Children's Illustrated Encyclopedia ( PDFDrive )

EXPLORERS INQUISITIVE EUROPEANS SIR HENRY MORTON MARY KINGSLEY (1862-1900) STANLEY (1841-1904) A fearless and determined Once Europeans had an idea Welsh-born Henry Stanley Englishwoman, Mary of the correct shape of the worked for a New York Kingsley traveled in world, they set out to newspaper. He led an West Africa, trading explore it more thoroughly. expedition into Africa and making scientific Some were driven by to find the missing studies. On her travels, curiosity, some by greed, Scottish explorer she was entertained by and some by a desire David Livingstone. cannibals. She was one to convert the peoples When he found him, of the first to demand who lived in faraway he uttered the famous fair treatment for the places to Christianity. words “Dr. Livingstone, people of Africa by All faced hardships I presume?” Stanley later their colonial rulers. and dangers. explored much of Central Africa around Lake Victoria. AMERIGO VESPUCCI (1454-1512) FERDINAND MAGELLAN (1480-1521) VASCO DA GAMA The first European to Leader of the first European expedition to (1469-1524) sail around the world, Portuguese explorer Despite bad weather explore the Brazilian Magellan proved that there was a southwestern and hardships on coast, Italian-born route to the Indies through the Pacific. the voyage, Amerigo Vespucci Portuguese-born gave his name to Vasco da Gama reached the East America. He was in African coast and charge of a school proved that there was a southeastern of navigation in route to India. He Seville, Spain. was the first European to sail around the Vespucci believed in a southwestern southern tip of Africa. route to the Indies around South America. Marco Polo’s journey EUROPE Siberia from Italy to China lasted Venice more than 24 years. ASIA Arabia China Marco Polo leaving Venice Journey to China India WONDERS OF CHINA On his travels, Marco Polo became a favorite of Journey Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler. Marco later published home a detailed account of his journey MARCO POLO and the wonders he had seen. Few believed the account, Marco Polo (1254-1324) was and it was years before an Italian explorer. His father Europeans realized that and uncle were merchants he had experienced a great civilization – from Venice, Europe’s the empire of China. greatest trading city. They took the 17-year-old Marco with them on a journey from Italy to China. Find out more Columbus, christopher Conquistadors Cook, james Pirates

www.children.dkonline.com >> eyes EYES AS YOU READ THIS PAGE, you are using the two Tear (lacrimal) organs of sight – the eyes. Our eyes enable us to gland EAGLE SIGHT learn a great deal about the world around us. Each Tear A golden eagle has duct eyeball measures about 1 in (25 mm) across and sits Tear extremely powerful in the front of the skull in the eye socket, or orbit. sac eyesight. It can see rabbits and other prey from a The eyes can swivel around in their sockets so that EYE SOCKETS distance of more than you can see things above, below, and to the side. The eyelid and eyelashes protect the front of the eye. When you blink, the half a mile (1 km). Each eye has an adjustable lens and sees a slightly eyelids sweep moisture over the eyeball, keeping it clean. The moisture is different view of the same scene. The eyes work together, controlled by produced in the tear glands above the eyes. These glands also produce tears the brain. This is called binocular vision. The lens of each eye allows rays when you cry. Tiny holes drain fluid through tear ducts into the tear sac, of light to enter from the outside and project a picture on to the retina – which empties the inner lining of the eye. The retina converts the light into nerve signals inside the nose. that travel along optic nerves to the brain, where images are formed. Iris makes OUTER EYE Choroid, containing Light rays enter the curved front of the eye called the nourishing blood pupil cornea, where they are partly focused. They pass through vessels larger or the pupil, which enlarges in dim conditions to let in more smaller. light and shrinks in bright conditions to protect the inside Muscles of the eye from too much light. The rays are then focused anchored at on to the retina by the lens. back of eye socket move Cornea is like a Retina, bearing light- the eye. transparent window in sensitive cells the front of the eyeball. Sclera The cornea partly Sclera – tough focuses light rays. outer covering Pupil is a hole within the iris. EYEBALL Fovea Three pairs of muscles turn the eyeball to look up, down, and from side to side and rotate it. Pads of fat cushion the eye and the optic Conjunctiva – thin nerve, which is stretched and covering layer pulled by eye movements. Lens fine-focuses Optic nerve light rays. to brain Aqueous Blind spot, containing no fluid light-sensitive cells, where optic nerve leaves eye INNER EYE RODS AND CONES Inside the eye is the retina, which contains The retina contains millions about 120 million rod cells, mainly around the sides, and of light-sensitive cells called seven million cone cells, mainly in the fovea. The image on the rods and cones. The rods retina is upside down, but the brain turns it the right way up as it Eye muscles work best in dim light, while processes nerve signals from the eye. Vitreous fluid cones are sensitive to different colors. Rods and cones produce nerve signals when CLEAR AND DEFECTIVE VISION FAR-SIGHTEDNESS light falls on them. Clear vision depends on the lens bending light rays to the correct angle so that the rays form Rays are focused a sharp picture on the retina. In far-sighted people, the eyeball is too short and nearby behind the retina. objects appear blurry. In near-sighted people, the eyeball is too long, making distant objects A convex lens Find out more out of focus. Glasses and artificial lenses, such corrects the focus. as contact lenses, help the eye’s own lens to focus the rays correctly, thus correcting NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS Cameras defective vision. Rays are focused in Color front of retina. A Ears concave lens corrects the focus. Human body Light 201

www.children.dkonline.com >> farm animals FARM ANIMALS Female sheep are called ewes, males are Female chickens are called hens. HAMBURGERS, sausages, called rams, and the young are called lambs. Males, like the one shown here, are Merino sheep have the best quality wool. butter, and cheese are The ancestor of today’s Merino sheep is the usually more colorful. They are Spanish Merino – a breed of sheep that is about called roosters. produced from animals 1,000 years old. The Suffolk is that we keep on farms. Many Meat from adult sheep is called mutton. an English other foods, including eggs, breed of sheep bacon, and yogurt, also come that was first from farm animals. Farm developed about 100 animals include pigs, cows, years ago. sheep, rabbits, goats, and chickens. People keep these animals for their meat, milk, fur, and skins. We use the skins, or hides, of cows, pigs, and sheep to make shoes, and the wool of sheep, goats, and rabbits to make clothes. People have been keeping animals on farms for at least 9,000 years. Many are kept in small enclosed areas called pens, others in fields, and still others in cages. The first farm animals were wild creatures that people captured and domesticated, or tamed. Today’s chickens are descended from tropical forest birds of southeast Asia. Throughout the ages, farmers have bred (mated) the healthiest,most docile animals with the best milk, The female pig is called a gilt before she has meat, or wool production, to produce any young, and a sow once she has young. the breeds that we know today. Male pigs are called boars. AMERICAN HAMPSHIRE PIG The American Hampshire pig has little fat on its body, so the pork and bacon from this pig are lean (that is, they have little fat). The Rhode Island PLYMOUTH ROCK SHEEP Red is named after There are about 7,000 million Wool comes from sheep, goats, rabbits, camels, alpacas, the state of Rhode Island. chickens around the world, and and vicunas. Young sheep, or lambs, produce the softest, It is a good egg layer and is about 500 breeds. The Leghorn finest wool. The largest flocks of sheep are in Australia, well-known for its meat. is the most common egg-laying where there are about 140 million sheep. The sheep we hen. The Plymouth rock shown farm for wool are sheared for their fleeces (coats) once Chicks are sold for here is a fast-growing chicken a year. An expert shearer with electric clippers can shear meat when they are that produces tasty meat in a one sheep every 40 seconds. The wool is washed and about eight weeks short time. combed, and then stretched and twisted into yarn for old and weigh about woollen fabric. Here, a woman in Nepal is spinning 4.5 lb (2 kg). 202 wool by hand to make into carpets and rugs. POULTRY Many people keep chickens as a source of meat and eggs. These chickens scratch around in farmyards and fields, eating seeds, worms, insects, and scraps. They lay their eggs in a small chicken coop or any other secluded place. This is called free-range rearing – the chickens are able to wander freely. Most chickens are raised indoors, under controlled conditions.

FARM ANIMALS INTENSIVE REARING Some farm animals, such as pigs and chickens, are kept under controlled conditions in huge hangarlike buildings. Chickens are raised by the thousands in this way, for their meat or their eggs. These chickens sit in wire cages and cannot run around freely or scratch for their food. The food, temperature, and light in the building are controlled so that each chicken lays up to 300 eggs each year. Pigs are kept in pig units like the one shown here. They are fed an exact mixture of nutrients that makes them put on the most weight in the least time. Some kinds of pigs gain more than 1.5 lb (0.7 kg) in weight each day. A pig may be sold for pork when it is only three months old. PIG ZEBU Cattle are the most numerous of farm There are about 800 million pigs scattered animals, with a worldwide population of around the world. Some are allowed to roam freely to feed on roots, worms, and about 1 billion. They were first used household scraps; others are kept inside to pull carts. Today some cattle buildings (see above). There are more than are bred for their meat (beef 80 breeds of pigs, and some of the largest breeds), others for their milk weigh more than 450 lb (200 kg). Almost (dairy breeds), and some for every part of a pig can be eaten, including both (dual-purpose breeds). the trotters, or feet. Pork is the name for There are about 200 breeds fresh pig meat; cured or preserved pig of cattle. The zebu cattle meat is called bacon or ham. shown here have a hump at the shoulders and a long, narrow face. They were originally from India and are suited to hot climates. Zebu are also used to pull plows. TURKEY Every November in DUCKS AND GEESE Today’s most common the US, millions of Waterfowl such as ducks and geese are kept mainly breed of turkey is the turkeys are eaten for their meat, especially in Southeast Asia. They White Holland, which also provide fluffy down (underfeathers) for was developed from the in celebration of stuffing mattresses, quilts, and clothing. Geese bronze turkey, shown Thanksgiving. are good guards in the farmyard, beacause they here. Turkeys came hiss at strangers. The most common egg-laying originally from North waterfowl are Indian runner ducks, khaki America. When campbell ducks, and Emden and Europeans first Chinese geese. traveled to North America in the The Toulouse goose, from The Indian runner 16th century, they France, looks like its wild duck is kept in large domesticated ancestor, the greylag flocks and can move (tamed) turkeys goose. Adult birds weigh swiftly on its long legs. and took some more than 28 lb (13 kg). back to Europe. Find out more GOAT Animal senses Male turkeys, or toms, are often twice the The goat was one of the first animals to be Birds weight of the female hens. domesticated. Goats feed on thorny bushes, Farming Young turkeys are called poults. spiky grasses, and woody stems, and they can Farming, history of leap up easily into the branches of small Grassland wildlife In many parts of the world, trees to eat the leaves. Almost 500 million Horses, zebras, and asses people keep goats for their goats are kept worldwide, often in dry and Mountain wildlife milk, which is made into mountainous regions. They are used for cheese and yogurt. their milk, meat, skins, and wool. The main dairy breed is the Anglo-Nubian, which produces up to 1,200 pints (660 liters) of milk each year. 203

www.children.dkonline.com >> farming FARMING TO STOCK THE FOOD SHELVES of supermarkets in Europe and the Americas, farmers make nature and technology work in harmony. They use machinery to plow and reap great fields of wheat; they fertilize and irrigate greenhouses full of vegetables and orchards of fruit; and they rear animals indoors to fatten them quickly. Through this intensive agriculture, Western farmers feed up to 10 people from land that once fed one. However, not all the world’s farmers can be so productive. Those who have plots on hilly land cannot use machines. Instead they graze a few animals or cultivate the land with inefficient hand tools. Farmers in dry climates must be content with lower yields or SUBSISTENCE FARMING choose less productive crops that will tolerate dry soil. And farmers who cannot afford In some developing countries, most farming families grow only Plowing Planting machines and fertilizers are forced sufficient food for themselves. Harvesting seeds to use slower farming methods This is called subsistence that have not changed farming. In a good year it for centuries. provides enough food for all. But a drought or an increase FARM MACHINERY in the population may lead Modern grain farming requires to famine and starvation. special machinery at different times of the year. In the Superwheat Spraying spring a plow breaks the soil into furrows for CROPS planting. A seed drill puts a measured Almost all amount of seed into crops that the prepared soil are grown and covers the seed today are the so that birds do not descendants eat it. A sprayer covers crops with of wild plants. pesticides to kill However, special harmful diseases and breeding has created pests. Finally, a combine harvester cuts the crop varieties that give high and prepares it for storage. harvests. Grain crops such as wheat have especially benefited. Modern varieties have much larger grains than traditional species. However, this new “superwheat” is not as resistant A baler rolls up the straw – the cut stalks of wheat left after the grain has been to disease as other varieties and harvested – and ties it into tight round bundles called bales. must be grown carefully. Ordinary wheat INTENSIVE FARMING The purpose of intensive farming is to increase the ORGANIC FARMING production of crops and Some farmers in Western animals, and to cut food countries prefer to grow prices. Food animals crops and raise animals in such as chickens and a natural, or organic, way. They do not use artificial pigs are kept indoors in pesticides or fertilizers. tiny, overcrowded pens. Organic food is more Many people feel this is expensive, but it may be unnatural and cruel, and healthier to eat. prefer to eat only “free- range” animals – animals that have been allowed to move freely in the farmyard. Organic farmers use natural In intensive chicken houses, conveyor belts Find out more fertilizers, such as seaweed or carry food to the hens in the crowded animal dung, to make the soil cages, and take away the eggs. Farm animals more productive. Farming, history of 204

www.children.dkonline.com >> history of farming EARLY FARMING HISTORY OF The first farmers domesticated (tamed) wild animals and FARMING kept them in herds to provide meat, milk, hides, GROWING CROPS and breeding animals for food and wool. Some people became nomadic are among the most important steps ever taken by herders rather than humankind. Before farming began, people fed farmers; they moved themselves by gathering berries and other plant their animals continuously matter and hunting wild animals. People were in search of new pasture. The picture shown here was nomadic – they had to move around to find food. painted in a cave in the Sahara About 12,000 years ago in the Middle East, people Desert in Africa about 8,000 years ago, at a time when the desert was grassland. discovered they could grow cereal crops, such as wheat. These people were the first farmers. With the CROP GROWING start of farming, people began to settle permanently In about 10,000 bce, farmers in the Middle East began to plant crops to provide food. Cereals, such as wheat, barley, in one place. Villages grew into towns and cities. and millet were the main crops. In the Far East, people first Farmers produced enough food to support the grew rice in about 6,000 bce. population, so some people were free to do other The huge Berkshire pig IRRIGATION jobs such as weaving, and making pottery and tools. was first bred for meat Farmers need a good supply of Since everyone depended on farming for their food, in the 18th century. water for their crops. In China and other Far Eastern countries, however, many people died of starvation when the crops failed because of bad where rice is the main crop, weather. Over the centuries people water flows along channels on have tried many different ways of producing better crops. In the the terraced hillsides to make agricultural revolution of the the paddies for growing rice. 1700s, new scientific methods helped overcome the problem of crop failure. Today, farming is a huge international industry. MEDIEVAL FARMING In the 11th century the hard horse collar came to Europe from China. It allowed horses, rather than oxen, to pull plows. By the 13th century, European farms consisted of open fields and each peasant farmer had a piece of land. Later, much of the land was enclosed with ditches or hedges. Steam MECHANIZATION tractor During the 19th century, the development of steam Seed drill power and, in the 20th century, the combustion engine changed agriculture forever. Tractors AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION replaced horses as the main source of power, and railroads and refrigerated ships meant During the 18th century, new methods of that food could be transported all over agricultural production were developed the world. and breeds of livestock were improved, such as the huge Berkshire pig (above). Find out more The invention of new machines, such Engines as the seed drill, allowed farmers to produce more crops. Farm animals Farming 205

www.children.dkonline.com >> fish FISH FEATURES OF A FISH FEye OR ALMOST 530 MILLION YEARS, The cod has all the features of a Lateral fish have swum in the oceans. The typical fish – a streamlined body for line Mouth first fishes had no scales, fins, or speed, a powerful tail, and fins for balance and steering. jaws, unlike those we know today. The lateral line The range of fish that live in our along the body First rivers, lakes, and seas is enormous – is a row of sense dorsal from the great whale shark to the tiny organs. These fin pygmy goby. In between are thousands organs detect movements Operculum of other fish, such as swordfish, (gill cover) made by Pectoral sardines, parrotfish, and the comically other fin rounded puffer fish. Some live in creatures in the Pelvic freshwater; others in saltwater. Some water. fin skitter just below the surface; others dart around in the depths. Despite their wide variety, most fish have a streamlined shape, Vent ideally suited to a watery environment. A GILLS covering of scales and slimy mucus protects fish All fish can First from parasites and helps them slip rapidly through anal fin obtain oxygen by the water. Fish propel themselves along by their tail, Second anal fin absorbing it from the and steer and maneuver with their fins. Among the water through gills – blood-rich structures on each side of the head. thousands of kinds of fish are some extraordinary exceptions. Lampreys have no jaws, Caudal mudskippers can skip across mud fin (tail) flats, and catfish can crawl and Vertebral column have no scales at all. (spine) Mouth Spiny rays of caudal fin FISH BONES Skull Placoid Fish were the first animals on bones (shark) Earth to have backbones. Most fish have a bony skeleton, like the flatfish shown Space for Cycloid here, but there are a few exceptions. Sharks digestive (salmon) and rays, for instance, have a skeleton made organs of a tough, gristly substance Ganoid called cartilage. (gar) Skeleton of a flatfish Ribs Ctenoid (perch) Swim bladder keeps INSIDE A FISH the fish buoyant in the Most of a fish’s internal organs lie in the lower half of SCALES water. the body, as shown in this bass. The rest of the body is Bony disks called scales made of large blocks of muscle called myotomes. Wave- are embedded in the Internal system like contractions of these muscles make the tail move skin. They protect the of a bass body and overlap to allow from side to side; this produces movement. Although swimming movements. there are four main kinds, most fish have the Gills Ovary cycloid or ctenoid kind. Heart Liver Pylorus Spleen Intestine Urinary (stomach) bladder 206

FISH STRANGELY SHAPED FISH Each kind of fish is suited to its own way of life. The long nose of the butterfly fish has a mouth at the tip to pick food from crevices in rocks. Flying fish use their enlarged fins as “wings” for gliding as they leap out SCHOOL OF FISH Small fish often live in large of the water. The bright colors on a lionfish groups called schools, twisting and turning together as they warn other creatures of the deadly poison in Lionfish search for food. A predator is its fin spines. sometimes so confused by their numbers and quick, darting movements that it cannot single out a fish to attack. School of sea goldfish on a Red Sea coral reef Flying fish Long-nosed Sea horses BREEDING butterfly fish SEA HORSE Most fish reproduce by FEEDING depositing their eggs and Sea horse eggs are sperm in the water, and then Fast predatory fish, such as barracudas, deposited by the leaving the fertilized eggs have long, slim, streamlined bodies and female into the to develop into fish. Some sharp teeth. Slower swimmers male’s front pouch, fish, such as sticklebacks usually have more where they develop and bowfins, look after the rounded bodies. for about four weeks. eggs and the young (called Despite its When the eggs hatch, the fry) once they have hatched. shape, the young sea horses emerge Other fish, such as some parrotfish is from the pouch. types of sharks, give birth to an agile fully formed young fish after swimmer. the eggs have developed in It slips through the mother’s body. cracks in the rock Sea horses use their in search tails to cling to seaweed. of food. MOUTHBREEDERS Some cichlid fish, found in African lakes, keep their eggs safe inside their mouths. When the young hatch they swim out, and then return to the parent’s mouth for safety. Parrotfish eating algae on a coral reef EUROPEAN EELS Cichlid fish and young Adult eels lay eggs in the Sargasso Sea. The eggs hatch Royal gramma Find out more into larvae, which swim north for the next three years. fish Animals Upon reaching Europe they change into TROPICAL Deep-sea wildlife OCEAN FISH Migration elvers and swim up river. Fish, especially those from tropical waters, are among Ocean wildlife There, they the brightest of all animals. Seashore wildlife Their dazzling colors and lively grow into yellow patterns have many different purposes. They help fish hide from eels, and Yellow eels predators among the coral, warn then adults. change into neighboring fish to keep out of adult eels, then their territory, show other creatures that they are poisonous, or return to the advertise for a mate. Sargasso Sea to breed. Larvae swim north and change into Young elvers elvers. travel inland along rivers, Eggs develop where they change into into larvae. yellow eels. 207

www.children.dkonline.com >> fishing industry FISHING INDUSTRY THE WORLD’S RIVERS, seas, and oceans provide one of the most WHALING For two centuries whaling has been a important of all foods. Fish are a rich source of protein and other vital nutrients. It is possible to catch a few fish using just a hook on the end of major industry and has made some a piece of string. But to feed large numbers of people, a huge industry species of whale almost extinct. As exists to catch millions of fish. Japanese fishing boats, for instance, whales come to the surface to breathe, catch more than 16,000 tons of fish each day. Fishing fleets use different methods to catch these vast numbers of fish, such as nets, whale hunters shoot them with traps, and hooks. Some nets are several miles long and can catch more harpoons – huge explosive arrows than 100 million fish in one haul. Baskets, boxes, and other traps are left in the sea for shellfish, such as crabs, lobsters, and crayfish. Hooks fired from guns. are arranged in a longline – a single Drift nets are up to 60 miles (100 km) line carrying hundreds of long. They catch fish very effectively, hooks – that is attached to but may also harm other marine life. a fishing boat and can trap huge numbers of fish at one time. FISHING GROUNDS At night lights Fishing boats catch most fish attract fish into near the coast in the seas above the continental shelf (shown in the the dip nets. dark blue on the map). This shelf is an extension of the continents covered by shallow sea water. Deep-water currents rich in nutrients rise on to the shelf and create good feeding grounds for fish. SEA FISHING The purse seiner tows its net in a Seines are nets that hang down from the surface. huge circle to enclose the fish. Drawing the net into a circle around a school, or Find out more group, of fish forms a huge bag which encloses Farming Fish the catch. Gill nets are long curtains of net that Oceans and seas trap fish by the gills. Some gill nets float Ocean wildlife on the surface as drift nets; others are Weights keep fixed to the sea bottom with anchors. the mouth of the A trawl is a large net bag towed behind trawl net open. a boat. Dip nets are hung over the side of the fishing boat on a frame. Lifting the frame catches the fish. FREEZING FISH FISH FARMS Once a fish is dead, Not all fish are its flesh quickly rots. caught in the wild. Some fish, such as carp, Freezing, canning, salmon, trout, and drying, smoking, and shellfish, can be bred in controlled conditions on pickling all slow the fish farms. In the United decay and preserve the States, fish farmers raise catfish for food. Fish farmers build pens fish. Freezing is the best in lakes, ponds, or estuaries (river method. Large fishing boats mouths). They hatch fish from eggs, have freezing plants on board to and then keep the fish until they preserve the catch – the harvest of are big enough to sell. fish – before returning to port. 208

www.children.dkonline.com >> flies FLIES AND MOSQUITOES Housefly can walk upside down. SOME OF THE SMALLEST creatures in the world Housefly has excellent Eggs Larva (maggot) eyesight and are the most dangerous to humans. Flies and spongelike mouthparts. mosquitoes carry some of the world’s most serious diseases. With their habit of sucking blood and scavenging on garbage, many of these insects spread cholera, malaria, and yellow fever. There are about 120,000 kinds of flies, including bluebottles, horseflies, fruit flies, tiny gnats, and almost invisible midges. We call many small, winged insects flies, but The bluebottle, the only true flies are those with two functional or blowfly, lays wings; they belong to the insect group Diptera. thousands of eggs in garbage cans and on All flies lay eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae meat. Within just a few called grubs or maggots. The maggots feed weeks these eggs and grow into pupae or chrysalises, from produce thousands more flies. which the adult flies finally emerge. Despite Housefly feeding on rotting meat their unpopularity with humans, flies play FLIES a vital role in nature. They pollinate Compound AND DISEASE flowers and recycle nutrients as they eye Houseflies, scavenge, and they are a source of bluebottles, and similar flies feed on food for many larger animals. Antenna Tiny hairs and hooks and lay their eggs in rotting matter, MOSQUITO on feet enable fly to including garbage walk on the ceiling. and excrement. Their mouthparts and feet The mosquito has needle-shaped mouthparts that pierce the pick up bacteria, or germs, which rub off skin to suck the blood of humans, horses, and other animals. Wing when they settle on our If a female Anopheles mosquito bites a person with malaria, it food, dishes, and kitchen equipment. The illnesses that takes in blood infected with the microscopic organisms spread in this way range from minor stomach upsets to deadly that cause this disease. When the mosquito goes on infections such as typhoid. to bite another victim, the organisms pass into that person’s blood, and so the disease spreads. The map below shows those parts of the world where malaria is most severe. North America Asia South Africa America Areas Australia where malaria Malaria is one of the most serious occurs and widespread diseases. It kills about one million people each year. Hoverfly’s wingtips make a figure-eight HOVERFLY pattern with each wing beat. The hoverfly is one of the most LIFE CYCLE OF A DRONE FLY expert fliers. It can hover perfectly The drone fly is a kind of hoverfly. It resembles a bee in appearance and still, even in a wind, then dart makes a low droning sound in flight. After mating, the female lays her eggs straight up, down, sideways, or near a puddle, a polluted pond, or other stagnant (nonmoving) water. backward. Tiny ball-and-stick The larvae, known as rat-tailed maggots, live in the water, breathing Female drone fly Adult fly structures behind the wings, called through the long tail that acts like a lays eggs near emerges 4-6 halteres, rotate rapidly and act as snorkel. The rat-tailed maggots wriggle water in a drain. weeks after stabilizers during flight. on to drier soil before pupating. When the adults emerge from the Rat-tailed maggots (larvae) eggs are laid. pupal cases, they fly off to feed on feed on rotting and pollen and nectar from flowers. decaying plant and animal Maggots (larvae) Find out more matter in the drain. crawl out of water and change into Animals pupae (pupate). Disease Flight, animal Insects 209

www.children.dkonline.com >> animal flight ANIMAL FLIGHT BIRDS, BATS, AND INSECTS are the only animals that truly fly. Other animals, such as flying squirrels, flying fish, and flying lizards, swoop or glide, but cannot climb upward into the air under their own power. Life in the air has several advantages for flying animals – some birds, such as hawks, can hunt their prey in midair; other birds can quickly escape from their predators. Birds are also able to migrate very long distances to find more suitable feeding and breeding areas in a cold season – the Arctic tern, for example, migrates about 11,000 miles (18,000 km) from the North Pole to the South Pole every year. Another bird, the swift, spends much of its life in the air, landing only to nest. A swift eats and drinks on the move for nine months of the year. Birds, bats, and insects are ARCHAEOPTERYX also able to find food on land quickly and efficiently – a hummingbird hovers to One of the first birds known to have existed is called gather nectar, a fruit bat flies into a tree to feed on fruit, and a dragonfly swoops Archaeopteryx. Fossil remains date back 150 million years. over a pond to catch small flies. All flying animals from Archaeopteryx could glide and fly through the air. bees to buzzards need plenty of food to provide Elastic fibers allow the them with the energy to take to the air. wings to shrink so the bat can fold Animals first began to fly about 300 million them neatly. years ago, when Earth’s prehistoric coal Main bones in the wing swamps were becoming overcrowded SOOTY TERN with all kinds of creatures. The sooty tern lives Through evolution, special on the move for up to 10 years. It returns to features began to the ground only to breed. develop, such as a flap of skin on the body for gliding. In order to fly, WINGS an animal needs a lightweight body and strong muscles with which to flap The wings of a its wings. Birds have hollow bones flying animal are light so that they to save weight when they are in can be flapped easily. flight, so that a huge bird They are broad and such as the golden flat, to push the air eagle weighs less downward and give lift. Wings must also be flexible for than 9 lb (4 kg). control in the air. An insect’s wings are made of a thin membrane stiffened by tubelike veins. A bird’s wings have bones and muscles at the front; feathers form the rest of the surface. A bat’s wings consist of a thin layer of muscles and tough fibers sandwiched between two layers of skin that are supported by bones. Skin stretches between Feathers near the wing Flight feathers are light the forearm and root shape the wing and stiff, with strong shafts finger bones. and large, smooth vanes. smoothly into the body. Powerful wing-flapping Covert feathers are pectoral muscles are in at the front of the wing. They are the bat’s chest. small and packed closely together, to Bat give a smooth edge. 210 Wing of a kestrel Primary flight feathers help reduce turbulence.

FLIGHT, ANIMAL HOVERING Only a few kinds of animals can hover. Staying still in midair Long beak probes into requires great control and delicate balance as the animal adjusts flowers to its wingbeats to the slightest breeze. A few animals, such as some feed on nectar. moths, hover as they gather food. Hummingbirds also Body held hover expertly almost vertical while to feed. As hummingbird hovers. they sip nectar UPSTROKE from flowers, The bird’s wings swivel, and the upward stroke pushes hummingbirds air down to maintain the lifting force. hover, go straight up and down, and fly backward – just Tail fans out to help stability while like helicopters. hummingbird hovers. Hummingbirds beat DOWNSTROKE The hummingbird’s wings their wings 20 to 50 flap almost horizontally, pushing the air downward. times per second; Hummingbird this produces the in flight humming sounds. INSECT WINGS DRAGONFLY The dragonfly is a powerful four-winged Many types of insects can fly. A small insect such as a flying insect. It twists and turns with great mosquito flaps its tiny wings more than 1,000 times speed as it hunts for midges, aphids, and per second. Larger insects such as butterflies and other small flying insects. dragonflies have bigger wings with slower wingbeats. Flies, gnats, and mosquitoes have one pair of Tiny veins strengthen the wings; butterflies, bees, wasps, moths, and thin membrane of the beetles have two pairs. Beetles are unusual dragonfly’s wing. because their hard, shiny wing cases come Insect wings GLIDING together and form the grow out of Some mammals can glide. insect’s back when it the exoskeleton, They include flying squirrels is not flying. Insect the hard outer and flying lemurs (colugos). wings grow out of body casing. These mammals can turn and the exoskeleton, steer, but they do not have wings the hard outer that they can flap. Other gliding body casing. animals include several Thorax snakes and frogs. WING MOVEMENT Flying squirrel’s Hingelike joints attach furry skinflaps the wings to the thorax, work like the central part of the insect’s a parachute. body. Muscles in the thorax pull on its walls from within, bending Flying them in and out. This movement squirrel tilts the wings up and down. Model of the pterosaur The leading edge FLYING REPTILES Long tail helps Dimorphodon which grew to of each wing was with stability 3 ft (1 m) in length and lived formed by an Pterosaurs, or true flying and steering. about 200 million years ago incredibly long reptiles, have been extinct in the early Jurassic period. finger bone. for about 70 million years. Find out more Animals A long tail and rudder helped Short spiky teeth It was thought that most Bats this pterosaur balance and were probably used were gliders, but Birds maneuver during flight. by Dimorphodon scientists now Dinosaurs to snatch fish as believe that many Insects Dimorphodon folded its it skimmed above could flap and fly wings when it landed, the sea. Migration, animal and may have walked on well. The largest Prehistoric life all fours, and clawed its pterosaur measured way up trees and rocks. 40 ft (12 m) from wing tip to wing tip. 211

www.children.dkonline.com >> flowers Stamen Stigma (male parts) receives FLOWERS HERBSpollen AND THE EXQUISITE BEAUTY, color, and scent of flowers have inspired artists and poets for centuries. Flowers are among the most brightly colored of all living things. Style They include sun-loving desert marigolds, hardy poppies in the snowy Arctic, tropical orchids, and cultivated garden roses, as well as some tiny inconspicuous flowers. Without the thousands of Anther with different flowers and herbs that grow on Earth, pollen bees could not make honey, butterflies and hummingbirds would have no food, we would have Ovary no flowerbeds, and perfume would have no fragrance. contains ovules Filament Petals are brightly For most of us, the word “flower” describes any (seeds). colored to attract flowering plant that is particularly colorful or pretty. To insects in search of nectar. the botanist who studies plants, however, a flower refers The flower head strictly to the reproductive part of a plant – its bloom or contains the reproductive parts Sepals protect blossom. The word “herb” is an everyday name we give to of the plant – as inner parts smaller, less colorful flowering plants whose leaves and shown by this pink of flower. blossoms have a strong, pleasant scent and taste. lily flower. FLOWER STRUCTURE HERBS Thyme is a fragrant addition to meats, Sepals are usually green and scaly, and Plants known as herbs usually have green, juicy stems, unlike as a garnish, and protect the flower in its bud. They often trees and shrubs, which have hard, woody stems. Some herbs for mouth, throat, drop off once the flower has blossomed. and other flowering plants are described as annuals because and chest illnesses. Petals may be large and colorful they grow, flower, produce seeds, and die all in one year. to attract bees and butterflies. Others are known as biennials because their life cycle takes The male cells lie in the two years; perennials live for an indefinite number of years. pollen grains, contained in the anthers. The female HERB GARDEN cells are inside the ovary, Tending the herb garden was once an important part of daily life below the stigma and style. because people relied on the natural products that they grew themselves. Herbs are used to add flavor to food, scent the air, help Basil is popular in us relax, and treat illnesses. Many of our modern medicines contain Mediterranean cooking and is also used as an herbs; peppermint, for example, is used in many insect repellent. anti-indigestion pills. Herbal oils, known as essential oils, are extracted from Parsley is a herbs and used in the production garnish, an of perfume and bath oils. ingredient in sauces, and a Sage treatment for urinary illnesses. flavors many Rosemary is a dishes, from companion to lamb pork to dishes, and brewed poultry, and is in tea for headaches used to treat and upset sore throats stomachs. and colds. Bay leaf adds Tarragon Oregano flavor to is often used (wild casseroles and stocks. in French marjoram) cooking. is used for Mint is used to make tea; it also clears meat, a stuffy nose and eases indigestion. 212 stuffing, and pizza, and to aid digestion.

FLOWERS AND HERBS Wild dog rose POLLINATION To produce a seed, the male cell in a pollen grain must fertilize a female cell in the ovule. For this to happen the pollen must travel from its anther to the female stigma. In some flowers, the pollen is small and light, with wings, and is blown from one flower to another by the wind. Cultivated tea rose HORTICULTURE From the beginnings of civilization, people have cultivated flowers for their scent and color. Today’s garden roses have been bred from wild ancestors so that they have larger, more numerous, and more colorful petals, sweeter scents, and a longer flowering time. The art of gardening is BEES AND called horticulture. BIRD-OF-PARADISE FLOWER FLOWERS The bird-of-paradise plant Bees help NECTAR comes originally from pollination. As Butterflies, moths, bats, and birds feed riverbanks in southern a bee feeds on nectar on the sweet, energy-rich nectar inside Africa and is now grown in and pollen, more pollen inside each flower. Bees convert nectar into many parks and gardens. the flower sticks to the bee’s legs honey in the beehive. Each plant has bright and body and is carried by the orange flowers that form bee to the next flower, where a shape that looks like the it pollinates the female parts. head and beak of a bird of Harebell Common poppy paradise. The bird-of-paradise flowers rise one after the other Oxeye from a long, stiff, green-pink casing. daisy Kangaroo Lily of PERFUME paw the valley flowers have a A flower’s Passionflower sweet scent. Their smell attracts leaves are scented, too. butterflies, bees, and people, too. Lily of the valley and rose are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. WILD FLOWERS AND CONSERVATION Many wild flowers are in danger of extinction. Marshes are Snake’s drained, and forests are felled for farmland and buildings, head fritillary so the flowers that grow there are destroyed. Rare and Cornflower Common beautiful blooms are at risk because they are dug up toadflax illegally by plant collectors. Water To save rare flowers, the Find out more hyacinth places where they grow must be protected. As forests Bees and wasps Dogtooth violet are cut down, thousands of Conservation flowers are disappearing even before they are and endangered species known to science. Fruits and seeds Plants 213

www.children.dkonline.com >> football Football legend Jim Thorpe FOOTBALL played with the Canton, Ohio Bulldogs. THE GAME OF FOOTBALL is a strategic battle between two teams as they try to move a ball, by running with it or passing it, across the other team’s goal line for a touchdown. The team with the ball plays offense; the team trying to stop them by tackling or blocking the player with the ball plays defense. At the start of the game, the offense begins an attack on the goal. If the offense is not able to move the ball 10 yards (9 m) forward after four plays, the ball is given to the other team. Possession of the ball shifts many times during a game. Before each play begins, the teams face each other at the scrimmage line. The ball is passed to the quarterback, who may hand the ball off to a teammate or make a longer throw to another player. A typical game is divided into four 15-minute quarters, with many HISTORY OF FOOTBALL Football EQUIPMENT Football probably originated from the English Helmet game, rugby. Soccerlike games were popular The oval-shaped football is usually at US colleges from the 1860s. After a visiting made of leather. Its textured surface Canadian team brought rugby to Harvard and lacing along one seam help University, players began to run and tackle as well as kick the ball. In 1879, players grip the ball. Football Yale University coach Walter Camp is a contact sport and the proposed new rules that led to the players need to development of the modern game. be protected from injury. Plastic helmets with face A scrimmage line masks protect the head, Body while the body is protected padding with special padding – shoulder pads, hip pads, thigh pads, and knee pads – all worn under the uniform. PLAYERS Each team consists of 11 players. In professional football, players specialize in offensive or defensive positions. Players on the offensive team include the quarterback, running backs, wide receivers, offensive linemen, and tight end. Defensive positions include defensive backs, defensive linemen, and linebackers. Other players specialize Each play usually begins when in kicking the ball. the ball is snapped to the quarterback, who may throw it to a player farther down the field. SUPER BOWL The National Football League (NFL) stages a spectacular championship game between the winners of its two conferences. This game, called the Super Bowl, decides the NFL title and attracts a large live and television audience worldwide. End zone Goalposts FOOTBALL FIELD A football field is a rectangle 100 yd Yard (91 m) long and 53 1⁄3 yards (49 m) lines wide, with yard lines marked across its width every 5 yards (4.5 m). A DOWNS AND TOUCHDOWNS 10- yard (9-m) end zone extends beyond the goal lines. Goalposts The offensive team has four plays to move the ball forward rise above each end zone, through 10 yards (9 m), for a first down. Each first down gives it which the ball is kicked for a goal. another four chances to move the ball forward. If a team Find out more fails to make a first down, it loses possession. A player who carries the ball into the opposing team’s end Health and fitness zone makes a touchdown, worth six points. Soccer Sports 214

www.children.dkonline.com >> forces FORCE AND MOTION CHANGING DIRECTION WHAT IS IT THAT MAKES OBJECTS MOVE? Why does a When you move in a circle, on a fairground ride for example, a constant force is needed to boat float? How does a magnet work? Left to itself, any change the direction of your motion. This force object would remain still, but when it is pushed or pulled, acts toward the center of the circle. On the ride shown above, the force comes from the tension it begins to move. Something that pushes or pulls is in the ropes that support the seats. called a force. Forces often produce motion, or movement. For example, an engine produces a force that pushes a car forward. There are several different kinds of forces. A magnet produces a magnetic force which pulls pieces of iron toward it, and a rubber band produces an elastic force when you stretch it. Liquids produce forces, too. A boat floats because of the force of water pushing upward on the hull. And a drop of water holds together because of a force called surface tension, which makes all liquids seem as though they have an elastic skin around them. From the smallest particle inside an atom to the largest galaxy, the whole universe is held together by powerful forces. One of these forces is gravity, which holds us on to the surface of Earth. ACCELERATION INERTIA The action of a force produces motion, making an object accelerate It takes a strong force to start a heavier (more massive) object moving. In the same (speed up). For example, the force produced by the engine makes a way, a strong force is needed to make it slow down and stop. This reluctance to ship accelerate. The stronger the force, the greater the acceleration. start or stop moving is called inertia. The heavier the object, the greater its inertia. Water and air resist motion, producing a force called drag. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION A small boat accelerates easily and soon reaches its cruising speed. But drag increases as speed increases. In 1687, the English scientist Isaac Newton When drag force balances the driving force (1642-1727) published his three laws of of the engines, speed stays constant. motion. The first law explains that an ACTION AND REACTION object stays at rest or moves at a constant A rowboat moves by action and reaction. The speed unless a force pushes or pulls it. The force of the oars pushing on the water is the action. The moving water exerts an equal and opposite reaction second law explains how force overcomes on the oars. This reaction force pushes the boat forward. inertia and causes acceleration. The third law explains that when a force (or action) pushes one way, an equal force (or reaction) always pushes in the opposite direction. FRICTION STATIC In an arch FORCES bridge, the piers When two surfaces rub against each When two teams other, they produce a force called in tug-of-war pull (ends of the friction, which opposes motion. equally hard on the bridge) support the For example, brakes use rope, neither team moves. weight of the arch. friction to slow a wheel This is because the forces down. Friction produces produced by the teams balance Find out more heat and wastes energy. exactly. Forces that balance and produce no Atoms and molecules Putting a layer of oil movement are called static forces. A bridge between the moving stays up because of the balance of static Bridges parts of a machine forces. Its weight pushing down is balanced Gravity reduces friction and by parts of the structure pushing up. Magnetism improves efficiency. Physics 215

www.children.dkonline.com >> forest wildlife FOREST WILDLIFE This map shows the main forest areas of the world. TREES ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT plants in a forest. North Asia They provide all kinds of animals, including monkeys, America squirrels, and parrots, with food, homes, and escape routes Africa from predators. The most common tree in any kind of forest South often gives the forest its name, from the pine forests in the America cold north to the steamy teak forests in the tropical regions. Temperate forest Australia A temperate forest consists of different layers of vegetation. Coniferous forest The forest floor is covered with leaf litter. Here, parts of trees Tropical forest and other plants rot into the soil, helped by the millipedes, worms, and other small creatures that feed on them. The next LONG-EARED OWL layer of the forest is called the herb layer. It consists of small The long-eared owl swoops silently flowers and ferns that grow wherever enough sunlight filters among the trees at twilight and during through the trees. Bushes, shrubs, and young trees make up the under-storey of the forest. Next is a layer of tall tree trunks, the night. These owls roost by day in laced with trailing vines and creepers. The uppermost part of a tree, and their mottled brown the forest is called the canopy. Leaves grow in the sunlight; plumage provides good camouflage. The tufts on insects, birds, and bats pollinate the flowers; the feathers of this owl’s and fruit ripens to feed a host of creatures. head look like long ears – hence the name. WOLVERINE The wolverine of northern forests is an exceptionally strong animal for its size. It tackles animal prey much larger than itself and also eats carrion CONIFEROUS FORESTS (dead animals), fruit, and berries. The Pines and firs make up coniferous forests. wolverine is nicknamed These trees are evergreen – they keep their the “glutton” because of leaves all year, providing shelter for animals. its large appetite. The leaves are very tough, and only a few animals can eat and BROAD-LEAVED FORESTS Ferns, such as bracken, grow quickly and digest them. A few types of rapidly cover clearings. Bracken is conifer, such as the larches, The trees in a broad-leaved forest common on every continent lose their leaves in the fall. are called deciduous trees because their leaves drop off in the fall, to be replaced by new leaves the next year. These except Antarctica. It spreads trees blossom in the spring, by sending out branching which is the main animal underground stems. breeding time. The new shoots provide food for animals. In the fall, animals feed on the fruit, nuts, and berries of these trees, so they can survive the winter. Bluebells are ROE DEER Several one of the The roe deer’s reddish heavy-bodied, spring woodland brown coat blends strong-legged flowers. Some in well with the birds live in the bluebells have pink bracken where it forest, including flowers; others lives. It lives alone pheasants such as the have white ones. for most of the blue peacock shown here. year, feeding at These birds can fly but they Wood anemone twilight on the often avoid danger by running buds, shoots, and into the dense forest undergrowth. leaves of trees and shrubs. 216

FOREST WILDLIFE CONSERVATION TANAGER As the forests are cut down or burned, animals lose The paradise tanager is a noisy, active bird their homes. Tree-living creatures such as this that lives high up in the rain forest American uakari monkey are most at risk. These canopy. Paradise tanagers keep monkeys depend on the flowers and fruit from their bright plumage all the large old trees in rain forests. Worldwide year and flutter from conservation organizations are trying to stop tree to tree in search the destruction of the rain forests in order to of insects and save monkeys and thousands of other creatures. ripe fruit. TROPICAL FORESTS SLOTH Few animals move more slowly than In tropical forests, the climate is the sloths of Central and South America. much the same all year round. They hang from branches with their High temperatures curved claws and eat leaves. Tiny green and heavy rainfall make tropical rain simple plants called algae grow on their forests some of the richest places coats, and this helps camouflage the for wildlife. There are many more species of trees than in any other sloths among the trees. kind of forest, and thousands more kinds of animals. PARROT The male and female eclectus parrots shown here are so differently colored that for many years TOUCANET people believed With its large, light bill, the toucanet they were is an excellent berry picker. Its bright colors help it advertise two different species of birds. These for a mate in the breeding parrots live in the forests of New season. There are 42 kinds of Guinea and Australia. Like all parrots, toucanets, and they are all found in they have huge bills for cracking seeds. Several kinds of frogs, tropical South America. lizards, snakes, and squirrels Toucanets nest in tree have evolved, or developed, ways of holes and eat birds’ gliding through the air from a high branch eggs and nestlings, fruit, to escape from predators or insects, frogs, and lizards. to reach food. The gliding snake flattens its ribs as Atlas moth resting on it leaps, to make a a bromeliad flower streamlined ribbon shape. POISON ARROW FROG It is so damp in rain forests that frogs spend their lives in the trees and do not need to find water elsewhere. Frogs lay their eggs, or spawn, in pools of rain that collect on leaves, fungi, and in ATLAS MOTH The atlas moth is one of the largest flowers such as moths in the world, with a wingspan of 12 in (30 cm). Today, atlas moths bromeliads, which grow are rare. In the past, people killed thousands of them simply for their on trees. Poison arrow butterfly collections. frogs live in the rain forests of Find out more South America. Their bright colors Animals warn predators of the deadly Birds poison in their skin. Butterflies and moths Conservation LEMUR and endangered species There are 19 Ground Leaf roller different kinds ginger is a spice ants curl up Frogs and other amphibians of lemurs. These made from the leaves on the mammals are related forest floor and join to monkeys, and they live in root of the the edges into a tube trees in Madagascar, an island ginger plant, to make a nesting site. off the east coast of Africa. Mouse which came originally from the lemurs weigh only 2 oz (60 gm). forests of Asia. 217

www.children.dkonline.com >> fossils FOSSILS THE FIRST PLANTS, the earliest animals, the beginnings of human life – we know about prehistoric times because of fossils. Preserved or mineralized for thousands or even millions of years, fossils may comprise, for example, parts of animals, molds, footprints, and burrows. By studying fossils, we can learn what ancient creatures and plants looked like and how they lived. Most fossils are of plants and animals that lived in water. When the living plant or animal died, its soft parts rotted away, leaving the hard pieces such as bones or leaf veins. Gradually, layers of AMMONITE mud piled up and squeezed the remains of the plant Fossil collecting is a hobby Some of the most common fossils or animal at great pressure. Slowly, the mud, bones, that anyone can enjoy. You are the shells of sea creatures called and other remains fossilized, or turned to rock, in the can find fossils in rocks, on ammonites. Ammonites were related to squid and octopuses. They were beaches, and in quarries. very widespread about 250 million years ago. The smallest ammonites place where they lay underground. Over many thousands of years, the measured less than 1 in (2 cm) across; the largest measured about 8 ft (2.5 m) movements of Earth twisted and buckled the rocks, lifting the fossils across. Ammonites died out with the dinosaurs about 65 million years ago. closer to the surface of the soil. Sun, rain, and wind wore away the rocks and exposed the fossil. Fin on back Long jaws and for steering short, sharp teeth and stability Backbone Large eye socket Fossil of a fish called Sparnodus – Ribs an ancestor of the sea bream Front paddle Powerful two- for steering lobed tail ICHTHYOSAUR Rear paddles Sometimes the outline of an animal’s TYPES skin is preserved as well as its bones. OF FOSSILS This happened to the ichthyosaur When rock-forming minerals slowly replace shown above – a sea reptile from the original parts of a dead creature or plant, they about 150 million years ago. The make a mineralized fossil. Sometimes the parts of a creature ichthyosaur looked like a dolphin, or plant rot away after being buried, leaving a hole in the rock; so it probably led a life similar this is called a mold fossil. If the hole fills up with rock minerals, Mineralized to that of dolphins. The The word fossil literally means it becomes a cast fossil. The fossil of a outline of this fossil shows “dug up.” People who study fossils fossilized signs of animals, such poplar leaf, as footprints, droppings, and 25 million a fin on the back and a are called paleontologists. tracks, are called trace fossils. years old two-lobed tail. The dozens of sharp teeth in the long Find out more Dinosaurs jaws tell us that this animal Evolution grabbed fish and other Prehistoric life Rocks and minerals slippery prey. Cast fossil of a creature called a trilobite, which lived in the sea 218

www.children.dkonline.com >> France FRANCE THE LARGEST COUNTRY in western Europe is France – a land of green, open spaces dotted with picturesque towns and small cities. Its many fine old country palaces, or châteaux, are reminders of France’s long history. But it is a modern nation, too, with flourishing industries. France is also one of the leading countries in the European Union (EU), the organization that promotes political and economic union between the member states. Northern France has cool, wet weather. The south, with its Mediterranean coast, is drier and warmer. Rolling hills rise from the coasts and valleys, providing good farmland. The rugged hills of the Massif Central occupy France shares its long eastern the middle of the country. The mountains of the Pyrenees and the Alps line border with Italy, Switzerland, the southwest and eastern borders. France also includes the Mediterranean Germany, Luxembourg, and island of Corsica, and some islands thousands Belgium. Spain is to the south. of miles away in the Pacific Ocean and The south of France lies on the the Caribbean Sea. A democratically Mediterranean Sea coast, and the Atlantic Ocean is to the west. elected government and president rule France Workers on small, family-run estates may from Paris.still pick grapes by hand. Many people spend their vacations picking grapes, but it is hard work. Even the smaller winemakers now use some modern equipment, such as stainless-steel fermentation vats. WINEMAKING France produces about one- fifth of the world’s wine. Many famous wines are named after French regions, such as Champagne and Bordeaux. Most French wine comes from cooperatives – local groups of farms that share wine-producing and bottling facilities. Some wine, however, is still made on the small estates attached to the old châteaux. The grapes are picked in the early fall. Pressing the grapes extracts the juice, which then ferments (reacts with yeast) in large vats to produce the alcohol and the distinctive taste of the wine. Only when this process is complete can the wine be bottled. The Louvre in Paris is one of the world’s most famous art galleries. The glass pyramid was added in 1989. MARSEILLES PARIS France’s biggest seaport is Marseilles, on the Mediterranean coast. The People have lived along the Seine River, where Paris now stands since ancient times. Paris is the capital warm climate of southern France of France. France has a population of more than makes possible the lively, outdoor 62 million; one-fifth live in and around Paris. It is lifestyle of the city. There is a long history of trade with the rest of the one of Europe’s greatest cities, with wide, tree- Mediterranean. Marseilles has a lined streets called boulevards, and many famous large Arab population, mainly monuments and museums. The city of today was from North Africa. largely replanned and rebuilt during the 19th century. 219

FRANCE EIFFEL TOWER MONACO Built to impress visitors to the Paris Exhibition of 1889, the A tiny country on the Côte d’Azur, Monaco lies in Eiffel Tower was originally meant southeastern France. The heart of the country is to be a temporary structure. the sophisticated city of Monte Carlo, famous for It was designed by the French its casinos and auto-racing Grand Prix. Monaco is engineer Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel was internationally an independent principality, ruled for much of its famous for his bridge and history by the Grimaldi family (above). Only a aqueduct designs. The tower small part of the population is originally from is built of steel girders weighing 7,700 tons (7,000 tonnes), Monaco; more than half the people are citizens of and 2.5 million rivets hold it France. They are drawn there by the lenient tax together. It reaches a height laws and high standard of living, and earn more of 1,050 ft (322 m) and up until per capita than any other country in the world. the construction of the Empire State Building in New York City in 1931, it was the tallest building in the world. Visitors can reach its various levels by elevator or by climbing hundreds of steps. When it was first built in the 19th century, the Eiffel Tower was fiercely criticized. It has now become the symbol of Paris and a much-loved feature of the city. Normandy is a region of gentle NORMANDY hills and farmland, and is especially known for The region of Normandy lies between Paris its hedgerows. and the English Channel. Normandy is a farming area, known throughout France for its dairy products and its apples. By grazing their cattle in the orchards, many local farmers get double use from the land. They sell the apples as dessert fruits, or turn them into cider and an apple brandy called calvados. Cream from the Normandy cattle makes some of France’s most famous cheeses, including Brie LOIRE RIVER and Camembert. The valley of the Loire River is famous for its beautiful castles, called châteaux, such as this one TGV design has evolved at Gien. Kings, nobles, or wealthy landowners built over the years. This train the châteaux as their country homes. They often has a sharp aerodynamic chose a site on high ground and surrounded the nose to increase its speed. château with a moat, which made it easy to defend the château from attackers. The Loire Valley is also an important wine-producing area. TRANSPORTATION The French are not only pioneers of aviation – they cobuilt the Concorde – they also lead the world in high-speed train technology. With speeds of up to 185 mph (300 km/h) the French TGV (Trains à Grande Vitesse) is the world’s fastest train. The first TGV line, from Paris to Lyon, was opened in 1983. TGV lines have since been built to Belgium, Italy, and Spain. The Channel Tunnel links France to the UK. 220

TOUR DE FRANCE FRANCE Cycling is an enormously popular pastime in France. The world’s most FRENCH CUISINE famous cycling race is the Tour de France (Tour of France), which takes French cooks are considered among the place every summer. The route best in the world. There are numerous follows public roads covering about 2,200 miles (3,500 km), good restaurants, even in very small primarily in France and Belgium, towns, and the quality of ordinary but briefly in four other countries. The race takes place over 26 days, daily food is very high. Food and the world’s best cyclists take part. specialists who take great pride in their work produce outstanding In fine weather, café owners cooked meats, pastries, and bread, put tables and chairs out on the including the famous stick-shaped sidewalks so their customers can baguette. French cheeses, such as eat and drink in the open air. Camembert, are eaten all over the world. A patisserie specializes in sweet, delicious pastries, and produces a wide range for its customers every day. The town square is the traditional spot for games such as boules or petanque, French versions of lawn bowling. The extract of scented COUNTRY TOWNS flowers, such as lavender, is a major ingredient Much of France consists of open country, where most working in perfume. people earn a living from farming. One in every five French people lives and works in the countryside. The farming communities spread out around small market towns, which provide markets, banks, restaurants, stores, and supermarkets. Each town contains a mairie – the offices of the local government administration. The mairie often overlooks the central square, where people meet to talk and perhaps enjoy a game of boules. PERFUME AND FASHION CHARTRES Two of France’s best-known industries are the France is a mainly Roman Catholic manufacture of perfume and haute couture, or country. There are churches in high fashion. Many of the most famous and most every village, and cathedrals in the expensive brands of perfume are French. French cities. The cathedral of Chartres, in designers dominated fashion for most of the northern France, was completed 20th century. The Paris collections, shown in in 1260. It is famous not only for its the spring of each year, are the most important fine architecture, but also for its of the international fashion shows and are magnificent stained-glass windows. attended by designers from all over the world. There are 176 windows, covering They set the trends which the rest of a total area of 28,000 sq ft the world will follow. (2,600 sq m), the equivalent of 10 tennis courts. The 176 luminous stained-glass windows of Chartres Cathedral Find out more (right) attest to the talents of Europe Chartres craftworkers. Europe, history of French revolution Napoleon bonaparte Normans 221

FRANCE MARITIME ALPS Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small Most of the French countryside consists of monument city city/ city/ town gently rolling hills and valleys, but there are town high mountain ranges in the southwest and southeast. On France’s southeast border a range of mountains called STATISTICS the Alps reaches the Mediterranean Area: 212,930 sq miles Sea at the Côte D’Azur (blue coast). The hills inland from the Côte (551,500 sq km) D’Azur are called the Maritime Alps Population: 62,151,000 (right). The whole region depends Capital: Paris on tourism, and there are many Languages: French, fashionable resorts. Provençal, German, Breton, Catalan, Basque CHANNEL TUNNEL Religions: Roman The Channel Tunnel runs from Catholic, Muslim, England to France beneath the English Channel. It comprises Protestant, Jewish, three tunnels 31 miles (50 km) Perched high in the Buddhist long: two for rail traffic, and Maritime Alps, this peaceful Currency: Euro one for safety. village has a spectacular view North of the surrounding area. S e aChannel SCALE BAR km UNITED KINGDOMTunnel Dover Dunkerque 0 50 100 100 miles N Strait of Boulogne-sur-Mer Calais 0 50 Roubaix English Channel Lille Dieppe Cherbourg BELGIUM GERMANYBrest W E Alderney Abbeville Hirson A r dennes S Somme Oi Charleville-Mézières Guernsey le Havre No Amiens Sedan LUXEMBOURG rmandy se Channel Bayeux Rouen Beauvais gesReimsMeuse Islands Jersey Coutances Caen Seine Versailles (to UK) Metz Golfe de PARIS Châlons-en- Nancy Haguenau Île St-Malo Champagne Champagne Strasbourg d’Ouessant St-Malo Créteil St-Brieuc Alençon Fontainebleau Moselle Iroise Rennes Chartres MarneTroyes Épinal St-Nazaire Loire Quimper le Mans Seine Vos Lorient Tours Yonne Orléans Chaumont Belle Île Loire Gien Auxerre Mulhouse Blois Olivet Côte d’Or Belfort Angers Cosne-Cours- Dijon a sur-Loire Bay Nantes Cr Bourges M o r v a n Besançonr Nevers u euse Vienne Châteauroux Cher Île d’Yeu Fla Roche-sur-YonC N C E Chalon-sur- SWITZERLAND RA Saône les Sables-d’Olonne Poitiers Moulins Saône Lake Geneva Niort Biscay Mâcon sère Rhôn J of Île de Ré la Rochelle Guéret e Mont Blanc Clermont- Annecy 4807m Rochefort Ferrand Villeurbanne ATLANTIC d’ Île Saintes harente Limoges Puy de Sancy Lyon s OCEAN Oléron Angoulême 1885m pChambéry St-Étienne Royan S A l I T A L YitsfSsacimSinmnrooeoruOoolewuomFlplmUortnlsraohemcmaTtlrstalhntothqHeahltaecfhurelmnaEleaFae,ntSt,Riearriarubarearm8.Nnlnkunss0Amdpuet,c°tFgrterFoaemmRsreprnsio(Aea(atocld2ubstfnuNseut7stepfeyvlCro°tlefpnrueoCfauEroarsrwrry)norvemiiw.)midtsnd.IaiehsusneeitentchrorstessehheeadeGGauslcfoMonfoynBtB-dioaerrP-rMditAeazrracsauaHyncxhoouniPllaeV3ruPGs2iégaA9nrrA8oIieNTgsummMlucaeeaDhreolbuenBOexDtesaAoruRrggndbeeLoRarngonantAceAevTeCyoarohunoelrosuTsCeasrCanrMcaeMMssPaooneennnrstdnptpeeiCegsrélnlvGiaieeannroNflîlfmleeePsVduaCMuyleanamLcrAaeisrroelAegnivsulilgeenonAPDGriGxoiaIgr-vpeenennne-DTocboeulurÎealleonsNncd’iHcayerèrietsi nne nes Rhône M e me Alps Côte d’ MONACO Azur Ligurian Sea Bastia Monte Cinto 2706m P A M e d i t e r r a n e a nLA VELLA ANDORRA I N s e a Ajaccio Corsica Sartène ANDORRA MONACO Bonifacio Bonifacio Strait of Area: 181 sq miles Area: 0.75 sq miles Sardinia (to Italy) (468 sq km) (1.95 sq km) Population: 83,900 Population: 33,000 Capital: Andorra la Vella Capital: Monaco 222

1706 Born in Boston, www.children.dkonline.com >> Benjamin Franklin Massachusetts. 1718 Apprenticed to his F BENJAMIN brother James, a printer. 1723 Runs away to RANKLIN Philadelphia to start his own printing press. A HIGHLY ACCOMPLISHED statesman, inventor, and writer, Benjamin 1732 First edition of Poor Richard’s Almanack Franklin was one of the most remarkable Americans of his time. Born to a was published. poor Boston candlemaker, Franklin worked in his brother’s print shop. At 1752 Publishes reports 17, he ran away to Philadelphia to open a shop of his own. Franklin became on his experiments with Philadelphia’s most famous citizen, with an endless list of achievements. electricity. He founded the first public library, organized a hospital, and founded a 1776 Helps draft school that later became the University of Pennsylvania. Franklin’s the Declaration of experiments with electricity brought him acclaim throughout Europe. He Independence. used his fame to promote the interests of the American colonies, helping 1776 Travels to France persuade the British to repeal the Stamp Act and convincing the French as special US envoy. to help the colonists fight the British in the American Revolution. 1787 Framer of the US Constitution. A COLONIAL STATESMAN 1790 Dies in Philadelphia. During his long career as a politician, Franklin Benjamin Franklin spoke for the interests of the colonies, secured wearing bifocals, his the political and financial support of the own invention. French government, and played a crucial role in shaping both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. He spent his later years negotiating treaties in France; in 1783 his work on the Peace of Paris Treaty marked the end of the Revolutionary War. Benjamin Franklin accompanies George Washington and John Paul Jones into the Constitutional Convention in 1787. FRANKLIN’S INVENTIONS POOR RICHARD’S ALMANACK For more than 25 years, Franklin Science and invention were two of Franklin’s wrote this popular yearly calendar. lifelong passions. Franklin’s experiments It had jokes, proverbs, and advice with electricity – most famously his kite on how to get on in the world from Franklin’s humble, hard-working experiment, which proved that lightning is a form of electricity – amazed scientists and character Poor Richard. led to his invention of the lightning rod, which diverts lightning bolts away from Find out more buildings. His other inventions included the fuel-efficient Franklin stove, the bifocal lens American revolution (a single lens with two different strengths), Colonial america and the odometer, a machine that measures Constitution distances traveled when attached to a wheel. Declaration of independence CITY OF BROTHERLY LOVE Presidency With a population of more than 300,000, Franklin’s home, Philadelphia (from the Greek for “brotherly love”), was the largest city in the colonies. Quaker William Penn founded this Pennsylvanian settlement in 1682, which developed into a bustling port with a thriving textile and shipbuilding trade. Franklin’s gifts to the city include its public library – where his statue stands above a doorway (right) – which was the first circulating library in America. 223

FRENCH REVOLUTION “LIBERTY! EQUALITY! FRATERNITY!” This slogan echoed throughout France in 1789 as the hungry French people united to overthrow the rich noblemen who THE REVOLUTION ruled the country. The revolution put May 1789 Estates General (parliament) ordinary people in control of France meets at Versailles. and gave hope to oppressed people all over July 1789 Paris crowd storms Bastille prison. THE EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI the world. The revolution started when the “Because the country must live, Louis must die.” Aug 1789 Declaration bankrupt king Louis XVI summoned the of the Rights of Man. With those words, the king of France was killed French parliament for the first time since June 1790 Nobility is abolished. on the guillotine on January 21, 1793. 1614. Instead of helping him raise taxes, June 1791 Louis XVI they seized power. In Paris, a crowd stormed the Bastille prison, the symbol tries to flee from Paris. of royal authority. The king had to support the revolution, but in 1792 France Aug 1792 King Louis imprisoned. became a republic, and Louis was executed. Counterrevolution broke out in Sept 1792 Monarchy parts of France in 1793, which led to a Reign of Terror that undid many of abolished and France becomes a republic. the benefits of the revolution. In 1799 a military takeover put Napoleon Mar 1793 Counter- Bonaparte in power and ended the revolution. revolution in Vendée region. Place de Royal Louis XV palace Sept 1793 Start of Reign of Terror. National Assembly July 1794 Terror ends when Robespierre Tuilleries is overthrown. gardens Nov 1795 A new PARIS Place de republic, the Directory, la Bastille takes power. Although the revolution Place de Nov 1799 Napoleon engulfed the whole of la Nation Bonaparte overthrows France, Paris was always Directory and assumes at the center of events, with power. guillotines set up in many MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE When 35-year-old lawyer Robespierre came to power in 1793, he took severe measures to safeguard the revolution. He presided over the Reign of Terror but was himself executed in 1794. The red bonnet worn by the revolutionaries, and the republican tricolor flag MARIANNE SANS-CULOTTES REVOLUTIONARY WOMEN Find out more The new revolutionary Women were very active during calendar started from The well-dressed aristocrats sneered the revolution and led many Europe, history of the day the king was at the revolutionaries and called them of the marches. But women France overthrown. Marianne sans-culottes because they wore plain were never allowed to vote or to – a symbolic but trousers instead of fancy stockings. The participate in the government, Napoleon bonaparte imaginary revolutionary revolutionaries adopted this name as their and the Rights of Man (the woman shown here on own. Their clothes came to symbolize the revolutionary charter of human a stamp – illustrated the new way of life in revolutionary France. rights) did not apply to them. first month. 224

www.children.dkonline.com >> frogs FROGS AND OTHER AMPHIBIANS AMPHIBIANS ARE A GROUP of creatures that are able to live both on land and in the water. The group includes frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians. Amphibians have existed for millions of years and are found everywhere but Antarctica and Greenland. Frogs are the most widespread Frogs rely on their amphibians, surviving in deserts, rain forests, and eyes to watch for mountainous regions. The limbless caecilian is found prey. They also use only in tropical areas. Caecilians burrow in the earth their eyes to judge and swim by wriggling like eels. Frogs, in contrast, can distances when they are leaping. swim, hop, and climb trees using their long back legs. Most Front legs act amphibians breed in water, where they lay eggs that develop as shock absorbers into larvae (tadpoles). During the larval stage, amphibians when the breathe through gills; as adults they develop lungs for frog lands. breathing on land. Several kinds of frogs and salamanders are brightly colored, and some have glands in the skin that produce toxins (poisons) to ward off predators. After hatching AMPHIBIANS Frog’s toes from its egg, the Some amphibians lay spawn (eggs) in water; others lay tadpole starts to eggs out of water, on leaves, or in holes underground. are sticky. swim, breathing The frogspawn you see in a pond hatches into limbless through tadpoles. As the tadpoles grow in the water, they develop RED-EYED TREE FROG gills. limbs. They gradually change into frogs and climb on to the land. This process is called metamorphosis. About 16 weeks after hatching, the young frog leaves the water. Tail becomes smaller Tree frogs often have longer, and eventually leaner bodies than frogs that live disappears. mainly in water. A frog’s long back legs can kick powerfully for swimming and leaping away from Limbs form, and internal predators. The red-eyed tree frog shown above has sticky lungs develop.Tadpole disks on its toes that give a good grip on leaves and bark. begins to gulp air from Today, red-eyed tree frogs are in danger of extinction. the surface of the water. SALAMANDER Mandarin newt After the tadpole stage, the fire salamander crawls up on to land and Fire salamander lives among leaves in moist woodland areas. The females return to the water to CANE TOAD NEWT give birth to 10 to 15 live young. The fire salamander is so named because it hides in logs, The cane or marine toad shown Salamanders and their relatives, the newts, and is sometimes seen emerging from a log fire. here originated in Central and South America. resemble lizards in shape. In the breeding season Cane toad grows up During the 1930s, to 9 in (23 cm) in it was brought to newts often become brighter in color, and may body length. Australia to eat the beetles that be red, yellow, or orange, such as the mandarin were pests in sugar cane newt shown here. These colors warn plantations. Today the cane predators that the glands in the skin toad itself is regarded produce horrible-tasting as a pest. or poisonous fluids. Asian leaf frog Find out more Animals Camouflage, animal Conservation and endangered species Tomato frog 225

www.children.dkonline.com >> fruits FRUITS AND SEEDS ALL FLOWERING PLANTS, from tiny weeds to mighty oaks, Seeds (pips) develop from seeds. Each seed contains an embryo (a young plant) plus a store of food for the embryo’s growth. A There are more than fruit is the seed container; it protects the developing seeds until they are dispersed by animals, the wind, Core 1,000 varieties of water, or the plant itself. Fruits include lemons, melons, cherries, and tomatoes. The hard little APPLE cultivated apples. stones, or pips, inside are the seeds. Many fruits, such as oranges and blackcurrants, are an important The apple’s flesh, which is what we eat, source of food. They contain large amounts of vitamin C, necessary for good health. People have cultivated grows from the receptacle of the flower, so it fruits for centuries; today, fruit growers produce millions of tons of fruit every year. Strangely enough, some foods is a false fruit. The apple core is formed from that we call vegetables, such as cucumber, are in fact fruits, bursting with tiny seeds. So, too, are spices such as whole the ovary, and the pips inside are chiles and peppercorns. Yet rhubarb, which is often cooked as a fruit, is really the pink stem of a leaf. the seeds. Pears, quinces, and hawthorn berries are formed in the same way; they are also known as pomes. TRUE AND FALSE FRUITS GRAPE Fruits have different names, depending Berries are juicy, succulent true fruits with pips on which part of the flower develops inside. They include into the main part of the fruit. grapevine berries, Fruits are usually described as which we call grapes. either true or false fruits. A true About 5,000 kinds of fruit develops from the female grapes are used to make wine, or parts of the flower. A false fruit are dried into currants and raisins for cakes and cookies. Other berries include is one that includes some other gooseberries, tomatoes, and bananas. part of the flower, such as the Citrus fruits, such as oranges, lemons, receptacle, or flower base. The bright and grapefruits, are also berries. PLUM DRUPE red fruits of the mountain Runner ash (rowan) develop from Drupes are juicy, succulent true fruits bean pod clusters of white flowers. like berries. Unlike berries, however, PEA LEGUME drupes do not have pips. Instead, they Legumes are dry, non- juicy fruits. Their seeds POPPY CAPSULE have a hard stone that contains the are contained in a long Capsules are hard, dry fruits seed. Plums, cherries, and apricots outer casing called a pod. found on poppies, violets, Pods are found on pea and snapdragons, and the are all drupes. A blackberry is a bean plants, as well as horse chestnut tree. collection of drupes. sweet peas and laburnums. We eat the fruits of pea Cherry Pea and bean plants. The poppy capsule is Plum like a saltshaker. The tiny seeds fall through holes at the top when the wind blows. Pea pod Walnut fruit NUT (drupe) A nut is a dry, hard-cased fruit such Seed cases as an acorn or hazelnut, with only one seed inside. Most hard, woody fruits or seeds are called nuts, but the fruit of Walnut “nut” the walnut is actually a drupe, and the is the seed. Brazil nut is really a seed. Hard Outer shell of casing Seed Brazil nut head Seeds Brazil “nuts” are SUNFLOWER the seeds of a South American The sunflower grows about 8 ft tree. The seeds (2.5 m) high. After fertilization, grow in melon- sized fruit Sunflower the large flower ripens to form a pods. seeds are used in margarine, plate-sized seed head. Sunflower Brazil nut (seed) animal food, that we eat and as a snack. seeds contain large amounts of vitamins and edible oil. 226

FRUITS AND SEEDS GERMINATION WHEAT RUNNER BEAN First true The seeds of A runner bean has a food store leaves Seeds need warmth, cereals such as in the form of two seed leaves open. moisture, and air in wheat and that are called cotyledons. order to germinate other grasses (grow). The seeds of have only one First true Shoot certain tropical plants seed leaf. These leaves lengthens. start to germinate within seeds are called a few days; the seeds of Dormant Radicle monocotyledons. Plumule Plumule most other plants remain seed (young (young shoot) grows dormant, or asleep, until root) First upward. conditions are right. leaves Many tree and shrub seeds must pass through Young a cold winter before they shoot can begin to grow. Roots Root hairs Testa (seed develop begin to case) branches. grow. containing seed leaves Roots lengthen. Radicle HOW SEEDS ARE SPREAD (young root) begins to Plants have several ways of spreading their seeds. grow. Some seeds have wings or parachutes that are blown by the wind. The coconut plant has seeds that float and are Sycamore fruit has wings to carried on water. The sweet pea has a pod that snaps open carry it through the air. and flings the seeds out. Animals also disperse seeds. Birds eat berries and other fruits, then drop the seeds as they feed or pass them out after digestion. BIRDS ACORN BURIERS Seed is Birds and A large oak tree Squirrels contained monkeys bears thousands of ripe bury nuts to eat during the winter. inside fruit. are the main fruits called acorns. Animals Sometimes squirrels forget where seed spreaders cannot eat them all; a few they have buried these WIND for many fruits. survive to grow into new oak trees. nuts, and the forgotten The light, winged, helicopter- Seeds stick to the bird’s bill seeds may sprout the shaped fruits of sycamore trees to be wiped off later on a WATER following spring. twirl in the wind, far away from branch or the ground. Aquatic plants such as water lilies the parent tree. Pines also have and lotus flowers produce fruits winged seeds. Many plants, such that float away downriver as cotton and dandelions, have on water currents. The seeds with fine silky plumes or fruits often grow into new plants parachutes that catch far away from the breeze. the parent plant. The lotus flower EXPLOSIVE DANDELION lives in water. Its PODS Each time you seeds float away Fruits such as those of blow on the head downstream to the lupin are still soft of a dandelion grow elsewhere. and fleshy when they shed you spread the their seeds. When they are seeds on their HOOKS AND BURRS fully ripe, the casing suddenly feathery parachutes. Numerous kinds of fruits and seeds have hooks and splits open, and the seeds pop out burrs on their outer casings. These hooks catch onto with explosive force. Find out more the fur or feathers of a passing mammal or bird and Birds sometimes on to our shoes, socks, and clothing, to fall Flowers and herbs off later. Well-known Plants hooked fruits are Trees burdock, cleavers, agrimony, and South African grapple fruit. In the fall, the badger picks up many seeds on its fur as it pushes through undergrowth. The seeds eventually drop off and grow into new plants. 227

www.children.dkonline.com >> gas FORMATION OF GAS NATURAL GAS The natural gas we use today is millions of years old. It was formed from BURNING GAS TO MAKE HEAT is a quick and easy way to warm the remains of prehistoric plants that lived the home and to cook. Gas is also used in industry, both for heat on land and in and as a raw material. Most of the gas we use for fuel is natural the sea. New gas deposits are still gas. It is extracted from deposits buried deep underground being created. or under the seabed. Gas for burning can also be made by 1In the sea, tiny plants sink and processing coal to produce coal gas. These fuel gases a layer of dead plants builds up are not the only kinds of gas: there are many on the seabed. The sea plants others with different uses. For instance, are buried in mud. the air we breathe is made up of GAS DELIVERY 2On land, too, several gases mixed together. Natural gas is piped mud covers to homes for use dead plants and trees. Huge drills on a production in stoves and Slowly, the mud hardens platform sink wells to reach heaters. Gas stored into rock. More layers of in metal bottles rock form above and press gas deposits, supplies homes that down on the plants, burying which lie as deep them deeper and heating them up. as 4 miles (6 km) below the seabed. are not connected 3The pressure and heat slowly to the pipeline. change the sea plants into oil and then into gas. Land plants turn first to coal before becoming oil and gas. A layer of rock now traps the gas in a deep deposit. Earth movements may have raised the rocks containing the gas above sea level, so that the gas now lies under the land. 6Gas flows from terminals to large tanks, 4 Gas flows up the well to where it may be frozen and stored as a the production platform, liquid. The gas can also be stored in huge and a pipeline takes it to a underground caverns. Pumps push gas terminal on land. Gas from along pipes to the places where it inland wells flows straight to is needed. the terminal. 5 Raw gas has to Gas GAS FOR INDUSTRY be cleaned and storage dried before it can tank Not all gas is used in the be used. The gas home. Many power stations terminal removes burn gas to generate impurities electricity. In dry places, and water. such as deserts, the heat from burning gas is used to process seawater in order to produce salt-free drinking water. Gas is also used as a fuel in factories producing all kinds of things, from roasted peanuts to cars. Chemicals made from gas are vital ingredients in the manufacture of plastics, fertilizers, paints, synthetic fiber, and many other products. USEFUL GASES Gas deposit A gas layer often forms Gas wells produce several different kinds of gas. Methane is the Oil deposit above a layer The pressure of the of oil. gas helps force the main component, but other fuel gases, called propane and oil up wells to the production platform. butane, also come from gas deposits. The gas terminal stores these gases in metal cylinders for use in houses where there is no gas connection. Gas deposits are also a source of helium. Helium is used to fill balloons because it is very light and does not burn. Air Find out more is another source of useful gases. Carbon dioxide, the gas Coal Heat that makes the bubbles in carbonated drinks, comes Oil Oxygen from air. Air also contains a little neon gas. Some Science Neon advertising signs are glass tubes filled with neon. Helium gas sign The gas glows when electricity passes through it. balloons 228

www.children.dkonline.com >> genetics GENETICS THE SCIENCE OF GENETICS has officially existed ever since the word “gene” was coined in 1909 by the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen (1857-1927). He invented the term to describe the “particles” of inheritance that pass characteristics from one generation of plant or animal to the next. The field of genetics developed over the course of the 20th century, and Each “rung” produced important discoveries about how genes work. Scientists showed is a pair of that genes are sections of the long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid chemicals (DNA) that are connected together to form chromosomes. Genes called bases. contain the instructions by which plant and animal cells are built. DNA Genes are passed from both parents to their children through sexual reproduction. By this process, called Deoxyribonucleic acid heredity, inheritable characteristics are passed from is the full name of DNA. one generation to the next. It is the molecule that The sides of the holds the coded “ladder” are made up of phosphate and instructions within genes. Its structure is a sugar molecules. double helix, with The DNA molecule looks chemical bonds that something like a twisted attach one side of the ladder in this model. In helix to the other, rather real life it is a chain of tens like the rungs of a ladder. of thousands of atoms. Each “rung” is made up of a pair of chemicals selected from HEREDITY a choice of four chemicals, so the way in which genetic information is coded is actually very simple. When a plant or animal is created, it inherits a combination of genetic information from both of its parents. Heredity is the passing of characteristics Blue eyes from parents to children. It means that a baby inherits certain features from each of its parents, but it also ensures that each baby is usually Albino hamster different from its brothers and sisters. has white fur and red eyes. Some of the features Hamster with MUTATION Children resemble their parents controlled by genes normal coloring When new DNA but are not identical to them. can be easily seen. is being created, The genes in this girl’s sometimes a mistake The sex chromosomes determine cells make her eyes can occur during the whether a cell is male or female. blue, her hair straight, copying process. and her skin fair. These mistakes are called Males contain an XY pair, while mutations, and they may appear females contain an XX pair. Wavy hair as a defect or a new characteristic. If a mutation turns out to be useful, it may become common in future generations. The genes in this boy’s GENES CHROMOSOMES cells make his eyes Each chromosome consists of a The nucleus of a living cell brown, his hair wavy, long molecule of DNA. Normally, contains a number of pairs and his skin dark. the molecule is unraveled, but it of chromosomes. They are coils up to give the chromosome rather like filing cabinets its characteristic shape (right) when that store all of the genetic a cells divides. Each gene is a short information of the plant or section of the chromosome that animal. Chromosomes are contains the instructions needed arranged in pairs that carry to make a particular protein. This identical or different forms is just one of the large group of of the same genes. chemicals that control the features, such as eye color. Humans have X chromosome around 23,000 genes. 229

GENETICS MENDEL PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE Gregor Mendel (1822-84), Austrian Different forms of the same gene are called alleles, and they scientist, discovered the laws of heredity can be dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles always show through experiments with pea plants. In 1866 he showed that features in a up, even if the information they carry comes from only one plant, such as the production of a parent. Recessive means that a certain feature might not be smooth or a wrinkled pea, are seen in a plant or animal even though it is carrying the right determined by the genetic information given to the plant by its parents. He Gregor alleles. Recessiveness is sometimes linked to gender. called this information “particles,” some Mendel was Male cat Female 43 years before the word “gene” was invented by the Danish scientist an ordained carrying tortoiseshell cat Wilhelm Johannsen (1857-1927). priest and tortoiseshell combined allele religion with his work as a scientist. The cats produce male and female kittens. Only females can be tortoiseshell. TWINS If a fertilized human embryo splits in two it will develop into identical twins. Each twin shares the same genetic information. In fact, they are not The second kitten, who Only one kitten is entirely identical, because each fetus carries two tortoiseshell tortoiseshell like her mother, develops in a slightly different way after the alleles, does not have a original split. Therefore, identical twins can because she carries two tortoiseshell coat alleles and is female. because he is male. appear to be remarkably similar yet have quite different personalities. Non-identical twins develop from two separate embryos. Identical twins are The world’s media took a GENETICS of the same sex great interest in Dolly, the because they come first large mammal 1859 Darwin publishes from a single to be cloned. his theory of evolution. embryo. 1866 Mendel establishes laws of inheritance. 1869 Friedrich Miescher isolates “nuclein”, later called DNA. 1905 X and Y sex chromosomes discovered. 1910 Thomas Morgan confirms chromosome theory of heredity. 1927 Genetic mutation in fruit flies created using x-rays. CLONING DOLLY 1941 Proved that one Clones are one or more identical gene produces organisms that share identical genes but one protein. unlike twins are not produced by natural reproduction. For many years, scientists have 1944 Shown that DNA been interested in cloning identical copies of controls heredity. animals and plants. In 1997, scientists successfully cloned a sheep, known as Dolly. The experiment led to 1953 Watson and Crick discover the structure a worldwide debate about the ethics of cloning. of DNA. 1966 Genetic code cracked. GM FOODS 1984 Discovery of DNA fingerprinting. The plants and animals that 2003 Human genome produce GM (genetically modified) project to identify genes, foods have had their genes changed by scientists. In theory, is completed. genetic modification is just a way of speeding up the process of Find out more selection by breeding, which is Atoms and molecules already done in the natural way. There is much to be learned before Radioactivity we can be sure that genetic Reproduction modification is a safe thing to do. 230

www.children.dkonline.com >> geology GEOLOGY OUR EARTH CHANGES all the time. Mountains rise and wear away. Continents move, causing oceans to widen and narrow. These changes are slow. It would take a million years to notice much difference. Other changes, such as when an earthquake shakes the land or a volcano erupts, are sudden. Geology is the study of how Earth changes, how it was formed, and the rocks that it is made of. Clues to the Earth’s history are hidden in its rocks. Geologists survey (map out) the land and dig down to the rocks in Earth’s crust. The age GEOLOGISTS AT WORK Rocks at the Earth’s surface reveal and nature of the rocks and fossils (evidence of prehistoric plants and their past to the expert eyes of animals) help geologists understand the workings of Earth. Geologists geologists. For example, huge cracks in layers of rock show that powerful also help discover valuable deposits of forces once squeezed the rocks. coal, oil, and other useful minerals. SATELLITE MAPPING SANDSTONE They study the land before a large Satellites circle Earth and send back The top structure such as a dam is built, to make photographs of the surface from and youngest layer of rock space. The pictures show features is sandstone. It sometimes forms from desert sands. The sure that the land can support the great of the land in great detail and help criss-cross pattern shows how weight. Geologists also warn people geologists identify the rocks. the wind blew sand to form about possible disasters. Using special the rock. Satellites have also measured the size and shape of Earth. instruments, they detect the movement of rocks and try to Studying the rocks in the predict volcanic eruptions ocean floor can reveal and earthquakes. the slow movements of Earth’s crust. AERIAL SURVEYS SHALE Airplanes carry special A layer of shale cameras that produce rock shows that the land must three-dimensional views have been beneath shallow of the land below, and water. Mud from a nearby instruments that measure river built up and compacted, the strength of Earth’s forming shale. magnetism and gravity. SEISMIC TESTS RADIOACTIVE BASALT Special trucks strike the DATING Lava from ground with huge hammers, a volcano formed this layer producing shock waves, Rocks contain of basalt. The land rose called seismic waves, which substances that decay from the sea, and a volcano bounce off the layers of rock over millions of years, erupted nearby to cover below. Computers use these giving off tiny amounts the rock below with lava. waves to draw pictures of the of nuclear radiation. layers of rock within Earth. LIMESTONE By a process called The lowest and THE HISTORY OF GEOLOGY radioactive dating, oldest layer contains fossils of which measures this tiny creatures, showing that The ancient Greeks radioactivity, geologists 100 million years ago, during can find out how old the time of the dinosaurs, the and Hindus were the region was under the sea. the rocks are. first peoples to study and DRILLING ROCK SAMPLE Rigs bore shafts as The layers of rock in this sample date the rocks of Earth. deep as 10,000 ft (above) come from deep (3,000 m) below the underground. During the late 18th ground and bring up samples of the rock Find out more century, the Scottish layers beneath. Coal scientist James Hutton Continents Earth became the first Earthquakes European geologist to EXAMINING EARTH Fossils Gas In 1795 James Hutton realize that Earth is Earth’s crust is made of layer upon Oil founded the modern millions of years old and layer of different kinds of rock that have been laid down over millions Rocks and minerals science of geology that it changes constantly. of years. The topmost layers usually with his book The But his ideas were not formed most recently and the Theory of the Earth. accepted until after his lowest layers are the oldest. By uncovering these layers of rock, death. In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German geologists can trace back the history of Earth. meteorologist, proposed that the continents move. But it was more than 50 years before his idea was found to be true. 231

www.children.dkonline.com >> Germany GERMANY THE NATION OF GERMANY occupies a central position in northern Europe. The 83.3 million German people also play a central role in the economy, way of life, and traditions of Europe. Germany is an old country, and its borders have changed often over the centuries. For much of the second half of the 20th century, Germany consisted of two separate nations: West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany) and East Germany (the German Democratic Republic). In 1990 they again became one nation. Germany is a rich and fertile land, and its farms are among the world’s most productive. The landscape rises gently from the sandy coasts and islands on the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Flat plains dominate the northern part of Germany lies at the heart of Europe. Its landscape varies greatly the country, and in the south there are forests and the soaring Alps. The from the flat plains of the north to region’s cool, rainy weather helps agriculture. Farms produce livestock and the peaks of the Bavarian Alps in the south. dairy products, cereals, potatoes, sugar beets, fruits, and vegetables. Most people, however, live in and Sausage sellers around the towns where Germany’s specialize in energetic industries are based. various kinds of wurst and often sell their wares from tiny stalls or vans. The Brandenburg WURST AND BEER Beer gardens Gate stands on Germany produces some excellent wine and is also attached to the line that once famous for its beer. Germans often drink beer with bars and divided East and cafés are West Berlin. the traditional snack of a sausage (wurst) and a bread popular in roll, accompanied by a large dollop of mild mustard. warm weather. There are numerous kinds of wurst, and Leitz camera factory every region has its speciality. INDUSTRY Frankfurters, a type of wurst, There is a wide range of industries in Germany, originally came from Frankfurt. producing electrical goods, computers, tools, textiles, and medicines. Coal mines in the central BERLIN Ruhr region produce large quantities of brown Reinstated as the capital coal, or lignite, to fuel the factories. Western of Germany in 1990, Germany is famous for high-quality precision Berlin grew up on the goods, such as BMW cars and Leitz cameras. banks of the Spree River. Canals also link Berlin to the Elbe and Oder rivers. Berlin was devastated in World War II. In 1949 the city was split between the two states of East and West Germany. For many years a wall separated the people in the eastern and western sectors, and the two parts of the city still look very different. New buildings have made western Berlin look like any other modern European city. Eastern Berlin still suffers poor infrastructure and buildings. 232

GERMANY The enchanting, BAVARIA DÜRER gray granite Schloss Born in Nuremberg, Albrecht Dürer Neuschwanstein is hidden Covering the entire (1471-1528), is famous for his paintings and away in the Bavarian Alps. southeastern part of engravings. He produced his first self-portrait the country, Bavaria at the age of 13, and painted himself at intervals is the largest state in throughout his life thereafter. He produced this Germany. Most of self-portrait (above) when he was 26. At the the region is cloaked age of 15, Dürer was apprenticed to Michael by forests and farms. Wolgemut, Nuremberg’s chief painter and book In the south, the illustrator. He was inspired by the painters of Bavarian Alps form the Italian Renaissance and resolved to depict a natural border with people and things in realistic detail. In 1512, Austria. Bavaria is a Dürer became court painter to Emperor magnet for tourists, who Maximilian, and gained international fame. come to see its fairy-tale DRESDEN palaces (left) and spectacular The city of Dresden in eastern Germany was once  scenery. The region’s traditional the capital of a historic German state called Saxony. costume is Lederhosen (leather shorts), Although there are still some beautiful buildings in suspenders, and a cap for men, and Dirndlkleider Dresden, including the former royal palace (below), (a full-length dress with puffed sleeves) for women. most of the city’s fine architecture was destroyed by Allied bombing in World War II (1939-45). Dresden SEMPER OPERA HOUSE has now been completely rebuilt, and many of the The architect Gottfried Semper (1803-79) buildings have been restored. built his first opera house, the Royal Theater, on Theaterplatz Square in Dresden, in the years 1838-1841. Almost 30 years later it burned to the ground and the opera was forced to move to temporary premises. Public pressure persuaded Semper to create a second opera house between 1871 and 1878. The new building (right) followed the style of the Italian High Renaissance. Following its destruction during an air raid in World War II, it was rebuilt in its original form between 1977 and 1985. Its exquisite acoustics and opulent interior decoration make it a model for opera houses throughout the world. BROTHERS GRIMM Dresden was once admired as the Jakob (1785-1863) and Wilhelm (1786-1859) Grimm were “Florence on the Elbe.” born in Hanau, near Frankfurt. Devoted to each other, the brothers went to the same school and university, and lived together until Wilhelm’s death. The Grimm brothers are famous for their collections of German folktales, which include the well-known tales of Cinderella, Hansel and Gretel, Rapunzel, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Sleeping Beauty, and Little Red Riding Hood. The brothers did not create these stories themselves, but gathered them together from the accounts of country folk, and old books. Most of the stories date back hundreds of years. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 233

GERMANY RHINE RIVER SPORTING ACHIEVEMENT The Rhine is the longest river in Germany. It begins in Switzerland and Germany has produced some later forms the German border with France. Finally it cuts through the western part of Germany toward the Netherlands and the sea. Large river excellent athletes over the past barges can sail up the Rhine as far as Basel, Switzerland. Vineyards on the few decades. Sports stars include steep banks of the southern part of the river produce much of Germany’s Boris Becker, Steffi Graf, and famous white wine. Michael Stich in tennis, Michael Schumacher in auto racing, and Katja Seizinger in skiing. The German government encourages sports, mainly because it promotes good health. Prizewinning athletes also bring great honor to their country. The buildings The joining of East and West in parts of Germany brought together some of the Bonn have world’s finest athletes. When the two a modern countries were rivals, East German architectural style. competitors were aided by excellent sports facilities, and special privileges gave them time BONN to train. They won many more events than their West German counterparts. Between 1949 and 1990, Bonn was the capital of West Germany. Bonn, OBERAMMERGAU an ancient city, stands on the Rhine River on the site of a Roman camp. Once every 10 years an extraordinary event takes place in this small town It is a university town with many beautiful buildings in traditional in the Bavarian Alps of southern Germany. The inhabitants of German style. Bonn was the birthplace of composer Ludwig van RUHR VALLEY Oberammergau get together to Beethoven (1770-1827). perform a passion play, which tells the story of Christ’s crucifixion. Much of Germany’s heavy industry The villagers first performed the play in 1634 in an effort to stop the is concentrated in the valley of the plague. They have maintained the custom ever since. It is now a major Ruhr River. Huge coal seams tourist attraction, attended by thousands of visitors from Germany provide the valley with a rich and abroad. source of power, and factories in Find out more Europe the region produce iron, steel, and Europe, history of chemicals. The Ruhr Valley is Germany’s most densely Wild boar still populated area. roam in the larger forests and are hunted for their meat. FORESTS Great forests cover many of the hills and mountains of the central and southern regions of Germany. These forests are prized for their beauty and for their valuable timber, which is used widely in industry. The most famous forests include the Thüringer Wald, the forests of the Harz Mountains in Central Germany, and the Schwarzwald, or Black Forest, in southwestern Germany. 234

GERMANY CARS Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small Germany is monument city city/ city/ Europe’s largest town town vehicle producer, specializing in high-quality cars. STATISTICS American and Japanese Area: 137,800 sq miles car companies are based (356,910 sq km) Population: 83,330,000 here, attracted by the Capital: Berlin Languages: German skilled workforce. HAMBURG Religions: Protestant, Located on the Elbe River, Hamburg is Roman Catholic, Muslim DE North Frisian Islands NMAR the second-largest city in Germany and Currency: Euro its economic center. The city is also the Main occupations: North Kiel country’s busiest port. Engineering, Sea Lübeck manufacturing K Baltic Main exports: Cars, heavy Helgoland Hamburg Sea engineering, electronics, Fehmarn chemicals East Frisian Islands Rügen Main imports: Energy Rostock Pomeranian sources, raw materials Bremerhaven Bay Schwerin Oderhaff Neubrandenburg Müritz POLAND Oldenburg Bremen Elbe er Od NETHERLAN DS el Ems Weser Aller Havel Eberswalde-Finow Potsdam Osnabrück Hanover Wolfsburg Magdeburg BERLIN Münster (Hannover) Frankfurt an der Oder RHINE RIVER iaHarz Elbe Spree The Rhine is Germany’s B ohem Cottbus main waterway. It is an important SaaleEssenDortmundHalle transportation route to Leipzig and from northern ports. aDuisburgRuhrKassel It meanders across Leine Main 820 miles (1,320 km), E L GIUM Düsseldorf GERMA NY Dresden from its source in Cologne Fuld Switzerland to the Necka North Sea. (Köln) a WerrThürinEgrefrurWt ald Jena Chemnitz R(Rhhineei n Frankfurt am Main B Aachen irge irge FRA N C E Fichtelberg RheinischMeBossoSncnhKieofbelregnezb g e b E r z 1214m Mainz CZECH REPUBLIC LUXEMBOURG ) Würzburg GERMAN BORDERS Heidelberg Nuremberg Germany is positioned (Nürnberg) in the very center of r Regensburg n Grosser Arber Europe, and has land Heilbronn 1456m borders with no less than (DDoannauub)e nine countries. It is not Stuttgart Forest surprising, then, that it is Europe’s biggest trading nation. SchwäbiscanhouneabueA)lb Ulm All kinds of raw materials flow into lack Forest Augsburg Germany across its borders, for the nation has few natural resources. (DD Inn Manufactured goods cross Lech Germany’s borders in the opposite Freiburg im Breisgau Munich (München ) direction. Of all Germany’s borders, B that with France is the busiest: nearly 10 percent of all German trade is Konstanz Oberammergau Bavarian Alps A N with France. Lake Constance I Zugspitze 2962m SCALE BAR SWITZERLAND AUSTR W E 0 50 100 km 0 50 100 miles LIECHTENSTEIN S 235

www.children.dkonline.com >> glaciers GLACIERS AND ICE CAPS GLACIERS SNOW FALLING on the world’s tallest mountain peaks never melts. The Glaciers often join together, just as small temperature rarely rises above freezing, and fresh falls of snow press down on rivers meet to form bigger rivers. The ice may be those below, turning them to ice. A thick cover of ice, called an ice cap or ice sheet, more than 0.5 mile builds up, or snow collects in hollows. Ice flows down from the hollows in rivers of (1 km) deep. ice called glaciers. They move very slowly, usually less than 3.3 ft (1 m) a day, down toward the lower slopes. There it is usually warmer, and the glaciers melt. However, in the Arctic and the Antarctic, ice and snow remain throughout the year, though in recent times, large areas of ice have been melting because of global warming. Ice sheets covered much of North America and Europe during the last Ice Age over the last million years. When the weather became warmer, ICE CAP about 10,000 years ago, the Ice caps cover ice sheets retreated. Ice vast areas. When sheets now exist only in the thickness of Greenland and Antarctica. the ice reaches about 200 ft (60 m), CIRQUES its enormous weight sets it moving. The hollow SHAPING THE LANDSCAPE VALLEY GLACIER where the ice Glaciers slowly grind away even the The ice fills a valley, moving faster at the center than at collects to start hardest rock and reveal a changed the sides of the glacier. Cracks called crevasses the glacier is landscape when they retreat. Deep open in the surface. called a cirque valleys and lakes, together with or corrie. rivers and waterfalls, now exist Waterfall where there were none before. MORAINE A river Deep The glacier acts like a huge flows down U-shaped conveyor belt, carrying broken the center of valley carved rocks, called moraines, down from the the valley. mountaintop. The moving ice also plucks out by stones and boulders from the base and sides of Streams of the glacier the valley. This material is carried along within water form as the glacier, and is called englacial moraine. the glacier melts. Lake formed behind FROZEN MAMMOTHS moraines In the Russian Federation, ice and Rocks in the frozen soil have preserved melting ice build huge hairy elephants, called up a wall called a mammoths, just as if they terminal moraine. were in a deep freeze. The last mammoths lived in North America, Europe, and Asia during the Ice Age. ICEBERGS ICE AGE FJORDS A deep ice sheet covered about one- third The sea rose at the end of the Ice Huge pieces of of the world’s land during the last Ice Age. Age, drowning valleys formed by floating ice are Ice extended as far south as Saint Louis, glaciers. These deep, steep-sided called icebergs. Missouri, and London, England. There inlets are called fjords. The coast Nine-tenths of the had been ice ages before the last one, of Norway has many fjords. ice floats below the and there could be more in the future. water, so icebergs Find out more are a danger to 236 Antarctica ships. In 1912 the ocean liner Titanic Arctic sank after colliding Mountains with an iceberg. Polar wildlife Rain and snow

www.children.dkonline.com >> glass GLASS AND CERAMICS Spark plug STICKY CLAY AND DRY SAND are more familiar on the end for car engine of a shovel than on the dinner table. Yet these are the basic ingredients in the manufacture of the plates we eat from, and the jars and bottles in which we buy preserved food and drinks. Glass and ceramic materials share some useful qualities: they resist the flow of heat and electricity, and they have a hard, nonreactive surface. But they are different in other ways: light passes through glass but not CERAMICS ceramics, and ceramics stay strong when they are heated. In their most basic forms glass and ceramic objects are Damp clay is easy to mold into STAINED GLASS brittle, but special additives and manufacturing methods pottery and tiles; Strips of lead hold together the make both materials much tougher. Glass and ceramics heat sets the many pieces of colored glass in the shape permanently. stained glass windows that decorate are ancient materials. The Egyptians made decorative glass Ceramics resist heat homes, churches, and temples. beads more than 5,000 years ago, and pottery is even older. and electricity, so GLASS Glass bottle for they are ideal for holding medicines insulating objects Containers of clear that get hot, such glass both protect Glass bottle for as spark plugs. their contents and holding ink display them. Lenses Pottery mug are specially shaped pieces of glass that bend and concentrate light. But not all glass is functional; some Ornate glassware is simply glassware decorative. jug made in the 1930s ENAMEL Magnifying Ceramic tile Enamel is a glasslike glass which layer on metal and other objects that is a large protects them from convex lens. damage and corrosion. Colored enamel gives ornaments a beautiful appearance. MAKING GLASS Recycled FIBERGLASS glass Strengthening Sand Limestone Soda ash plastic with fibers of glass produces Heating sand, a material called HEAT RESISTANCE limestone, and fiberglass or glass- Ceramics can withstand very soda ash in a reinforced plastic, high temperatures. Ceramic furnace together which is tough tiles keep the astronauts cool with recycled enough to be used even when the space shuttle glass produces for car bodies. glows red from the intense molten glass. heat of reentry. A lump of hot, soft The molten glass is glass is placed in GLASSBLOWING poured onto a pool of a bottle-shaped mold. The breath of the glassblower molten tin, which makes inflates soft glass on the end of the glass spread into a flat Blowing air into the a tube into a bubble. Skillful sheet suitable for windows. mold makes the shaping makes the bubble into glass inflate into fine glassware as it cools. The glass sets and a bubble, which hardens on the cooler tin. Find out more expands to form Heat the bottle. Light The glass then Plastics cools and Science sets hard. 237

www.children.dkonline.com >> government GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS THE ADMINISTRATION OF A COUNTRY’S affairs is undertaken by a government whose policies direct decision making. Governments have many roles: they decide how money raised through taxes will be divided among the different public services, such as health, education, welfare, and defense. They also maintain the police for the safety of society, and the armed forces for the defense of the nation. As a result of differing cultural and political traditions, government and policies vary from country to country. There are, however, three main types of government: republican, monarchical, and dictatorial. Most countries are republics, with people voting in an election to choose PLATO their government and head of state. More than 2,000 years ago the In a monarchy, the head of the royal Greek philosopher Plato wrote family is the head of state. Countries the first book about governments in which a single ruler has seized and how they rule people – what today we call politics. His book, absolute power – often through The Republic, set out ideas for how a military takeover – are known a perfect state might be governed. as dictatorships. MONARCHY SEATS OF POWER In a monarchy a king or queen rules the country. Every government has a meeting place where members discuss Today only a few monarchs, such as the king of policies and pass laws. The seat of power also houses the Saudi Arabia, have political power; but four administrators who assist the government. The U.S. centuries ago, in Europe, government has its seat of power in Washington, monarchs made D.C., where a political history is evident in the laws and collected buildings such as the Jefferson Memorial taxes. (right), which commemorates the early 19th-century president, Thomas Jefferson. In the U.S. government there are two groups of elected representatives, the Senate and the House of Representatives, known as Congress. The Jefferson Memorial, Washington, D.C. Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki is sworn in as president of the Republic of South Africa in 1999. PRESIDENCY ANARCHISM Not everyone In a republic, such as South Africa, the believes in governments. people vote for their head of state. In this Anarchists prefer a society without central control. The 19th-century case, the president holds real political picture below shows a bomb placed power, and is responsible for the at a Paris opera house by French administration of the country anti-government protestors. and for its foreign policy. In France, power is divided between the president and the prime minister. In some countries, such as India, the president is more of a symbolic figurehead, who takes on a ceremonial role, rather like that of some monarchs. 238

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Presidential LOCAL GOVERNMENT seal Cities, towns, and counties are served by SHARED POWERS local governments, usually headquartered The government of the United States is a federal system, in which powers in a city hall (right). Many cities elect a are shared between the national mayor, who works with local officials in the government and state and local governments. The federal city council to run the city government. government, headed by the The local government ensures safety for president, works for all Americans. city residents through fire departments and Under its umbrella are state police forces, and maintains local parks and governments, which in turn roads. It is also responsible for hospitals. share their powers with the local One of the most important, and costliest, governments of cities, towns, jobs of local government is administering and villages. the public school system. EMERGENCY SERVICES GOVERNOR Local governments are responsible for providing The chief executive of a state is emergency services for their communities. Firefighters provide safety for the people who called the governor. Most work and live in the area. Many fire departments governors have the power to also provide medical care in other, nonfire appoint state officials, direct emergencies, giving immediate assistance to the state’s budget, veto bills a victim before he or she goes to a hospital. from the state legislature, GOVERNMENT SERVICES command the state militia, More than 20 million people in the United States are employed by the and grant pardons. A government, making it the nation’s governor is elected by popular largest employer. The government vote to a two- or four-year term. employs people in all sorts of occupations, from astronaut to Jennifer Granholm, zoologist, policeman to nurse. One governor of Michigan since 2002 government worker familiar to all Americans is the mail carrier. State capital of Vermont in Montpelier STATE GOVERNMENT State governments are organized in the same way as the federal government, with an executive branch headed by the governor, a legislative branch (state congress), and a judicial branch (state courts). Each state has its own constitution, but state laws must not conflict with the Constitution of the United States. State governments are responsible for education policy, public works (such as road repairs), welfare, and public safety. 239

UNCLE SAM GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS The character of “Uncle Sam” has come to symbolize the Tax money is used to fund welfare United States government. Legend has it that the real programs such as Social Security, which Uncle Sam was a New York meatpacker named includes unemployment insurance, Samuel Wilson. During the War of pensions, and family aid. Each citizen 1812, Wilson supplied rations to is issued a Social Security card (above). the Army with the initials “US” (for US Army) marked on each barrel. When a visitor to Wilson’s plant asked what the initials stood for, an employee humorously replied it must be his boss, Uncle Sam. Soon, everyone was using this nickname to represent the federal government. Uncle Sam’s stars-and-stripes costume appeared in cartoons from the 1830s. Uncle Sam has been used to promote everything from war bonds to ice cream. MONEY AND TAXES The Constitution gives the federal government the power to coin money. The US Mint is responsible for making coins, and for safeguarding the gold and silver reserves stored at Fort Knox, Kentucky. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing makes paper money. However, the money used to fund government programs, such as national defense, mail services, firefighting services, and Social Security, is not simply printed or minted – it comes from taxes. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT DEFENSE One of the most important functions of the federal The workings of the federal government government is to provide for the nation’s defense. affect everyone, no matter what state or The United States government spends many billions of dollars each year to maintain its armed city they live in. The Constitution forces. The federal government is entrusted with established the structure of the federal the power to declare war, and the president is the government, and outlined its powers. commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Some responsibilities entrusted to Department of Defense is headquartered in the the federal government include Pentagon, in Arlington, Virginia (above). national defense, regulating trade between states, collecting taxes, The Capitol building, With approximately 60% of printing money, and providing Washington, D.C. eligible voters heading to the for the welfare of all citizens. The federal government also polls, the 2008 Presidential liaises with the governments election had the highest voter of other nations. turnout since 1968. ELECTION DAY People vote to elect a government to represent their wishes. Voter turnout is on the decline, and less than half of all those qualified usually vote. To encourage greater participation, a number of states have made laws to make voter registration simpler. Find out more Congress Law Political parties Presidency 240

www.children.dkonline.com >> grassland wildlife GRASSLAND WILDLIFE This map shows the main VAST AREAS OF AFRICA, the Americas, Asia, and Australia grassland areas of the world. consist of grasslands – areas too dry for forests, but not too dry North for grasses. Grasses themselves are flowering plants that can America grow again quickly after animals eat them. Grasses also recover quickly if fire sweeps across the plains in the hot, dry season. Asia The fire burns only the upper parts of the grass, so the roots and stems are not damaged. Grasslands provide a home for Africa many different animals. Each survives by feeding on a different part of the grass plants. Zebras, for example, eat the coarse, South Australia older grass, while wildebeest (gnu) graze on new shoots. America Thomson’s gazelles nibble close to the ground. Grasshoppers, ants, and termites shelter among the grass stems and roots; Steppe these insects, in turn, are food for larger animals such as ant- Savanna eaters and armadillos. The lack of trees in grassland areas Pampas/Prairie means that small animals and certain birds have to dig burrows for shelter and for breeding. Each type of grassland has bur- GRASSLAND AREAS rowing rodents; prairie dogs and pocket gophers live in North The main grassland areas in the world are the America, susliks in Asia, ground squirrels in Africa, and Asian steppes, African savannas and grasslands, North vizcachas and tuco-tucos in South America. American prairies, and South American pampas, which blend into tropical Amazonian savanna. There are also tropical grasslands in parts of India and across Australia. Thistles grow in grassy areas throughout the world. Their prickles protect them against grazing animals. The flowers are often purple, and form fluffy white seed heads. SOUTH AMERICAN PAMPAS VISCACHA The viscacha is related to the guinea pig. The largest mammals on the South A male viscacha weighs about 17 lb American pampas are the pampas (8 kg), almost twice the size of deer, guanaco, and rodents such the female. Viscachas dig a as the viscacha, which burrows for system of burrows with shelter and safety. A fast-running their front feet and pile bird called the rhea also lives on up sticks and stones near the various the South American pampas, entrances. They eat feeding on grasses and other plants. mainly plant leaves BURROWING OWL and stems. The burrowing owl GIANT ANTEATER lives on the South With large claws on its second and third fingers, the giant American pampas. anteater can easily rip a hole in an ant’s nest or a termite It often makes its mound as it searches for food. The giant anteater uses its nest in an empty long, sticky tongue to lick up the ants and termites. burrow taken over Its tongue measures about 24 in (60 cm) in length. from a viscacha. Burrowing owls eat grasshoppers, insects, small mammals, birds, lizards, and snakes. Tail PAMPAS GRASS protects The white, fluffy seed anteater’s body as it sleeps in a shallow hole, heads of pampas listening for predators grass are a familiar such as pumas. sight in parks and gardens. Wild pampas grass covers huge areas of Argentina, in South America. Pampas leaves have tiny teeth, like miniature saws, that easily cut human skin. 241

GRASSLAND WILDLIFE JACKAL THOMSON’S GAZELLE Golden jackals eat whatever These swift-moving mammals live on the grassy they can find on the African plains of Africa in herds of up to 30 animals. savanna, including fruits, small They all have horns, but those of the male are mammals, eggs, birds, and the larger than those of the female. Thomson’s carcasses (dead bodies) of gazelles are often the prey of other grassland larger animals Jackals animals, such as the cheetah and the jackal. such as sometimes hunt zebras. SAVANNA in groups, pursuing small The huge grassland areas of eastern and grazing animals southern Africa are called savannas. These areas are home to the world’s largest herds of such as these grazing animals, including zebra, wildebeest, Thomson’s gazelles. The crested and hartebeest. Many large grazers wander porcupine lives on from one area to the next, following the African the rains to find fresh pastures. savanna. Acacia and baobab trees dot the landscape, providing shade for resting lions, ambush cover for leopards, and sleeping places CONSERVATION for baboons. Many grassland areas are now used as farmland, and the natural wildlife is being squeezed into smaller areas. As a result, these areas become overgrazed and barren. Grassland animals are also threatened by human hunters. In the past the Asian saiga antelope was killed for its horns. Today it is protected by law, but it is still seriously CRESTED PORCUPINE Wild peonies are found in many grassy endangered, The crested porcupine has sharp spines on its back for habitats around the world. Many garden protection. It warns enemies to stay away by rattling the with only hollow quills on its tail. If an intruder ignores these peony plants came originally from the 50,000 left warnings, the porcupine runs backward into the enemy, hardy wild peonies that grow in in the wild. and the quills come off and stick into the intruder’s flesh. grassland areas. A newborn saiga STEPPE GRASS SNAKE antelope is fluffy The grass snake lives on riverbanks and has no horns. The vast plains of Asia are called steppes. In and in marshes, mainly in Europe the western part of Asia the rainfall is more than 10 in (25 cm) each year, and grasses and and Asia. Grass snakes are good other plants grow well. Toward the eastern swimmers. PALLAS’S CAT part of Asia there is less than 2.5 in This long-furred cat lives (6 cm) of rainfall yearly, and in mountains, high the grasses fade away into the steppes, and open harsh Gobi Desert. Saiga country across antelopes, red deer, and Central Asia. At roe deer graze on the night it hunts rolling plains. for hares, birds, and Head-body length of BROOK’S GECKO mice. about 24 in (60 cm) Sharp claws and sticky toe pads enable Strong, agile, the gecko to climb over smooth stout body with rocks, along crevices, and in short legs cracks. The Brook’s gecko is active at night catching insects, and hides by day under rocks or in an empty termite or ant nest. Soft, thick fur to PALLAS’S SANDGROUSE Find out more keep out the The mottled plumage (feathers) of Pallas’s cold winds sandgrouse gives it excellent camouflage among Horses, asses, and zebras the brownish grasses and stones of the Asian Lions, tigers, steppe. It needs little water and can survive on dry, tough seeds and other plant parts. and other big cats Lizards Reptiles 242

www.children.dkonline.com >> gravity FALLING GRAVITY MASS AND WEIGHT Earth’s gravity makes falling An object’s mass is the amount of material objects accelerate (speed EARTH MOVES around the sun, it contains. Mass stays the same wherever up). Their speed does not traveling about 50 times faster than a the object is in the universe. The weight of depend on how heavy they rifle bullet. A strong force holds the are: a light object falls as fast Earth in this orbit. This is the force an object is the force of gravity pulling as a heavy object unless air of gravity; without it, Earth would on it. Weight can change. Because the slows it down. The Italian shoot off into space like a stone from Moon is smaller than Earth, its gravity scientist Galileo Galilei a catapult. Everything possesses is weaker, about one sixth as strong (1564-1642) noticed this gravity; it is a force that attracts all as Earth’s. Therefore, an astronaut about 400 years ago. objects to each other. However, the on the Moon weighs only one-sixth strength of the force depends on of his or her weight on Earth, but A heavy rock weighs how much mass is in an object, so her mass remains the same. much more than an gravity is only strong in huge objects egg of the same size. such as planets. Although you MOON AND EARTH However, both objects cannot feel it, the force of gravity is Gravity keeps the Moon moving in its fall at the same rate also pulling on you. Earth’s gravity orbit around Earth. The Moon’s gravity and hit the ground holds you to the surface of Earth, has effects on Earth, too. When the at the same time. no matter where you are. This Moon is directly over the sea, its gravity is because gravity always pulls pulls the seawater toward it, which toward the center of Earth. produces a high tide; low tide follows Sometimes you can see or when Earth rotates away again. feel the effects of gravity. For example, the effort you feel Objects fall in the when you climb up a flight opposite direction of stairs is because you on the other side are fighting against the of the Earth. force of gravity. The force of gravity gets weaker as you go farther from the center of Earth.  On top of a high mountain, gravity is slightly weaker than at sea level; so objects weigh fractionally less. When you drop a ball, it falls EARTH’S because gravity is pulling it toward the center of Earth. GRAVITY Gravity pulls all objects People on the down toward the opposite side of center of Earth. Earth are upside down in relation to you. But they do not fall off into space. They are held on to the surface of Earth just as you are. This is because the force of gravity pulls everything toward the center of Earth. Down is always the direction of Earth’s center. ISAAC NEWTON CENTER OF GRAVITY It is best to carry a large, unwieldy object English scientist Isaac Newton such as a ladder by holding it above its (1642-1727) was the first person center. The weight of the ladder to understand the force of balances at the center, which is called its center of gravity gravity. In 1666, after or center of mass. An object watching an apple fall to with a large or heavy base has the ground, he wondered a low center of gravity. This stops whether the force of gravity it from falling over easily. that makes things fall also holds the Moon in its orbit Objects such as a loaded tray balance Find out more around Earth. This was a if supported directly beneath their daring idea, and it took Newton center of gravity. Astronauts many years to prove it to be true. He declared his law of gravity to 243 and space travel be a universal law – a law that is true throughout the universe. Physics Science, history of Universe Weights and measures

www.children.dkonline.com >> Greece Volcano Mountain Ancient Capital Large Small GREECE monument city city/ city/ town town STATISTICS GREECE IS A LAND of wild mountains, remote Area: 50,961 sq miles valleys, and scattered islands. Most people make (131,990 sq km) their living by farming; olives can grow on the dry Population: 10,737,000 hillsides, hardy sheep and goats thrive in the rugged Lying at the eastern end of the Capital: Athens landscape. Greece is the world’s third-largest Mediterranean, Greece is Languages: Greek, producer of olive oil, and also exports citrus fruits, Turkish, Macedonian, grapes, and tomatoes. With one of the largest Albanian merchant fleets in the world, Greece is a seafaring Religions: Greek Orthodox, Muslim nation – people and goods travel by boat. In recent surrounded by the Mediterranean, Currency: Euro Aegean, and Ionian Seas. It consists years, tourism has transformed the Greek economy. of a mainland, the Peloponnese Millions of visitors are attracted to Greece by its peninsula, and over 2,000 islands. landscape, and by its rich THE GREEK ISLANDS history as the birthplace The Greek mainland is of democracy in the surrounded by many islands. 5th century bce. Ships and ferries unite these scattered communities. In  ORTHODOX PRIESTS the summer, the islands, with The Eastern Orthodox Church was their warm climate, fishing founded in Constantinople (Istanbul) villages, and beautiful in the 4th century ce. The Greek beaches, are major tourist Orthodox Church became centers, attracting over nine independent in 1850 and is the official million visitors. In the winter, the religion of Greece, with more than small islands are deserted by summer 10 million faithful. Distinctively dressed priests are a common sight. residents, who return to the mainland. MACEDONIA B U L GRhNoedstoospe AR I A Drama M ou n ta ins Str Komotini Y h yamis IA Axios AliaLakeEdessa Syamloonans ica Kavala E Sea of Marmara EvrosPrespakmonasThracianK Stra ALBA N (Thessaloniki) R Otr Kozani Chalkidiki Thasos Sea TU Samothraki it Mount Olympus Thermaic an Myrina Limnos of 2917m Gulf to Corfu T IoPaninndiunsaMo Pineios Aegean Larisa Corfu (Kerkyra) untainsTrikala Volos Arta Karditsa Skiathos Mytilini Lesbos I Preveza (Lesvos) ATHENS Lefkada The ancient city of Athens, the cultural center o Lamia Skopelos Chios of Greece in the 5th century bce, is generally ( ni Karpenisi Skyros II o GREECE a on n Chalkida Chios believed to be the birthplace of western Euboea civilization. The fortified acropolis (above) rises io a ni Kefallonia Mesolongi 328 ft (100 m) above the city. It is crowned by e I PatraGulf of Corinth Isthmus of (Evvoia) S sl Poros Corinth ATHENS iN a is n KePryirgoKsalamAlfaeta(nKnoCerosiTnerSrtihpinpoatosrh)tliiNafpliMo irtoP(aPine(riTAarSEzaeeTirariiuamHfosss)oINuSpyAoroC)PlsiayrcAoslnaTdirdnooseMss yk(NKonayxokIsoklsaardiPaeSasat)mmooSssamKaolLysmernosos ds the Parthenon temple, dedicated to the city’s ai patron goddess Athena, and built in 432 bce. Zakynthos a P e l o p o ios Today, this busy modern city is a major ea commercial, shipping and tourist center, n) and the seat of the Greek government. S D( Dooddeeckaann i s OCTOPUS Octopuses are a Greek delicacy, Sea Amorgos Kos but they are becoming Ios scarce due to overfishing LaKkoonlpiokoss Milos e s Tilos Rhodes in the Mediterranean. Kythira Astypalaia ) Rhodes Santorini a e (Rodos) Lindos M Sea of Crete SCALE BAR km ed Karpathos 0 50 100 100 miles (Kritikó Pélagos) 0 50 i Chania t Rethymno Irakleio Karpathos N W e r Crete (Kriti) Agios Nikolaos Find out more r anean Sea Archaeology Christianity E Democracy Greece, ancient S 244

www.children.dkonline.com >> Ancient Greece ANCIENT GREECE MANY WESTERN WORDS, ideas, and sources of entertainment have their roots in the world of Ancient Greece. About 2,500 years ago, the Greeks set up a society that became the most influential in the world. Greek architects designed a style of building that is copied to this day. Greek thinkers asked searching questions about life that are still discussed. Modern theater is founded on the ancient Greek plays that were performed under the skies thousands of years ago. And the Greeks set up the world’s first democracy (government by the people) TEMPLE OF HERA The Greeks built temples to worship in Athens. However, only free men born in Athens were actually allowed to have a say in government. Ancient Greek society their many gods. This temple at went through many phases, with a “golden age” between Paestum, Italy, was built to honor around 600 and 300 bce. Arts and culture flourished at that the goddess Hera, who was the protector of women and marriage. time. The Macedonians, under Philip of Macedon, finally conquered the civilization, but it continued under Philip’s son Alexander, who spread Greek culture and thinking throughout the Middle East and North Africa. PERICLES There were many busy As leader of Athens, markets in Athens, where Pericles (c.490-429 bce) people came to buy and carried out a program sell their goods. to beautify the city. This included the building of ATHENS the Parthenon, a temple During the golden age, the Greek world consisted of independent, to the goddess Athena. self-governing cities, known as city-states. With its own superb port at Piraeus, Athens was the most important city-state. It became the Spartan hoplites center of Greek civilization and culture, attracting many famous playwrights and thinkers, such as Socrates. Athens practiced the system of demokratia (democracy). People gathered together in the agora (marketplace) to shop and talk. The acropolis (high city) towered above Athens. Byzantium Chalcidice SPARTA Ilium (Troy) The second major city-state of Athens Euboea Greece, Sparta, revolved around warfare. Spartans led tough, Ionia disciplined lives. Each male Spartan began military Cnidus training at the age of seven and remained a AEGEAN soldier until the age of SEA 60. Women kept very fit by running and wrestling. Athens (in Attica) GREEK WORLD The fierce Spartan hoplites and dependent The Greek world consisted of many (foot soldiers) were feared states (shown in city-states and their colonies, spread throughout the Greek world. pink), c. 450 BCE. throughout the Mediterranean region. 245

GREECE, ANCIENT Modern reconstruction of a Greek trireme NAVY ANCIENT GREECE The Athenians possessed a powerful The main actors All the actors were navy, consisting of a fleet of more 1500 bce Minoan performed on the men, even those than 200 triremes – warships civilization (on island proskenion (stage). playing women’s powered by a square sail and rowed of Crete) at its height. roles. They wore c. 1400 Mycenaean painted masks to by 170 men seated in three civilization, centered hide their faces. ranks. The battle tactic involved in great palaces on rowing furiously and ramming the Greek mainland, the enemy’s ship. In 480 bce, dominates Greece. c. 1250 Probable date of during wars against the the Trojan Wars between Persians, the Athenian navy Mycenaeans and the city crushed the Persian fleet at the sea of Troy. battle of Salamis. The audience bought stone tokens, which were like tickets, and sat in a semicircle of tiered seats set into the hillside. c. 1000 Establishment of the first city-states in mainland Greece. 776 First Olympic Games held at Olympia, Greece. 750s First Greek colonies founded. c. 505 Democracy is established in Athens. 400s Golden age of Greek theater. 490-479 Persian Wars; Greek states unite to defeat Persians. The chorus The circular space in 490 Greeks defeat commented on Persians at Marathon. the action of the front of the stage was play in song 480 Greeks destroy the and dance. Persian fleet at the Battle of Salamis. called the orchestra. 479 Final defeat of GREEK THEATER Persians at Plataea. Drama was born in Athens. It began as singing and acting as part 461-429 Pericles rules in Athens; Parthenon built. of a religious festival to honor the god Dionysus. The audience 431-404 Peloponnesian watched a series of plays; at the end of the festival, prizes were War between Athens and Sparta leads to Spartan given for the best play and best actor. From these beginnings, domination of Greece. playwrights such as Sophocles and Aristophanes started to write 359 Philip becomes king of Macedonia. tragedies and comedies. Tragedies involved dreadful suffering; 338 Philip of Macedonia comedies featured slapstick humor and rude jokes. conquers Greece. THINKERS VASE PAINTING 336-323 Alexander the Great thinkers from Athens Painted scenes on Greek Great, son of Philip, sets dominated Greek learning and pottery give us clear clues up Greek Empire in culture during the 5th and 4th about daily life in Ancient Middle East. centuries bce. Socrates (469-399 bce; Greece. The paintings above) was one of the most famous. often show a touching Find out more He discussed the meaning and scene, such as a warrior Alexander the great conduct of life. He also questioned bidding his family people cleverly, often proving that farewell as he goes off Architecture their ideas were wrong. Socrates wrote to war. They also show Democracy no books himself, but one of his the many gods that the Greece followers, Plato (427-347 bce), made Greeks worshiped. him the subject of many of his books. Olympic games Amphora (vase) from Attica shows Theater Zeus, king of the gods, at the birth of Athena, his daughter. 246

www.children.dkonline.com >> Habsburgs HABSBURGS DURING THE 900s a family named Habsburg owned some land in France and Switzerland. From this position, they rose The Netherlands to dominate European history for more than 1,000 years. The Austria name Habsburg comes from one of the family’s first castles, France the Habichtsburg, in Switzerland. Through a series of wars, Spain Italy inheritances, and careful marriages, the family acquired more and more land. By the 1500s it owned most of southern and central Europe and much land in the Americas. The Habsburg possessions became so big that, in 1556, the CHARLES V Habsburg emperor, Charles V, split the land between Under Charles V, who reigned as Holy members of his family. Philip II governed one half from Roman Emperor from 1519 to 1556, the Habsburgs reached the height of their FAMILY CREST Madrid, Spain, while Ferdinand of Austria governed power. Charles V ruled a vast empire The crest of the the other half from Vienna, Austria. The Spanish shown in pink on the map above. Habsburg family was the black double-headed Habsburgs died out in 1700, but the Austrian Habsburgs continued to expand eagle. It appeared on all their empire. In the 19th century, however, their power began to weaken because their flags and banners. the empire contained so many different peoples. When it collapsed after World War I (1914-18), four new Joseph II nations emerged: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia. JOSEPH II HABSBURGS From the time of 1273 Rudolf I becomes Rudolf I onward, the Holy Roman Emperor. the Habsburg family extended its power throughout Europe. Joseph II, son of Maria Theresa, was appalled by the 1282 Albert I becomes first living conditions of his poorer subjects. He began reforms Habsburg ruler of Austria. that included freeing serfs and abolishing 1438 Albert II becomes privileges. Holy Roman Emperor. 1519 Charles V becomes Holy Roman Emperor. 1526 Ferdinand, brother of Charles, acquires Bohemia. 1556 Charles V splits Habsburg lands in half. 1700 Charles II, last Spanish Habsburg monarch, dies. 1740-1780 Maria Theresa increases Habsburg power in Europe. 1781 Joseph II, son of Maria Theresa, introduces major reforms and frees serfs. 1867 Austrian empire is split between two monarchs: Austrian and Hungarian. 1918 Charles I, last Habsburg emperor, gives up throne. MARIA THERESA AUSTRIA Find out more In 1740, Maria Theresa came Under Maria Theresa, Austria became the leading artistic center of Europe. to the Austrian throne. She Austria was home to the composers Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Austria was only 23 and her empire was Amadeus Mozart. Artists and architects came from all over Europe to work Charlemagne bankrupt. Over the next 40 years, on great palaces such as the Schönbrunn in Vienna (above). Europe, history of she pulled Austria back from poverty and restored Habsburg 247 France power in Europe. Switzerland

www.children.dkonline.com >> health HEALTH AND FITNESS Regular, vigorous ARE YOU HEALTHY? Before answering, think about what exercise helps prevent you understand by “health.” It doesn’t just mean freedom from heart disease. disease. Health is a measure of how sound and vigorous both your body and mind are. A truly healthy person has a sense of Better hygiene and a more physical and mental well-being. Our health is precious and balanced diet could easily damaged. But there is much we can do to maintain it. Eating well, exercising, and getting enough sleep all help keep eliminate much ill health in us healthy. Standards of health and health hazards are different developed nations. from place to place. In some parts of the world, many people have serious health problems because they are poor, hungry, and without clean drinking water. In other places, stress at work, lack of exercise, and too much food bring their own health problems, such as heart disease. People also damage their health through the use of alcohol, tobacco, and dangerous drugs. KEEPING HEALTHY IMMUNIZATION Good health includes preventing disease. Food plays a large part in health. A healthy diet Immunization, sometimes called inoculation includes fresh fruit and vegetables, meat, fish, or vaccination, involves injecting the body bread, eggs, and milk, but not too many fatty, salty, or sugary foods. Exercise keeps the heart strong with a vaccine. This is a tiny dose of the and prevents us from gaining too much weight. infecting agent of the disease, which has been specially treated to render it safe. The Observing a child at play can help the vaccination provides immunity, or psychiatrist to make protection, against the disease. It is now an assessment. possible to immunize against diphtheria, polio, tetanus, measles, mumps, rubella, tuberculosis, meningitis, and lots of other illnesses. Immunization has completely eliminated one disease – smallpox. A doctor or nurse usually gives immunizations by injection. MENTAL HEALTH A healthy mind is just as important as a healthy body. Stress, drug abuse, physical disease, and family problems such as divorce can all damage mental health. Specialist doctors who treat mental health problems are called psychiatrists. Other sources of help include drug therapy, counseling, and self-help groups. HEALTH CHECKUPS PUBLIC HEALTH Through routine medical checkups, Dirt and lack of hygiene damage health. doctors can detect health problems If not controlled, they can extend to whole such as cancer at the early stages, cities and affect large populations. The Great when treatment is most effective. Plague of London in 1665 is a good example. During the 1840s, pioneers of public health Checkups can also reveal in Europe worked to introduce clean water hereditary health problems – supplies and good sewage systems. Now, diseases that pass from parents international agencies like the World Health Organization have been set up to monitor to children. public health. To reveal cancer cells on a microscope slide, technicians stain the tissue sample with colored dyes. 248

EXERCISE ROUTINES HEALTH AND FITNESS Always wear a Regular exercise improves blood safety helmet. circulation, makes the heart and CYCLING lungs work well, keeps muscles Cycling is an enjoyable way to exercise as Keep your strong and toned, and keeps bicycle oiled joints supple. It is good for it takes place in the fresh air and can and serviced. the brain as well as the easily be fitted into your daily routine – body, and makes us feel if you cycle to school, for example. happy and alert. With Cycling can be as vigorous or as gentle all exercise routines, as you like, builds stamina, strengthens you need to do a leg muscles, and improves the oxygen warm-up sequence flow to heart and brain. As it is not before you start a weight-bearing activity, it can be and a cool-down done safely by all age groups. sequence at the end to prevent HEALTHY EATING strain on muscles. Food is the fuel that gives us energy day after day. It also provides us with all Use the ball of the foot on the materials our bodies the pedals. need for growing and for repairing themselves, Globe artichokes are Fennel helps and the vitamins we need good for the liver. the kidneys to maintain strong and function well. healthy immune systems that fight off illnesses. One- Zucchini are rich third of our daily diet should in folic acid and be fresh fruit and vegetables. potassium. Avocados contain the vitamins E and B6, and the mineral potassium. Garlic improves blood circulation. Red peppers are an excellent Onions help lower source of vitamin A. fat levels in blood. Stretching POSTURE exercises keep Good posture is part of being fit and you supple. well. Standing up straight, but relaxed, with your weight balanced on both feet FITNESS AND FUN encourages good circulation and Make sure you choose an exercise that you enjoy doing. The more fun you have, prevents back strain. Sitting in a slumped position strains your back, the more you will exercise and the shoulders, neck, and chest, and healthier you will feel. There are many inhibits your breathing. types of exercise to choose from that are Strain on both fun and can improve strength, neck and stamina, and mobility. Trampolining, football, tennis, badminton, all types of back. dancing, gymnastics, swimming, or Pressure on running are all good choices. the chest prevents proper breathing. Keep knees slightly bent. MENTAL FITNESS Stand Find out more It is important to keep your brain fit comfortably as well as your body. A healthy diet, straight, not Digestion regular sleep, and plenty of exercise rigidly. Heart and blood to make sure that the blood delivers nutrients and oxygen to the brain Sports will keep your brain in good physical condition. Doing crosswords and puzzles that make you think, such as chess, are enjoyable ways to make sure you stay mentally alert. 249