29 - Сeramics_eng_art

Glazed ceramics (14th –15th century) Dish with peons. 15th century. Ulugbek Madrassah. Samarkand. Uzbekistan. 199

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Dish. 15th–16th century. Rabat-Malik. Uzbekistan. 200

Glazed ceramics (14th –15th century) Bottom of a bowl with a hare. 15th century. Samarkand. Uzbekistan. 201

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Bottom of bowl with iris. 15th century. Samarkand. Uzbekistan. 202

Glazed ceramics (14th –15th century) Dish with birds. 15th century. Uzbekistan. 203

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Dish. 14th–15th centuries. Тashkent. Uzbekistan. 204

Glazed ceramics (14th –15th century) Dish with a sparrow. 15th–16th centuries. Uzbekistan. 205

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Dish. 14th–15th centuries. Uzbekistan. 206

Glazed ceramics (14th –15th century) Glazed bowl. 14th–15th centuries. Uzbekistan. 207

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Glazed dish. 14th century. Azerbaijan. 208

Uzbekistan The ceremonial ceramics includes the items that are made in imitation of Chinese por- celain on white silicate kashin base (resembling faience) with delicate blue ornamentation. Being of higher quality, until the 19th century Chinese porcelain continued to play an impor- tant role in forming artistic tastes of contemporaries in the Near and Middle East, as well as in the Western and Eastern Europe. Therefore, individual items of ‘ceremonial’ ceramics of this period copy or use some elements of ‘park scenes,’ widely spread on the Far Eastern porcelain. Nevertheless, painting with blue paint on white kashin clay was not discovered by Chinese masters, but by ceramists in the Near East and Central Asia, where in the 12th cen- tury it was used on luster crockery (Saiko, 1969, p. 117–120). Undoubtedly, the items of this ceremonial luster crockery reached the Far East, but there only two centuries later the pot- ters of China could adjust the blue painting of Iranian cobalt to the snow-white porcelain, giving it a Chinese flavour. It should also be noted that kashin of white or pink colours, wide- ly used in the ceremonial crockery of Central Asia and the Near East from the 12th century had a soft structure of the sherd and continued to be very popular at the time of the Temu- rids. But the discovery of more solid compositions of kashin close in its structure to por- celain was, no doubt, the main achievement of the period under study. From the sources of the 15th century we know very well of ceaseless attempts to discover the secrets of porce- lain in the Empire of the Temurids and of significant successes achieved in this field by ce- ramic masters. Supported by Alisher Navoi, one of these masters-nakkoshes from Herat began manufacturing vessels very similar technically and artistically to the Chinese ones, though of less pure colour (Bartold, Volume 2, Part 2, p. 258). On the basis of the materials we have received we can definitely say that it is on items from solid kashin that the copies of scenes from Chinese porcelain can be observed, and Chi- nese plate marks are imitated for the first time on the base of the items made of this ma- terial. Such imitations of Chinese porcelain were known in many countries, but especially famous were the items from the Iranian towns of Kashan and Yazd. According to Chardin, a famous French traveller of the 17th century, goods with counterfeit plate marks were add- ed to the authentic Chinese porcelain, which caravans carried westward through Kashan (Kverfeld, 1940, p. 13). Thus, after the rare items of solid kashin copying Chinese items come the more numer- ous items of soft kashin with realistic zoomorphic and even anthropomorphic scenes, which also belong to the group of ceremonial ceramics. These are images of different types of birds and animals, including fantastic ones: cormorants, herons, parrots, sparrows, phoenixes, deer and peacocks surrounded by lush ornamentation. Among the anthropomorphic ones the most distinctive ones are the images of riders on thoroughbred horses and sitting peo- ple whose faces, however, are not distinctly drawn. Crockery with ‘vertical compositions of park motifs’ when the ornament has the ‘top’ and the ‘bottom’(a heap of soil), comprises a significant portion of items in the group under study (Pugachenkova, 1950; Pugachenkova, 1949). Usually these are single botanical motifs, very lush or elegant depending on the loca- tion and the composition of the ornament. Ceramics for ‘everyday’ purposes was made of clay, had mostly monochrome painting with blue paint on white slip with a standard set of widespread, conventional, repeating bo- tanical motifs (ill. XXXIX). Nevertheless, the symbolic motifs of Chinese porcelain—pome- 209

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics granate (wishing prosperity), mushrooms of immortality ‘zhi’, peaches (Mirzaakhmedov, 1992. figs. 1,4), botanical motifs and dragons were also used (Smagulov, 1992. figs. 3, 5,6). It is also necessary to note that the gradual deviation from the old and transition to the new forms of items, the change of character and location of the ornamental composi- tions on tableware and the widely spread blue colour (which is one of the favourite in our days, too), all this belongs to the period of the Temurids. In particular, squat dishes with a massive flat bottom and wide board bent outward (lagans) (ill. XL)—an indispensable form of table- ware used in collective events and the indicator of the forming by the time of the Temurids of one of the characteristic features of the nation’s mentality—become widespread. Ornamental composition on bowls (kosa), the shape and size of which has also finally formed by the period under study, begins to gradually move from the inner surface, which was typical of previous periods, to the outer side, what has remained to this day (Mirzaa- khmedov, 1996). In general, the ‘Temurid ceramic style’ of blue, dark blue and white colours, realistic zoomorphic and partly anthropomorphic images and extremely lush and elegant ‘vertical compositions of park motifs’ is considered to be an integral style. It synthesises the latest achievements and fashion trends of the largest ceramic centres of the Middle East, united in the empire of Amir Temur, and the materials of the Chinese origin. However, both in pop- ular and more expensive ceremonial items this influence is so considerably reinterpreted by ceramists into local, deeply traditional botanical and floral compositions, that such in- fluence is visible only in general features. The Temurids’ period is characterised by wide international economic and cultural con- tacts along the routes of the Silk Road, interchange of scientific and technical information, perception and reconsidering of cultural values of neighbouring nations, as well as of cer- tain welfare of the society. The ceramic material indicates that certain forms of tableware were created, and their sizes and colours were also standardised in the period under study. The presence of realistic zoo- and anthropomorphic images on many ceramic items is an- other evidence of the rise of spiritual culture and the absence of conservative religious views in the world vision of the general public (Mirzaakhmedov, 1996). 210

Uzbekistan I. Afrasiab. II. Afrasiab. III. Afrasiab. IV. Akhsiket. 211

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics V. Afrasiab. VI. Afrasiab. VII. Afrasiab. VIII. Paikend. 212

Uzbekistan IX. Paikend. X. Paikend. XI. Paikend. XII. Paikend. 213

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XIII. Akhsiket. XIV. Akhsiket. XV. Akhsiket. XVI. Akhsiket. 214

Uzbekistan XVII. Kuva. XVIII. Kuva. XIX. Kuva. XX. Kuva. 215

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XXI. Kuva. XXII. Kuva. XXIII. Kuva. XXIV. Kuva. 216

Uzbekistan XXV. Kuva. XXVI. Kuva. XXVII. Afrasiab. XXVIII. Paikend. 217

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XXIX. Uch Kulakh. XXX. Bukhara. XXXI. Samarkand. XXXII. Paikend. 218

Uzbekistan XXXIII. Rabat-i Malik. XXXIV. Bukhara. XXXV. Paikend. XXXVI. Paikend. 219

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XXXVII. Tashkent. XXXVIII. Tashkent. XXXIX. Tashkent. XL. Tashkent. 220

AZERBAIJAN The period of the 9th–15th centuries is an important stage in the history of Azerbaijan. The de- velopment of production and industrial relations supported the development of crafts and trade, which served as the economic basis for the development of towns and urban culture. The im- portant feature of the period is the rapid development of artistic handicrafts. Artisans pro- duced items that could clearly reflect thoughts, senses and perceptions of the surrounding environment and artistic taste of people. The materials discovered during archaeological excavations provide valuable sources and evidence of the high professionalism and refined taste of local craftsmen. The most widespread type of decorative and applied arts of medieval Azerbaijan is ceram- ics, demonstrating the characteristic features of the artistic culture of the period and the ten- dency towards the integration of arts. There the ornamental art, calligraphy and painting are combined in a perfect harmony. The development of pottery started in the 9th century and reached its culmination in the 12th century. The firing technique for ceramic items was perfected and the kilns of new constructions producing ceramics of high quality were invented during that pe- riod of the history of Azerbaijan. Production and ceramic decoration technique was also developed and new types of pottery appeared. It is a well-established fact that in the be- ginning of the period, the basic principles defining ways of development of medieval ce- ramics of Azerbaijan were already formulated. The special attention was paid to the de- sign treatment of ceramic surface. The medieval potters provided the population with all the necessary household items starting from the large household vessels kyup to small saltcellars. Some ceramic items keep the names of medieval potter-artists, e.g., the names of 18 potters which were discovered at the Baylakan site. Three of them, Akhmed, Fazlun and Djafar, produced sphero-conical pottery, other three Ali, Aziz and Rustam made kyup, one of them, Lashkari, specialised in the production of potter pipes—tyung and eleven potters Azra, Amir, Abul’-Kasim, Badal, Hasan, Hamza, Nasr, Seidali, Khattab, Khamary and Yusif produced glazed bowls (Akhmedov G., 1979, p. 68. Arkheologiya Azerbaydjana, 2008, p. 113). The decoration of pottery was a result of the imagination of local potters who in the first place created the constructive shapes with utilitarian purpose. Unglazed domestic ceram- ic items are noteworthy for their perfect shapes, good combination of contours, harmony of proportions, smooth surface and high quality of production, making pottery look artistic without any additional decoration. Most ceramic items are properly and evenly fired, their sherd is thin and clear. Kyup, sekheng, jugs, cups and bowls are simple in contours and have clear shapes. Both tableware and tair, kitchenware were decorated, e.g., during excavations at such sites as Gyandja, Shamkir and Baylakan the cauldrons decorated with moulded tri- angular dents with rounded sides, cylinder hoof-like ledges, incrustation of broken faience pottery coated with turquoise glaze were unearthed (Akhmedov, 1959, p. 190). There are also 221

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics cauldrons with handles in the shape of a triangular ledge. Rhythmic repetition of this pat- tern on the shoulder makes a strong visual impression. Jugs of red or light firing with one handle and rich decoration can be singled out among other tableware items. There are jugs decorated with dents and impressions (Arkheologiya Azerbaydjana, 2008, fig. 53, 4–5) making pottery surface corrugated. Dents as a decora- tion method for ceramic jugs is generically linked with the decoration of metal items imi- tated by potters trying to reproduce its impressive visual features (Yakobson, 1979, p. 83). A small red-painted jug with four-petal rim and neck consisted of four semi-cylinders from the Shamkir site is quite unusual (ill. I). A red-painted aftafa with the incised corol- la around the neck from the Gabala site is also original in shape (Akhmedov, 2003, p. 95, fig. 4, 2). The jar is burnished and has four feet and a spout. The arc-shaped handle joins the rim with the shoulder (table 1.4). The elegant jugs with stripped decoration painted in red are typical for the Arran ceram- ic centres, especially, Ganja and Shamkir (table 1.3). A red-painted jug from Baku is also interesting. Its body is divided by red paint into four decorative zones. The lower part of the body is painted red and the upper one is decorated with a solar ornament. The lower part of the neck is decorated with a line of spiral figures and the upper one with rhombuses (Ibragimov, Farkhadogly, 2002, p. 43). Occasionally potters combined different decorative methods in one item, e.g., the neck of a jug from the Shabran site which is divided into two decorative bands. The upper band is decorated with leaf sprouts made by thinly incised lines and leaf background is filled up with dots. The repetitive epigraphic ornament is incised in the lower band. The elements of botanical ornament ‘islimi’ are rendered in thin engraved lines on the shoulder of the ves- sel. The background of the ornament is filled up with dots. The delicate moulded blossom- ing buds are also placed on the shoulder (Dostiev, 1999, p. 52). Unglazed ceramics with a stamped ornament in relief stands out with its artistic decora- tion; its constructive shapes are combined with the purely decorative elements. Such an orna- ment can frequently be seen on the shoulders of jugs-bardag, on the surface of lids and covers, convex disc of flasks, body of sphero-conical pottery and household kyups. Stamping is ap- plied to the shoulder of yellow earthenware and convex discs of flasks, as a rule, by special bowl-like galib, a mould used to cast a stamped part of pottery. The pattern in relief on lids, sphero-conical pottery and kyup was applied by small stamps with incised signs, figures, pictures and inscriptions of various kinds. A few bowl-like galib-matrices for the decoration of the shoulder of yellow bowl-like earthenware with a low foot were found in Icherishek- her, Baku and at the Shabran site. The entire surface of a bowl-galib found in Icherishek- her is decorated with small hexagrams placed in concentric circles in 10 lines (Ismizade, Ibragimov, 1983, p. 10). Occasionally a shoulder of these jugs was produced on potter’s wheel and after that the bowl-like galib with a pattern in relief was applied. Otherwise, the upper part of the body was cast in a bowl-like galib, slightly dried, taken from galib and jointed with the lower part of body and neck with slurry. The geometric ornament dominates in the decoration of jugs. Designs are generally simple and consisted of five-, six-pointed stars, ray-like figures, zigzag lines, simple shapes of orna- ment of ‘Bendi-Rumi’, and so on. The shoulder of a jug from the Shamakhy site is decorated with a pattern of five rows of octagonal rosettes. The ornament is limited with horizontal 222

Azerbaijan lines in relief from both sides (Djiddi, 1981, p. 56). The upper part of the body of another jug is girdled with two rows of medallions with a six-pointed star and smaller stars placed between them. The decoration of a jug from the medieval site of Serkertepe is also interesting (table 1.1). Its shoulder is decorated with a relief pattern imitating a necklace. By reproducing a pattern borrowed from the jeweller’s art, the craftsman made the jug visually expressive. The botanical ornament, as a rule, was used in a combination with geometric one, e.g., on the upper part of a jug from the Shabran site. Its surface is decorated with lancet arch- es filled up with a delicate geometric and botanical ornament (Dostiev, 2001, p. 159, fig. 61, 1). The shoulder of a jug from the Icherishekher site of Baku is encircled by concentric cir- cles and decorated with symmetric four-petal palmettos with a relief herring-bones décor on petals and small dots between the bones (Ismizade, Ibragimov F., 1983, p. 15). The flasks from 2 to 4 liters in size, with a convex front side richly decorated with geo- metric and botanical ornament, are fanciful in shape. They have two user-friendly loop- like handles. The flasks with successfully combined geometric, botanical and epigraphic motifs from medieval Baku have a wide range of shapes and decorative patterns. The com- plex interweaving narrow bands with small scrolls, four-, six-petal flowers, almond-like figures, trefoils and stars were widely spread. A flask with concentric composition of orna- ment is quite unusual. Eight six-pointed stars with convex points in the middle are placed in a small circle 3 cm in diameter in the centre of the disc of the flask. Fourteen signs in the shape of the sole of modern shoes with pointed noses turned to the centre are placed in the next circle, the diameter of which is 6.5 cm. The last circle, shaped like a narrow band is full of five-petal flowers (table 1.2). These decorative pictures are accentuated by high re- lief against the background of convex small six-pointed stars printed in a comparatively low relief (Ismizade, Ibragimov, 1983, p. 24). Numerous samples of sphero-conical pottery with rich decoration and a spherical upper part and a conical lower one were discovered at different medieval sites of Azerbaijan. The upper part is finished with a head with a very narrow hole. The sphero-conical pottery was made of fine-grained refractory clay at a high firing temperature and its walls were thick, solid and water-proof. Engraving, incisions, im- pression with stamps, superimposed relief ornaments were widely used for the decoration of sphero-conical items. The ornament consisting of convex almond-like figures, circles, her- ring-bones, six-petal palmettos, zoomorphic pictures, and so on was frequently used. There is a sphero-conical item decorated with interwoven pairs of snakes. They were unearthed at the Dabil site (Djanpoladyan, 1982. p. 19–20). The sphero-conical pottery from the Old Ganja site is remarkable for its rich artistic deco- ration (ill. II). Its conic base is decorated with seven concentric incised lines. Its domed part placed between a spherical body and a short neck is well refined. The body is decorated with a stamped pattern with the convex and concave texture. The basic pattern is made on sherd surface by a matrix-galib. The additional decoration was made on the greenware with special stamps—puncheons, signets and sharp-pointed sticks. The body is divided into six sectors by vertical ribs which look like the ears of wheat. The picture of a rider holding the bridle of a ramping horse is repeated in the free space between the ribs. The picture is adorned with four convex heart-like medallions. The frieze belt of the vessel is decorated with a re- peated series of a running hare. The shoulder is decorated with an inscription in ‘naskh’ style: ‘The highest thoughts of Gutlug Inandj are devoted to Jahan Pehlevan’. The design 223

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Table 1. Unglazed pottery: 1. Pitcher with stamped ornament of the settlements Serkertepe; 2. Jar with stamped designs from the medieval city of Baku; 3. Jug, decorated with red stripes of the old fort of Ganja; 4. Red slipped aftafa of settlement of Gabala. 224

Azerbaijan Table 2. Glazed ceramics: 1. The cup is decorated with paintings by angob glaze; 2. The cup is decorated with paintings by manganese glaze (Derbent); 3. The cup is decorated with graphic designs and manganese under the arc-shaped pieces with glaze (Baylakan); 4. Kashin’s cup of settlement Kharaba-Gilan. 225

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics is finished with numerous rosettes with depicted birds and solar symbols around the neck (Akhmedov R., 1988, p. 14–17). Kyup with a polished surface coated with red paint is quite typical for the Arran ceramic school. They are decorated with stamped belts with the images of animals (ill. III). Goats, deer, dogs, horses, birds and fish are most often used in different compositions; the tree of life is frequent while depictions of human beings are rare (Leviatov, 1945; Akhmedov, 1959, p. 198–205; Dostiev, 2009, p. 76, 164). In the Middle Age the production of ceramics with zoomorphic shapes continued. Samples of such ceramic items were unearthed at the sites of Baylakan, Shamkir, Shabran, and so on. The rim, neck or spout of such items is finished with a zoomorphic element, mainly, ox, sheep, horse, birds, snakes, and so on. There are also simple red-painted jugs with a handle which has a zoomorphic shape. In the late 8th – early 9th centuries such innovation as the use of slipping and glaze in the decoration of ceramics was introduced in the technology of pottery. The glaze was made of yellow lead oxide. It increased the strength of the sherd, decreased its hygroscopic quality and made the surface shiny and glossy (Akhmedov, 1979). In the 9th–10th centuries the ba- sic technical means of decoration were the colour of the fired sherd, slipping and the glaze which gave potters a wide range of options for making variable ceramic items (Nadjafova, 1983, p. 12). The glaze was used mainly for table ware of the open type such as dishes, bowls, plates, piala and saltcellars, but also for some pottery of the closed type such as jugs, lamps and even large kyup. In the 9th–10th centuries the drawings in white slip under the lead transparent glaze be- comes widely spread in decoration. The applied decor of white slipping under transparent glaze is clearly visible against the dark background. The artistic effect was achieved by sim- ple technical means, i.e., colour of the fired sherd, glaze and slipping. Occasionally, slip- ping was applied on red-coloured sherd. Among the most popular were the items coated with colourless, transparent and yellowish glaze and also with greenish copper oxide glaze. Quite usual fro this kind of ceramics were simple geometric shapes such as circles, rhom- buses, triangles, polyhedrons, nets, rosettes of ribbon-like lines, arc-like figures, stylised stars, and so on, covering the entire surface and matching the shape of an item. (table 2.1). Epigraphic ornaments and figurative motifs are rare. A fragmented bowl with the imitation of Arabic Kufi inscription was found at the Gabala site (Akhmedov, 2003, p. 91, fig. 3, 4). The samples provide an evidence of the fine taste and the sense of harmony of medieval pot- ter-artists (Nadjafova, 1983, p. 15). A bowl from the Shabran site is remarkable with its dec- orative character. A duck is depicted by slipping under green glaze in the centre, and eight ducks are depicted symmetrically around it as if swimming around the central figure, which strengthens the dynamism of the entire picture (Dostiev, 1989, p. 196). Also typical are kinds of ware with the painting in manganese on the sherd under lead transparent glaze and also slipped items with manganese colouring or, vise versa, paint- ed by manganese with white slipping are characteristic for the studied period. The geo- metric ornament such as circles, spirals, arc-like and almond-like figures, vertical lines, and so on is one of the most frequent forms of decoration (table 2.2). There are also sam- ples of glazed ceramics totally coloured with the same paint under transparent glaze. Items with blurred monochrome decoration were also found. 226

Azerbaijan In the 10th century appeared a new method of decoration of glazed ceramic items. The whole internal part of bowls and dishes was slipped in white or pink, ornament was applied by brush, its contours painted with manganese and the inner space was filled up with yel- low and green colouring. After that a vessel was coated with transparent, colourless glaze. The rich use of clear tint of yellow paint in combination with bright green and deep purple colours created a beautiful visual impression (Nadjafova N., 1983, p. 17). Early glazed polychromatic ceramics was collected at the excavation of the medieval sites of Baylakan, Shamkir, Gabala, and others. A fragmented bowl from the Shamkir site is dec- orated with ochre-yellow, green and brown dabs under transparent glazing (ill. IV). In spite of its simple decoration, the range of colours made the pattern attractive. The entire inner part of a semi-spherical bowl from the Baylakan site was decorated with crossed turquoise lines forming hexahedrons and triangles. The hexahedrons have turquoise circles with brown spots inside surrounded by manganese dots; triangles are filled up with manganese spots (Yakobson, 1959, p. 238, fig. 4). The whole inner part of a bowl from the Shamkir site was slipped. Light-green circles framed by manganese line are symmetrically painted with a yellow spot placed in the centre of every green circle. The rim is decorated with manga- nese dots (ill. V). The botanical ornaments were widely used together with the geometric ones. The styl- ised palmettos and semi-palmettos in different combinations that produced wonderful pat- terns were particularly popular. Palmettos were painted by a manganese line and includ- ed in a double drop-shaped frame. Semi-palmettos contrasting with the central palmetto with their dark green filling were frequently placed by its sides. There are some items with palmettos and semi-palmettos adorned with green dots. In some cases yellow palmettos are placed within a green circle (Yakobson, 1959, p. 238, fig. 3). The pattern of a stylised tree in the shape of oblong and stretched figures painted in green, bright yellow and brown was also widely spread. The figurative motifs are found on rare occasions. Several bowls with depicted birds were unearthed at the Gabala site (Aliev, Gadirov, 1985, p. 84). A fragmented brightly coloured bowl from Baylakan with a picture of a noble hunting rider painted in thin manganese lines is particularly interesting (ill. VI). The rider is stylised, his waist is very narrow and clothes are ornamented with yellow circles. His horse with a rich harness is depicted together with a dog chasing an animal with furry tail and there is also a killed animal under the horse (Yakobson, 1959, p. 238). The picture is based on a contrasting combination of dark green and bright yellow hues against the pink or light purple background. In the 10th century appeared bowls decorated with light engraving and polychromatic painting on slipped background. Early glazed ceramics of Azerbaijan is noteworthy not only for original style and clear decoration, fresh and bright colouring, but also for the artistic quiality of their decorative compositions. The second stage of the development of ceramic production takes place in the 11th – ear- ly 13th centuries and is characterised by some innovations in the decorative technology of glazed ceramics. If the ware of the 9th–10th centuries was decorated basically by slip- ping paints, then in the 11th – early 13th centuries such metal paints as copper oxide (green), manganese (purple or brown), the oxides of iron (yellow-brown) and cobalt (blue) were in- troduced. The majority of decorative methods used in the manufacture of glazed ceramics 227

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics in Azerbaijan at this period was common for the Near and the Middle East. However, there are some details typical only for the ceramic school of Azerbaijan. Such are the designs with animals or birds depicted against the background of botanical sprouts or with inter- woven green bands against the background of botanical ornament ‘in reserve’ and ceramic items with manganese painting on slip with subsequent engraving. It should be noted that in the 11th–12th centuries the ceramic schools with their own traditions and local varieties appeared in different parts of Azerbaijan. The Shirvan, Arran, Nakhchyvan and Agkend schools are among the most important. One of the most visually attractive decorative methods for red-clay glazed ceramics is the en- graving with a sharp tool on slipped clay. The decoration of ware was carried out in the fol- lowing way. A vessel was slipped, and then engraving was applied on the wet slipped layer of the greenware. After the glazing and firing, the engraved lines became darker. Delicate graphic pictures were obtained in such a simple way. Engraving in both thick and thin line was often used. The thick line was more appropriate for the contours of an ornament and the thin line for details. Monochrome items decorated with engraving under glaze was the most widely spread group of glazed ceramic vessels in the 11th–15th centuries. It is dec- orated with geometric, botanical and epigraphic ornaments; the most popular and simple ones included scrolls, spirals, ovals, crossed lines and nets. There are ceramic items with a concentric design and radial ornament. In a radial composition of a pattern, the inner surface is divided by engraved straight lines into several sectors; each of them decorated either with one and the same ornamen- tal element or with two different ones repeated alternatively. The entire surface of a bowl from the Shabran site is divided into four sectors by a double incised line forming a square in the centre. One closed scroll is engraved in thin line in the square and in each sector (Dostiev, 2001, fig. 66, 3). The geometric ornament based on different spirals with 1.5–3 turns, occasionally interwoven but usually placed in strict order, was widely spread. This kind of ceramics is especially well represented among the glazed ceramic items from Sham- kir and Derbend. The walls of a semi-spherical bowl from Derbend are decorated with symmetrical engraved spirals with 2–2.5 turns producing an ornamental belt under green transparent glazing (Kudryavtsev, 1981, p. 84). Wavy lines imitating fish scales, framed by concentric circles are commonly found at the base of bowls and dishes. Multi-petal flowers, buds and palmettos were popular forms of a botanical ornament. A dish from the Seidli site is decorated with geometric and botanical ornament under green glaze. Its inner side is divided into four sectors by straight and zigzag lines framed by a cir- cle. Each sector is decorated by a rosette with the botanical ornament of a twisting branch (Dostiev, 1999, p. 64). The figurative motifs occasionally appeared in the artistic decora- tion of this type of ceramics. A bowl from Derbend, with a base decorated with the drawing of fish, is as interesting as a dish with a depicted bird eating fish (Kudryavtsev, 1981, p. 107). A special group of items includes dishes and bowls decorated by geometric ornament and manganese strokes or with green ‘bleeding’ painting not matching the basic drawing. Oc- casionally, green spots are spread against the painted background. The typical example of such ceramics is a small bowl decorated with engraved scrolls forming three closed figures with triangles between them. Three closed semi-arches are painted in manganese lines. A green dot is placed in every semi-arch (tabl. II,3). Painted decoration is not compatible with engraved 228

Azerbaijan scrolls (Yakobson, 1959, p. 248). An item with strict engraved geometric ornaments and con- trasting manganese dubs is one of the most interesting glazed ceramic items from the Takhti- Sulyeman site (Shayder, 1981, p. 228). A figurative motif from Derbend is also quite interest- ing. Two birds placed opposite one another are finely engraved on a fragment of a big vessel. The contours and the details of body and feathering scratched by full spirals are clearly rep- resented on the picture; the background is animated with a geometric ornament. Together with the graphic picture, the bowl is decorated with green ‘bleeding’ panting contrasting with the picture (Kudryavtsev, 1981, p. 79–81, fig, 1, 1). A fragmented plate of the 11th century from Baku is also remarkable. A dancing man wearing clothes partly made of polka-dot fabric is de- picted in the graphic picture. The dancer’s right foot is firmly standing on the ground, the left leg is raised at the waist level and bent at the knee and the waist is tightly belted. The plate surface is green; polka-dot is rendered by manganese spots against white-cream slipping. The figure is surrounded by brown sprouts (Akhmedov, 1992, p. 59, fig. 15, 3). In the 11th century appears a new decorative method of the so-called ‘sinuate’ tech- nique, when the background is scraped to mark out the main pattern. The ware was slipped in white and a planned pattern was engraved on the wet slip. After that the ornamental motifs were scratched by removing the background, i.e., slipping, around the picture. Then, the item was glazed and fired. A part of glazed surface on slipping became light and an- other one on the fired clay became darker. As a result, it made an impression of a double- shaded pattern. This decorative technique was widely used in the ceramic centres of Arran, especially, in Baylakan and Dabil. The most popular motif was large luxuriant flowers with bending stems (Yakobson, 1959, p. 250, fig. 21, 1–4), e. g., on a bowl from Dabil. Its entire inner side is divided by a wide line into two halves, each of them is symmetrically filled up in the centre with thick lush leafs successfully fitting in the semicircular surface of the bowl. The picture is painted with radial running dubs (Yakobson, 1959, p. 250). Coarse netting stands out among other geometric ornaments. Occasionally, the whole surface was encircled and united by this net of massive lines. A dish from Dabil is an interesting example of this. The round body is totally occupied by a rectilinear net against the sinuate background and only some nar- row interspaces are occupied with flowers. The ornament is coloured by rare green dubs (Yakobson, 1959, p. 252). In the 12th century the decorative method of the sinuate technique was further devel- oped. Parts of dishes and bowls were decorated with botanical sprouts—elements of ‘islimi’ ornament placed against the deepened background—by scratching off the slipping layer. This method was especially popular in the ceramic production at Baylakan. The inner part of a small bowl is decorated with a green band of five-pointed stars with two-bladed rays. The empty part of the star is filled up with the elements of a botanical ornament (ill. VII). The walls of the other dish are decorated with circles, with palmettos and keel-like figures with palmettos inside, placed against the deepened background. The same spirals of bo- tanical sprouts ‘in reserve’ are placed in the intervals (Yakobson, 1959, p. 256). A plate with its inner part decorated by ‘in reserve’ technique was unearthed during the excavation of caravanserai at the Kharaba-Gilan site. The centre of the composition is decorated with a swastika—a symbol of the Universe and internal movement; the background is decorated with the elements of islimi. The wide side is decorated with a zigzag ornament. The compo- 229

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics sition is completed with the border of a botanical leaf-like motif. One more fragment from this site was decorated with a depicted gazelle reaching for leafs (Ibragimov B., 2000, p. 91). The ceramic items painted with manganese against the white background under the col- ourless transparent glaze were widely spread in the 9th–13th centuries. The geometric elements are the most frequent decorative motif, but there are also botanical, epigraphic and figurative ones. The most widely spread is the net of six-pointed stars, squares, ray-like figures, quat- refoil flowers and the so-called ornament of the ‘knot of happiness’ shaped by two crossed and interwoven ovals (Dostiev, 1989, p. 203). The depicted birds were found at Baylakan, Shamkir and Shabran. A bowl with a drawn bird of prey from the Shamkir site is particu- larly interesting (ill. VIII). The glazed bowls and dishes decorated with engraving on manganese painting are, prob- ably, one of the most interesting items of the art of Azerbaijan in the 12th – early 13th cen- turies (Yakobson, 1959, p. 273). The principal production centre of this type of ceramics was Baylakan. However, similar items were found among the glazed ceramic vessels of Gan- ja and Shabran. The decorative technique process included slipping, manganese painting and engraving of a planned picture on the manganese surface. However, engraving reached the slipping layer and as a result, a picture was marked out by white lines against the dark manganese background. A dish decorated with three manganese bands and circle in the cen- tre, in which scroll-spirals were finely engraved, is also quite interesting. The white lines be- tween the manganese bands are decorated with an imitation of an Arabic inscription (Yakob- son, 1959, p. 274). The centre of the bowl produced by a potter named Khattab, is decorated with a wide manganese circle filled by engraved islimi ornament against the background of small scrolls (Yakobson, 1959, p. 274). A fragment from the Shabran site was decorated with manganese painting and thin engraved squares with the elements of a botanical orna- ment similar to gangl islimi which resemble the growing leaves (Dostiev, 1999, p. 66, fig. 18, 7). The glazed polychromatic pottery of Azerbaijan of the 11th – early 13th centuries stands out due to its highly artistic decoration. There are glazed bowls, plates with the deepened engraving and ‘bleeding’ polychrome colouring matching the picture. A jar-shaped ves- sel from Derbend is decorated with deepened engraving with polychrome colouring under light yellow glazing. The neck is decorated with deep vertical lines framed by thin double parallel engraved lines. The shoulder is decorated with vertical incised lines slightly bent like semi-arches and the body is decorated with thick stretched incised arcs with straight sides. The space within each arc is filled with complex botanical ornament of double twin leaves, and from its top double interweaved lines moving to the twin leaves of the next arc are branched. The botanical ornament is depicted with thin lines and arches with deep- ened lines. Aside from the graphic ornament the vessel is decorated with green and yellow paintings connected with the contours of a thick incised picture (Kudryavtsev, 1981, p. 92– 93). A dish from the Sandyktepe site is richly decorated with a ten-pointed star edged with a circle. The inner space of the star is filled up with concentric coloured circles and the cen- tre is decorated with a thin engraved net. Net cells are coloured in a chequered pattern and adorned with a spotted ornament. The composition is completed with coloured, lan- cet-shaped figures. Also interesting are the arc-like signs with a dash in the middle. They obviously had a certain meaning (Dostiev, 1999, fig. 21, 4). 230

Azerbaijan In the 11th–12th centuries the dissection of ornaments dissection becomes more articu- lated and the colouring becomes more local, while the dissection of the decorated field into zones is strengthened by colour (Fedorov-Davydov, 1976, p. 132). Ceramic items with en- graving in combination with polychrome three-colour painting become the most popular type of decorative and applied arts. Various botanical and figurative ornaments dominate the decoration of this kind of ceramic items. Ware with geometric ornament is rare. The in- ner part of a bowl from Old Gyandja is decorated with an engraved complex geometric pat- tern (table 3.9). Frequently, geometric and botanical ornaments were properly combined. A dish from the Munjuglutepe site in the Shamkir region stands out with its rich decora- tion. A medallion with a net outlined with coloured concentric circles is placed in the cen- tre of the composition. A wall of the dish is decorated with a wide border of stylised botan- ical ornament (ill. IX). It should be noticed that a net with coloured dots or small circles on the bottom is typical for polychrome glazed ceramics of that period. Pottery decorated with only botanical ornament is rare. The inner part of bowl from the Seidli site is deco- rated with thin engraved flowers coloured in green, yellow and red-brown under the light lemon glazing. A red-brown lancet-shaped petal is placed between them. The vacant space of the ornament is filled up with manganese dots grouped in three (Dostiev, 1999, p. 68, fig. 21, 2). It should be noted that dots grouped in three had a symbolic meaning apart from serving a decorative purpose—they were amulets (Efendi, 1967, p. 92). The animal motif was also popular. Both domestic (horses, oxen, dogs and camels) and wild (lions and cheetahs) animals were realistically depicted. As a rule, zoomorphic pictures were subtly combined with the floristic ornament. The branching plants were in the background and supported the general idea. It is necessary to notice that the scenes with depicted ani- mals, birds and people were placed on a bottom of a vessel and occupied the central posi- tion in its design. Items with depicted animals from the Byandovan site are rather unusual (table 3). The pic- tures of predators, especially, of cheetahs and lions were predominant (table 3.2). The de- picted cheetah, whose neck is decorated with three engraved ovals with a dash in the mid- dle as the ribbon of nobility and holiness, is particularly interesting. The ovals are followed by horizontal lines. The tail of the animal is stylised by the ‘butu’ ornament (Kvachidze, 2000, p. 32). It should be noted that the ‘butu’ pattern was associated with the peacock in the Middle Age (Efendi, 1967, p. 90). One more bowl is decorated with a jumping and run- ning gazelle. An artist-potter managed to mark the movement and the animal’s habits with subtle lines and strokes (Kvachidze, 2000, p. 32). A similar motif is known from the poly- chrome ceramics of Baku, e.g. a polychrome bowl with a drawing of a running zebu against the background of botanical sprouts (Ibragimov F., Farkhadogly, 2002, p. 25p). A bowl with a depicted running hare against the background of botanical sprouts (ill. X) is an interest- ing example of polychrome ceramics of Agkend. Some items are decorated with hunting scenes, e.g., a dish from the Byadovan site which is decorated with three animals with the open mouth and the tongue stretched out; evidently, these are lions walking in line one after another. The background of the picture is decorated with botanical sprouts. A circle with a triangle is engraved in the centre of the bowl. The con- nection with the Sasanid metal ware can be easily traced. The iconography and the plot of the picture is similar to the Sasanid hunting motifs (Kvachidze, 1999, p. 273). 231

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Table 3. 232

Azerbaijan Table 4. 233

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics Birds are represented with accuracy and attention. The pictures of birds are made en face, in profile and in three-quarters. A polychrome glazed bowl from Shabran has a picture of a bird captured in a fighting pose—the chest thrust forward, the head sharply turned back and the eyes wide open. The picture is coloured in light brown and emerald green. The background is decorated with small coloured circles. The vacant space of the bowl is painted with concentric circles; the first two are shaded with engraving to strengthen the decoration (Dostiev, 1989, fig. 6, 2). The pheasant depicted with a thin line is very typi- cal for glazed polychrome ceramics. As a rule, the bird is depicted in profile with the chest thrust forward, raised head, wide open circular eyes with dark pupils. The background is de- signed with the elements of the botanical ornament islimi. The vacant space is decorated with dots grouped in three. Bowls with such figurative motifs are known from the excavation of the sites of Baku, Shabran, Gabala, Ganja, Shamkir, Baylakan and the sites in the south- ern part of medieval Azerbaijan. There are also heraldic pictures of birds. The most interesting examples of such ceramic items come from the medieval southern Azerbaijan and the Byandovan site. A polychrome bowl from Baku decorated with five pigeons moving clockwise is quite interesting (Ibrag- imov F., Farkhadogly, 2002, p. 26). A bowl with a depicted gryphon from the Gabala site should be also mentioned (ill. XI). There is a fragment of a polychrome bowl with a picture of the bird-maiden (siren) (table 3.3). Pottery with people depicted in figurative scenes was found at sites of Baylakan, Shamkir, Ganja, Shemakhy and Gabala. Frequently such scenes include well-dressed riders and hunt- ers. A dish from Baylakan with a rider shown en face wearing a rich green dress and head- dress with a pointed top is remarkable with its expressive artistic decoration. The lifted right hand is holding the bridle, the bent left hand is also holding something. A cheetah is de- picted behind the rider. The picture is framed in a wide circle bordered with green ribbons with almond-like knots (Yakobson, 1959, p. 254). A small bowl from Baylakan is decorated with the figure of a hunter wearing green dress and holding a bow (ill. XII). The prey, a ga- zelle, is depicted to the right from the hunter. The picture is perfectly fits the ornamental background (Yakobson, 1959, p. 262, fig. 9). A fragmented polychrome dish from the Sham- kir site also has a figure of a rider with a bow. The picture is engraved and coloured with green, ochre-golden and brown (Dostiev, 2009, p. 350). A bowl with a figurative scene is also interesting. The inner part of the bowl is decorated with a scene of battle between a rider and such a fabulous creature as dragon (table 4.1). A remarkable bowl from the Bay- lakan site has a skillfully made scene of two persons standing up straight facing one anoth- er (Akhmedov G., 1979, p. 66a). The subjects on glazed polychrome ceramics basically represented the way of life of feudal lords at that time, i.e., in the 12th – early 13th centuries. It should be noticed that at the same time the picture of a man interpreted without any detail, it is strongly stylised, while zoomor- phic pictures are more realistic. Polychrome ceramic items decorated by painting under transparent colourless glaze stand out thanks to their bright and fresh colouring and original ornamental composition. A bowl of the 12th century from the Shabran site is decorated with geometric and botanical ornaments. Four-petal flower is painted in the centre of the composition on the bowl bot- tom and is coloured in green and ochre-golden pigments. Green, white, yellow and brown 234

Azerbaijan lines are alternated on the walls and the wide edge of the bowl. The composition is complet- ed with a border of manganese arc-shaped figures and coloured lines (Dostiev, 1999, p. 66). A polychrome multi-petal rosette surrounded with coloured concentric circles is painted in the centre of another bowl. The composition is completed with a similar border of manga- nese arc-shaped figures and coloured lines (Dostiev, 1999, p. 67). The mentioned ornamen- tation of the rim which consisted of alternation or repetition of coloured arc-shaped lines and triangles is typical for polychrome glazed ceramics of 12th – early 13th centuries. A bowl from Serkertepe has an original and unusual décor. The centre of the bowl is decorated with a manganese circle, from which straight lines grouped in three are branching. These lines on the bowl rim are framed with a circle, making sectors decorated with rhomb-shaped ro- settes with botanical ornament of a twisted branch. The method of painting attracts certain attention. A potter-artist firstly painted the contours of the rhombus with thin manganese lines, then, without painting over the picture, he painted green and yellow background. Un- der the colourless glazing the drawing became white (the colour of the slip) against the dark background (Dostiev, 1999, p. 66). Items with decoration incised on greenware are not numerous but were found during ex- cavation at the sites of Baylakan, Dabil, Shamkir and Shabran. This technique is an imita- tion of wood carving. The glazed ceramics is mainly decorated with rhombs, triangles, lan- cet-shaped and almond-shaped figures. Early samples of glazed ceramics with decoration of deeply incised geometric figures are dated back to the 9th–10th centuries. The Azerbaijan ceramics, especially from the Arran ceramic school of the 12th – early 13th centuries included a lot of items with epigraphic ornament. Frequently, an ornament, a calligraphic inscription and painting were arranged in perfect harmony. Inscriptions on ce- ramic items are usually written in ‘kufi’ and ‘naskh’ scripts. Their content is variable: poems, wishes, dicta, and so on. Wishes and congratulations in Arabic were popular. It is interest- ing to notice that inscriptions on the ceramic items of medieval Azerbaijan and Central Asia are close in content. One inscription on a glazed bowl says: ‘Tranquility and well-being, suc- cess… and happiness to him from God’ (Akhmedov G., 1979, p. 24). Summarising the results of the study of glazed ceramics of the first and second stag- es, one may conclude that the potters of Azerbaijan reached a high level of professional- ism by developing the technology of ceramic production and the methods of its decoration. Implementing all new, progressive and interesting techniques, they created masterpieces of decorative art clearly demonstrating the high level of the artistic culture at that time. The analysis of the early glazed ceramic items provides an evidence that ‘the artistic cul- ture of Azerbaijan in the 9th–10th centuries had not less—if not more—points of contact with Central Asia, than with the culture of adjacent countries of the Transcaucasia. The same conclusion is supported by the ceramic material of the later period (12–13th centuries)…’ (Yakobson 1965, p. 17). The progressive development of ceramics of Azerbaijan in the 13th century was interrupt- ed by the Mongol invasion. In that period some decorative methods of ceramic production went out of use, ornamental motifs were simplified and the range of colours was limited. In the 14th–15th centuries the production of glazed monochrome and polychrome ceram- ics decorated ‘in reserve’ technique continued. There are monochrome items both with- out and with a graphic ornament and although the number of monochrome ceramic items 235

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics with turquoise glazing is growing, the green glaze remains the most widely spread kind of coating. At this time large and deep light yellow glazed dishes (more than 40 cm in di- ameter) become particularly popular. They are decorated with thin engraving of sim- ple geometric, botanical and epigraphic or- nament and are painted in green, yellow and brown colours. A dish of this type from the Shabran site is decorated with engraving and ‘bleeding’ polychrome colouring not really match- Fig. 1. ing the picture. The centre of the pattern at the bottom of the dish is decorated with a solar ornament outlined with concentric circles. The walls are decorated with symmetrical heart-like figures. The composition is com- pleted with a border of coloured circles at the rim (fig. 1). The ornamental pattern of a dish from the Gabala site is close in type to the one from Shabran. The centre of the composition at the bottom is decorated with a medallion containing a cross-like sign surrounded with coloured concentric circles. Dish walls are decorated with four more symmetrically placed similar medallions. The botanical ornament resembling a tree is placed between two of these medallions and twin pictures resembling an owl are drawn between the other two medal- lions. The composition is completed with a border at the rim which is decorated with botan- ical and geometrical engraved elements (Ismizade, 1964, p. 99–100, fig. 4, 1). A dish from Icherishekher (Baku) has a simpler geometric ornament (table 3.4). The ceramics with manganese painting under blue or turquoise glazing became widely spread during the 14th–15th centuries. Bowls and dishes become the most popular ceramic forms. The botanical ornament in combination with the geometric one prevails in deco- ration. The figurative motifs are rare. A fragmented dish with a peacock against depict- ed the background of geometric ornament was unearthed at the Djanakhyr site (Dostiev, 2001, p. 171). A fragmented bowl of the 14th century with Chinese characters discovered at the Rab-i Rashidi block of Tebriz is very interesting (Arkheologiya Azerbaydjana, 2008, p. 430). It is known that large handicraft workshops of the ‘karkhana’ type, where peo- ple of different nations worked together, were located in the Rab-i Rashidi block. Obvi- ously, this bowl was either produced by a Chinese potter or it was a successful imitation by a local potter-artist. A jar with a high neck and one handle from Derbend is colourlessly and transparently glazed over a dark blue, light blue botanical ornament (Gamzatov, 1981, p. 114, fig. 1, 2). Of the various types of the glazed ceramics of Azerbaijan in the 14th–15th centuries, the bowls and dishes painted in manganese, cobalt and dark green under the transparent glaze are among the most remarkable. Particularly interesting are the dishes with a radial pattern from Shabran and Baku. The dish surface is divided into several sectors, in which epigraphic and botanical ornaments are alternated with beam-like lines. The botanical or- nament resembles lotus (fig. 2). 236

Azerbaijan Ceramic items with cobalt painting be- come widely spread in that period. A phar- maceutical vessel, albarello decorated with cobalt painting from the Gabala site is made at a high artistic level. Its cylindrical body is divided into five ornamental bands with alternating geometric and botanical figures. A fragmented bowl decorated with a stylised bird resembling a cock against the botani- cal background is also interesting (Djabiev, 2003, p. 107). The over-glazing painting of ceramics was used much more rarely then under- Fig. 2. glazing one. Samples of such ceramic items were found in Nakhichyvan. In the 14th–15th centuries the production of figurative, even anthropomorphic pottery con- tinued although in smaller numbers. Brown-glazed jars with a narrow neck from Nakhich- yvan and Shamakhy are particularly interesting examples of such kind of pottery. A man’s and a woman’s faces are depicted en face and in high relief on the body of the jars. They are painted in such a manner that eyebrows, eyes and cheeks are related simultaneously to both faces. Their features are clearly painted, which gave archaeologists and anthropolo- gists an opportunity to identify even their anthropological type. Scientists, researching these vessels, connected the origin of such complex anthropomorphic pattern with the influence of Hurufism (Djiddi, Aliev V., 1975; Djiddi, 1981, p. 96; Novruzlu, 1993, p. 86). In conclusion it should be said that some samples of the glazed ceramics of this period are equal to the pottery of the pre-Mongol period in the quality of firing, nevertheless, they cannot match the level of the 12th – early 13th centuries in the quality of decoration and col- ouring. Geometric and botanical ornaments dominated in decoration. Gradually the geo- metric ornament became less meaningful and the botanical ornament prevailed. The figu- rative motifs are rare and strongly stylised. One of the typical features of the Azerbaijan glazed ceramics is plate-marks on bowls and dishes. The plate-mark with astral signs and geometric ornaments was popular, the mark with botanical elements was less frequently used and the mark with depicted animals, birds and people was rare. A mark on the bottom of rejected polychrome bowl from the Gabala site with a picture of lion with the disc of the Sun above its head (shire-khurshud) is very interesting. Significant number of faience items was discovered during archeological excavations of such medieval centres of Azerbaijan as Shamkir, Old Ganja, Baylakan and Dabil. Early samples of faience are dated back to the 9th–10th centuries and its mass production start- ed in the 11th–12th centuries. The faience sherd is white, grey-yellow or light pink, it is soft and fine-grained. The faience pottery of the 9th–13th centuries is decorated with engrav- ing, sinuate ornamentation, impression and ‘openwork’; it is coated with light blue, tur- quoise, brown, milky, cobalt, and other kinds of glaze. In the 11th–12th centuries the faience bowls and piala with an engraved ornament, glazed blue, light blue and turquoise were 237

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics wide spread. The stylised botanical ornaments, especially the ones with bines and sprouts were popular. The wall of a bowl from Shamkir was decorated with the incised botani- cal sprouts under blue glazing (ill. XIII). Several bowls and pialas with a bi-conical body, which upper part is decorated with an ornamental band of botanical sprouts were found at the same site. The items decorated with impression can be found among the faience items of the 11th– 13th centuries from the Shamkir site. Fragmented bowls and pialas with an external part decorated with geometric ornament made by impression are quite interesting. They are coated with light blue and turquoise glaze. The centre of a faience plate is decorated with an impressed rosette and a quatrefoil palmetto. The composition is completed with a border on the plate rim with an engraved epigraphic ornament. The plate is coated with blue glaze (table 4.2). The faience pottery decorated with openwork is marked with delicacy. Their decoration, as a rule, is relief and engraved, like the wall of a bowl of the 11th century from the Da- bil site, which is decorated with a botanical ornament made by engraving and openwork methods. A fragment of a thin-walled bowl from the Shamkir site with white, milky glaz- ing and engraved botanical ornament, which background is filled up with dot-like pin- holes, is quite interesting. Some items are decorated in the sinuate and the openwork tech- niques, e.g., a fragment of a shoulder of faience item, which is decorated with a botanical ornament and covered with turquoise glaze (table 4.3). The ornamental band on the ex- ternal wall of another bowl is decorated with botanical ornament islimi made in the sinu- ate and the openwork technique. The inner part of the bowl is decorated with bright white spots (table 2.4). A fragment of shoulder of turquoise-glazed faience item from the Shamkir site is also quite interesting. A fragment of a white thin-walled and milky-glazed bowl decorated with an engraved botanical ornament with the background covered with dot-like pin-holes is also very interesting. The items of kashin (semi-faience) ceramics stand out among the glazed ceramics of the 13th– 14th centuries. Silica clays provided the porous sherd which absorbed cobalt and glaze and produced thick glass-like surface. A large number of such ceramic items as bowls, plates and dishes with polychrome painting under transparent glazing were discovered at the Kharaba-Gilan site. The inner side of one bowl is divided into six sectors by beam- like lines branching off from the centre of the bottom. The beams are painted in stylised botanical ornament of technique ‘in reserve’; sectors are decorated with geometric and bo- tanical ornaments. The external wall of the bowl is decorated with alternating white, blue and brown lines limited by a circualr border along the edge (Ibragimov B., 2000, p. 105) decorated with a linear wavy ornament (table 2.4). The dominating motif of the decoration of the bowl is its radial direction contradicting the tectonics of the bowl which would have required the dissection into concentric bands. Kashin pottery with light blue and blue glazing and black underglaze painting is also fairly typical. A sherd is grey in the fracture. The inner side of a dish from Kharaba-Gi- lan is decorated with geometric and botanical ornaments with black underglaze paint- ing. The inner part of the dish is divided into sectors by a cross-like figure. The blades of the cross are crosshatched with thin black lines and the sectors are decorated with 238

Azerbaijan botanical sprouts. The external part of the dish is painted with leaves grouped in four (Ibragimov B., 2000, p. 108). It should be noticed that the kashin ceramics from the Kharaba-Gilan site is a close ana- logue to the ceramics of Central Asia and Iran (Ibragimov B., 2000, p. 102–114). The ceramic art of medieval Azerbaijan is represented by one more type of ware. It is glazed bricks and tiles widely used in secular and religious constructions. Blue glazed bricks ap- peared in Azerbaijan in the early 12th century and initially they were used in the most im- portant parts of constructions or as a band pattern. In the late 12th century they became a regular architectural element and such famous monuments of Azerbaijan as the mausole- ums of Momine Khatun and Geоy Gunbad are the evidence of it. The glazed bricks and tiles were used for the ornamentation of the edges and the epigraphic frieze in the Momine Kha- tun mausoleum. In the 13th–15th centuries the mosaic and majolica tiles became the integral part of the décor of portals, domes, minarets, interior and exterior walls of many monu- ments in Azerbaijan. Mosaic was collected from separate elements taken from kashine tiles glazed in different, often bright and clear colours. The ornamental effect of mosaic was really impressive. A fragment of a luster frieze (45 cm long) with an epigraphic pattern over botanical scrolls was found among the fragments of tile sets of the Maraga observatory (the 13th cen- tury) which were used to make up various geometric ornamental designs of turquoise, pur- ple, brown, milky-white triangles, rhombuses and stars. A rectangular polychrome panel with a complex design of relief interwoven snakes is particularly interesting (Amenzade, 2007, p. 182). The architectural décor composed of starry and cross-like tiles was very popular. The tile design of Pir Husein’s khanega is truly remarkable in this respect (Krachkovskaya, 1946, p. 33–49). Six hundred tiles in the shape of eight-pointed stars and cross-like figures were placed in the lower part of the panel. The simple cross-like tiles are not artistically inde- pendent, they produce a quiet background. On the contrary, the eight-pointed tiles are richly decorated with botanical and figurative motifs. Quadrangular tiles with botanical and epi- graphic ornament are remarkable examples of highly artistic architectural décor (ill. XIV). The inscriptions mostly include either quotations from the Koran or poems by Khagani Shirvani and Jalaleddin Rumi. The tiles of different shapes and size with a rich range of colours were widely used for de- sign of the Hunting Palace of Takht-e Suleiman (the 13th century). These tiles are coated with olive-green, red-brown, grey-white and also turquoise, dark blue and green glaze. Six- and eight-pointed luster tiles are decorated with relief figures of animals harmonised with botanical sprouts and epigraphy. They are complex compositions with depicted dragons, li- ons, gazelles, snake-like, animal creatures and flying birds. The motifs containing anthro- pomorphic pictures are rare (Naumann R. und E., 1976). The development of ceramic tiling was accompanied with a continuous technologi- cal and artistic search for harmonic colouring, transparency and brightness of pigment and the technique of it production. The development of a botanical ornamental design as a style of a philosophical world perception was an important landmark in the artistic development of the architecture of Azerbaijan. The drawings became more precise and del- 239

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics icate in lines, while decoration became even richer echoing the architectonic layout of flat and curvilinear surfaces (Amenzade, 2007, p. 182). In the 15th century the quality of the tile design reached new peaks of artistic perfec- tion. The ceramics of the Geоy mosque is a real masterpiece (ill. XV). The large scale tile designs and composite mosaic panels of the mosque are particularly refined. Milky-white inscriptions complement bright-turquoise patterns against a dark blue background. 240

Azerbaijan I. Red slipped pitcher of settlement Shamkir II. Spheroconical vessel from the old fort of Ganja III. Fragment red slipped kyup with stamped belt of IV. Fragment of polychrome glazed bowls of early settlement Shamkir settlement of Shamkir 241

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics V. Early polychrome glazed bowl from the settlement VI. Fragment of a bowl with the image of a rider from Shamkir the settlement Baylakan VII. Glazed bowl decorated with technology VIII. Bowl, painted in manganese on engobe under “in reserve” of the settlement Baylakan a transparent glaze, from the settlement Shamkir 242

Azerbaijan IX. Polychrome glazed dish from the settlement X. Polychrome glazed cup with a picture of a rabbit. Mundzhuglutepe XI. Polychrome glazed cup with a picture of a griffin XII. Polychrome glazed cup showing a hunter shooting fort Gabala an arrow 243

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XIII. Polychrome glazed dish from the settlement XIV. Tiles Khanegah Pir Husain Shabran XV. Ceramic tiles from the gay Mosque (Tabriz) XVI. Wide mouth jar with tea strainer at the neck. 244 Gabala.

Azerbaijan XVII. Yellow clay jar with moulded ornament. XVIII. Small flask with moulded ornament. 12th century. Shamakhy. 12th century. Baku. XIX. Red slipped kyup with moulded ornamentation XX. Jug with zoomorphic elements. 9th century, 12th–early 13th century. Ganja. Torpaggala. 245

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XXI. Glazed jug with zoomorphic elements.  XXII. Glazed bowl with a picture of a bird.  9th–10th century. Shabran. 9th–10th century. Gabala. XXIII. Glazed bowl with a picture of a bird.  XXIV. Glazed slipped bowl with manganese drawing. 9th–10th century. Baylakan. 12th century. Baylakan. 246

Azerbaijan XXV. Glazed dish with engraving against manganese XXVI. Sherd of a glazed polychrome bowl with drawing. 12th–early 13th century. Baylakan. a picture of a cock against botanical background. 11th century. Baku. XXVII. Glazed polychrome bowl with a picture of XXVIII. Glazed polychrome dish with an everyday life running zebu against botanical background. 12th– scene. 12th–early 13th century. Baylakan. early 13th century. 247

The Artistic Culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th–15th centuries • Ceramics XXIX. Terracotta. Ganja. XXX. Terracotta. Ganja. XXXI. Sherd of a tile. 13th century. Ganja. XXXII. Fragment of a mosaic. 15th century. Ganja (top). 248 Glazed dish. 14th century. Gabala (bottom).