FFA Research Digest 2019

SPATIAL VARIABILITY AND ANALYSIS OF SOIL PROPERTIES AND CROP YIELD TO DELINEATE MANAGEMENT ZONES USING DRONE TECHNOLOGY Samson Yakubu Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies St. Augustine The Caribbean is one of the world’s most vulnerable regions to food insecurity and to adverse effects of climate change. A mitigation strategy to alleviate the issue of food security and sustainable environment is the development of productive, sustainable and efficient production systems. Efficient and sustainable production systems must take into account the spatial variability of soil properties in the delineation of management zones for site-specific management (SSM). Application of agricultural inputs such as water, nutrients, chemicals to improve crop yield, both in quality and quantity as well as reducing environmental impact based on management zones can enhance variable rate input application to sustainably conserve soil, conserve the environment and increase crop yield. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) such as drones with appropriate sensors can be effective in the delineation of management zones for SSM. However, from literature search, there is limited or no work done on the use of drone technology for assessing spatial variation in soil properties and delineation of soil management zones in the Caribbean much less in Trinidad and Tobago. Therefore, this research work seeks to develop models for the delineation of management zones using soil spatial variability and crop yield. The objectives of this study are: • To determine farmers knowledge of variable rate application for SSM from drone technology necessary for crop optimization and the willingness to incorporate such innovation in crop production • To investigate the efficacy of drone technology in the characterization of the spatial variability of soil physical properties in selective crop fields. • To develop models from the drone-based images and soil properties to delineate management zones for optimal soil use, precise application of inputs and to reduce environmental hazards. • To use drone-based spatial analysis to determine if soil properties could explain the variability in productivity between site-specific management zones in a cropped field. A survey will be conducted within selected farming community to determine farmers’ willingness to incorporate variable rate application for SSM based 147

on drone technology in crop production. Image capturing DJI Matrice 200 series drone spec equipped with SlangeRange multi-spectral camera will be used to capture spatial images of crop fields. The flight will be automated with the aid of PIX-4D software and SlantRange sensor necessary for site mapping, flight altitude and speed configuration to measure spectral vegetation index, NDVI, RedEdge and near infra-red reflection. Soil samples and the spatial images from the drone will be analysed to generate sampling design for specific soil site and crop yield. A multi- response permutation will be used to test for significant difference in soil properties such as pH, carbon, nitrogen, macronutrients, micronutrients, electrical conductivity, and soil texture and bulk density. Geo-statistical analysis of different variables will be evaluated using Kriging. Principal component analysis will be used to group variables. Further statistical analysis will be conducted at different stages to determine different variation on the soil zones to develop management zones and sustainable environment. Efficient use of farm inputs, proper understanding and delineation of soil management zones, improved crop yield per acre, reduced cost of production with a minimum impact on the environmental ecosystem and by extension ensuring food security and sustainability. 148

SUSTAINABLE WEED MANAGEMENT FOR IMPROVED SOIL CONSERVATION IN PINEAPPLE PRODUCTION IN COUNTY VICTORIA, TRINIDAD Renold Ramdial M.Phil. Crop Science Candidate Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.) is a major crop grown in County Victoria in South Trinidad in the Tableland district. However, its production is seriously constrained by poor soil management practices, consequent soil erosion and steady weed competition especially during the growing stage. Presently the only weed management strategy employed involves the use of chemical which is not sustainable. A field experiment will be conducted in the County Victoria on three cooperating farmers’ holdings. The objectives of this experiment will be to evaluate different sustainable weed management methods on growth, yield and quality of pineapple as well as on soil conservation benefits. Seven sustainable weed management methods either singly or in combination will be compared in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The results should show the levels of weed susceptibility (weed control efficiency) in response to the different treatments while measuring the vegetative growth, fruit weight, yield of the pineapple and quality parameters of the Tableland Hybrid variety. Some of the treatments to be used will include: plastic mulch, fabric mulch, organic mulches and intercrop with cowpea. Measurements will also be taken on soil moisture at varying depths, nutrient availability and soil water infiltration rates. This study will assist the Tableland farmers in the County Victoria area working in challenging topographies prone to soil erosion, manage both soil and weeds during the growing season. 149

COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE USE, QUALITY OF LIFE AND DIETARY BEHAVIORS AMONG PERSONS WITH TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS IN TRINIDAD Chanelle Joseph Ph.D. in Human Ecology Candidate Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The management of Diabetes Mellitus and its comorbidities is complex and difficult. Persons afflicted with this condition are likely to try complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) to manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life. Objective: To determine the prevalence of CAM use; the association between CAM use and quality of life; and the association between nutritional/herbal CAM use and nutrient intakes among adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Trinidad. Methods: Face-to-face interviews were conducted on a cross-section of adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus attending four major health centres in South Trinidad. The questionnaire consisted of socio-demographic, CAM, quality of life and dietary intake items. The study was approved by the Campus Ethics Committee of The University of the West Indies and the South West Regional Heath Authority. Results: Three hundred and ninety-eight persons participated in the study. Over 95% of participants used ≥ 1 CAM at least once per month. Mean nutritional/herbal CAM use among participants was 3.9 ± 0.1. Non- nutritional CAM use was 0.7 ± 0.04. Females were significantly more likely than males to use CAMs. A significantly higher proportion of males compared to females had physical functioning (PF) (89.9 vs 76.6; p = 0.005) and social functioning (SF) (97.2 vs 91.3; p = 0.021) scores less than forty. Similarly, a significantly higher proportion of females compared to males had general health (91.7 vs 81.9; p = 0.006) and vitality (VT) (61.4 vs 50.7; p = 0.045) scores less than forty. Males had significantly higher intakes of nutrients compared to females. A significantly larger proportion of males (43.8%) met the RDA for most of the nutrients compared to females (31.9%). Among males, there was an inverse significant association between carbohydrate, vitamin C, iron and sodium intakes with nutritional/herb CAM use compared to females. There was a high rate of CAM utilization among 150

participants. CAM use was associated with better quality of life and the use of nutritional/herbal CAM can be considered as part of the dietary management of persons with Type 2 Diabetes. IDENTIFICATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL LIPOPEPTIDE COMPOUNDS IN BIOCONTROL BACILLUS AMYLOLIQUEFACIENS Neila Ramjattan M.Phil. in Tropical Crop Protection Candidate Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Vegetable cultivation in Trinidad is adversely affected by many plant pathogenic organisms. Attempts to manage these pathogens as a result of economic losses over the past fifty years has led to indiscriminate application of chemicals. Pesticide abuse is now an urgent health and environmental concern. Microbial antagonist of plant pathogens is considered a viable method to overcome these problems in the sustainable and successful cultivation of vegetable crops. An alternative strategy to chemical dependence proposed in this study is the use of lipopeptides from elite biocontrol strains of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens to control phytopathogens. Lipopeptides are eco-friendly, biodegradable and non-toxic bioactive molecules. The study aims to determine the role, intensity and properties of various lipopeptides produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens in suppressing Phytophthora capsici, Colletototrichum capsici, and Ralstonia solanacearum. Lipopeptides were extracted by acid precipitation from several strains of B. amyloliquefaciens and evaluated for their capacity to inhibit the growth of the agronomically important pathogens in vitro. The lipopeptide extracts exhibited 56 - 60% inhibition against P. capsici, whilst three strains showed 56-63% inhibition against C. capsici in dual culture assays. In the disc assay technique two strains showed slight inhibition against R. solanacearum. The fungal phytopathogens subjected to the lipopeptide treatment resulted in distortion and lysis of hyphae and other reproductive structures. Further exploration has commenced using High performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF) to determine the structural characterization of the antifungal active compounds. 151

ASSESSING THE EFFICACY OF TOMATO PLANTS GRAFTED ONTO SOLANUM TORVUM AGAINST WILT DISEASES Johnny Smith M.Phil. in Tropical Crop Protection Candidate Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine Tomato is one of the important vegetable crops cultivated in Saint Lucia and identified for import substitution. The cultivation of tomato is severely affected by the wilt disease caused by soil borne fungal (Fusarium oxysporium f.sp. lycopersici) and bacterial (Ralstonia solanacearium) pathogens. An existence of nematode population in the soil further aggravates the problem. The current disease management strategy mainly includes crop rotation, soil amendments and application of chemical pesticides. Nevertheless, the production of tomato is hampered by the incidence of wilt disease throughout the cropping period. This emphasize the need for development of viable alternative strategy for the management of wilt diseases in tomato. The current proposal seeks to investigate grafting of tomato plants onto resistant rootstock as a viable disease management alternative for bacterial and fungal wilts. The study proposes the use of Solanum torvum as resistant rootstock to offer resistance in tomato plants. The grafted tomato plants will be assessed for its resistant potential against wilt diseases under greenhouse and commercial cultivation conditions. In addition to disease resistance, the study will also focus on compatibility of grafting, performance of yield in tomato plants grafted onto Solanum torvum. 152

PREHARVEST AND POSTHARVEST FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE OF MORINGA PODS (MORINGA OLEIFERA) Anushka Goordeen M.Phil. in Crop Science Candidate Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine Moringa (Moringa oleifera) production can serve as a source of income for farmers and other stakeholders in the Caribbean. Moringa commonly known as “Saijan” is also referred as the miracle tree in view of its nutritional and medicinal benefits. Despite the extensive studies recently conducted on the utilization of the leaves, flowers, seeds, roots, fruits and bark, there is a lack of published reports on post-harvest quality and shelf life of the moringa pods. Investigations were conducted on growth and development of the pods to determine maturity indices. Data was collected on two stages of maturity with specific determination of percent fresh weight loss, colour of flesh and skin, firmness, dimensions of length and width, pH, total titratable acidity, total soluble solids, vitamin C, percent marketable, chilling injury and percent decay within a 4-day interval. Post-harvest experiments were also conducted to investigate the effects of temperature, storage duration, hydro cooling and calcium chloride dips on the quality and shelf life of moringa pods. Additional studies would be conducted on the rate of respiration, chilling injury sensitivity under refrigerated and simulated marketing conditions. The effects of modified atmosphere packaging, antioxidants and calcium chloride dips on the shelf life -of fresh-cut moringa pods will also be investigated. These studies would foster a better understanding on how to manage preharvest and post-harvest losses of moringa pods. 153

ENVIRONMENTALLY CONTROLLED PRODUCTION: A VIABLE MODEL RESEARCH TO COMMERCIALIZATION Nkosi Felix Ph.D. in Agricultural Economics Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies The CARICOM Food Security and Nutrition Security Policy of 2010 highlighted four goals; (i) Food Availability, (ii) Food Access, (iii) Food Utilization/Nutritional Adequacy and (iv) Stability of Food Supply. However, vegetable imports were shown to increase from US$215 million (2010) to US$227 million (2016) and fruit imports from US$91 million (2010) to US$116 million in 2016. Further disaggregation of trade data revealed that lettuce imports doubled from US$5 million to US$10 million (2010-2016). These imports mainly comprise of varieties which require cooler temperatures to grow as compared to the tropical climate in the Caribbean. With the aim to foster domestic production of these vegetables and reduce import dependency, this study assessed the use of controlled environment agriculture through which an economic model was developed. Lettuce seedlings and plants were grown in trials under Light Emitting Diodes (LED), where temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide and nutrients were monitored. Operational Cost which included electrical consumption, fertilizer use and labour hours were logged along with Capital expenditure. It was observed that although Capital Expenditure for this technology can be considered significant, operational cost resulted in a competitive price for a head of lettuce. Results of the study have shown that this technology can provide a viable solution for domestic crop production. 154

COMPLETED AND CURRENT FACULTY COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH PROJECT SUMMARIES 155

COMPLETED RESEARCH SHRIMP TRAWL BYCATCH VALUE CHAIN STUDY IN TRINIDAD: FINAL REPORT Sharon D. Hutchinson, Charles Carmichael, Renée Maria Cozier, Deborah McFee, Wynelle Archer and Keegan Slinger Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The fisheries sector is critical for socio-economic development in Latin America and the Caribbean since it provides livelihoods for many rural communities, as well as improving food security and export incomes. In 2015, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO) commenced the implementation of a five-year project titled, “Sustainable Management of Bycatch in Latin America and Caribbean Trawl Fisheries (REBYC-II LAC)”, which focuses on the shrimp/bottom trawl fisheries in six participating countries, namely: Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. Shrimp/bottom trawl fisheries constitute an important part of the total marine fisheries economy in these countries, contributing to employment, local incomes, food security and foreign exchange earnings. Communities like Otaheite and Orange Valley, which rely heavily on the shrimp trawl catch, are vulnerable due to their high dependency on shrimp trawl landings for food security, via income generation, direct food supplies and employment in direct, indirect and induced benefits from the provision of goods and services to fishers. The current government publicly announced the possibility of banning shrimp trawling in Trinidad and Tobago, with no associated discussion about how displaced fishers and those dependent on them could transition to alternative livelihoods. Therefore, given the uncertainty in the local fishery policies, there is a clear need to develop plans to improve the sustainability of existing livelihoods under either alternative future: one with the status quo regulations and one in which shrimp trawling could be reduced or banned. The overall objective of this study is to provide the platform for the creation of a better 156

understanding of the shrimp/bottom trawl fishery sector and its impact on the livelihoods of two fishing communities in Trinidad and Tobago, (the Orange Valley and Otaheite communities). This would enhance sustainability, as well as provide livelihood support and opportunities that would enhance personal and community development, giving particular consideration to women, as well as vulnerable groups and individuals. Specific objectives included: (i) To identify opportunities for increased value added of shrimp bycatch species by the conduct of Value Chain Mapping and Analysis. (ii) Identification of potential inefficiencies and gaps that exist in the value chain (iii) Identification of specific areas (challenges and opportunities) for action, including opportunities for increased value added of bycatch species, (iv) Identification of gender roles in the bycatch value chain, and (v) Provide policy recommendation to the government, donor agencies and local and regional technical/aid agencies on how the bycatch value chain can become more sustainable for all actors. The study was done using field surveys, interviews with stakeholders and market surveys. The Value Chain Map shows seven distinct stages where value is added. It starts with the provision of inputs that are used in shrimp and bycatch harvest. The key harvest inputs are: boats, engines, nets, fuel, motor oil, ice and containers to store fish. Once the bycatch is landed, it is usually sold in Wholesale Markets. Small amounts are processed and sold either locally or in a foreign market. The vast majority however, is sold by Retail Vendors, who then sell to Consumers at the final stage in the Value Chain. Key challenges in the sector are: poor physical infrastructure at landing sites for storage and landings; unused market infrastructure, poor lighting and security at landing sites; increased fuel cost; poor fish handling techniques with no use of ice for fish display; unchecked sales of fish at piers; inadequate vending space; oil spills; and uncertain future fish regulations. Poor marketing power by fishers continue to undermine their ability to get competitive sale prices. Specialty Fish Shops and Supermarkets had the highest retail prices at $38.50/kg for frozen fish, usually sold as whole, gutted and $69.64/kg for chilled fish usually sold as steaks. Municipal Market Vendors (MMVs) had the second highest retail price, at $32.68/kg, followed by Fixed Roadside Vendors (FRVs) at $26.21/kg. Mobile Roadside Vendors (MRVs) had the lowest retail price at $21.15/kg. Fishers obtained between 38.4%–59.3% of the market share for the marketing chains where most of the bycatch flowed. Where fishers sell directly to retailers, they get the largest share by selling directly to MRVs (59.3%), followed by FRVs (47.9%). They get the smallest share (38.4%) when they sell directly to MMVs. Even though the MRVs account for almost half of all retail sales, they get the smallest share of the consumer dollar, at 19.0%. On the other hand, the FRVs, who have a smaller share by volume in retail sales, get 44.6% of the consumer dollar.Key recommendations focus on training for fishery actors in the 157

production of secondary value-added products, such as salted and smoked fish, the introduction of a more competitive wholesale market arrangement in Otaheite, the utilization of the Retail Market at Otaheite (currently unused, but with adequate facilities), the introduction of HACCP and other health and safety standards in the industry, adequate data collection and the promotion of the use of fish waste to produce fish meal. LOST POTENTIAL INCOME FROM DISCARDS AT SEA Sharon D. Hutchinson Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Shrimp/bottom trawl bycatch is composed mainly of juveniles of targeted species of other fisheries and non-targeted species and turtles ensnared in the nets. Additionally, shrimp trawling destroys sensitive seabed habitats. In many parts of the world, the trend for greater and more complete utilization of bycatch has been noted over the years. While there is a need to reduce bycatch using modified gear, to increase effort efficiency and increase fishers’ profits, there is very slow uptake of new gear technologies, in part due to a weak regulatory environment with limited enforcement. Communities like Otaheite and Orange Valley, which rely heavily on the shrimp trawl catch, are also vulnerable due to their high dependency on landings for food security, via income generation, direct food supplies and employment in direct, indirect and induced benefits from the provision of goods and services to fishers. Discarding is the term used for returning undesirable catch to the ocean amid business angling. Be that as it may, the disposing procedure is exorbitant and tedious, and some fish bycatch species have a high post-catch death rate. In this way, diminishing bycatch and utilizing bycatch for various products is an important goal, if only to reduce fish mortality. A bycatch-reduction device (BRD) trial was conducted by the Fisheries Division, Trinidad and Tobago, using one Type IV trawling vessel in the Orange Valley area between 22 June to 30 July 2017. Orange Valley is located in the central- western part of the island of Trinidad, at 10° 27’ 0” North and 61° 29’ 0” West, Trinidad and Tobago. The BRD was assessed relative to standard trawl gear. The bycatch from a typical Type IV trawl vessel was used for this assessment. The Type IV trawl vessels consist of two trawl nets which drag simultaneously alongside each other. Therefore, one contained the BRD and the other was used as a control. 158

This analysis focuses on the bycatch for the control net only to identify which species of fish were discarded. The sampled drags include data on the type, length and weight of species caught, including the juvenile proportion caught. Each drag took approximately 4 hours to complete. Overall the discarded weight of the 19 sampled drags represented 84.2% of the total weight. Shares are shown in Figure 1. There was a total of 6,186.56 lbs (2,806.18 kg) caught and 5,209.56 lbs (2,363.017 kg) discarded. Figure 1: Total Weight of the Sampled Drags Nineteen commercial species were identified, however, the Anchoa species of Sardine, together with the Cetengraulis species were combined into one ‘Sardine’ category. Per trip, an estimated 35,066 commercial fish were discarded. The number of these fish and their number share are shown in Figure 2. The most frequently discarded species were Cro-Cro (23.9%), White Salmon (18.2%), Catfish (17.5%) and Sardine (16.6%). The Sardine category is largely comprised of the Anchoa sp.: Big Eye Sardine, Nylon Sardine and Red Jacket Sardine. 159

Figure 2: Total Number and Share of Commercial Fish Discarded per Trip Of the 35,066 fish discarded, 56.1% or 19,686 were juveniles. Figure 3 shows the proportion of juvenile fish caught for each commercial species. Bechine, Cavalli, Cro-Cro, Jack, Redfish and Snook were the species with only juveniles being discarded. Blinch, Catfish, Cutlass fish, Moonshine, Paoua, Plateau and White Salmon all had a mix of juvenile and adult fish discarded Figure 3: Total Percentage Share of Commercial Juvenile Fish in Discards The total market value of discarded commercial fish per trip for a Type IV vessel is TT$18,596.72, of which White Salmon represented approximately 51.7% of the total value, followed by Catfish (5.8%), Snook (4.9%) and Sardine (3.8%). Since the annual average number of trips in which Mixed-Fish was caught in Orange Valley from 2006 to 2014 is 3,125, approximately TT$58,114,750 is lost in commercial fish discards in the shrimp trawl fishery each year, from Type IV trawlers alone. In 2018, the provisional contribution of the Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Sector contributed TT$ 738.3 million to Trinidad and Tobago’s GDP at current market prices. Therefore, the estimated loss of value from commercial discards represents 7.9% of the value of the Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Sector for that year, which is a significant loss in potential earnings. If the juvenile commercial fish per trip were allowed to reach maturity and then brought to market, they would fetch $66,323.16, which are potential lost revenue per trip. In each year, this would amount to TT$207,259,875. This translates to 28.1% of the Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Sector contribution to GDP in 2018. Urgent steps are therefore needed to implement the use of effective Bycatch Reduction Devices. This will improve the sustainability of the value chain as significant discards is likely to cause reduced bycatch in future years. This reduction could be seen in the near future if the affected stocks are already fully fished or overfished. 160

THE BREADFRUIT GERMPLASM COLLECTION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES, ST AUGUSTINE CAMPUS Laura B. Roberts-Nkrumah Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine “The Breadfruit Germplasm Collection at the University of the West Indies, St Augustine Campus” by Laura B. Roberts-Nkrumah is a reference book based on more than 20 years of research on 33 breadfruit accessions from the Caribbean and the Pacific that are in the collection. Breadnut or chataigne, which is considered to be the ancestor of the breadfruit, is also in the collection and was included in the book. The primary objective of this book is to stimulate commercialisation of breadfruit for food and nutrition security in the Caribbean by providing much needed information to relevant stakeholders, especially on some of the different types of breadfruit that are now available in the region. Breadfruit (Artocapus altilis) is a tree food crop that is neglected and underutilised although it has been a traditional staple in the Pacific and the Caribbean which are the two main producing regions worldwide. It is a very nutritious crop with significant potential for much greater contribution to food and nutrition security. One major reason for its underutilisation in the Caribbean, is the unavailability of a wider range of cultivars to address key constraints to commercialisation and increased consumption. Consequently, the Breadfruit Germplasm Collection was established at the field station of the University of the West Indies, St Augustine with the following objectives: i. to provide information on the existing breadfruit cultivars that were introduced to the Caribbean by Captain William Bligh in 1793, ii. to expand the perceived limited genetic diversity of the existing germplasm by importing additional germplasm from the Pacific where the greatest breadfruit genetic diversity exists, iii. to describe the Caribbean and Pacific accessions that are held in the collection, particularly for ease of identification, and iv. to evaluate these accessions for horticultural and other characteristics that are important for the commercial production and utilisation of breadfruit. 161

Some of the research results that are consistent with these objectives are presented in this book. A summary of the origin and distribution of breadfruit, the reasons it is considered an underutilised crop and its potential for commercialisation for food and nutrition security comprise the introduction. The environmental requirements and production systems are described and the history of breadfruit collection and description is reviewed. The core of the book consists of the methodology for the collection and description of the germplasm collection at the UWI, detailed individual descriptions of each accession using 53 descriptors based on morphological and performance characteristics, including nutrient composition. Finally, the descriptions of all the accessions are summarized to show how the information can be used for identification of different accessions and for comparison of their performance. The presentation of these research results is supplemented by photographs, summary tables, a glossary and a detailed index to facilitate access to the information by producers, processors, extension officers, nutritionists, researchers and others. This information will assist stakeholders with different interests to select specific types of breadfruit that more specifically meet their needs. Therefore, the book is a resource that provides an important basis for commercial viability and enhances the opportunities for breadfruit to contribute to food and nutrition security in the Caribbean and elsewhere in the tropics. 162

CURRENT RESEARCH DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT/ CLIMATE RESILIENCE Lead: Ronald Roopnarine Co-Researchers/Trainers: Gaius Eudoxie and Mark Wuddivira In 2019, a series of regional capacity building activities aligned to Disaster Risk Management/ Climate Resilience, with specific focus on droughts and floods was headed by Dr. Ronald Roopnarine and accompanied by Drs. Gaius Eudoxie and Mark Wuddivira. Three of these activities (SVG, SKN and ANB) were done in collaboration with Global Water Partnership- Caribbean (GWP-C) and Cap-Net UNDP/Caribbean WaterNet and focused on Drought Risk Management. In Jamaica, Dr. Roopnarine collaborated with GWP-C along with the Statistical Institute of Jamaica (STATIN) to conduct a weeklong training geared towards increasing regional capacity to address components of SDG 6 (Water and Sanitation) and to produce a SDG 6 monitoring guide for Caribbean SIDS (https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/gwp-c-files/monitoring-guide--- sdg-6-in-caribbean-sids.pdf ). This publication was featured on the websites of numerous international organizations, including the international institute for sustainable development, GWP and UNDP). Work was also done with the CARICOM Local Government Forum (CLGF) and the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development of Trinidad and Tobago and the Penal/Debe Regional Corporation to utilize existing land data (soils, land use, etc) as proxy indicators to determine areas of instability in the PDRC, and consequently inform small building codes. This research may be extended to other Regional Corporations pending funding. Efforts are currently being made to steer the Department towards accessing numerous research grants related to regional climate resilience initiatives. These include national soil surveys of the Dominica and Grenada, Mental Health Impacts Post Disasters (Integrated Health Outreach, Antigua) and Impacts of Tourism on Natural Resources (University of Kassel, Germany). 163

SUMMARY OF “SERVICES FOR THE HOLISTIC ASSESSMENT OF THE SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAMS IN 14 COUNTRIES OF THE CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY” Researchers: Dr. Hazel Patterson-Andrews, Prof. Carlisle A. Pemberton and Ms. Kishalla Floyd The objective of this project is to conduct a study of the state of the school feeding in the 14 CARICOM Caribbean countries. School feeding systems in the context of this project include the various means or pathways by which meals (including snacks and drinks) are provided to students in schools. School feeding programs (SFPs) on the other hand, in the context of this project are any organized program (usually state-funded, subsidised, sponsored or supported) through which students of different ages receive, purchase, and/or consume, while at school, meals, or food products and/or drinks. These programs include the provision of school lunches, breakfast, mid-morning/mid-afternoon snacks, glasses of milk, other snacks and drinks etc. For the CARICOM countries, such SFPs are expected to contribute to: • the eradication of hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition especially among vulnerable children; • the reduction of rural poverty, • improvement in the attendance and academic performance of students; • the development of healthy eating lifestyles of students and other stakeholders; and • the promotion and expansion of efficient agricultural and food systems. Specifically, this project facilitates comparative policy analysis, identifies key areas to focus improvements in national SFPs and should assist in disseminating good practice among SFPs. Benefit-cost assessments of SFPs as part of this diagnostic study should also assist countries in the areas of economic efficiency, policy development and provide economic justification for fiscal expenditures on these SFPs. The project required information on school feeding systems and SFPs from the 14 CARICOM states with a particular emphasis on: i) The scale and mechanisms of operation 164

ii) Procurement/public purchasing schemes and modalities (including the role of food vendors in schools), iii) Governance structures and the policy framework for school feeding at national and community levels, iv) Fiscal and economic costs and benefits of the SFPs, v) Nutritional and educational aspects, and vi) The monitoring and evaluation systems in place for the school feeding systems. The major activities in the Project were the Missions to the various countries of CARICOM. Details of the Team Members visiting the CARICOM states and the dates of the visits are provided in Table 1. The Missions involved visits to Ministries of Education, Health and Agriculture and Social Services, as well as to School Feeding (or Nutrition) Units of Ministries of Education, where these existed. These visits provided details of the SFPs, such as the policies in place and the operational and governance arrangements. Visits were also undertaken to schools to observe: • the nature of the meals supplied; • whether there were any contributions or payments by students; • the areas where meals were prepared and where children ate their meals; • the offerings of tuck shops, canteens, school cafeterias etc., • the extent to which Healthy Eating Policies were in practical application in schools; and • school gardens. • Visits were also undertaken to the premises of suppliers of meals for the SFPs such as caterers and vendors to observe and discuss procurement mechanisms for food ingredients and the nature of the meals being provided. This activity was especially extensive in the Missions of Trinidad, the Bahamas and St Kitts. School kitchens were visited in cases where meals are actually prepared on the school premises. Particularly in Trinidad, visits were also made to business enterprises where food ingredients were being made (or processed) for sale to caterers and vendors etc. who then prepared meals for the SFPs. Visits were also made to farms which were supplying ingredients (in limited quantities) to the SFPs. Assessment Reports were then prepared for each of the 14 CARICOM states which included detailed Benefit-Cost Analyses. These Assessment Reports were then subjected to intense validation by a series of validation exercises. 165

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in collaboration with the Faculty of Food and Agriculture of the University of the West Indies (UWI), Saint Augustine Campus, sponsored a Multi- Stakeholder Seminar on “School Feeding Programmes as a Policy Instrument for Food and Nutrition Security in the Caribbean” in the Caribbean Week of Agriculture (CWA) in Bridgetown, Barbados, from 8-9 October 2018. This Seminar was held at the Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre (LESC) and served as the Validation Workshop for the Project. The Seminar/Workshop produced a Seminar Statement which was presented to the COTED Meeting held as part of the CWA. Also working groups at the Seminar provided critical consideration and discussion of the Country Assessment Reports. Written Group Reports then provided critical evaluations of the Country Assessment Reports and suggested areas where the Reports could be modified or corrected to more accurately represent the school feeding systems in the CARICOM states and to strengthen the analyses performed. The Seminar/Workshop also presented experiences from Latin America and the Caribbean in school feedings systems, with a particular focus on the Brazilian model as an example of best practice in school feeding. On the initiative of the OECS Health Unit, two on-line validation sessions were held for the countries of the OECS on the 12th and 15th November 2018 to allow further evaluations of the Country Assessment Reports for the countries of the OECS. All countries of the OECS with the exception of St Kitts and Nevis participated in these meetings. The outputs of these meetings provided further comments and information which was used to more correctly represent the school feedings systems and to strengthen the analyses performed for the countries of the OECS. Again, at the initiative of the Health Unit of the OECS, a further Validation Workshop was held at the Marigot Bay Resort & Marina, Castries, Saint Lucia supported by UNICEF on 19th November 2018. At this Workshop, the Assessment Reports were considered by Chief Education Officers, Chief Medical Officers and Directors of Social Development from OECS Member States. 1 This Meeting had participants from all six OECS States in the Project, as well as Associated States such as Anguilla and the British Virgin Islands, as well as Martinique. The output of this Workshop again provided further comments and information which was used to more accurately represent the school feedings 1 https://pressroom.oecs.org/no-child-left-behind-oecs-school-feeding- program-helping-drive-productivity# 166

systems and to strengthen the analyses performed for the countries of the OECS. Final report documents are being prepared. Completion Activities – (Plans for the Next Period) The Terms of Agreement of the Letter of Agreement call for UWI to produce three final documents (Terms of Reference Section 2.2): (a) Guideline Document on Recommendations for School Feeding Programs in CARICOM states; and (b) A co-publication with the FAO “The State of Caribbean School Feeding”. 167

SUSTAINABLE SEEDS OF SURVIVAL: PRODUCTION, PROCESSING AND MARKETING Principal Investigator – Wendy-Ann Isaac Co-Investigator – Ravindra Ramnarine Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine This project is supported by the Trinidad and Tobago Research and Development Impact Fund (RDI Fund). The project started in April 2019, out of the Department of Food Production and will end in June 2022. The University of the West Indies should have a role to play in leading the seed industry in Trinidad and Tobago and by extension, throughout the Caribbean region. After the devastating hurricane (Maria) seriously impacted parts of the Eastern Caribbean in 2017, special requests were made to The University of the West Indies to supply plant material to countries such as Dominica and Anguilla. In the FFA’s “Pre and Post Disaster Recommendation – the Caribbean Agricultural Disaster Risk Reduction Initiative (CADRRI)”, a proposal was made as an immediate and early response (1-4 weeks) for the provision of seeds to farmers through a seed survival kit (kits packed in labelled sealed bags and placed in an aluminium pouch containing key quick growing open-pollinated vegetable crop varieties. The food security challenge will be to resolve issues like low quality soil, changing climate, water shortage, food diversification, breeding crop varieties well-adapted to local conditions, and establishing of seed banks. Seed banks are particularly important in times of food shortage. The proposed activities outlined in this project aim to address the above food security concerns in the Caribbean region through the: i. Development of a seed bank collection of germplasm material from Trinidad and Tobago and other Caribbean countries. ii. Establishment of a seed testing facility and certifying agency for seeds in Trinidad and Tobago. iii. Establishment of a seed business and marketing of specialized products, for example, a Seed Survival Kit consisting of 16 open- pollinated seed varieties and assorted sizes of UW7 corn and pigeon peas. The target market for the Seed Survival Kits are householders and farmers. However, the Kits will also be distributed to Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to assist in disaster preparedness 168

thus supporting the new UWI/FFA-Caribbean Disaster Risk Reduction Initiative (CADRRI). iv. Training workshops for farmers/producers, householders and other stakeholders on seed production and saving. v. Development of a seed policy in order to protect the diversity of local open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) in Trinidad and Tobago. The main objective of the new proposed company, UWI-SOS, is to ensure food and nutrition security for thousands of households in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean region. This objective will be achieved by improving the diversity of key vegetable food crops, together with, developing and promoting the growing of crop varieties which are suited to the changing climate in the Region. It is envisaged that the project will result in the creation of stronger linkages among The University of the West Indies, the Ministry of Agriculture, various seed producing and saving communities throughout Trinidad and Tobago, other stakeholders throughout the Region, and international gene banks to share knowledge and climate-resilient germplasm. This project also aims at strengthening the local seed system through seed saving, local seed banking, partnering with farmers and other local seed producers, commercialization of seed certification services, and marketing of key seed variety packages at The UWI. The project seeks to focus on sustainable innovations in the production and processing of seeds for marketing. The project also addresses the need for a comprehensive seed training programme for new and established farmers interested in the seed industry. The anticipated impact of the project will be measured at four levels which are itemised and described below. Food and nutrition security: To contribute to improved food and nutrition security among householders and smallholder farmers throughout Trinidad and Tobago. The project will introduce climate-resilient crop varieties of corn, dwarf pigeon peas and other short-term vegetable crop varieties. To improve on the nutritional value of food available to households, the project will also promote the growing of a range of crops which will provide Vitamins A and C, potassium, folate, fiber, iron and phytochemicals. The health benefits obtained from eating a vegetable-rich diet are numerous. There are five main types of vegetables, grouped according to their nutritional content – dark green, starchy, red and orange, peas and beans, and others. This will also contribute to crop 169

diversification, a sustainable management practice that will contribute to improving food and nutrition security in Trinidad and Tobago, and the Caribbean Region. Adaptation to climate change and environmental sustainability: The project will contribute to developing smallholder farmers’ capacities in dealing with climate change and environmental sustainability, through training and availing a wide range of climate resilient crop varieties. These crops will be grown using sustainable cropping systems/practices such as the use of mulch, different types of composts, and improved irrigation and fertigation techniques. Such best management practices (BMPs) will contribute to the protection and sustainable management of soil resources. Where farmers are engaged, training will be designed using a participatory approach whereby they will gain knowledge on how to use both scientific and traditional rainfall forecasting methods, together with monitoring and information systems related to climate change. Climate change scenarios will be produced by experts from the local universities, down-scaled to local levels and the information disseminated to farmers and other stakeholders. Scientific impact: Each activity in this project will involve some aspect of research. Firstly, the project will develop a seed bank/seed herbarium collection for teaching and research. This seed bank will also serve as a resource for underutilized and medicinal crops. This has the potential of improving the lives of householders and small producers. The seed bank will maintain a collection of all locally available seeds for food and medicine throughout the Caribbean and also “hard-to-find” seeds that thrive under the often difficult growing conditions in the tropics. The project will also include the identification of sustainable systems for the production of seeds in different agro-ecological zones. The project will also develop scientific capacities among project partners to carry out action-oriented and policy-relevant research. Capacity development and empowerment: The project will contribute to the development of capacities within the stakeholders to strengthen synergies and collaboration among stakeholders in agricultural research, extension, policy and international organizations. The project will include academics from UWI, UTT, IICA, the Ministry of Agriculture, farmers’ groups, postgraduate students, policy makers and community/church groups in Trinidad and Tobago and possibly other 170

Caribbean countries. Selected project team members will be leading the germplasm collection missions and documenting/depositing of the information will be done in collaboration with the National Herbarium of Trinidad and Tobago. Research Partners: The University of Trinidad and Tobago (Dr. Marcus Ramdwar); The Ministry of Agriculture; IICA (Dr. Chaney St. Martin); Seed Savers Inc. (Mr. Jaeson Teeluck); Prof. Wayne Ganpat; Mr. Sarran Harryram; Prof. Richard Brathwaite; Mr. Dexter Bristol; Faculty of Engineering (Dr. Renique Murray); Prof. Majeed Mohammed and Dr. Mark Wuddivira. 171

INVITED RESEARCH ABSTRACTS/ FFA COLLABORATORS 172

WHYFARM: DEVELOPING THE NEXT GENERATION OF AGRIPRENEURS THROUGH AGRI-EDUTAINTMENT AND SOCIAL INNOVATION Alpha Sennon1, Chaney C.G. St Martin2 1WHYFARM Hub: Dudley Huggins Building, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), Trinidad and Tobago The prospect of achieving food and nutrition security by 2050 is challenged by an ageing farmers’ population, the perceived disinterest and participation of youth in agriculture, and a world population of 9.7 billion, which is expected to be fed within the context of land tenure and production and productivity issues, and human and environmental health concerns. Interestingly, the brunt this challenge will be faced by our present youth (10- year olds, who will be 45 by then), who will be responsible for producing our food using novel approaches, i.e., if agriculture is deemed as an attractive and viable livelihood strategy. To ensure that it is, agriculture must be rebranded as cool and important by raising the awareness of the youth to the world food crisis and the need for their participation in food production as a call to action to achieve global food and nutrition security. In response to this challenge, WHYFARM (We Help You-th Farm), an NGO registered in Trinidad and Tobago and headquartered in Quinam road, Siparia, was created in October 2015 to develop the next generation of farmers and agripreneurs through agri-edutaintment & social innovation as one of its main objectives. To date, WHYFARM has used an eclectic combination of AgriMovtivation Talks, Agripreneur MasterMind Program, school drama tours and farm to table competitions, agriculture fun museums and food factory parks, curriculum development, strategic partnerships, advocacy and social media to change perceptions and willingness of youth to engage and reconsider “Agrikoolture” (Agriculture) as a viable and meaningful livelihood strategy. A critical part of this process, which underlies all interventions, has been effective communication to youth by engaging in linguistic processes such as morphological and semantic manipulations that emphasise identities that are more closely related to food systems, social causes, innovations, relatability and inclusiveness. A major flagship product of this process has been the development of AGRIMAN, the World’s First Food and Nutrition Security Superhero, which was joint by his female counterpart, PHOTOSYNTHESISTA, who was created by children as part of a call-to-action programme on food security. The adventures of AGRIMAN and PHOTOSYNTHESISTA are now shared in a comic book 173

and creative educational content using animations, song, poetry, and drama that inspire current and future feeders. Collectively, WHYFARM’s programs have resulted in farm visits of >1800 persons per year, 200 AGRIMAN visits to schools and institutions, engagement of 1600 primary students (age 6 – 12), the distribution of 4500 copies of the AGRIMAN comic book worldwide and 60 workshops with >1600 persons (students and young professionals) in 4 countries on sustainable production systems and practices, agribusiness (ideation, marketing and branding), and the relationship of STEM and climate change to agriculture. Moreover, WHYFARM has delivered keynote addresses at 5 global events including the “Thought for Food Summit” and the “United Nations ECOSOC Youth Forum.” However, more importantly, WHYFARM’s programs have resulted in children building their own grow boxes at home and sharing pictures of their progress on social media. The organisation has also collaborated with schools, youth, communities and volunteer organizations in Trinidad and Tobago to develop community gardens and build capacity in agri-entrepreneurship. Such was the case in 2018, when WHYFARM collaborated with the Port of Spain City Corporation to launch a community garden, the Gonzalez Food Park. A more recent flagship product of WHYFARM has been the recently launched Agripreneur Mastermind Program, which resulted in the opening of our agripreneur Hub at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. This 8-week intensive mastermind program was created to find TnT’s next Top Agripreneur, who are committed to mastering their individual crafts, and creating bridges and spaces for collaboration between policymakers and agricultural youth-based organizations. Participants were provided with mentorship and professional development activities on ideation, social entrepreneurship, business models and pitches, fund-raising, effective communication, networking, collaborations, media development, social media engagement and press coverage. During and after this program, WHYFARM collaborated with farmers and leading agripreneurs who volunteered as mentors to the young agripreneurs. In the Siparia district , youth has also been engaged in volunteer activities and assisting farmers in the area.” In next 5 years, WHYFARM plans to scale-up and replicate its programs and activities at the regional and global level, which includes extending the AGRIMAN Adventures Comic Book to a cartoon series, developing an Agri Play Book as a “Fun Curriculum for Food and Nutrition Security”, establishing a digital accelerator for Agripreneurs and Fun Museum and Food Factory Park to preserve and restore the country’s food heritage and launching WHYFARM Ambassadors in at least 7 more countries. 174

Although much successes have been gained through WHYFARM’s programs, research work to more accurately map and evaluate the direct and multiplier effects and impacts of these interventions is still needed. This work forms the basis for current M.Phil. studies and the commitment to WHYFARM’s motto of “Growing Future Feeders from the Ground up!” NEOTROPICAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF HUNTING IN SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES Michele D. Singh Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Bahamas The extraction of wild animals for food, recreation and trade is common in the Neotropics. Several strategies have been employed to monitor illegal and unsustainable hunting of Neotropical animals, such as the mandatory use of hunting permits, hunter return cards, increasing law enforcement, implementation of protected areas and hunter education programs. The small island developing state of Trinidad and Tobago has allowed legalized hunting during a specific hunting season. At the national level, the numbers of hunters are recorded, including harvest data through mandatory hunter return cards. A mean of 20 000 agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina), 2 000 deer (Mazama americana), 3 000 lappe (Agouti paca), 4 000 quenk (Tayassu tajacu) and 15 000 armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) were harvested from the forests of Trinidad during the five month hunting season over the 6 year period between 1997 to 2013. There has been tremendous public outcry for a more robust management plan for hunting in Trinidad and Tobago, however, despite two hunting moratoriums; recreational hunters are lobbying for a continuation of the activity. The small island developing state of Trinidad and Tobago is unique in this regard, as there is National Policy supporting wildlife farming at Government research stations. This production and conservation strategy may provide a sustainable source of wild meat to connoisseurs, while allowing recreational hunting to continue. However, stricter enforcement of laws are required to prevent extirpations on the islands. 175

Source: Singh, M. D. 2018. Neotropical animal production for sustainable management of hunting in small island developing states. XIII CIMFAUNA. 7 al 11 de Mayo de 2018, Ciudad del Este – Paraguay) SENSORY EVALUATION OF LOCAL CHICKEN ECOTYPE EGGS FROM AN INTEGRATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM IN NORTH ANDROS, THE BAHAMAS Bethune1, V., S. Maycock1, W. Alcide1, R. Coakely1, D. Miller1, D. Singh2 and M. D. Singh3 1 The Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Science Institute, North Andros, The Bahamas 2 Faculty of Food Science and Technology, The University of Trinidad and Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago 3 The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, The Bahamas The objective of this experiment was to determine consumer preference for eggs produced from the “Local wild chickens” (Gallus domesticus) through sensory evaluation. A triangle test was administered to forty non trained panellists in the North Andros community, using boiled eggs from the local chickens and eggs from the supermarket. Participants were required to score appearance, flavour, aroma, texture and taste using a hedonic scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being least liked and 5 being most liked. Three coded samples of boiled eggs were evaluated; two samples of supermarket eggs and one sample of local chicken eggs were presented. Approximately 5% of the panelists extremely disliked the flavour and appearance of the supermarket eggs. The aroma of the wild chicken eggs most liked, with 17.5% of persons liking the texture. However, the number of persons who correctly identified eggs from local chickens was not statistically significant. This suggests persons could not distinguish eggs from the local chickens; hence these have the potential to be used as egg producers, reducing the number of imported eggs into The Bahamas. Source: Caribbean Food Crops Society Conference Proceedings, 54th Annual Meeting, July 8-13, 2018, Ramada Hotel, Belize City 176

LOCAL CHICKEN ECOTYPE PRODUCTION SYSTEM FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY IN NORTH ANDROS, THE BAHAMAS Maycock S. 1, J. Lindsay1 and M. D. Singh2 1 The Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Science Institute, North Andros, The Bahamas 2 The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, The Bahamas The objective of this experiment was to demonstrate that the “Local wild chickens” (Gallus domesticus) found in communities in The Bahamas had the potential to perform under captive conditions, producing fresh meat and eggs. The local ecotypes of the chickens vary in body size, conformation, plumage colour and performance. The birds are hardy and thrive under a harsh environment with minimal inputs. They get most of their feed from scavenging and may occasionally benefit from kitchen and other household wastes. A small scale poultry unit was established, using “wild chickens” caught from neighbouring communities in North Andros. Fifteen hens and one cock were housed in a wooden framed mesh structure, measuring 15 feet long by 5 feet wide and 4 feet high. The chickens, though wild at first, eventually settled by week two; were fed ad lib with produce (Musa spp., Carica papaya, Solanum lycopericum) from the farm. Water was provided in two recycled containers and a nest box was placed inside the unit. The results indicate that under captive controlled conditions, the local chickens began production of eggs within 3 days, with 76 eggs produced over the subsequent four weeks. No mortalities were recorded, suggesting that adequate nutrition was being provided through farm agricultural waste. Eggs and chicken meat contribute to the protein nutrition of the rural population thus alleviating malnutrition. Sales of eggs and meat earn and diversify incomes for rural households especially among women and children who control benefits accruing from the enterprise. Source: Caribbean Food Crops Society Conference Proceedings, 54th Annual Meeting, July 8-13, 2018, Ramada Hotel, Belize City) 177

THE IMPORTANCE OF COCONUT SEEDLING PRODUCTION IN GUYANA Jhaman Kundun, Mitchroy Thom and Cyril Roberts Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Guyana Unit NAREI Compound (Building D29), Agriculture Road, Mon Repos, East Coast Demerara, Guyana. The demand for coconut water and coconut oil is increasing thus there is interest in expanding coconut cultivation. Coconut is primarily planted on approximately 28,500 acres along the Guyana coastline with the Atlantic Ocean and in the Pomeroon Riverain area. Tall types (e.g. Jamaica Tall) are planted for oil while Dwarf types (e.g. Bastard) are planted primarily for water. At least 50% of the Tall type population is more than 50 years old and needs to be replanted to increase productivity. Farmers traditionally collect seedlings growing from dropped nuts at the base of trees without attention to prolificacy. Since a coconut tree productive life is more than 50 years, the economic impact of this practice can be significant. Via training programs, CARDI is encouraging the structured production of coconut seedlings to increase yields. This project aims to enhance the supply of quality seedlings using local seed nuts. Seed nuts were purchased from farmers who own these trees and subsequently distributed (in batches of 400) to ten selected (age, gender, location) lead farmers to establish coconut seedling nurseries. Each lead farmer was assisted by 10 second ring farmers in the establishment of their nurseries under CARDI supervision. Results to date show that weed control and irrigation were important nursery activities. Average germination of seed nuts was approximately 50%. Available seedlings are being distributed to second ring farmers and lead farmers. Analysis of achievements to date suggests that the potential to supply Tall type seed nuts is adequate but that Dwarf types will be challenging. CARDI will continue the national survey to identify outstanding mother palms. Measures to increase average germination must also be implemented. Given the lucrative market for coconut seedlings, local coconut seedling nurseries should therefore be encouraged as their “success” will alleviate the pressure to import seed nuts thus avoiding the attendant risk of introducing exotic diseases (e.g. lethal yellowing disease) into Guyana. Further, given that a coconut palm will live 50 to 70 years, the importance of carefully selecting premium quality coconut seedlings as a bedrock to develop and grow the industry cannot be over emphasized. 178

DIVERSIFICATION OF THE CARIBBEAN LIVESTOCK SECTOR THROUGH THE PRODUCTION OF SMALL RUMINANTS Albert Fearon, Norman Gibson and Francis Asiedu, Caribbean Agricultural Research & Development Institute, University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, Kingston, Jamaica Caribbean Agricultural Research & Development Institute, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The CARICOM region is a net importer of sheep and goat meat satisfying 75% of the annual demand by way of imports resulting in a significant demand/supply gap. Jamaica is the largest importer of small ruminant meat in the Caribbean region, followed by Trinidad & Tobago. Approximately 90 per cent of the small ruminants produced are slaughtered at private facilities and roadside stalls. Consequently, for reasons of food safety and public health there is a clear need for fostering the use of up-to-date abattoirs. The rate of farmer adoption of improved technologies and management practices has been relatively slow over the years. Improved and relevant training programs and facilities were therefore important to overcome this shortcoming. Competition from low cost imports from extra-regional countries can be offset by innovative value-added products and the use of low cost/indigenous based raw materials. Structured marketing though information system and networking could also increase the competitiveness of the product. The overall goal of the project was to contribute to regional self- sufficiency in meat consumption through the enhancement of the small ruminant industry in both Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago. This was done by improving the productivity and quality of meat through breed improvement and dissemination using assisted breeding techniques. Technology transfer and capacity building with the aid of group dynamics and the improved volume and value of the marketable off-take of small ruminants livestock by improved marketing channels and processing options was also a major focus. The increased improve inventory resulted in the distribution of over 500 sheep and goat breeding stock over a 2 year period. The training and certification of 40 technicians and farmers in assisted breeding techniques will positively impact the industry. More than 1,000 persons benefitted from technology transfer and capacity building activities and at least 40 persons trained in the utilisation of by-products. 179

AGRONOMIC AND POST-HARVEST STUDIES ON THE PRODUCTION OF EXPORT GRADE DASHEEN (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA (L.) SCHOTT VAR ESCULENTA) CORMS Gregory Carlson Robin Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, UWI Mona Campus, Jamaica, West Indies Recommendations for seasonal production of export Grade dasheen corms in Dominica are unavailable. Consequently, studies examining the effects of planting depths of 20, 25 and 30cm and spacing of 55x55, 65x65 and 75x75 cm in a 3x3 factorial arrangement; on growth, yield and other corm characteristics such as shape and scarring were conducted in the wet and dry seasons. Post-harvest studies were also conducted to examine the effects of age on maturity, shelf-life and corm palatability. The studies were conducted in Grand Bay, on soils characterized as plastic sticky clay loam without a silica pan; average annual rainfall is approximately 2400mm; and in the Wet Area of soils characterized as sandy clay loams, average annual rainfall was approximately 5300mm. Results showed that comparable average weight per plant (946g and 995g) and mean yields per hectare (12.9t and 14.1t) were obtained in Grand Bay and the Wet Area, respectively; during the wet season. Export grade corm yields were 3.6t/ha in Grand Bay and 5.7t/ha in the Wet Area. In the dry season, average weight per plant of 913g and mean yield per hectare of 12.3t were obtained in the Wet Area. These were superior to average weight per plant and mean yields of 645g and 7.9t respectively obtained in Grand Bay. Export grade corm yields during the dry season was 0.7t/ha in Grand Bay and 7.4t/ha in Wet Area. Generally, corm shape was oval in the Wet Area and irregular (“Dumb-Bell”) shape in Grand Bay. In Grand Bay spacing treatments seem to be the major factor influencing yield and other corm characteristics, whereas in the Wet Area both spacing and depth treatments affected yield. Highly significant correlations were obtained between suckering and scarring. Leaf area at 0.5 and 1.0 months before harvest during the wet and dry seasons respectively was the best predicator of yield. Post-harvest studies indicated that shelf-life increased with increasing corm age. Generally, the same trend was observed with corm weight and size. These characteristics are normally the most important for export; however, when combined with shape, palatability and nutrition factors, corms of premium quality were exported. Corm harvest in Grand Bay and Wet Area was most appropriate at 9 and 10 months respectively. The important findings and the practical implications of the two studies are documented; suggestions are proposed for future work. 180

GENETIC AND PATHOGENIC VARIATION OF COLLETORRICHUM GLOEOSPORIOIDES PENZ., CAUSING YAM ANTHRACNOSE IN DOMINICA Gregory Robin Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, UWI Mona Campus, Jamaica, West Indies A study utilizing up to 50 isolates of the yam anthracnose pathogen Colletotrichum gloeosporioides obtained from 11 yam varieties grown on 8 farms distributed across the agro-ecological zones of Dominica, was designed to investigate pathogenic and genetic variation in the pathogen population. The variation was based on measurements of genetic relatedness, pathotoxin activity evidenced by foliar necrosis and pathogen aggressiveness indexed by time to appearance of visible symptoms, leaf area damage and lesion number per unit area. The pathogen aggressiveness studies differentiated the C. gloeosporioides population into several groups and the numbers of isolate composition varied with the yam varieties tested and the method used to assess pathogen aggressiveness. The number of groups identified when screening on individual yam types were 3 to 5 for the appearance of visible symptoms and 2 to 3 each for methods assessing leaf area damage and lesion number per unit area. When the data was analyzed as a means of all yam types, 3 groups were obtained for the method of time to appearance of visible symptoms and 2 for leaf area damage. Notably, C. gloeosporioides isolates which induced visible symptoms fastest and caused the largest leaf area damage segregated together. Utilizing random amplified polymorphic DNA’s, the study on genetic relatedness delineated the pathogen population into 8 groups. Each group was associated only with the farm from which the isolates were obtained. The pathogen toxins extracted from fungal exudates of 4 pathogen isolates tested were glycoproteins with sizes ranging between 14 to 25kDa. Toxin activity also varied with the fungal origin of the toxin. Toxins of isolates from D. cayenensis/rotundata was the only toxin that affected all D. alata yams assessed. The pathogen aggressiveness study also segregated the yam varieties tested into 3 groups, which were assumed to reflect levels of resistance to anthracnose. 181

FRUIT FLY SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMME IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Betty-Ann Soo Hon1, Ayub Khan2 and Wendy-Ann Isaac3 1Agricultural Officer 1, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries, Government of Trinidad and Tobago 2Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine 3Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine Fruit fly species of the family Tephritidae are among the economically most harmful invasive insect pests. Due to their ability to feed on a wide range of fruits and fleshy vegetables and their high reproductive capacity, numerous species of this family have the potential to cause serious crop losses, and hence, constitute a worldwide threat for fruit and vegetable producers and traders. The extensive damage and wide host range of tephritid fruit flies become obstacles to agricultural diversification and trade when pest fruit fly species become established in these areas. Given the above, countries have active detection programmes in place to maintain their fruit fly free status. The Trinidad and Tobago fruit fly surveillance programme was initiated in 1989 as part of a joint venture with the Ministry of Agriculture and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The objective of the fruit fly trapping program is to safe guard Trinidad and Tobago from the threats and or impact of introduction, economic damage and spread of the Tephritid fruit fly through surveillance activities. The programme is primarily geared towards the early detection of any fruit fly of quarantine importance to facilitate eradication and the ccompilation of existing confirmed species. In Trinidad there are ten (10) trap lines with a total of one hundred and nine traps distributed island wide (eight counties). In Tobago there are twenty- seven (27) traps distributed island wide (eight districts). The programme utilizes the Multilure/McPhail traps and the Jackson (Trimedlure/Culure) traps. The results of surveillance activities thus far indicated that the only fruit flies of economic importance in Trinidad and Tobago are Toxotrypana curvicauda and the Anastrepha species (striata, obliqua and serpentina). Due to the current trends in globalization, Trinidad and Tobago is subject to greater risk due to the rising approach rate of infested fruit fly hosts transported as a result of increased trade, tourism and population migration. To ensure that the surveillance programs are updated and to allow for transparency, a Fruit Fly Monitoring System (FFMS) developed by the USDA APHIS IS Office and the CPHD’s Fruit Fly Technical Working Group is being utilized to capture of the Fruit Fly Trapping data in a centralized data- base. 182

PHYTOSANITARY REGULATORY SYSTEMS: THE CASE OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Deanne.V. Ramroop1, Duraisamy Saravankumar2 and Wendy-Ann Isaac2 1 Deputy Director, Research Division Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries, Government of Trinidad and Tobago 2Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine International trade liberalization and rapid globalization of the world economy signals that trade policies and agreements need to be well considered by countries involved in trade. In relation to agricultural trade, various international agreements and standards to which many countries of the world are signatories exist. Those specifically related to plants and plant products include the World Trade Organisation (WTO) - Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement; the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs) and the Trade Facilitation Agreement. While the WTO- SPS Agreement, IPPC and ISPMs facilitate safe trade, it is widely accepted that developing countries (including Trinidad and Tobago) face challenges in applying and adhering to them inclusive of challenges when fulfilling obligations under the WTO-SPS Agreement. Article 5.1 of the Agreement implies that a country shall perform pest risk analysis (PRA) taking into account risk assessment techniques developed by the relevant international organizations. (WTO, 1995). This paper addresses the pertinent issues surrounding PRA and the development a PRA procedure for developing countries like Trinidad and Tobago that meets the requirements of the WTO and the IPPC. Article 5 of the WTO-SPS Agreement states that the method used to collect, analyse and present scientific information to justify an SPS measure is called risk assessment. In the case of plant life and health, an assessment is conducted to determine the need for phytosanitary measures, taking into consideration biological and economic evidence such as the loss of production or sales as a result of the introduction of a pest; the costs of control or eradication of a pest; and the relative cost effectiveness of risk management options. The importing country is obliged to demonstrate that a risk exists, even though both importing and exporting countries are required to contribute to providing the necessary scientific information for the assessment. According to FAO (2009b), Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) is defined as “the process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether a pest should be regulated, and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it”. PRAs can be initiated for 183

various reasons inclusive of a request to consider a pathway or commodity that may require phytosanitary measures; a pest is identified that may justify phytosanitary measures; or a decision is made to review or revise phytosanitary measures or policies. This paper describes the PRA schemes, employed by pest risk analysts in Trinidad and Tobago as a means to improve the decisions and decision- making process as part of the phytosanitary regulatory system. 184