29 - Сeramics_eng_art

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Glazed dish. Late 11th century. Sadyr-Korgon site. Talas valley. Kyrgyzstan. 99

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Glazed dish. 12th century. Sadyr-Korgon site. Talas valley. Kyrgyzstan. 100

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Glazed bowl. Khul’buk. Tajikistan. 101

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Glazed bowl. Khul’buk. Tajikistan. 102

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Glazed bowl (luster). Khul’buk. Tajikistan. 103

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Glazed bowl. Shakhristan. Tajikistan. 104

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Glazed bowl. Tajikistan. 105

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Ceramic bowl. 10th–11th century. Turkmenistan. 106

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Bowl with birds’ heads. 10th–11th century. Afrasiab. Uzbekistan. 107

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Bowl with three birds. 10th–early 11th century. Afrasiab. Uzbekistan. 108

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Bowl with triangles. 10th–11th centuries. Afrasiab. Uzbekistan. 109

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Dish. 11th century. Gormaly-tepa. Budrach. Uzbekistan. 110

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Jar. 11th century. Afrasiab. Uzbekistan. 111

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Dish with well-wishing inscription. 10th century. Uzbekistan. 112

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Glazed bowl, decorated ‘in reserve’. Bailakan. Azerbaijan. 113

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Polychromatic glazed bowl with a painted hare. Azerbaijan. 114

Glazed ceramics (9th–early 13th century) Polychromatic glazed bowl with a picture of an archer. Azerbaijan. 115

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Pir Khusein’s tile khanega. Azerbaijan. 116

Kyrgyzstan the white slipped background stretches almost to the bottom. The edge from the outer side is decorated with a belt of black lines; blue points on a white background and a blue, compara- tively broad band are below it. The main pattern of the outer surface reminds the chessboard: two rows of alternating blue and white squares; the last diagonal squares are cleft with thin black lines with blue points on the intersection in the middle of the squares (ill. XXXVII). Finishing the review of the enamelled ceramic items of the 13th–15th centuries, we must also mention a magnificent bowl from the mountainous part of Kyrgyzstan, from the site Akchiy in Ketmen-Tyube (ill. XXXVIII). Completed in blue and black-blue colours tradition- al for the time, on the inside it is completely covered with décor. In the centre, the bottom is occupied by a festooned rosette with a crosshatched filling, framed with a thin line re- peating the contour. Six scalloped arches go from this compositional centre, almost touch- ing the edge with their tops. The space under the arches is filled by even rows of small dots, producing a visual effect of the depth and relieved surface. The space in the tympana of the arches and above them up to the edge is occupied by a botanical décor: thin twining stems with leaves, large but different in size. A white band with semicircular speckles along the edge completes the composition. There are few unglazed ceramic items of the 13th–15th centuries in the territory of Kyrgyzstan that we know of. A jug kept in the Buran museum (the Chuy valley) is one of the few undam- aged vessels (ill. XXXIX). It is a little asymmetrical and has no handle. It is decorated with a roller with dents, applied to the place of the transition of the neck into the body. On the shoul- der there is a frieze of two alternating elements, made with an inaccurate drawing on green- ware. One of the elements is a six-point star-cross, formed by intersection of three short lines. The other one is a sign consisting of two short parallel vertical lines and two slanted lines located between them. In general, the item looks provincial and unprofessional in sharp contrast with the above-mentioned enamelled ceramic items of the same period. A series of sherds from another site from the Chuy valley, Kara-Jigach near Bishkek, tes- tifies to the fact that such ornamental motif was rather widespread. The crosses are differ- ent: four- and six-point, ‘simple’ and ‘branching’. The idea of connecting the crosses from Buran and Kara-Jigach with the Christian communities that existed at that time in these settlements seems quite feasible, and yet we still have not sufficient evidence to do this. The above review of the artistic ceramics of the 9th–15th centuries from the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan is not exhaustive. We focused our attention only on the general ten- dencies of its changes in the indicated period of time, or on such issues, when the new ma- terial allows us to revisit the points stated earlier. That is why separate ceramic groups, such as dostarkhans and lids of vessels, khums and khumchis, as well as stamps on them remained unmentioned in the article. We also did not discuss the imported ceramic items, including those made of porcelain and celadon. However, in our opinion, the published materials, many of which are presented to a reader for the first time, give a relatively complete account of the general and the specific tenden- cies in the development of artistic tastes of the medieval population of Kyrgyzstan. 117

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics I. II. III and IV. V. 118

Kyrgyzstan VI. VII. VIII. IX. 119

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics X. XI. XII. XIII. 120

Kyrgyzstan XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. 121

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. 122

Kyrgyzstan XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. 123

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. 124

Kyrgyzstan XXX. XXXI. XXXII. 125

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XXXIII. XXXIV. 126

Kyrgyzstan XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. 127

TAJIKISTAN Pottery played the leading role in handicrafts in the 9th–13th centuries. It has been well studied, although all-inclusive and general works are yet to appear. The large scale archae- ological work during the Soviet period led to the discovery of blocks of potters and excava- tions of numerous potters’ kilns, craftsmen’s workshops with various tools, semi-finished goods and defective ware. As a result, it allows recreating the process of pottery manu- facture starting from the preparation of clay body to the finished ware. The ceramic pro- duction of the 9th–10th centuries has been also studied from technological point of view. The sorts of clay used for pottery production, slipping methods, paints used for decoration and composition of glaze have been confidently identified (Sayko, 1970). In the 9–10th cen- turies white, red and black slipping was used most often. It constricted the pores of vessels and made background for decoration smooth, even and monochrome. A vessel was painted, then it was glazed and fired for the second time. Bowls and dishes were prevailing among the earthenware with underglaze painting in the 9th–10th centuries. Their shapes were stand- ard, but differed in details and mainly in size. The same technique was used for the produc- tion, but in smaller numbers, of jars, khums, chirags, and so on (Gafurov, 1989, p. 66–67) The slipped ceramics from Khul’buk—the palace of the Khatlonshakhs of the 9–11th centuries. The site of Khul’buk is located 30 km to the West of Kulyab (Southern Tajikistan) on a low terrace of the Surkhob river. The site is triangle in shape with corners pointing to the North, East and South. Initially, the area of the site together with rabat and necropolis was 280 ha in size, of which only 70 ha remained by the 1970s (mostly shakhristan and citadel), and nowadays only the citadel has remained. The truncat- ed triangle citadel is located at the southwestern part of the site. Its length is 160 m, width is 70 m in the northern part and 50 m in the southern one, its height 8–10 m from the sur- face in the northern part and 15 m in the southern one. It is orientated from NNW to SSE. In forty years’ time a large number of various ceramic items including glazed vessels were unearthed at the site of Khul’buk. However, the manager of excavations E. Gulyamova published only short articles on stamped ceramics (1971, p. 143–155). Thus, the glazed pot- tery of Khul’buk is introduced into the scientific context for the first time. We know about the glazed ceramics of other Central Asian regions such as Sogd, Chach, Fergana, Khorezm and Merv from the works by G. V. Shishkina (1979), L. G. Brusenko (1975), G. A. Brykina (1974), Sh. Tashkhodjaeva (1973), E. V. Sayko (1969), N. N. Vakturskaya (1950), N. Byashi- mova (1982, 1983), O. G. Bol’shakova (1973), and others. It should be noted that in the course of development of the glazed ceramics in the 9th– 12th centuries the main focus in Central Asia was on the development and improvement of various types of lead glazes (pure lead, lead-alkali, lead-tin, etc.) and typical underglaze painting with distinct contours of decoration with solid, often stabilised clay pigments. This period is characterised by high skills of masters who decorated their ware with ingenious 128

Tajikistan patterns. A wide range of motifs such as palmettos, spirals, flowers of pearls, birds, animals and fish is, indeed, remarkable. The pictures of fantastic creatures, ducks, pigeons, panthers and occasionally people are not rare. Ceramic motifs are connected with images borrowed from folklore and traditional beliefs. The range of colours on ceramics is pleasant in tone, greenish-yellow with a touch of brown and red-brown. The main types of glazed ware of Khul’buk are dishes (tabak), plates (tabakcha), bowls (kosa) of different shape and size; their walls are rounded, straight and slightly concave; bottom plates are annular, discoid and only slightly formed (fig. 1). The glaze was applied only on the inner surface of open shapes and just partially on the outer surface of ware, but chirags was glazed on both sides. These vessels, being of a different size, generally have a standard shape and vary only in some details. The coloured drawing of the items is painted in white, pink, light, yellow and pistachio hues. The range of colours used in the ornament contains mostly the hues of brown—from light, almost red, to dark brown turning into black, and rare olive colour in combination with brown. The decoration in the form of stylised in- scriptions dominates in painting. Often such ornament is painted on in energetic and rich strokes along the edge of rim merging with letters in some places. The patterns of thin straight lines or a series of spots placed radially on the walls is another characteristic fea- ture. Occasionally, spots are located between lines and on the base. There is also a picture of stylised olive branches, outlined below with a thick brown line. The pottery of Khul’buk has more than 80 variants of different designs and over 100 el- ements of ornaments, and the number of colours of glaze and underglaze painting exceeds 40. Thus, Khul’buk ceramics can be regarded as a very valuable material, and in the future it will be described in a special publication. We have identified four basic ornamental groups of glazed earthenware, namely: geomet- ric, botanical, zoomorphic and epigraphic. The geometric decoration of ceramic items from Khul’buk in the 9th–11th centuries is based on a circular design. The patterns depend on the linear arrangement of elements. Among Khul’buk glazed ceramic items we should mention one large bowl (shahhkosa) with a similar decoration (diameter is 33 cm). The design is concentric with numerous rings, the background is dirty-yellow. Dark brown lines outline the bands painted slightly below the rim and at the base, which are shaded in red as an imitation of interwoven ribbons. A broad line filled in by five circles, separated by rhombuses and one oval circle is painted between the bands. Everything is contoured by dark brown lines. A four-petal flower is depicted in- side circles against the white background; a red rhomb with antennae-shoots is depicted inside a larger rhomb. The base is decorated by a crosshatch with dots and spots. The dec- oration is geometric, but it contains a small number of botanical elements (fig. 2.4, ill. 1.1). We may notice the same design and location of patterns in another bowl (diameter is 22 cm) (fig. 2.5; ill. 2). The wall of the bowl is divided into seven circles and seven rhombs by two in- tertwined lines of the chocolate shade. An H-shaped figure with four dots on sides is de- picted by double lines inside the rhombs. A yellow circle with four tucks of chocolate shade along the edges and dot in the centre is depicted inside the circles. The space out of figures is filled up with patterns of red lines. A red whirl rosette inside the ring with curls, being larger outside and smaller inside is depicted at the base. The rim and the base are contoured by yellow stripes. Thus, the main pattern-forming elements of the design are geometric 129

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Fig. 1. Glazed ceramics of Khul’buk (forms of bowls and dishes). 130

Tajikistan Fig. 2. Glazed ceramics of Khul’buk. 131

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics shapes (circles, rhombs and triangles) and plant tendrils. In the background white, red, yel- low and chocolate paints were used. The botanical ornamentation was painted on in dark brown, red or black lines; white, yellow, grey or blue stripes that were drawn round the base of a vessel were often outlined by the above colours. Among the ceramic finds there is a bowl—kosa with the luster glaze on a white background produced of well washed clay on a potter's wheel (fig. 2.6; ill. III.1). It is similar to the Khul’buk bowls in shape, the base is circular (rim is 33 cm in diameter, base is 10 cm in diameter and 10 cm high). A multi-petal flower with red spots on the ends of leaves surrounded by a red background is depicted on the vessel base. The greenish-grey ring, from which four symmetric pomegranates and four cypresses are placed radially to- wards the rim, is drawn round the perimeter of the base. Pomegranate seeds are marked with red spots inside rectangular squares of a crosshatched ornament. Free space is filled up with a dotted pattern with two red cherries at the top and the bottom. The design is con- centric and radial, the design-forming element is the alternation of pomegranate and cy- press leaves with a dotted filling of the empty background. As for luster ware, it should be noted that in Central Asia the production of this type of pot- tery started in the 12th century (Pugachenkova, 1960, p. 60). The appearance of this high- quality ceramics, requiring special technical skills and techniques was a great achievement of the Middle Eastern craftsmen of the 9th century including the Koshan and Rey masters from Iran. The increase in the production of luster ceramics in the 12th century is an evi- dence of great progress of potters in the development of matte opaque glaze. This technol- ogy is attributed to a ‘production problem’ in the manufacture of a light porcelain-like item. However it is also a fundamentally new technological direction with the special techniques of firing, selection and preparation of frits (Sayko, 1969, p. 54). However, the shape, orna- mental design and paints of the luster bowl from Khul’buk may be an indication of the fact that the items with luster glazing could be produced in Khuttal as early as in the 11th century. In the 10–11th centuries the border ornament covering the rim and the upper part of the wall of a bowl was used in combination with the botanical one. The decoration of borders was very popular starting from the simplest to the most complex pattern (ill. IV). A dark brown dent- ed ring was depicted on the lip of one of the bowls and twisted plant branches with curls were depicted below in circle (ill. I.2), the red line with a number of paired rings inside was painted below. A chocolate brown eye was painted in the centre of the bowl. The orna- ment was painted against white background. When an item was decorated with the ring design, the ornament was often painted in circle as a chain of floral patterns. A number of opposite patterns in the form of branch- es with tendrils diverging in two directions was painted inside the ring outlined by strips on one of the bowls (ill. V.1). It is slipped with dirty white engobe, the ornament is yellow- ish-green and the ring at the base is red. There is also a spot on the base. The combination of a concentric circle around the rim with the central position of the orna- ment is typical for Khul’buk items. For example, a bowl with a strip limited by brown line drawn around the rim, divided into arches in the shape of garlands, while the edge of the rim is deco- rated with short strokes (ill. V.2). Three equidistant patterns resembling highly stylised fan bou- quets branch off downwards from the line. A brown flower is painted in the centre of the vessel; its four green petals are contoured by a brown ring with two symmetrical radiating strokes. 132

Tajikistan Fig. 3. Glazed ceramics and fragments of Khul’buk. The collection of Khul’buk includes some bowls with an ornament, based on the sectored design. The division into sectors is carried out either directly from the centre of the bowl, with the base contoured by a ring or from a figure placed at the centre of the vessel. The shaded strips or the branches of conifers were used as the separators. It should be noted that the bowls (kosa), shown in fig. 2 are characterised by a high saturation of the picture, as they were man- ufactured exclusively for residents of the palace of Khul’buk. They are produced on a potter's wheel using refined clay. The bowls are 6–12 cm high and the diameter of the rim is 12–32 cm. One of these bowls (shakhkosa) is slipped in white, the entire inner surface is decorated (diameter is 32 cm) (fig. 2.1). A shaded six-pointed star is placed in the centre of the ves- sel. The strips shaded with dark brown herringbone ornament are branched radially from the sides of the star to the rim. The space between the strips is contoured with black lines and filled up with small triangles. The second bowl, unlike the first one, is slipped in white from both sides. The division of the field into sectors starts from the centre of bowl; it has 16 equal parts filled up with an al- ternating ornament (fig. 2.2). Some sectors are filled with three radial lines, reaching the edge of the rim. Other sectors are covered with red dots and each sector also has an arrow-like plant 133

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Fig. 4. Glazed ceramics with Epigraphic motifs of Khul’buk. 134

Tajikistan leaf at the top and another leaf at the bot- tom with one dot inside. The tip of the sec- tor at the rim is scalloped; its contour along the rim is doubled by a black line. Black large circles with a trefoil inside are paint- ed on the bowl and the rest of body is fine- ly dashed. Similar bowls were discovered at Taraz (Baypakov, 2005, p. 137–138). The design of the ornament of another bowl is also sectored, but only a side sur- face of the bowl is divided into sectors (fig. 2.3). The base is contoured by two stripes; the inner edge has a wavy contour, imitat- ing a multi-petal flower with a dot in the cen- Fig. 5. Glazed ceramics with Epigraphic tre. The division into sectors is carried motifs of Khul’buk. out from the bottom with branching bands in the shape of a conifer with a trunk marked by dots. The space between the strips is contoured and filled up with spiral shapes. The ornament is limited by double circular lines (green-grey and red) on the body from the above and below and divided into sectors of different size depending on the applied paint used in the filling of the ornament in the shape of shoots-tendrils on one of the bowls (ill. III.2). All sectors are outlined around the perimeter. Six broad sectors, decorated in greenish-grey are separated by six narrow sectors, with the alternating range of colours in the ornament (red and black). The alternation of colours can be seen at the base of the bowl—against the background of the greenish-grey decoration a smaller circle with red ornament is placed in the centre, the motif of decoration repeats the one painted on the walls of the vessel. Green three-pronged fork-like ornamental strips split the decoration into sectors on one of the rare bowls, ornamented by dotted lines (15 cm in diameter, the base is cir- cular) (ill. VI.1). They branch off from the three rings of pearls at the bottom of the bowl; two are dark-green and one external is yellow. The design is centric and sectored. One green leaf imitating flames is depicted in each of the four sectors by a dotted line. Green radial dashes-dots are drawn on the rim; below there is a series of yellow dashes, also outlining the leaves inside the sectors. In general, the pattern looks spectacular and unusual. A yellowish slipped bowl (diameter is 15 cm) is decorated with green paint (ill. VII.1). A dark-brown S-shaped figure with hook-cross arches at ends is painted at the bottom; three saplings are drawn on the top of the figure (ill. VII.2). In the centre of the bottom there is an amorphous ring with a dark brown spot in the centre. A strip of the same colour is painted on top of the rim. The decoration of another bowl is rare and original (ill. VIII). Two red stylised tulips, which stems are marked with black and brown dots against the pistachio background are de- picted on walls. Black rings with pinches on all four sides and a dot in the centre are drawn between them on the rim. The ornament of tulips is also seen on a fragment of the bowl rim, the flowers are placed in a line, a drawing of a flower alternating with a fully painted flower in dark brown 135

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics and  red  paints (fig.  3.2). On  one  dish the ornament consists of three zones of heart-like pattern (diameter is 34 cm), formed by two paired red spots (points) and black ones between them below (ill. IX.1). A red seven-petal flower is painted in the centre of the vessel. The rim is deco- rated with a black dented strip. The pattern is applied against the background of pista- chio hue. It was a dish for the main course. Small items from Khul’buk have two-sid- ed slipping and ornament, what is proved by a small bowl (piala) with floral orna- ments (fig. 2.9). The design of other small bowls is also original (fig. 2.8). The depicted pomegranate with two stems on the sides occupies the entire inner surface against white background, and the space between them is filled up with red dots. The picture is unusual and very original. The exterior of the bowl is also decorated with the orna- ment made of circles and dots. Among the ceramic tableware material of Khul’buk there are a lot of saucers and small plates with straight or slightly raised upward Fig. 6. Glazed chirags and fragments of the sides and straight sloping walls, bases are dis- handles of Khul’buk. coid with a circular notch (fig. 1). A small sau- cer is slipped in white and the base is con- toured by a black ring. Three palm trees are depicted on the horizontal border, and three carnation flowers are painted between them flanked with a small quatrefoil on each side. The item looks very elegant (fig. 2.7). Epigraphic motifs. In the 9th–12th centuries the flexible Kufi letters were widely used as a decoration on the glazed ceramic items of Central Asia, including the ones from Khul’buk. Long inscriptions of classical Kufi writing on the ceramic items from Khul’buk are dated back to the 9th century (fig. 4.1, 4.7); the inscription was made in black against white back- ground. The design is applied concentrically around the rim of the bowl (fig. 3.5–10, 5). The flourishing Kufi (‘shukufta-Kufi’), i.e. stylised inscription in the role of a decora- tive ornament appeared in the 10th century (fig. 4.2–3, 5, 6, 8, 10; ill. X.1–2). Kufi shukufta is frequently inscribed down to the base of vessel. One word (‘l-yumi’ or ‘Allah’) is repeated many times. There are some important changes in the style of the inscriptions: the top parts of the letters are bent to the left, some parts of letters are stressed while others are thin, the whole ‘alphabet’ is bent to the right, and the ends of letters have an unusual key-like shape. The evolution of the Arabic inscriptions in ceramics was discussed in the works by V.А. Krachkovskaya (1950, p. 3–27) and O. G. Bolshakov (1969, p. 42–50). 136

Tajikistan The inscriptions are made at a very high professional level, most likely by calligraphers. They could have worked along with potters to enable the mass production of the items. Noteworthy is the loyalty of the inventors and users of epigraphic ornaments to the uniform bookish Arabic language (fig. 3). More complex calligraphy appears relatively early and the stems of the letters are imitat- ed by palmettos (fig. 5), are tied in knots and semi-knots (ill. X; XII). The lines of the draw- ings on the medieval ceramics show a certain flexibility of strokes, as if a potter improvised a pattern based on a drawing of a professional draughtsman. A modern craftsman, dex- terous in drawing complex patterns and knowledgeable about the ancient plots and motifs, is entirely helpless in copying an inscription in Arabic even after receiving details instruc- tions related to the strokes and links between the letters. In the 11th century bowls are often decorated by pseudo-inscriptions grouped in a con- centric composition and drawn in dark colours on the bluish background (ill. XIII.1–2). The inscription goes well with a delicate ornament of red spots with three lateral pinches and a dot in the centre or framed by red circular borders. In the use of calligraphy in the production of ceramic items, potters often use quota- tions from the Koran and epigraphic ornaments in the ‘flourishing Kufi’ style and its variety known as the ‘ceramic italics’. Usually the inscriptions were placed round the body, around the rim and the bottom of a vessel, or, alternatively, as a puzzle down its walls. Their con- tent is always the same: the wishing of health (salomati), happiness (kayfiyat), wealth (bar- akat), well-being (al-‘umin) to the owner of the vessel (Pugachenkova, 1982, p. 203–204). The glazed items from Khul’buk include many sherds of and whole inkpots (siyo- hidon), tiny vessels on a flat base decorated with an imitation of epigraphic décor from the rim to the rim across the bottom and the centre (height is 1.5 cm, the diameter of the rim is 10 cm, working surface 4.5 cm, base—4.5 cm, and the depth of an inkpot is 1.5 cm). Inkpots were often covered by transparent glaze (ill. IX.2). Zoomorphic motifs are frequent in the ornamentation of the medieval pottery in differ- ent regions of Central Asia. There are series of items with zoomorphic décor from the south- ern Kazakhstan (pigeon, peacock, lion, leopard, deer, fox) (Senigova, 1972, p. 159; Baypakov, 2005, p. 137–138, fig. 96), from the Semirechye (pheasant, frog, bear) (Bernshtam, 1950, p. 136), Fergana (deer, pigeon, fish, pheasant) (Brykina, 1972, p. 97–99), from Samarkand (pigeon, eagle, duck, goat, horse, fish, fantastic beasts,) (Tashkhojaev, 1967, p. 54–57). In the alabaster décor, ceramic and glass items from Khul’buk one can see the images of a horse, leopard, lion, mountain goat, turkey, dog, cock and peacock. Ceramic items in- clude a bowl with sectored ornamentation. The item has a truncated conical shape, slipped from the inside with red slip (diameter—14.3 cm., height—5 cm., diameter of the bottom is 5.5 cm). The ornament is divided by two broad black strips. Each sector has the pictures of peacocks, and two figures are drawn in thin lines. The figures of the birds are filled with dots and imitations of feathers in semi-ovals combined with the drawings of twigs. In Zo- roastrianism, the peacock symbolised the concept of light, beauty, welfare and happiness. The potters from Khul’buk also richly decorated ceramic lanterns, chirags. These can be di- vided into the following three kinds: а) with a round body, long spout and a loop-like han- dle; covered with matte green glaze or colourless glaze on the white slip with the drawings of stylised flying birds made in red and black paint; b) with a faceted body and a leaf-like 137

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics handle top, covered with stamped botanical and geometric ornaments under green or light brown glaze (ill. 14; fig. 6); c) with a truncated conical body, circular handle and covered with brown glaze (ill. XIV; fig. 6). Glazed ceramics from Khojent. Khojent, located at the left bank of the Syr Darya, grew into one of the largest cities of the Fergana valley by the 11th–12th century. It stood on a trade route and was an important crafts and commerce centres on the junction of three provinces: Fergana, Chach and Ustrushana, which helped the city develop at a faster pace than most other cities of the region. Khojent reached its peak under the Samanid rule (9th–10th centu- ries), when it constituted a separate administrative region. At that time the city went through significant transformation which also involved the reconstruction of its citadel and its craft and trade part, rabat. The finds from excavations confirm that in the 10th–13th centuries Khojent enjoyed a high level of the development of crafts. Particularly important ceramic items were discovered at the citadel. The local potters began to introduce the production of the glazed ceramic items in the 9th cen- tury. We have gathered a small collection of sherds of items of the period, covered with light grey glaze on the inside. Botanical and geometric patterns were drawn in the emerald paint which gave a blurred line in the process of firing. These sherds show that the glaze was ap- plied on the surface without any additional processing. This glazing technique was spread all over Maverannahr (Tashkhojaev, 1967, p. 9–11; Lunina, 1962, p. 245). There are also sherds of bowls and pialas covered with greyish glaze but the drawing is made in green. In the 10th–11th centuries, Khojent, as well as other cities of the region, goes through a qualitative jump in the production of glazed pottery. The items now have thinner walls, with transparent leaden glaze and the ornament is applied against the white slip. The paints are polychromatic and the drawings are clear. The glazed ceramics of Khojent is the topic of T. V. Belyaeva’s work but unfortunately, the figures are not numbered and it is difficult to infer from the description which bowl is being mentioned (Belyaeva, 1984, p. 211–214). Judging from the pictures, the ceramics from Khojent can be divided into three ornamen- tal groups: geometric, botanical and epigraphic. The botanical ornament of the 9th–10th centuries can be seen on several bowls. One of these is covered with white slip on both sides (diameter is 38 cm). The rim is decorated with a black dented line, then there is a double band below with curls and petals between the two lines (fig. 7.2). Another bowl also covered with white slip on both sides, combines botanical and geomet- ric ornament which is divided in sectors and bands. Below the rim decorated with a dented pistachio double line, there are wide ornamental bands. The inner part of a band is divided into eight sectors with the similar double line. Each sector contains a bush drawn in pis- tachio paint. The free space of each sector is outlined by a thin red zigzag line and dashed. The glaze covers the whole of the inner surface and a half of the exterior, which has no or- nament at all (fig. 7.3) (Belyaeva, 1984, p. 217). The walls of some items are decorated with the herring bone pattern typical for the period. Potters were good artists, too. (Shishkina, 1986. Fig. 21,1; 27,4). There is another bowl covered with white slip on both sides with a combined sectored and band division (diameter 27 cm). The side outlined below the rim with a concentric line 138

Tajikistan Fig. 7. Glazed ceramics of Khojent (T. V. Belyaeva). and a black line at the bottom, is divided into seven sectors, each of those with a semi-pal- metto drawn on the ornamented red and brown background (fig. 8.3). The next bowl has eight semi-oval medallions placed in circle and separated from each other with a sign of ribbed horns. The centre of the bowl is occupied with a girech pattern, a knot of two elongated ovals in the form of a quatrefoil flower with rays painted in pista- chio and red colours on the white background. This ornament is unusual and has no ana- logues (fig. 8.1). It should be noted that the Khojent potters often and skillfully used semi-palmettos in their décor. One white slipped bowl has an ornament in the centre made up of four brown semi- palmettos which unusually resemble a cross. The free space contains figures drawn with a thin pistachio line and there is also a brown strip around the edge of the bowl (fig. 8.2). 139

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Fig. 8. Glazed ceramics of Khojent (T. V. Belyaeva). 140

Tajikistan Similar patterns around the rim of a vessel are typical for the artistic ceramics of Maver- annahr of the 10th–13th century (Stolyarova, 1990, p. 119, fig. 2,3; Shishkina, 1986, fig. 27). In the early 10th century, a botanical branch with semi-palmettos remains the main com- positional motif, although fairly typical is concentric and central location of a drawing wither in the centre or at the edge of a vessel (Stolyarova, 1990, p. 119). This style adorns the glazed ceramic items from Khojent, Shakhristan and Khul’buk (fig. 8.9, 11). The epigraphic ornament is represented on two whole bowls (diameter of the rim is 15 and 24 cm). The first bowl has a dark brown stylised inscription on a white slipped back- ground and a large black dot in the centre. The inscription has both ornamental as well as epigraphic function (fig. 7.1). The function of the inscription on the second bowl is that of a divider. Three lines of stretched letters divide the field in three sectors. They are made in brown paint and in- terweave in the centre of the bowl in a knot where the word ‘Allah’ is written in stylised letters. Each sector of the bowl contains broken geometric figures and patterns composed of small dots of pistachio, green and brown colour (fig. 8.10) (Drevnosti Tajikistana, 1985, p. 329). The stylised brown letters go well with the geometric ornament. Glazed ceramics of Shakhristan (Bunjikat). Shakhristan is the modern centre of the lo- cal khukumat (district) of the Sogd province. In the 5th–12th centuries it was the capital city of the province of Ustrushana located 70 km to the south of Khojent. The site has been under study for over 100 years. The main attention was focused on the monuments of the 5th–8th centuries (Srednevekoviy Shakhristan, 1966), while Shakhris- tan with the ruins of the 9th–12th century settlement remained unattended to and the pieces of glazed ceramics from the site are mostly random. All the glazed items from Shakhristan were manufactured on potter’s wheel using refined clay. The collected items can be subdi- vided into three groups: zoomorphic motifs, epigraphic décor and botanical ornamentation. Zoomorphic motifs. A bowl found in potter’s quarters has a circular base and is slipped in white (diameter 19 cm). In its centre there is a partridge drawn in yellow, red and green col- ours on the white background with a dark red beak, white eyeballs and black pupil. The body of the bird is green, outlined by a black line; the feathers on the wings are red and black. The rim of the bowl is decorated by a yellow band, and there are two plaited strips below the rim, made in red and black (ill. XV.1). A washing vessel in the form of a lion was found by the local people and presented to the members of the Shakhristan expedition of the 1950 (Smirnova, 1953, p. 201; Manya- khina, 1985, p. 313). It is hand built of refined clay and depicts a stylised beast on three legs with the body of a bird and a large lion’s head (ill. XVI). Water poured out of the oval mouth and round eyes. A rough handle is attached to the neck and the base of the tail with the low- er mouth through which water was poured into the vessel. The body is covered with white glaze with greenish hue, the wings are accentuated and have rosettes filled with a multi-pet- al star and a dotted pattern; the end of the wings is crosshatched in the imitation of feath- ers. There are rosettes with a deeply incised cross on the shoulders and a carved underglaze ornament at the back. Another medallion rosette with triangles and a dot inside is located at the chest and is interpreted as a solar sign. The cross-shaped rosettes on the shoulders are also solar signs. Of all the animals with solar symbols the winged lion denoted the rul- 141

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics er’s throne; therefore this lion could most likely belong to the Istravshan ruling dynasties. Although not all the paints remained, it was obviously a ceremonial vessel, made with taste and deservedly regarded as a masterpiece of the Istravshan ceramics of the 9th–10th century. The Kalai Bolo fortress, located in the Isfara district of the medieval Fergana, yielded a lus- ter bowl with a well-accentuated base and convex walls (diameter 25 cm) (ill. XVII). On the in- ner surface of the bowl, placed inside a rosette—medallion, there is a fantastic creature with woman’s head and the body of the snow leopard painted on the golden brown background. Wavy ribbons of different shape and size are attached to the head and are deemed to have some magical meaning. Inside the bowl, the golden brown ornament on the white background consists of six wide strips filled with a repetitive botanical ornament in three bands and sepa- rated by vertical lines. The exterior of the bowl is divided into six cartouches by double vertical lines with a repetitive botanical ornament inside. The vessel is dated back to the 12th century. (Drevnosti Tajikistana, 1985, p. 289, 318–319). It should be mentioned here that the produc- tion of luster ceramics at that time has been confidently confirmed in relation to Merv. The botanical ornamentation. The glazed ceramics from Shakhristan has not been properly studied and the limited range of items at our disposal cannot give a full picture of the orna- mental art of the potters from Bunjikat or Ustrushana, yet it provides an evidence of a rich and diverse artistic heritage. One bowl with blurred glazed patterns of the white background (ill. XV.2) is dated back to the 9th–10th centuries when this type of décor was most popular. It was made in strokes of green, yellow and brown paints on the white slip ‘bleeding’ into each other in the kiln creating a picturesque interplay of thick or transparent drips (Pugachenkova, 1982, p. 202). Another bowl has an ornament painted on the bluish background. It consists of two con- centric circles made of brown heart-shaped patterns (ill. XV.3). A single pattern of the same kind is placed in the centre, while the edges of the rim are dashed. This kind of ornament is typical for the Central Asia of the 10th–11th century (Stolyarova, 1990. Fig. 4,5) Similar bluish glaze covered the next bowl decorated with a centric four-part orna- ment. Black strip outlines the rim. The main drawing is located at the centre of the bottom and its pattern is formed by two black concentric circles. The inner ring is divided by a cross into four sectors, filled in by a heart-shaped pattern in the form of opposite twigs. The draw- ing on this bowl contains both geometric as well as botanical ornamental patterns. A similar combination of patterns can be seen on other bowls (ill. XVIII.1, 2). One of these, white slipped, has a combination of semi-palmettos with geometric shapes. The rim is dec- orated with a strip imitating interwoven ribbons (diameter 24 cm). The ornament is drawn in dark brown paint and the free space is decorated with blurred green glaze. Another bowl (diameter 22 cm), slipped with the same white engobe, has a concentric composition with a row of brown palmettos drawn inside. Above and below the ring we can see grey bands and an eyelet in the centre of the bowl painted with the same paint. The epigraphic patterns can be seen on a light green slipped bowl with a spout as a com- bination of Arabic Kufi letters outlined with a thin black line (diameter of the rim 22.5 cm) (ill. XIX). The Arabic inscriptions alternate with framed pseudo-letters. The spout is decorated with a black garland with three round pendants. On the rim above the letters we can see black pearls and a black ribbon below. The composition on the bottom of the vessel is quite complex. There is a pentagon in the centre divided into five sectors with a small branch inside each. 142

Tajikistan Fig. 9. Glazed ceramics with engraved pattern of Magian (E. V. Sayko). 143

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics A wide band of interwoven red ribbons surrounds the pentagon. The ribbons are outlined with black lines adorned with white pearls. The bowl had a ceremonial function and its or- nament looked unusual. (Drevnosti Tajikistana , 1985, p. 316). A tank-shaped jar from Uratube (Mugtepe) has shallow channels on the body. On the white underglaze background there is a stylised brown inscription al-‘umin (well-being) made in the ‘flourishing Kufi’ style (kufi shukufta). Two flower vases are from Shakhristan, one has a botanical ornament with a row of spiral patterns and the other is covered with green slip (ill. XX.1–3). Glazed ceramics of Magian in 12–13th centuries. Magian is located 50 km to the east of Penjikent. The archaeological excavation in the adjacent settlement of Mugteppa (Tepe A) took place in 1958, 1959 and 1966. These excavations were carried out by E. V. Sayko and di- rected by B. Ya. Staviskiy (Staviskiy 1959, 1961 Sayko, 1969). The ceramic material is dated with the help of coins minted in 1178/79–1230. Glazed ceramic of Magian is a holistic complex consisting of pottery of different kinds in terms of their shape, design, quality of vitreous coating, set of colours and type of sherd. Bowls with rounded and straight walls, thin-walled fine bowls with red background on cir- cular base are combined with heavier thick-walled vessels. It should be noted that in the 12–13th centuries the underglaze painting was widespread. The most popular shape was dishes or plates on a circular base with a truncated conical body or slightly rounded walls and rim. The drawing was painted on against white, light coloured or red, red-brown background under transparent or painted glaze. The complex of glazed pottery of the medieval settlement of Magian (Tepe A) is quite inter- esting as material of a single-layered site from the transitional period of the 12th–13th centu- ries, in which we can see different variants of ceramic items both in the character of decora- tion and in the technical methods of their manufacture. In general, it includes different kinds of ware with lead glaze, varied and clear profiling and high-quality moulding. Based on the ap- pearance and the character of the surface the following kinds of items can be identified: 1. Ware with transparent glaze on white slipping and red, brown and light green copper underglaze painting. Painting is frequently combined with engraving filling up a large part of the body (fig. 9.4). 2. A large and expressive group of items with transparent glaze and a simple engraved pattern (frequently in the form of s-shaped dashes) on a red or brown, thinner or wider band (fig. 9.2, 3). 3. Ware with transparent glaze, engraved pattern on white slipping with dabs and spots or dots of metal and mineral paints. 4. A special group of glazed pottery with green coloured glaze and often with engraving in the shape of more or less dense net. 5. Few items with transparent lead glaze on an engraved pattern and spotted painting with yellow ferriferous and green copper paints. 6. A group of items with red underglaze slipping and transparent colourless or slightly coloured yellowish glaze is very varied in the quality of forming and the character of design. Among them there are thick-walled dishes with borders stretching angularly to the low- er part of vessel, more elegant dishes and bowls with traditional white pearls on a brown 144

Tajikistan band against red slipped background with transparent glaze. Also there are bowls with straight and rounded walls and a concave rim, decorated with starry medallions (first paint- ed and then engraved) and with incised lines. Thin-walled small bowls without any decora- tion or with light stripes of s-shaped dashes stand out due to such special qualities of their glaze as the ability to glitter and its brightness. For all types of glazed ceramic the spectral analysis has identified different kinds of the lead glaze. All items continue the technological tradition of the previous age. A lot of design details which are typical for Magian of the 12th– 13th centuries and before, acquired new nuances in the use of engraving and paints. Now, along with the items decorated with solid, stable and compact paints, appear items with more transparent and blurred paints of underglaze painting. A special type of glazed ware consists of items with a dense matte green-blue glaze on sherd. According to the chemical analysis of the glaze, it is based on sodium-calcium-magnesium- tin-lead-silicate. Only two fragments are the samples of a new type of ware (kashin) with a transparent, deep glassy glaze on the sodium-silicate base. In general the ceramics of the medieval site on Magian has the following characteristics: 1. High quality of ceramic ware for a relatively small mountain settlement; 2. A wide variety of ceramic material for such a small town, not only in the decoration, but also in technical methods of pottery manufacturing; 3. Ceramics with red background from Magian combines the new elements of decoration (e.g., unusual medallions and rosettes) along with the traditional ones. The intertwined old and new traditions, features of ceramic decoration, glaze composi- tions and shapes of vessels are evident in the Magian complex. The gradual introduction of the new techniques and the types of pottery takes place in the traditional context (Sayko, 1969, p. 25–26). To conclude, the decoration of the glazed ceramic items from Khul’buk, Shahhristan, Khujand and Mountainous Sogd (Magian) is interconnected with the decoration of ceramics of other regions of Central Asia. The common features ceramic ornamental art are not limited to the territory of Central Asia, but extend far beyond its borders. A number of similarities, such as the design of the radial lines forming ornamental sectors, bring it closer to the art of me- dieval Azerbaijan, Iran and the rest of the Muslim world as a whole. The decoration of pot- tery of this period combines rich decorative elements complementing each other in a wide variety of compositions. The motifs, common for the glazed pottery of the East as a whole, acquire local features. At the same time local, particularly attractive motifs emerge with artists, potters and calligraphers from each large production centre developing the charac- teristic features of their own variants of the range of colours, ornaments and shapes of ves- sels, which either remain only a local feature or subsequently become widely spread. In the search for the examples their painting, potters often paid attention to the ancient symbols of Zoroastrianism, to the ornamentation of ancient items. Only after that the rec- reated compositions could be saturated with folklore images or changed under the influence of traditional stories and motifs. The decoration of metal items, from which the whole com- positions and some elements of the pattern were once borrowed, was not forgotten. The bo- tanical, geometrical and epigraphic ornaments applied against a dotted background, con- tinue the tradition linked with the decor of local metal items (Byashimova, 1982, p. 20–22). 145

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics I. Glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. II. Glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. III. Glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. IV. Fragments of the glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. 146

Tajikistan V. Glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. VI. Glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. VII. Glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. VIII. Glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. 147

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics IX. Glazed ceramics, Khul’buk. X. Glazed ceramics with epigraphic motifs, Khul’buk. XI. Glazed ceramics with epigraphic motifs, Khul’buk. XII. Glazed ceramics with epigraphic motifs, Khul’buk. 148