by the Constructive Thinking items answered by a five-point Likert scale. Answer choices were definitely false, mostly Inventory (CTI)? false, undecided or equally false and true, mostly true, and definitely true. The NEO-PI-R (Costa & RQ4: Is there a significant relationship McCrae, 1992) has five domain scales and 30 facet scales amounting to 240 items. They were between RSM scales and personality as measured answered on five-point Likert scales arranged as strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and by the NEO PI-R? strongly agree. The 30 facet scales were also correlated with the fifteen RSM scales, but did RQ5: Is there a significant relationship not display a clear pattern. When only the five domain scales were displayed in a table, the between RSM scales and relationship satisfaction pattern of the correlation became clear. as measured by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale The DAS by Spanier (2001) is a 32 item scale with responses that range over differently-sized (DAS)? Population and Sample Samples for this study were assembled from a population of adults who had taken on the obligations of marriage, employment, and/or graduate school. Participants were members of a Methodist church, members of the masters and doctoral programs at a university in South Texas, and members from a graduate research project
10 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence conducted by Marie Yandell Braunstein and sample, once means and standard deviations had included in the current study as raw data with her been calculated for each item, the mean of the permission. Altogether 195 individuals means was found to be 3.55 out of a range of one contributed data from these groups. to five. The means were therefore moderately negatively skewed, which indicated that the Smaller sample sizes for the NEO PI-R, the sample was made up of healthy individuals. CTI, and the DAS were taken from these subjects. Also, a small sample took the RSM Form B as Kline (2005) believed that the test-retest well as the RSM Form A for the equivalent forms calculation was most appropriate for tests that analysis. The assembly of smaller samples from evaluate personality traits, which are not the total number emphasized that the result was a considered to change over time. The RSM convenience sample. Kline (2005) pointed out measures a skill. It is susceptible to change just that the accuracy of the statistical computer from the fact that a person learns about the skill program did not depend on the type of sample. and becomes sensitized to it when the test taker is The computer did not know that the sample was a debriefed. Kline wrote, “This raises the issue of convenience sample rather than a representative whether or not the test-retest reliability index sample. If the mathematical procedures found should even be used in instances where the relationships among the data, it did not matter that construct is susceptible to change” (p. 170). a convenience sample was used. The Therefore, since the RSM has both Form A and generalizability of the results to a population of Form B, alternate forms reliability was used interest, however, is stronger when a instead of test-retest reliability. As an internal representative sample is involved. For the consistency measure the Cronbach alpha, was purposes of this study, the relationships among also calculated using SPSS 13.0. the data took priority, and having a representative sample was deemed of lesser importance. Validity was assessed using Pearson product moment correlations between the RSM and the Procedures CTI. The CTI is believed to be a good measure of emotional intelligence. The RSM was also Four assessment instruments were given to correlated to the NEO PI-R. The NEO is a widely the participants in the sample. The participants at recognized measure of personality. Finally, the the Methodist church took Form A and Form B of RSM was correlated with the DAS, which is the RSM at the same time. Some took Form A internationally recognized as a fine measure of first and Form B second, while others did the relationship satisfaction and marital quality. reverse. Two of the graduate counseling classes also took Form A and Form B, but they were Characteristics of the Sample allowed to take the forms home and complete them at a leisurely pace. Other graduate classes at Little of the demographic data is known about the masters or doctoral level were given RSM Braunstein’s sample except that they were Form A and the NEO PI-R and/or CTI as part of married couples. Therefore marital status and class exercises with various assessment gender could be determined. Braunstein had 25 instruments. In addition, people in committed couples in her study, or 50 individuals, who relationships were given the RSM Form A and the comprised 25.6% of the total sample of N = 195 DAS as part of a masters thesis project in the individuals. Doctoral students numbered 30, or graduate counseling program. Some raw data 15.4% of the sample; master’s level students from that study (Braunstein, 2007) was used in numbered 86, or 44.1%; and church participants this study and provided a way to correlate the numbered 29, or 14.9%. Table 1 displays the RSM with the DAS. different aspects of gender, ethnicity, marital status, age, income, and educational level of the Data Analysis four groups within the overall sample of 195 individuals. Kline (2005) recommended that each item of the test being validated be examined for its Doctoral level students possessed master’s properties. In the case of the RSM, the closer the degrees and most master’s level students mean of each item was to three and the greater the possessed bachelor’s degrees. One student had a variability, the more successful would its doctorate and was taking extra performance be in statistical analysis. For this
Quantifying Emotional Intelligence 11 Table 1. Demographic characteristics of Participants Group Doctoral Master’s Church Couples Total (n = 29) (n = 50) N = 195 Characteristic (n = 30) (n = 86) 25 (50,0%) Gender 15 (53.6%) 25 (50.0%) 68 (35.1%) 13 (46.4%) 126 (64.9%) Male 14 (46.7%) 14 (16.3%) 50 Missing Female 16 (53.3%) 72 (83.7%) 1 Missing 52 (35.9%) 50 Missing 33 (22.8%) Age 4 (13.3%) 47 (54.7%) 1 (3.4%) 29 (20.0%) 21-30 9 (30.0%) 21 (24.4%) 3 (10.3%) 50 Missing 11 (7.6%) 31-40 13 (43.3%) 16 (18.6%) 50 (100%) 8 (5.5%) 41-50 3 (10.0%) 2 (2.3%) 0 12 (8.3%) 51-60 1 (3.3%) 6 (20.7%) 0 61-70 0 7 (24.1%) 30 (25.9%) 71-highest 0 0 12 (41.4%) 50 Missing 44 (37.9%) 29 (25.0%) Income 2 (15.4%) 25 (32.1%) 3 (12%) 9 (7.8%) 0-$19,999 1 (7.7%) 36 (46.2%) 7 (28%) 3 (2.6%) $20,000-$39,999 3 (23.1%) 17 (21.8%) 9 (36%) 1 (0.9%) $40,000-$59,999 6 (46.2%) 3 (12%) $60,000-$79,999 0 3 (12%) 1 (0.7%) $80,000-$99,999 0 0 7 (4.8%) $100,000-highest 1 (7.7%) 0 0 77 (53.1%) 17 Missing 8 Missing 4 Missing 55 (37.9%) Educational Level 5 (3.4%) High School 0 0 1 (3.4%) Some College 0 1 (1.2%) 6 (20.7%) 143 (75.3%) Bachelor’s 0 70 (81.4%) 7 (24.1%) 47 (24.7%) Master’s 30 (100%) 14 (16.3%) 11 (37.9%) Doctorate 0 1 (1.2%) 4 (13.8%) 79 (54.9%) 54 (37.5%) Marital Status 20 (80%) 47 (54.7%) 26 (89.7%) 11 (7.6%) Married 5 (20%) 39 (45.3%) 3 (10.3%) Single 5 Missing 0 Ethnicity 18 (60.0%) 61 (70.9%) 26 (92.9%) Hispanic 11 (36.7%) 17 (19.8%) 2 (7.1%) Anglo 1 (3.3%) 8 (9.3%) Other 1 Missing classes, and one student had less than a bachelor’s Braunstein’s sample were missing this degree. In all, including the church participants, information. 77 had bachelor’s degrees, 55 had master’s degrees, 5 had doctorates, 8 had less than a Most of the sample were married, namely 143 bachelor’s degree, and the 50 individuals in individuals. Another 4 were widowed, 11 were divorced, and 32 had never been married. For
12 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence mathematical calculations, the latter three Individual income for doctoral students had a categories were combined into a “Single” mean of $54,000 with a standard deviation of category. This information was missing for 5 $28,033. The median was $60,000 and the range individuals. The most frequent ethnicities were was 0 to $115,000. Individuals in the master’s Hispanic with 79 entries and Anglo with 54 level program had a mean individual income of entries. African-Americans numbered 5, Asians, $25,395 and a standard deviation of $14,926. The 2, other, 4, and ethnicity was not available for 51 median income was $30,000 and income ranged individuals and 4 men and 1 woman did not from 0 to $50,000. Individuals in the church study indicate their marital status. had a mean individual income of $44,408 and a standard deviation of $22,264. The median was People in the doctoral program had a mean $48,000 and the range of income was from 0 to age of 41.67 with a standard deviation of 8.90 $90,000. years. The median was 43 years and age ranged from 25 to 61. Students in the master’s level This research was designed to validate the program had a mean age of 32.48 years with a Relationship Skills Map (RSM) Form A. An item standard deviation of 8.30 years. The median was analysis and a split-half equivalent forms analysis 30 years and age ranged from 21 to 51. were undertaken to establish reliability of Form Individuals who participated in the church study A. Then Form A was correlated with three other had a mean age of 63.79 years with a standard instruments to establish convergent and deviation of 14.80 years. The median was age 65 discriminant validity. The descriptive statistics of and age ranged from 25 to 86. Form A are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Descriptive statistics of standardisation sample (N = 195) Scale Mean Standard+Error+of+Mean Standard+Deviation Self+Esteem 78.51 .76 10.58 Assertion 32.18 .38 5.38 Interpersonal+Comfort 30.75 .34 4.82 Empathy 19.88 .25 3.46 Interpersonal+InEluence 25.03 .23 3.26 Drive+Strength 43.51 .46 6.36 Decision+Making 21.85 .23 3.20 Time+Management 20.45 .31 4.35 Commitment+Ethic 24.91 .22 3.13 Stress+Management 61.54 .70 9.77 Relationship+Satisfaction 35.04 .47 6.53 Intimacy 25.33 .34 4.69 Aggression 21.85 .54 7.52 Deference 21.41 .41 5.70 Change+Orientation 17.29 .36 4.96 Reliability instrument. Cronbach’s alpha ranges from zero to one with values of 0.60 or 0.70 being the lowest RQ1: Is the RSM a reliable instrument? acceptable values (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham,. (2006); Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2001). Cronbach’s alpha appears to be the most Both references agreed that 0.70 was the lowest, commonly used estimate of reliability because it measures the internal consistency of the
Quantifying Emotional Intelligence 13 but Hair et al. stated that 0.60 would be they demonstrated the relative internal acceptable when the purposes involved research. consistencies of the two forms. Sometimes Form A was stronger than Form B and sometimes Form Table 3 displays the Cronbach’s alpha, means, B was stronger than Form A. and standard deviations for both Form A and Form B. These numbers were important because Table+3. Split-half reliability analysis: Scale statistics and Cronbach alphas (N = 51) Scales M SD Alpha N+of+Items 20 Self+Esteem++ Form+A 78.16 10.63 .89 20 9 Self+Esteem++ Form+B 80.73 10.75 .91 9 8 Assertion+ Form+A 31.90 5.38 .79 9 5 Assertion+ Form+B 35.77 5.81 .87 5 7 Interpersonal+Comfort+ Form+A 30.84 4.30 .77 7 12 Interpersonal+Comfort+ Form+B 38.41 4.76 .87 11 6 Empathy+ Form+A 19.78 2.89 .72 6 6 Empathy+ Form+B 19.65 2.40 .59 6 6 Interpersonal+InEluence+ Form+A 24.80 3.35 .62 6 17 Interpersonal+InEluence+ Form+B 25.43 3.31 .58 18 9 Drive+Strength+ Form+A 43.22 5.37 .67 8 6 Drive+Strength+ Form+B 41.96 5.06 .74 6 9 Decision+Making+ Form+A 21.51 2.64 .49 9 9 Decision+Making+ Form+B 22.63 2.89 .53 9 6 Time+Management+ Form+A 20.71 3.92 .78 6 Time+Management+ Form+B 22.63 3.42 .73 Commitment+Ethic+ Form+A 24.80 2.97 .62 Commitment+Ethic+ Form+B 24.96 2.77 .63 Stress+Management+ Form+A 62.08 10.22 .86 Stress+Management+ Form+B 65.31 10.79 .90 Relationship+Satisfaction+ Form+A 35.67 6.22 .85 Relationship+Satisfaction+ Form+B 32.24 5.77 .88 Intimacy+ Form+A 25.92 3.81 .84 Intimacy+ Form+B 24.57 3.92 .75 Aggression+ Form+A 32.37 7.33 .91 Aggression+ Form+B 33.76 5.74 .82 Deference+ Form+A 33.00 5.66 .77 Deference+ Form+B 32.86 6.99 .88 Change+Orientation+ Form+A 19.04 5.06 .78 Change+Orientation+ Form+B 18.96 3.45 .51 Kline (2005) wrote that “multiple forms of a alternate forms. In the table, many of the means test. . . are considered to be parallel only after of those scales were not equal. much effort has been expended to demonstrate their equality. Not only do the means have to be The item analysis, which is displayed in Table equal, but also the variances and reliabilities” (p. 4, produced Cronbach’s alphas after considering 94). Therefore, it seemed that Form A and Form B correlations between items in an item analysis. In were not equivalent, but might be called this case, only one item needed to be deleted to raise the Cronbach’s alpha to .967. That item was Interpersonal Influence item number five leaving
14 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 134 items. This table demonstrates the high Interpersonal Influence, was less than the internal consistency of the RSM. Only one scale, guideline of 0.60 set by Hair et al. (2006). Table 4. Item analysis reliability study: Item to scale calculations Scale Number+of+Items Cronbach’s+Alpha .88 Self+Esteem 20 .77 .79 Assertion 9 .78 .56 Interpersonal+Comfort 8 .75 .61 Empathy 5 .82 .82 Interpersonal+InEluence 6 .62 .85 Drive+Strength 12 .90 .90 Decision+Making 6 .77 Time+Management 6 .78 Stress+Management 17 Commitment+Ethic 6 Relationship+Satisfaction 9 Intimacy 6 Aggression+(Reversed) 9 Deference+(Reversed) 9 Change+Orientation+(Reversed) 6 Scale)to)Total)Calculation))))))))))) (Number+of+scales)++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++15++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++.90 Item)to)Total)Calculation (Number+of+items,+Item+115+deleted)++++++++++++++++++++++++++134+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++.97 Validity claimed to be a new personality measure as well as a measure of emotional intelligence (Epstein, RQ2: Is the RSM a valid instrument? 1998, 2001). The second test was the NEO PI-R. Costa and McCrae (1992) declared that “the NEO Once reliability of the test has been PI-R is a measure of normal personality traits that determined, it is desirable to establish validity. has demonstrated its utility in both clinical and Although several types of validity have been research settings” (p. 1). Therefore correlation determined, this study focused on convergent and with the NEO PI-R would be a fundamental discriminant construct validity. According to achievement for psychological tests. Finally, the Kaplan and Saccuzzo (2001), convergent validity third instrument that was correlated with the RSM would be established when other tests Form A was the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). of the same constructs correlated significantly Spanier (2001) described his instrument as “a with the test being investigated. When measure of the quality of adjustment to marriage correlations are high, convergent evidence of and similar dyadic relationships” (p. 1). validity is proclaimed. When correlations are low, that is, close to zero, discriminant evidence of RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between validity is declared. RSM scales and emotional intelligence as measured by the Constructive Thinking Inventory Three other psychological tests were (CTI)? correlated with the RSM Form A. The first was the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI), which
Quantifying Emotional Intelligence 15 Correlations with the positive scales of the Categorical Thinking (CT), Esoteric Thinking CTI are found in Table 5. Like many (ET), and Naïve Optimism (NO) and their psychological instruments, both the RSM Form A subscales were negative. and the CTI had negative aspects to their measurements of psychological traits. The RSM scales Aggression, Deference, and Change Orientation, were negative. Likewise, the CTI’s scales Personal Superstitious Thinking (PST), Table+5 Correlations)between)the)RSM)and)Positive)Scales)of)the)CTI)(N+=+85) Scale GCT EC SA ANO NS AOD BC PT AO CN SE .43** .38** .23* .29** .30** .41** .41** .32** .34** .35** A .16 .10 .02 .19 .07 .09 .33** .19 .26* .39** C .44** .40** .23* .25* .34** .44** .41** .30** .36** .33** E .17 .14 .07 .07 .13 .18 .13 .20 .07 .08 II X.04 X.09 X.09 .00 X.07 X.12 .19 X.01 .19 .27* DS .32** .16 .03 .17 .13 .19 .53** .28** .47** .53** DM+ .29** .16 .05 .21 .06 .24* .51** .26* .46** .53** TM+ .25* .12 .00 .17 .05 .19 .41** .15 .39** .45** CE .29** .21 .17 .15 .15 .21 .46** .27* .42** .46** SM .43** .36** .09 .28* .32** .46** .36** .22* .36** .29** RS .44** .42** .24* .28** .33** .51** .29** .31** .24* .12 I .33** .32** .22* .18 .24* .39** .25* .22* .24* .13 AG X.56** X.56** X.34** X.41** X.54** X.48** X.30** X.34** X.29** X.05 D X.16 X.21 X.14 X.26* X.15 X.19 X.18 X.07 X.17 X.18 CO X.43** X.50** X.27* X.30** X.50** X.48** X.34** X.11 X.35** X.29** Notes:+Relationship+Skills+Map+scales+are:+Self+Esteem,+Assertion,+Interpersonal+Comfort,+ Empathy,+Interpersonal+InEluence,+Drive+Strength,+Decision+Making,+Time+Management,+ Commitment+Ethic,+Stress+Management,+Relationship+Satisfaction,+Intimacy,+Aggression,+ Deference,+and+Change+Orientation. Constructive+Thinking+Inventory+positive+scales+are:+Global+Constructive+Thinking,+Emotional+ Coping,+Self+Acceptance,+Absence+of+Negative+Overgeneralization,+Nonsensitivity,+Absence+of+ Dwelling,+Behavioral+Coping,+Positive+Thinking,+Action+Orientation,+and+Conscientiousness *p+<+.05.+++**p+<+.01. Global Constructive Thinking (GCT) was wherein a person thinks but does not act. described by Epstein (2001) as including the best Behavioral Coping, an interpersonal skill, parts of good constructive thinking and few significantly correlated with Assertion and with aspects of poor constructive thinking. GCT was the life skills of Drive Strength, Decision Making, significantly correlated positively with most of Time Management, and Commitment Ethic. The the positive scales on the RSM, and negatively subscales of Behavioral Coping, Positive with Aggression and Change Orientation. The Thinking, Action Orientation, and exceptions were Assertion, Empathy, Conscientiousness also had positive correlations Interpersonal Influence and Deference. Since with many of the positive scales of the RSM. these scales were also discriminantly related to Emotional Coping and its subscales, it is possible The main negative scales of the CTI are found that an intrapersonal relationship was taking place in Table 6. Personal Superstitious Thinking, Categorical Thinking, Esoteric Thinking, and
16 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence Naïve Optimism gave mixed signals to observers. and Over-optimism when it was expected to be For the most part, the negative scales on the CTI correlating negatively. Interpersonal Influence correlated negatively with the positive scales of was the weakest scale evidenced by the item-to- the RSM and positively with the negative scales scale calculations on Table 6. It is possible that on the RSM. However, the Interpersonal the scale had psychometric problems correlating Influence scale on the RSM correlated positively with the CTI. with Categorical Thinking, Polarized Thinking Table+6 Correlations)between)the)RSM)and)Negative)Scales)of)the)CTI)(N+=+85) Scale PST CT PD DOO INT ET BU FST NO OO SE X.42** X.21 .01 X.24* X.31** X.09 X.07 X.10 .15 .13 A X.30** X.19 X.21 X.09 X.17 X.31** X.26* X.30** X.05 .05 C X.41** X.26* X.07 X.23* X.30** X.18 X.15 X.18 .11 .09 E X.18 X.08 .05 X.06 X.23* X.01 X.01 .03 .13 .13 II X.12 .23* .26* .17 X.08 X.13 X.07 X.16 .12 .24* DS X.33** X.08 .10 X.11 X.25* X.16 X.10 X.19 .20 .29** DM+ X.41** X.06 .09 X.11 X.20 X.28** X.26* X.25* .17 .23* TM+ X.28** .02 .18 X.06 X.11 X.12 X.09 X.12 .21 .22* CE X.33** X.13 X.02 X.10 X.30** X.17 X.08 X.23* .20 .26* SM X.39** X.14 .15 X.26* X.24* X.16 X.18 X.12 .15 .15 RS X.37** X.21 .02 X.26* X.25* X.09 X.14 X.03 .04 X.05 I X.26* X.14 .08 X.23* X.23* X.12 X.11 X.11 .05 .02 AG .29** .41** .26* .26* .29** .09 .06 .09 X.03 X.02 D .28** .09 .02 .21 X.02 .19 .18 .16 .23* .19 CO .34** .11 .04 .09 .09 .16 .14 .15 X.06 X.09 Notes.+Relationship+Skills+Map+scales+are:+Self+Esteem,+Assertion,+Comfort,+Empathy,+ Interpersonal+InEluence,+Drive+Strength,+Decision+Making,+Time+Management,+Commitment+Ethic,+ Stress+Management,+Relationship+Satisfaction,+Intimacy,+Aggression,+Deference,+and+Change+ Orientation. Constructive+Thinking+Inventory+negative+scales+are:+Personal+Superstitious+Thinking,+ Categorical+Thinking,+Polarized+Thinking,+Distrust+of+Others,+Intolerance,+Esoteric+Thinking,+ Belief+in+the+Unusual,+Formal+Superstitious+Thinking,+Naïve+Optimism,+and+OverXoptimism.+This+ table+omits+the+scales+Stereotypical+Thinking+and+Pollyannaish+Thinking,+because+there+were+no+ signiEicant+correlations+with+the+RSM+for+these+CTI+scales. *p+<+.05.+++**p+<+.01. Another area where the results of the life skills areas of the RSM, that is, Drive correlation gave atypical results was the Naïve Strength, Decision Making, Time Management, Optimism and Over-optimism scales on the CTI. and Commitment Ethic. Perhaps these skills The results were positive rather than the expected perform best when the person who exhibits them negative. Optimism , as discussed by Seligman also is convinced that he or she will succeed. (1998) is a positive quality.. Epstein (1998) also discussed some positive qualities of optimism but Epstein (2001) wrote that Personal also declared that too much optimism could be Superstitious Thinking was “directly associated unhealthy. It was interesting that the Over- with pessimism, feelings of helplessness, and optimism scales are positively correlated with the depression” (p. 11). It was significantly negatively correlated with most of the scales on
Quantifying Emotional Intelligence 17 the RSM and positively correlated with Commitment+ X. .28 .03 .10 .55** Aggression, Deference, and Change Orientation. Ethic 45** Aggression also had some significant correlations Stress+ with Categorical Thinking and its subscales, Management X. .27 .14 X.02 .41** especially Intolerance. Such rigid thinking Relationship+ 51** patterns may turn into aggression quickly when Satisfaction the individual who displays them is confronted X.38* .32* .10 .06 .45** with flexible thinking patterns such as global Intimacy constructive thinking. X. .24 .09 .05 .40** Aggression 46** RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between Deference .42** X.09 .08 .11 X.28 RSM scales and personality as measured by the Change+ NEO PI-R? Orientation .17 X.15 X.04 X.18 X.21 The correlation of the NEO PI-R with the .64** X.15 X.05 .10 X. RSM Form A is shown in Table 7. The RSM 47** correlated negatively with Neuroticism. RSM scores correlated positively with Extraversion, Note.+NEO+scales+are:+N=Neuroticism,+ especially Assertion, Self Esteem, and the life E=Extraversion,+O=Openness,+ skills of Drive Strength, Decision Making, and A=Agreeableness,+C=Conscientiousness Time Management. According to Laney (2002), extraverts obtain energy from engaging in *p)<+.05.+++**p)<+.01. interpersonal relationships. Therefore, the extraverts in the sample achieved high scores on RQ5: Is there a significant relationship between the RSM scales that lean heavily on interpersonal RSM scales and relationship satisfaction as skills. Finally, the RSM correlated positively with measured by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale? Conscientiousness. The pattern of correlations was similar to that for Conscientiousness on the The DAS measures the quality of a person’s CTI. The picture of the person who scored high intimate dyadic relationships. The DAS correlated on the RSM and NEO was of someone who is significantly and positively with the Self Esteem, outgoing, hard-working, attentive to details, and Assertion, Interpersonal Comfort, Empathy, determined to achieve success in work and life. Decision Making, Stress Management, Overall, one can conclude that there is a Relationship Satisfaction, and Intimacy scales on significant relationship between RSM scales and the RSM. The DAS correlated significantly and personality as measured by the NEO. negatively with Aggression and Change Orientation. The correlations with Self Esteem, Table+7 Interpersonal Comfort, Empathy, Relationship Satisfaction, and Intimacy were not only Correlations)between)Relationship)Skills)Map) significant but also strong correlations. These and)NEO)PIGR)(N)=)44) correlations are found in Table 8. Total Emotional Intelligence is the sum of Self Esteem, Assertion, Scales N EOAC Interpersonal Comfort, Empathy, Interpersonal Influence, Drive Strength, Decision Making, Self+Esteem X. .33* .13 .13 .44** Time Management, Commitment Ethic, and 42** Stress Management. Total Emotional Intelligence had a moderate significant relationship with the Assertion X. .42** .25 .21 .45** DAS. Total Relationship Satisfaction is the sum 40** of Relationship Satisfaction and Intimacy. Total Relationship Satisfaction had a strong significant Interpersonal+ X. .28 .17 .11 .52** correlation with the DAS. Therefore, one can Comfort 55** conclude that there is a significant relationship Empathy X.25 .14 .07 .13 .27 between the RSM and relationship satisfaction as measured by the DAS. Interpersonal+ X.26 .29 .04 X.14 .38* InEluence Drive+Strength X. .39** .31* .19 .58** 41** Decision+Making X. .37* .10 .04 .52** 42** Time+ X. .40** .26 .01 .62** Management 43**
18 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence Table+8 Correlations)between)the)RSM)and)the)Dyadic)Adjustment)Scale)(DAS))(N)=)49) RSM+Scale Mean++ Standard+Deviation Correlation+r Self+Esteem 80.31 10.07 .66** Assertion 32.41 5.68 .47** Interpersonal+Comfort 30.86 4.90 .74** Empathy 19.73 3.57 .68** Interpersonal+InEluence 24.73 3.09 .01 Drive+Strength 43.90 6.80 .27 Decision+Making 21.86 3.23 .48** Time+Management 19.98 4.52 .22 Commitment+Ethic 24.69 3.68 .27 Stress+Management 63.98 9.82 .45** Relationship+Satisfaction 35.78 6.58 .73** Intimacy 25.61 4.73 .83** Aggression 20.39 7.02 X.51** Deference 20.49 4.52 X.13 Change+Orientation 16.08 4.84 X.49** Total+Emotional+Intelligence 362.45 43.48 .58** Total+Relationship+Satisfaction 61.39 10.88 .80** DAS+Scale 114.14 18.83 1.00 Total+DAS *p)<+.05.+++**p)<+.01. Summary an intelligence, but low enough to illustrate that it says something new about human abilities” (p. A sample composed of masters and doctoral level 286). Bartz (1999) defined a moderate correlation students, as well as members from a church and as one that has an absolute value of 0.40 to 0.60. from a couples study conducted by a master’s level student, was used to ascertain the reliability The correlation of the RSM and the CTI and validity of the Relationship Skills Map showed many moderate correlations between the (RSM). Reliability was tested by means of an two assessment instruments. There were also item analysis and split-half reliability coefficients many significant correlations. Therefore, one can and Cronbach’s alphas. Validity was tested by conclude that the RSM measures emotional correlating the RSM with the Constructive intelligence, but not in precisely the same way Thinking Inventory (CTI), NEO PI-R, and Dyadic that the CTI does. Adjustment Scale (DAS). In a similar way, the RSM measures Five research questions guided the study. For neuroticism and conscientiousness, but does not item-to- scale correlations, all but one Cronbach’s replace the NEO PI-R. However, the correlation alpha exceeded the 0.60 guideline. The scale-to- of the RSM with the DAS shows some strong total Cronbach’s alpha was 0.90, and the item-to- correlations between Self Esteem, Interpersonal total Cronbach’s alpha was 0.97. Therefore, the Comfort, Empathy, Relationship Satisfaction, and RSM is a reliable instrument and has an alternate Intimacy and the DAS. Since strong correlations form useful for before-and-after testing. exceed 0.60 but are less than 0.80 (Bartz, 1999), one could therefore claim that the DAS and the Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey (1999) gave RSM measure the same abilities. The RSM researchers their opinion to guide interpretation of measures emotional intelligence, healthy correlations between tests. They believed that personalities, and relationship adjustment when moderate correlations were desirable because they based on a sample of healthy individuals. were “high enough to indicate that the new skill is
Quantifying Emotional Intelligence 19 References Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2000). Emotional intelligence as zeitgeist, Bartz, A. E. (1998). Basic statistical concepts as personality, and as a mental ability. In R. (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Bar-On, & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), The Hall. handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at Braunstein, M. Y. (2007). [Correlation of the home, school, and in the workplace (pp. RSM with the DAS]. Unpublished raw data. 92-117). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO McCrae, R. R. & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2003). PI-R: Professional manual. Lutz, FL: PAR. Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory perspective (2nd ed.). New York: Cox, J. E., & Nelson, D. B. (2008). Quantifying Guilford. emotional intelligence: The relationship between thinking patterns and emotional Nelson, D., & Nelson, K. W. (2007). RSM skills. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Relationship skills map. Corpus Christi, TX: Education, and Development, 47(1), 9-25. EI Learning Systems. DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: Nelson, D. B., Nelson, K. W., & Cox, J. E. Theory and applications (2nd ed.). (2010). RSM Relationship Skills Map: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Professional manual. Corpus Christi, TX: EI Learning Systems. Epstein, S. (1998). Constructive thinking: The key to emotional intelligence. Westport, CT: Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). Learned optimism: Praeger. How to change your mind and your life. New York: Pocket Books. Epstein, S. (2001). CTI/Constructive thinking inventory. Lutz, FL: PAR. Spanier, G. B. (2001). Dyadic adjustment scale. North Tonawanda, NY: MHS. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. Sternberg, R. J. (1996). Successful intelligence: New York: Basic Books. How practical and creative intelligence determines success in life. New York: Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Penguin Group. Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam. Author Note Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional Correspondence regarding this article intelligence. New York: Bantam. should be forwarded to Judith E. Cox, 4001 Allen Drive, Kingsville, TX Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The 78363-7405 or [email protected]. new science of human relationships. New York: Bantam. Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E. & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Kaplan, R. M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2001). Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson. Kline, T. B. J. (2005). Psychological testing: A practical approach to design and evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Laney, M. O. (2002). The introvert advantage: How to thrive in an extravert world. NY: Workman. Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267-298.
20 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence
Developing Emotional Intelligence In Leaders 21 3 Developing Emotional Intelligence In Leaders: A Qualitative Research Approach David A. Rude, The George Washington University Research is presented that explored the experiences of effective U.S. federal government leaders in developing their own emotional intelligence. The contribution to this journal is exploring how emotional intelligence is developed within adults using a qualitative, phenomenological research orientation. Specifically, this study contributes towards a greater understanding of the evolving relationship between EI, adult learning, and leadership; and the vitality of qualitative research. Recommendations for theory and implications for future research and practice are explored. Introduction advocate a particular leadership theory, the essence of the experiences shared for this study This research (Rude, 2013) was a amplified the connection between leadership, phenomenological study of the experiences of leader development, and EI (Goleman, 1995, effective Federal government leaders in 1998; Nelson & Low, 2011; Yukl, 2010). developing their emotional intelligence (EI). The study was undertaken to illuminate perceptions on This study was based on the ability-based how leader development, adult learning, and EI Nelson and Low (2011) transformative EI can be better integrated, and how Federal learning model, which was previously validated government leaders can be developed to optimally (Hammett, 2007; Nelson, Low, & Vela, 2011). leverage intelligence and emotions. In so doing, Four specific leadership skills within the Nelson the Federal government may be able to more and Low (2011) framework are: (a) social effectively and responsibly develop leaders with awareness (comfort); (b) empathy; (c) decision the cognitive and emotional capacities needed to making; and (d) (personal) leadership. These lead in a dynamic and complex adaptive system skills may begin as intrapersonal in nature, but (Buckley, 1968; Schwandt, 2005; Yukl, 2012). manifest in an interpersonal (or social) context. Integrating EI and experiential/situated learning As identified by participant testimonies for this variables within research (particularly as regards study, myriad experiences over the course of Federal government leaders) has thus far been one’s career and life journey (both inside and sparse and, as important, remains critical. outside their Federal government careers) provide Leaving EI development unattended may have opportunities for developing and influencing EI. contributed to troubling gaps within EI-related While some developmental activities – especially competencies (e.g., conflict management, those that are highly experiential in nature, such interpersonal skills) for at least one Federal as rotational assignments – are intentionally agency (Department of Defense, 2008, 2009). designed to hone EI, many participants cited unintentional incidents as defining moments in The study leveraged the extensive the EI milieu. experiences, careers, and lifespans of executives within the Federal government who won the Accordingly, significance to the voices of Presidential Rank Award, a highly prestigious study participants through this transcendental recognition bestowed annually by the President of phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994) approach the United States. The stringent criteria for that revealed unique, individual perspectives on award include EI-related attributes, such as developmental experiences that shaped the EI of leading people and nurturing productive these effective leaders. By using Moustakas relationships. Using the Nelson and Low (2011) (1994) techniques such as epoche and EI framework for personal excellence, horizontalization, the researcher was able to glean experiential learning theory (Dewey (1916, 1938); a meaningful array of perspectives that should Illeris (2007, 2009, 2011); Kolb (1984)), and shed further light on EI’s relevance vis-à-vis situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991) leadership (and vice versa), and instrumental as core constructual elements, this study provided thoughts on helpful developmental interventions. a rich description of how Federal government leaders experienced the development of their own The sections that follow describe the problem EI. Although the scope of this study did not statement and research question, followed by a
22 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence discourse on the phenomenological method used. research question was posed: What are the Then, the study’s findings and conclusions will be experiences of effective Federal government discussed as well as, implications for research, leaders in developing their EI? theory, and practice. To explore the problem statement, the Problem Statement and Research Question researcher used an emerging qualitative approach to inquiry. Several characteristics are common to The EI of Federal government leaders appears all qualitative research and were of consequent to be lacking, as evidenced by pronounced importance in informing the questions: interpersonal skills and conflict management competency gaps that arose in surveys • Data were collected in a natural setting; administered to thousands of leaders in a large • The researcher was a key instrument in Federal government agency (DoD, 2008, 2009). This is problematic, as interpersonal skills and collecting and analyzing the data; conflict management are critical EI competencies • Multiple sources of data (e.g., interviews, (Goleman, 2011). Compounding this issue is the perception that Federal government leader observations, and documents) were used; development programs do not sufficiently attend • Data analysis was inductive, building on to EI as an integral part of building a leader’s well-rounded competence. patterns, categories, and themes; • The focus was on the meaning that participants Moreover, there is scarce qualitative information to explore in what ways EI, adult had about the problem; learning, and leadership development within the • The research process was emergent; Federal government are integrated. With the • The researcher interpreted what was seen, prevalence of EI research being quantitative in nature (Nafukho, 2009), this study capitalized on heard, and understood; and suggestions for a qualitative, phenomenological • The researcher attempted to provide a holistic methodology (Lincoln, 2009) in order to understand the essential EI-related experiences of account of the problem being studied Federal government officials who are already (Creswell, 2007). proven leaders. Similarly, Yukl (2010) advocated A qualitative research method was the use of qualitative research methodologies for appropriate, given the researcher’s studying leadership as a means “to explore epistemological assumption, constructivist different explanations of unfolding events” (p. worldview, research problem, and question. 521). “A qualitative research approach might provide additional insight concerning how Epistemology and Theoretical Perspectives individuals conceptualize and classify developmental experiences … in order to Epistemology [analyze] experiences to determine where the most valuable learning occurred” (Bernthal et al., This study adopted a constructivist 2001, p. 507). epistemological perspective. Constructivism is “where the interactive power of action and This phenomenological (Creswell, 2007; learning is realized through mental framing and Moustakas, 1994) study sought to discover and its relevance to a particular context” (Yeo & Gold, understand the experiences of effective Federal 2012, p. 512). Constructivist approaches to government leaders in developing their emotional emotion in learning challenge the paradigm of intelligence (EI). Those experiences involved an reason and scientific-based approaches to learning objective and subjective orientation, as well as (Dirkx, 2008). These approaches are exhibited in idealism and realism perspectives (Moustakas, learning oriented towards the participant, 1994). A phenomenological approach environment and action (Dirkx, 2008; Merriam, complements the research question (elucidated Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Accordingly, below), since a phenomenology asks: How did the researcher used semi-structured interviews as the experience of the phenomenon come to be the vehicle for gathering data from the study what it is? (Moustakas, 1994). participants, in order for the phenomenon to manifest as a meaningful experience (Moustakas, To describe this phenomenon in a rich and 1994). descriptive manner, the following overarching Theoretical Perspective Understanding and providing a “thick description” (Geertz, 1973, p. 27) is interesting, from the standpoint of introducing a changing phenomenon – how to develop leaders to be proficient not only in their cognitive and mission-
Developing Emotional Intelligence In Leaders 23 oriented abilities, but also with an aptitude and exploratory manner. Allowing a phenomenon or appetite for EI. This relates to the stabilization experience to reveal itself in its purest form can property of what constitutes interesting research be a challenging endeavor, but must be (Davis, 1971), in that what appeared to be stable undertaken in order to allow requisite and unchanging vis-à-vis EI and leader transparency and receptiveness into the subject’s development is actually unstable and dynamic. meaningful experience (Moustakas, 1994). Another theoretical foundation explored is the paradigmatic orientation (Burrell & Morgan, Transcendental-Phenomenological Reduction 1979; Kuhn, 1962) of leadership development and (TPR) EI. Whereas, leadership development may have predominantly objective and functionalist Subsequent to epoche, each experience properties, EI acknowledges “a different kind of undergoes TPR by virtue of being considered in intelligence” (Goleman, 1995, p. 36). At its core, isolation, and on its own merits. Inherent to TPR EI represents a phenomenon that centers on how is a thorough description replete with a “individuals develop subjective meanings of their recollection of the experience from myriad own experiences” (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). perspectives. Each of the three words – The subjective experiential meaning is at the heart transcendental, phenomenological, and reduction of a phenomenological study. In addition, – are accorded particular meaning by Schmitt transformative EI (Nelson & Low, 2004, 2011) is (1967). As cited by Moustakas (1994): rooted in phenomenology (G. R. Low, personal communication, June 27, 2012). It is called transcendental because it moves beyond the everyday to the pure Methodology ego in which everything is perceived freshly, as if for the first time. It is called Moustakas (1994) noted that first-person phenomenological because it transforms accounts of the experiences drive evidence that the world into mere phenomena. It is emerges from phenomenological research. called reduction because it leads us back Phenomenology enables knowledge to emerge to the source of the meaning and inductively. This study is grounded in the existence of the experienced world. Moustakas (1994) transcendental (Schmitt, 1967, p. 61) phenomenological methodology which is a scientific, experiential-focused approach for Imaginative Variation seeking meaning, directing insight into experiences and obtaining knowledge through Following TPR, imaginative variation grasps subjectivity, reflection, and thought. A the experience’s structural essence. “From this phenomenological approach assigns experience point a structural description of the essences of and behavior as both intertwined with each other the experience is derived, presenting a picture of and as a bridge between a subjective and the conditions that precipitate an experience and objective orientation. When reflecting, details of connect with it” (Moustakas, 1994, pp. 39-40). experiences are added and crystallized. The data of experiences represent the primary Refinements to all facets of what occurred are body of scientific investigation and resultant induced. Critical to transcendental knowledge (Moustakas, 1994). phenomenology is noema (what the subject experiences) and noesis (the way in which the Theoretical Link with Constructs experience is manifested through the subject’s lens). The core tenets of this methodology are Table 1 explains the association between the epoche, transcendental-phenomenological Moustakas (1994) transcendental reduction, and imaginative variation. A brief phenomenological approach and the constructs description of each element follows. used. Epoche Data Collection According to Moustakas (1994), epoche is a To achieve the research question, a purposeful Greek word “meaning to refrain from judgment selection strategy (Creswell, 2007; Maxwell, … [and] requires a new way of looking at 2005) was used. This selective process bolstered things” (p. 37). Epoche entails a bracketing of the study’s credibility (Bloomberg & Volpe, commonplace understandings and perceptions, in 2008). Adapted from Maxwell (2005), there were order to revisit phenomena in an invigorating and four overarching goals for purposeful selection: 1. Deliberately select subjects who are known to be typical of the study purpose.
24 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence 2. Adequately capture the heterogeneity (or 4. Illuminate differences between settings or diversity) of the population, in order to individuals. optimize variation. 3. Examine cases critical to the theoretical foundation of the research study. Table 1 Construct & Variable Alignment with Transcendental Phenomenology Construct/Variable Alignment with Transcendental Phenomenology Leadership “Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of Leadership facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared Development objectives” (Yukl, 2010, p. 8). Alignment: The process of achieving effective leadership outcomes requires the leader to connect with resonant Emotional experiences. Intelligence Leadership development has unique attributes such as role modeling behavior, feedback, action learning (Marquardt, 2011), and experiential learning techniques (e.g., simulations, case studies) (Yukl, 2010). Alignment: Effective leader development techniques are experiential in nature and avail new essence for the leader. A convergence of learned abilities that facilitate (a) the accurate knowledge and value of self, as well as responsible actions based on personal worth and dignity; (b) a variety of strong, healthy relationships; (c) the ability to work well with others; and (d) productive reactions to the demands and pressures of everyday life and work (Nelson & Low, 2011). Alignment: EI is inherently related to the subject’s recollection and meaning assigned to those experiences. Self- awareness utilizes transcendental properties of seeing experiences in a fresh perspective (Moustakas, 1994). Adult Learning Adults primarily learn through experiences and based on learning interventions that appeal to them (Merriam et al., 2007). Alignment: Experiential Adults learn primarily as a result of experiences. Learning Experiential learning is acquired knowledge of being through active Situated Learning participation (Heron, 2009) between the participant’s inner self and the environment (Beard & Wilson, 2006). Alignment The inner self and environment parallel the subjective/objective environment innate to transcendental phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994). Situations increase learner cognizance of surroundings, social roles and expectations which, in turn, modify learning behaviors and attitudes (Merriam et al., 2007; Yeo & Gold, 2012). Alignment: Situated learning recognizes the social environment and a realism ontology, which is central to transcendental phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994). The target audience for consideration in the by the President of the United States. Only one current study was recipients of the Presidential percent of all Federal government executives are Rank Award (PRA), which is bestowed annually
Developing Emotional Intelligence In Leaders 25 conferred the highest PRA during their career The data collection interview instrument was (OPM, 2012). pilot tested with two subjects. As offered by Maxwell (2005), a benefit of pilot interviews is to PRA recipients role model effective leader help identify meanings that pilot participants may (Yukl, 2010) characteristics. There are ascribe to the phenomena related to this study. discernible correlations between award criteria Results of the pilot interviews affirmed the and desirable EI attributes. Excerpts of the award appropriateness of interview questions and were criteria, provided on the Office of Personnel not used for any other purpose relating to this Management (OPM) website, are as follows: research. The President [confers] the ranks of A total of 21 PRA recipients expressed interest Distinguished Executive and Meritorious in participating in the study, by contacting the Executive on a select group of career researcher, typically through email. Of the 21 members of the SES [Senior Executive who expressed interest, two were not pursued Service] who have provided exceptional further since they had retired over 20 years ago. service to the American people over an Of the remaining 19, 16 completed the on-line extended period of time. These senior PEM survey (for a response rate of 84 percent). executives are outstanding leaders who Of the 16 who completed the survey, the consistently demonstrate strength, researcher selected 11 to be interviewed. The 11 integrity, industry, and a relentless who were selected had most of the top scores and commitment to public service. Through all were within one standard deviation of the their personal conduct and results-oriented composite mean PEM score of 3.19. Those not leadership, they have earned and kept a interviewed were either outside the one standard high degree of public confidence and trust. deviation range or did not respond to requests to The executive has also demonstrated the be interviewed. Also, the researcher wanted to ability to lead people effectively by keep a reasonable balance between those PRA fostering employee development, recipients who are still actively employed in the cooperation and teamwork, and by Federal government (7 of the 11 interviewed) and constructive resolution of conflicts those who recently retired (4 of the 11 [emphases added]. (para. 1) interviewed). In addition to the actively employed: retired status, the researcher Stratified purposeful selection entailed considered population diversity using the administering a validated EI instrument to PRA purposeful selection strategy (Maxwell, 2005) to recipients who, based on an announcement mitigate a noticeable concentration of recipients provided by the Senior Executive Association from a single Federal government agency. after informal written support was conveyed by an official from the Office of Personnel Given the target population, i.e., Federal Management, contacted the researcher to express government executives who likely have interest in participating. The purpose of using a challenging jobs and competing demands on their validated instrument was to identify those who time, a degree of attrition between (a) those with possessed high EI. The instrument used was a the highest scores and (b) those who are able and modified version of the Personal Excellence Map willing to be interviewed was expected. (PEM) (Hammett, Nelson & Low, 2011). As However, all Federal government executives who described in the PEM Interpretation and agreed to be interviewed maintained that Intervention Guide, the PEM© is based on “30 commitment; no attrition occurred. Defining years of research into how human cognition and experiences were the focus of inquiry. Although emotion impact individual growth and the members of the targeted audience are now or performance” (Nelson et al., 2011). An on-line were employed by the Federal government, the version of the modified PEM was used. The PEM expanse of the participants’ careers and adult lives is aligned theoretically with the subscribed were, at their discretion, revealed and considered Nelson and Low (2011) EI definition as well as by the researcher as relevant to the phenomenon the leadership elements within the Emotional investigated. Skills Assessment Process (ESAP, see Nelson & Low, 2011). The PEM is well suited for leader Data were collected through the use of semi- development (Hammett, 2007). structured interviews designed to address the research question. Questions of an open-ended nature were formulated to align with the
26 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence conceptual framework and to enable emphasis on significant statements \"that provide and meaningful experiences (Creswell, 2007). understanding of how the participants Written research consent was obtained prior to experienced the phenomenon\" (p. 61) were commencing interviews. Using Creswell (2007) analyzed horizontally, i.e., equal weight was as a guide, in-depth interviews targeting duration given to all statements. The equal weighting is of 60 minutes were conducted. Actual interview one example of exercising epoche, so as to durations ranged from 40 to 78 minutes. suspend the researcher’s judgments and biases. Questions were provided to each participant via The remaining chronological steps noted above email at least one calendar day in advance of the were employed, to complete the data analysis scheduled interview, so as to promote the phase. The ultimate stage– a comprehensive subject’s reflection, which is vital to the portrayal of noesis and noema – the intentional transcendental phenomenology approach experience in its entirety – availed the requisite (Moustakas, 1994). Although the interview was a understanding and discovery of the EI single episode, participants were provided the developmental phenomena in effective Federal opportunity to reflect on the questions in advance. government leaders. Specific coding techniques Moreover, the researcher offered participants with used are described below. Of notable import is the opportunity to provide additional insights that the researcher employed these steps in a upon receipt of the interview transcript. (All recursive manner. Analysis and coding were interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed interchangeable and incremental processes by the researcher.) In totality, this process availed (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996) in order to yield a three distinct opportunities for participant greater understanding of participant experiences. reflection and sharing. Once the transcriptions were sent to participants for verification, the Initial coding. As noted by Saldana (2009), this analysis process began. coding allows for the recording of initial categorization and has widespread application to Data Analysis and Interpretation many types of qualitative research. The researcher used initial coding in tandem with in Moustakas (1994) outlines the process of vivo coding, described below. phenomenology in a way that seeks to describe, in rich detail, the experiences of individuals and then In vivo coding. This coding is particularly aggregates those individual descriptions into a conducive to acknowledging the voice of composite description of how the phenomenon is research participants (Saldana, 2009), a core experienced by the group of PRA recipients. In underpinning for this study’s phenomenological essence, the sequential Moustakas (1994) data approach. Using direct quotes from participant analysis approach as furnished below was used. aligned with discovering their experiences. It is worth noting that the direct quotes were not 1. Describe the essence of the experience, using altered grammatically; the only changes made epoche to isolate the subject’s meaning. were the insertion of generic labeling to promote anonymity for the participants, other 2. Develop the significant statements, eliminating employees, and organizations. redundancies and vague statements that cannot be adequately described. Descriptive coding. Following the inaugural phase of initial and in vivo coding, descriptive 3. Develop clusters and themes by aggregating codes were used. The descriptive codes were experiences. both theory-based (ETIC) and emergent (EMIC), the latter of which arising from an 4. Verify clusters and themes are congruent with inductively analytical perspective (Coffey & interview transcripts. Atkinson, 1996). The descriptive codes attributed the experience’s essence to a portion 5. Construct individual textural description of of text (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Saldana, experience, using in vivo coding technique (this 2009). step aligns with Saldana, 2009). Counting. Frequency counts of the descriptive 6. Construct individual structural description of codes were calculated to promote analysis and experience, based on the noesis (i.e., help identify emergent themes and patterns manifestation of the experience). (Miles & Huberman, 1994). 7. Construct for each research participant a textural-structural description. This captures a holistic, comprehensive account of the meaningful experience. Following Moustakas (1994), data analysis began with transcribed interviews. Then,
Developing Emotional Intelligence In Leaders 27 Textual and structural descriptions. What was in an adequate manner within development experienced (textual) and the meaning they programs, and that I find a leader’s consequent assigned to those experiences (structural) were ability to constructively manage and harness described for each of the 11 participants emotions is appreciably diminished. The use interviewed (Moustakas, 1994). of field notes and memos were key to capturing my reactions, in order to maximize Themes. Themes were derived by the study’s inductive orientation (Miles and amalgamating textual and structural Huberman, 1994), and to conduct due descriptions and by classifying primary themes diligence with respect to any potential into cohesive patterns (Saldana, 2009). disconfirmations of researcher bias (Van de Ven, 2007). Patterns. The patterns configured from themes were used as the basis for discussing study • The use of journaling captured reactions to EI- conclusions as well as, implications for related inquiries of particular sensitivity. research, theory, and practice. Training on EI can surface emotional cues that interviews on the same subject may likewise Verification procedures. Qualitative research trigger. Journaling revealed mental reminders, depends on trustworthiness techniques in order personal reactions, and clarifications to data to promote validity and mitigate researcher bias quality (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The (Saldana, 2009). Techniques to ensure researcher employed journaling in a variety of trustworthiness (termed validity by Maxwell in ways, such as notes on the margins of 2005) were congruent with the study’s transcripts. methodology, theoretical perspective, and epistemology. The particular trustworthiness • Member checking was used by the researcher techniques used included reflexivity, in the final stage of the interviewing process subjectivity statement, member checking, peer described by Moustakas (1994). Seven of the reviews, journaling and thick, rich descriptions 11 participants returned transcripts with minor of data collected. clarifying edits, which the researcher incorporated. These revisions represented • As defined by Creswell (2007), reflexivity informant feedback (Miles & Huberman, “means that the writer is conscious of the 1994). Two more participants affirmed there biases, values, and experiences that he or she were no changes. The remaining two brings to a qualitative research study” (p. 243). participants did not respond to the member To that end, the researcher endeavored to check request. utilize reflexivity and epoche. The researcher promoted epoche by intentionally opting to • To further mitigate inadvertent researcher bias, transcribe the interviews himself. The iterative peer reviews of transcripts and emergent and sequential process of hearing the analyses and findings were conducted with participants speak, writing notes during the doctoral candidate colleagues from the George interviews, listening to the digital recordings, Washington University on December 1 and 8, transcribing the recordings, and seeing the 2012. This process was valuable. One benefit transcribed results on the written page enabled of the peer review process was that personality the researcher to engage auditory and visual was discussed in the interviews, but only by senses that, in turn, immersed the researcher those who self-reported as being introverted in further into the participant’s meaning – and, by nature. The researcher is also an introvert. To extension, further away from the researcher’s further mitigate bias and optimize epoche, the bias. researcher asked extroverted colleagues to participate in the peer review process. This • Both reflexivity (Day & Halpin, 2001) and tactic proved to be very useful, as it was the subjectivity statements (Peshkin, 1988) were extroverts who pointed out the undercurrent of used to state explicit bias by the researcher as a personality as being present in the transcript. professional within the leader development The personality dimension may have been (and broader learning) community (Creswell, otherwise inadvertently overlooked or 2007). This researcher’s subjectivity statement discounted. is that I have led and managed a number of leader development programs for the Federal • Finally, the nature of transcendental government (and DoD in particular), that I do phenomenology inculcated a rich description not believe that EI competence is attended to
28 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence (Creswell, 2007; Geertz, 1973; Moustakas, can impact the presence and perseverance of EI. 1994) of the experience. The degree to which leaders can leverage and codify EI within a culture was challenging to Although this study was not quantitative in varying degrees and surfaced in different ways. nature, there is also a validity perspective for the PEM, which was used as the initial data collection Theme 4: instrument. The PEM has been validated as being statistically significantly related to all items on EI Experiences are Inherent for Effective the scale; Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha for the Leadership PEM ranges from .63 (self-appreciation, not a primary focus of the study) to .90 (decision EI experiences are inextricably bound to making, one of four leadership elements of the leadership, according to participant accounts. ESAP and which formed the basis for using the Leadership, the ability to relate with others, PEM). Other than self-appreciation, the maturity, integrity, and workplace pressures Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha for all other scale represent some of the participant experiences. items is at least .78 (Hammett, Nelson, & Low, This theme’s essence relates to the association 2011). between EI and effective leadership. Participants viewed the two as inherently bound together, i.e., Findings one cannot exist without the other. Emergent from this study were six themes, as Theme 5: described below. Developing EI is Dependent on Experiences Theme 1: Experiential development is, based on an EI Experiences Manifest in Different Ways inductive analysis of participant responses, linked to EI. Developmental interventions (such as Inductive analysis revealed a wide range of rotational assignments), defining experiential modalities in which EI experiences appeared, as moments, and other participant perspectives expressed by the interviewed participants. emerged. This theme’s essence drew on the broad Emotion, self-awareness, gender, personality, expanse of experiences that shaped and built EI. maturity, and storytelling are some of the Experiences were considered as learning in manifestations. This theme’s essence is that there nature, even outside those a formal developmental is no uniform lens through which to view the program. Participants were apt to conclude that maturation of EI over the course of one’s career. EI development emanated from a rich landscape of experiences. Theme 2: Theme 6: EI Experiences are Socially Constructed EI Experiences are Integrated with Other Aspects Inductive analysis revealed that EI of Workplace and Personal Life experiences were viewed by participants as a social construction. Relating to and effectively EI experiences are embedded with other dealing with others, connecting with people on an aspects of professional and personal lives of the emotional level, mentoring, and family influence participants interviewed, based on their responses. are representative social constructs. This theme’s All themes, but particularly theme 6, went well essence amplifies the interpersonal connection beyond the confines of the participant’s Federal embedded in EI and in leadership. Being an government careers per se. The participants effective leader encompasses having similarly threaded an association between events that effective relationship-building, connection, and occurred in their personal (non-work) lives and sustainment skills. how that helped transform them into a more emotionally intelligent leader. Theme 3: The six themes discussed above surfaced from Culture Influences EI Experiences reflecting the voice of participants and associating those voices with analytic codes. Reflection on Based on analyzing participant responses, the themes indicated that they were not mutually culture was related to EI experiences. exclusive. This presented an opportunity to Organizational culture, occupations and certain decide how to reconfigure the themes into defining moments represent some of the cultural portrayals. This theme’s essence asserts that organizational culture and sub-culture phenomena
Developing Emotional Intelligence In Leaders 29 synthesized patterns representing this study’s identifying what needs to be developed, but how overarching findings. Based on the researcher’s those skills are developed. For instance, the recursively reflective process, five of the six mechanics for developing empathy and for themes were realigned into three patterns, to inculcating emotional considerations towards represent the quintessential combination of productive decisions have not been widely experiences of effective Federal government researched. This study revealed that leaders leaders in developing their emotional intelligence. connecting with people through a variety of The construction of patterns resulting from challenges helps build empathy, and that actively previously established themes are annotated in building constructive alliances fosters positive Table 2. decision making. Participants also identified factors such as gender, maturity, and personality Table 2 (among others) that influence EI development. Perhaps, this study provides greater clarity Themes related to patterns towards understanding the association between EI and leadership, as offered in the discourse by Theme Pattern Antonakis, Ashkanasy and Dasborough (2009). This study adds an incremental contribution to the 1. EI Experiences DIVERSE empirical evidence on EI and the imperative for manifest in different FACTORS leaders to leverage EI, in order to achieve career ways. AFFECT success and personal excellence (Nelson & Low, EXPERIENCES 2011). 6. EI experiences are integrated with other 2. Importance of qualitative research in studying aspects of workplace EI. Yukl (2010) acknowledged the benefits of and personal life. qualitative research as regards leadership. Moreover, as Yukl (2012) stated: 2. EI experience are SOCIAL AND socially constructed. CULTURAL To improve leadership theory and practice we need to know more about how much the 3. Culture influences EI [effective leadership] behaviors are used, when experiences. they are used, how well they are used, why they are used, who uses them, the context for 5. Developing EI is EXPERIENTIAL their use, and joint effects on different dependent on DEVELOPMENT outcomes (p. 75). experiences Underscoring this call issued by Yukl, no Note: Theme 4 – EI experiences are inherent for extant qualitative studies describing the effective leadership – is an overarching theme experiences of effective leaders were found, in resonating across all others. As such, it is a terms of how their EI was developed. This study stand-alone theme and further configuration into contributes to that research gap: it is an opening a pattern was unnecessary. salvo in exploring several of these tenants in a qualitative manner. As a result, this small yet Implications novel contribution spotlights the potential value of qualitative research, and phenomenological The recommendations for research and studies in particular. Additional qualitative practice below focus on how the qualitative studies would fortify this scholarly discourse. research orientation used in this study can help shape future exploration of EI and leadership. The contributions to practice described above can be consolidated into a suggested framework Recommendations For Practice for developing EI within leaders. This framework includes and provides a recommended expansion 1. Importance of understanding how EI is of the Nelson and Low (2011) Emotional developed within leaders. In their transformative Learning System (ELS). The ELS is EI learning model, Nelson and Low (2011) predominantly learner-focused and for good identified social awareness, personal leadership, reason since many aspects of EI are inherently decision making, and empathy as crucial EI reflective in nature. As revealed in this study, attributes for leaders to possess. The research however, EI has a multitude of experiential and findings appear to indicate that all four attributes are indeed important leadership skills. Where this study makes a contribution is in terms of not only
30 The International Journal for Transformative Emotional Intelligence social dynamics that should be considered when designing a learning and development curriculum. For example, this study suggests that the ELS can be enhanced by learning with others as a complement to a self-directed learning focus. Developing the learned abilities of working well with others, building and sustaining healthy relationships, and reacting to workplace demands necessitate feedback mechanisms using a variety of modalities. A holistic curriculum could be fashioned that starts with a fundamental understanding of EI and its relationship with effective leadership, followed by using the Nelson and Low (2011) ELS to accurately understand the self, then a series of activities in which EI manifests in social settings so that learners begin to appreciate the interpersonal dynamics of EI and, lastly, a series of activities aimed at sustaining and honing EI. The curriculum would Figure 1. An EI-centric, research-based, holistic curriculum model a d v o c a t e a t e m p o r a l for leadership development. element: increasingly longer periods of time as one advances through the curriculum phases would be 1. EI research is needed at the organizational needed in order to embed previous learning and level of analysis. The purpose of this study was allow for reinforcement in the workplace intentionally at the individual level of analysis, environment. A longer window of time between i.e., understanding the experiences of Federal the final two phases would allow for purposeful government leaders in developing their emotional and incidental learning, both of which are intelligence. Arguably, there is merit for a arguably critical for EI to take root within a complementary research study on the impact of leader. EI to the organization(s) being examined. There is likely alignment between the effectiveness of This suggested curriculum is depicted in organization-level EI and how culture or sub- Figure 1. The left side provides the sequential cultures are aligned within that organizational phases of learning; the right side provides entity. A future research approach of this terminal learning objectives and developmental orientation could also consider EI vis-à-vis implements for each phase. evolving Recommendations for Research
Developing Emotional Intelligence In Leaders 31 workplace dynamics, such as knowledge and post-test scores taken before and immediately management and the role of EI in virtual, after a training course. Rather, such research geographically-dispersed environs. Perhaps, a would take multiple perspectives into account and mixed-method approach of a longitudinal case encompass a more longitudinal orientation to study combined with an analysis of covariance capture not only immediate but codified changes (ANCOVA) quantitative methodology could be in a leader’s behaviour. Multi-rater feedback used. Monitoring EI changes over a period of implements could be used. In so doing, it is time for individual leaders who remain within the plausible to submit that the return on value or same organization for the study’s duration, expectation of the developmental offering could coupled with ANCOVA studies measuring the be linked to the future-oriented change impact of impact of EI (and factors related to EI, as this the leader, using a variety of assessment study suggests) on those leaders’ perceived techniques. effectiveness, may provide a novel research contribution. To the researcher’s knowledge, Conclusion mixed-method approaches exploring EI are thus far rare. The dissertation research study (Rude, 2013) that served as the basis for this article asked the 2. Continued research (quantitative and question, What are the experiences of effective qualitative) on EI and its impact. One possible Federal government leaders in developing their limitation of this study was that proven, emotional intelligence? Using a transcendental successful, and award-winning senior Federal phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994) qualitative government leaders were asked for their research approach, the researcher interviewed 11 perspectives on developing EI. This target award-winning Federal government executives to population was intentionally chosen for the discern their essential, meaningful experiences reasons described above, to include that many EI that shaped their healthy EI (as gauged by their studies already published focused on students and score using a validated EI instrument). The specific occupations. It made sense to explore the findings from those interviews, which were study’s phenomenon from a qualitative subjected to member checks, peer reviews, and orientation, and to discover EI developmental recursive reflection, were surprising, refreshing, experiences from leaders with proven, successful candid, and provided insights unique to the EI careers. research domain. Perhaps, interest and insights gleaned from this study may fuel additional That stated, there remains ample opportunity interest in qualitative research and how it can to continue exploring the role of EI in the assist in a greater descriptive understanding of EI workplace. Future research purpose statements and its myriad relationships. could, for example, focus on differences in validated EI assessment scores between References executives, managers, first-line supervisors, non- supervisory employees, and blue collar workers. Antonakis, J., Ashkanasy, N., & Dasborough, What accounts for those variances, and why? M. (2009). Does leadership need emotional Does personality matter? Would extroverts, for intelligence? Leadership Quarterly, 20(2), example, see EI development from a perspective 247-261. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.01.006 different than study participants who self- identified their introverted personality? Do those Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2006). Experiential and other variances contribute towards a learning: A best practice handbook for perceived healthy culture? educators and trainers (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page Limited. 3. Research the impact of EI’s integration into leader development. As described in the Bernthal, P., Cook, K., & Smith, A. (2001). contributions to practice section, this study Needs and outcomes in an executive suggests one approach for integrating EI into development program: A matter of leader development offerings. Figure 1 illustrated perspective. Journal of Applied Behavioral a recommended framework. Research should be Science, 37(4), 488-512. doi: undertaken to explore the extent to which 10.1177/0021886301374006 engaging in this recommended development framework benefits the EI of leaders. This Bloomberg, L.D., & Volpe, M. research would venture beyond measuring pre- (2008). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A roadmap from beginning to end. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
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