FFA Research Digest 2019

EXTENSION AGENTS’ ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF FARMER FIELDS SCHOOLS AND AGRO-ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS METHODS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Jeet Ramjattan, Ataharul Chowdhury and Wayne G. Ganpat Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The farmer field schools (FFS) approach developed around 30 years ago for integrated pest management among rice farmers in Indonesia, evolved as group-based adult learning processes, building farmers skills and enhancing their capacity to analyse and solve challenges (FAO, 2018; Dhamankar and Wongtschowski, 2014.) The Agro-Ecosystem Analysis (AESA) is the main tool within FFS used for decision making through observations, comparison and analysis (FAO, 2016). In Trinidad extension administrators and agents found the AESA method of the FFS was a more cost-effective tool, and was used separately as an extension method of teaching Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Analysing extension agents’ use of FFS and AESA methods could provide valuable evidence to policy makers and extension professionals in determining developmental and long-term effectiveness and help with designing of training curriculum of FFS. This study sought to assess the pre- disposing factors to use of the FFS and AESA. The findings of this study showed that although there was high (96%) awareness levels among agents, use levels (63 %) were low. The results of the study point to the need to motivate staff, and as such, boost their interest levels in new extension methods. Assessments and redirection of extension agents’ skills are recommended to enrich their attitude as they already possess the necessary capabilities, but perceive their full potentials as underutilized. Since many extension agents possess the basic requisite experience and capacity to implement solutions, continuous support and involvement is required to enable monitoring and evaluation for improvements. 47

A PRAGMATIC EVALUATION OF THE FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNER SATISFACTION FROM A BLENDED LEARNING APPROACH: A PILOT STUDY ON THE PLANT QUARANTINE BASICS COURSE Kenia-Rosa Campo1, Wayne Ganpat1, Wendy-Ann Isaac1 and Lora Pilgrim2 1 Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine 2 Office of Online Learning, The University of The West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados Learner satisfaction is an important course outcome that cannot be measured through attendance and assessment data. Whilst a course might be considered a success if students either meet or exceed assessment expectations, learner satisfaction is important because it accounts for student’s personal experiences of the course. The integration of E-learning in addition to face- to-face learning in a blended learning environment has been regarded as a more effective alternative to face-to-face or E-learning education alone. Many institutions implement E-learning as part of the blended learning to meet learners’ need. Therefore, it is equally essential to capture the learners’ perceived satisfaction to determine the effectiveness of this learning approach. Our study will be based on E-questionnaires and the students’ use of the technology embedded tools will be investigated and the results thoroughly analyzed in the research. The study being conducted is to reveal only the design dimension, which includes the factors of perceived usefulness and ease of use, to be the critical factors for perceived E-learner satisfaction. It also aims to determine whether a blended class has the ability to produce different (possibly better) results of student perceptions of overall learning experience and student satisfaction than the traditional face to face instruction in Plant Quarantine training. We anticipate that these findings will be consistent with past studies which suggest that students from non-traditional backgrounds have improved retention in a blended-learning environment, however it may not improve attainment. The main function of an E-learning system is to provide useful content and to help prepare learners for their studies. Therefore, the higher the perceived usefulness of an E-learning system, the more satisfaction learners will have. 48

FARMERS KNOWLEDGE AND ADOPTION OF GREEN AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES: A CASE OF TRINIDAD Brandon Murphy, Kathiravan Gopalan and Wayne Ganpat 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Feeding the world’s ever growing population is no easy job. This has led to many farmers resorting to the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to stimulate growth and protect crops as to ensure optimum farm production. Without consideration of the external cost, farmers often overestimate the net benefits of chemical pesticide and fertilizers. Fortunately, there are many farmers who are environmentally conscience and try to integrate various ‘Green Agricultural Practices’ as an environmental and economical sustainable approach to minimize the negative externalities of intensive agriculture. This study aims to investigate the level of adoption of Green Agricultural Practices by tomato and hot pepper farmers in Trinidad. The views of a stratified sample of 120 farmers was studied using an interview schedule administered in various regions of Trinidad. By means of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) as a framework, various aspect of the farms’ operation was explored. Whereby, indices were calculated to determine the intensity of adoption of these environmentally friendly practices. Results show that high adoption by both famer groups in areas such as water conservation, Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) and use of quality seedlings that are resilient to tropical climate, pest and diseases. One major finding from this study is most farmers from both farmer group opt to burn their waste containers and plastics. Therefore, urgent actions must be taken to implement systems for proper disposal or reuse of these containers and farmers must be educated about the benefits gained from environmentally friendly agriculture. 49

EXTENSION AGENTS’ USE OF LEARNING-BASED EXTENSION METHODS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Jeet Ramjattan, Ataharul Chowdhury and Wayne G. Ganpat Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The use of appropriate methods to advance farmers learning in developing countries including Trinidad and Tobago, is highlighted as a development priority. Extension institutions are closely examining the changing roles of extension agents and rethinking program delivery (Davis, 2006). In Trinidad and Tobago extension agents’ roles comprise adopting enhanced learning- based methods such as, farmer-field schools, plant clinics and agro- ecosystem analysis for facilitating collaborative learning and knowledge management (Ganpat, 2014). There is limited evidence about extension agents’ extant use of learning-based methods of extension. This study sought to analyse extension agents’ use of learning-based extension methods. A Face to Face structured interview, captured demographic information and use and acceptance variables as per the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Purposive sampling was conducted with agents of the public, state-assisted and private extension services of Trinidad and Tobago. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression. The findings add important insights into worldwide debates concerning use of learning based extension methods and the changing roles of agents. Social influence and networking significantly influenced agent’s use of AESA and DBL methods. Administrators and agents strongly supported plant clinics recognizing the effective utilization of resources. As agents’ competencies in using learning-based extension methods improved client’s ability to make informed decisions also improved. Overall, the study found that greater collaborations impacted positively on the providers’ ability to fulfil the educational needs of diverse clientele and address rural development challenges more effectively and efficiently. 50

NUTRITION, DIETETICS AND CONSUMER SCIENCE 51

KNOWLEGE, ATTITUDES, AND PRACTICES IN RELATION TO NUTRITION AMONG COACHES IN TRINIDAD Marquitta Webb, Leanna David and Sa’eed Bawa Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Physical activity, athletic performance, and recovery from exercise are enhanced by optimal nutrition. Coaches play an important role in providing nutrition information to their athletes. However, coaches may not be adequately prepared to provide accurate information about nutrition. Findings from several international studies of coaches’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding nutrition have reported the need for increased nutrition education. However, thus far, no research has been conducted in Trinidad and Tobago about coaches’ knowledge, attitudes and practices in relation to nutrition and therefore warrants investigation. This study assessed the degree of coaches’ nutrition knowledge, attitudes and practices among their athletes regarding key areas in nutrition, such as weight loss/weight gain, fluids/dehydration, pre- and post-competition meals, training diets, and nutrition supplements in athletes. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect information on nutrition knowledge, attitudes and practices of coaches. The coaches were selected using the directory of Trinidad and Tobago sporting organizations and were contacted via email and phone for selection to participate in the study. The inclusion criteria were persons with Coaches Education and Certification System or higher knowledge. Exclusion criteria were persons without Coaches Education and Certification System or higher knowledge. A four-section questionnaire was developed based on modifications of previous work by Seminara 2007. Section I consisted of socio-demographics. Section II consisted of 22 knowledge questions based on five specific content areas: (1) weight loss/weight gain, (2) fluids/dehydration, (3) pre- and post-competition meals, (4) training diets, and (5) dietary supplements). The phrases used in this section were “correct”, “incorrect” and “unsure”. Section III comprised of 7 attitude type questions using a 5-point Likert scale, where 1= strongly agree and 5 = strongly disagree. Section IV had 5 practice questions, which used a 3-point Likert scale, where 1 = always, 2 = sometimes, and 3 = never. ‘Always’ was defined as once a week during the season and ‘sometimes’ was defined as 3-5 times during the season. Statistical analyses performed using SPSS, version 21.0. Descriptive statistics, Chi square and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyse the data. All statistical analyses were conducted at P <0.05 level of significance. Of the 138 questionnaires distributed, only 57 were returned resulting in a 41.3% response rate. Participants were predominantly 52

male (n = 36; 63.2%), under 40 years of age (n = 33; 57.9%); and had less than ten years or less of job experience (n = 36; 63.2). The overall knowledge score was 3(5.3) showing a high level of inadequate knowledge among the coaches. Coaches did display positive attitudes, but poor practices. ANOVA tests showed there were statistical significant differences in gender, age or years of experience p>0.005. There were no associations among demographics and knowledge score, attitudes, and practice of the participants. Despite having high confidence in weight loss/weight gain, fluids/dehydration, pre-and post-competition meals, training diets and nutrition supplements, the sampled coaches demonstrated inadequate knowledge. The participants had positive attitude towards assisting athletes in food choices and diets along with having a dietitian present. Overall, coaches displayed poor monitoring practices in eating disorders, weight management and body composition. Athletes have a great deal of respect for their coaches, athletic trainers, and strength and conditioning coaches. Therefore, coaches play a crucial role in educating athletes about nutrition. However, these coaches are often not fully prepared to provide appropriate and reliable nutrition education to their athletes. Findings of this study support the need for effective nutrition education interventions to improve knowledge among coaches with the ultimate goal of changing behaviours. 53

THE EFFECTS OF DARK CHOCOLATE ON MOODS AMONG RESIDENTS OF A SMALL COMMUNITY IN EAST TRINIDAD Rayhanah Ali and Isabella Francis-Granderson Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine This pilot study was conducted to investigate the relationship between dark chocolate consumption and mood. The study was conducted with a convenience sample of thirty-three (n=33) participants (twenty-five females and eight males) who lived in East Trinidad during the months of January to February 2016. Participants between the ages of 18 and 65 years were engaged to participate in a seven-day intervention in which 1/4 ounce of dark chocolate was consumed twice during the hours of 8:00 A.M and 10:00 A.M and 3:00 P.M and 6:00 P.M on day three of the intervention. The treatment was repeated on days four and five with ½ -ounce chocolate being administered on day four. On day five, 1/4 ounce was again administered. Mood was measured for each of the seven days using the Brief Mood Introspection Scale. A Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ-C) designed to assess the frequency of consumption and servings of chocolate food items was also administered. There was a significant correlation between mood and chocolate consumption on days three to five only (P < 0.001). It was concluded that there was an effect on mood with the consumption of dark chocolate. However, this was not the result of the intake of a specific amount of chocolate. 54

THE LINK BETWEEN SKIPPING BREAKFAST AND OBESITY AMONG STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES, ST. AUGUSTINE CAMPUS S’eed Bawa, Simran Bhagwandee and, Marquitta Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Breakfast (BF) is defined as first meal of the day, eaten before or at the start of daily activities (e.g., errands, travel, work), within 2 h of waking, typically no later than 10:00 in the morning, and of an energy level between 20 and 35% of total daily energy needs. Dietary energy intake is considered the major determinant of BMI. It is routinely stated that skipping breakfast is overcompensated with increased energy consumption later during the day. Indeed, many authors have stated that skipping breakfast results in increased BMI, but no causality has been established. Additionally, even the very existence of such a link is questioned. While skipping BF has been linked to higher risk of obesity in the UK, Hong Kong, and the USA, no such link was observed in Australia, Portugal, and Saudi Arabia. A link between skipping BF and obesity is constantly being challenged and in many studies, a lack of this link was repeatedly demonstrated in many studies. No studies have been conducting in the Caribbean region to look into the relationship between breakfast patterns and overweight and obesity, which is the main purpose of the present study. The purpose of the study was to determine the link between obesity and skipping breakfast among the students of the University of the West Indies, St Augustine Campus. The scopes of the study were to determine: a) percentage of the subjects, who were overweight and obese; b) percentage of the participants, who did not consume breakfast; c) the association between body mass index (BMI) and the breakfast habits of the population; d) the major reasons for skipping breakfast among the participants. In this cross-sectional descriptive study, self-administered structured questionnaire was utilized. The sample size of the study was determined based on the precision of the study as follows: n = Z2 pxq/e2, where: n = sample size; z = standard normal value of Z-Score which has a value of 1.96 and 2.58 at the 95% and 99% confidence level respectively; p = the proportion of the population with the attribute of interest (expressed as a decimal); e = level of precision or confidence interval. The sample size which was calculated with a margin of error of 5% came to a sum of 377 students as the target population. Breakfast habits and patterns of the participants were examined based on a 3-page, 17-question questionnaire and their anthropometric data were collected with the use of stadiometer and bioimpedance analyzer. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 23. All tests utilized a statistical significance of p < 0.05. The major reasons for skipping 55

breakfast were: a) lack of time (25.3%; n=150), b) not feeling hungry (22.4%; n=133); c) overslept (16.3%; n=97); d) attempt to lose weight (12.4%; n=74); e) on a special diet (10.1%; n=60); f) did not like breakfast (8.4%; n=50); g) and could not afford it (5.3%; n=31). Similarly, Singleton and Rhoads (1982) found that the most common reasons given for skipping were no time (43%) and not being hungry or habit of skipping (42%); less common reasons included being on a diet to lose weight, not feeling good, no one to prepare food, not liking the food served, and food not being available. Lack of time and habit privilege the reason behind breakfast skipping most often. Out of the 56% of respondents, who skipped breakfast, 21.0% were found to be in the overweight category, 20.7% in class 1 obesity and 0.8% in class 2 obesity. This shows that most of the participants, who did not consume breakfast, were found to be either overweight or obese. In a study conducted by Henrıquez-Sanchez et al. (2008) it was found that there was a higher prevalence of overweight and obese children in the group that skipped breakfast. 17.5% of girls, who skipped breakfast were overweight and 30% we obese while 18.2% of boys who, skipped breakfast were overweight and 27.3% were obese. Overall, this study did not find any association between skipping breakfast and overweight and obesity. It was concluded that most of the participants to skipped breakfast. Although most of the subjects, who skipped breakfast, were either overweight or obese, no association was found between obesity and the habits of skipping breakfast. 56

THE LINK BETWEEN DIETARY HABITS, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND MENTAL HEALTH AMONG FEMALE STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES, ST. AUGUSTINE CAMPUS, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Jihane Anneliese Habet, Sa’eed Bawa and Marquitta Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The prevalence of mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety and stress disorders has continuously increased world-wide especially, among students in tertiary level education. Identifying lifestyle factors such as physical activity level and dietary habits that increase the risk of mental disorders can help decrease the risk of depression, anxiety and stress-inflicted suicide among young adults. Encouragement for healthy lifestyle choices in the education sector can help in mitigating the prevalence of mental health disorders. The main purpose of the study was to assess the link between dietary habits and physical activity and mental health disorders such as anxiety, depression and stress among female students at the University of The West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago. A cross-sectional study was conducted in which a structured questionnaire was administered to 220 female students using convenient sampling over a seven-week period. Of this sample, 111 questionnaires were suitable for study, which gave the response rate of 50.5%. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 24 to produce descriptive statistics and ANOVA tests. From the completed study, a total of 63.4% of the student female population (N=71) had depressive disorder, 58.9% (N=66) had anxiety disorder and 91.1% (N=102) had a moderate to high stress disorder while 8.9% (N=10) had a low stress disorder. Overall there was a strong association between depression, stress and anxiety and the consumption of processed foods, where higher intakes were associated with higher instances of depression, stress and anxiety. No association was seen between the intakes of zinc, fiber, Omega-6 and depression, anxiety and stress, whereas omega-3 intake had an inverse association with anxiety levels. There was no statistically significant association between depression, anxiety and stress and the level of education as well as household income. Associations were however seen between age, living situation and ethnicity. On analyzing the nutrient intake among physical activity levels, it was observed that all the groups did not meet the RDA’s for folate, magnesium, zinc, Omega-3 and Fiber, while all groups consumed significantly high levels of Omega-6. It can be concluded that physical activity or diet alone do not offer protection against depression, anxiety and stress and work synergistically for improved mental health. More 57

valid results would be found among a broader sample size, so further studies in this area is warranted. THE IMPACT OF PARENTING AND THE HOME ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDHOOD OBESITY: A SURVEY OF PARENTS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN AGED 5–12 YEARS OLD WITHIN THE BOROUGH OF POINT FORTIN Sa’eed Bawa, Annesha Ramnathsingh and Marquitta Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine A critical period in the development of obesity is during the childhood years as eating patterns are beginning to develop that may continue into later years. Parents as well as adult care-givers are powerful agents in shaping children’s early experience with food and eating as they are responsible for the selection and preparation of foods of the family meals, as well as establishing the emotional and physical setting in which obesity may or may not develop. Parental factors may impact on obesity in children as they learn by modelling parents’ and peers’ preferences, intake and willingness to try new foods. Availability of, and repeated exposure to, healthy foods is key to developing preferences and can overcome dislike of foods. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of parenting and home environment on the development of childhood obesity among primary school children aged 5-12 years old within the Borough of Point Fortin. This was a cross sectional study with convenient sampling conducted between February and March 2018 at seven faith-based organizations. 246 completed survey questionnaires with equal numbers of both genders and equal numbers of children within the three age subgroups (5-7, 8-10, 11-12) were collected. The target population for this study ware parents or primary care-givers of primary school children ages 5- 12 years of age located within the Point Fortin Borough. Parents of primary school aged children not located within the Point Fortin Borough were excluded from this study. A modified version of a Child Feeding Questionnaire, measuring parenting and home environment factors was used as the main study instrument. The main modifications of this questionnaire were to substitute food items with those found in the Trinidadian home. In addition, questions relating to sedentary behaviours and physical actives of parents, spouses and children with reference those offered and accessible to the families living within the Point Fortin Borough were used to modify the questionnaire. Child’s weight and height were reported by parents and this information was used to calculate the children’s BMI. BMI percentiles were 58

derived for each child using WHO sex and age specific growth charts. SPSS version 23 was used for the statistical analyses of the collected data. Descriptive statistics were used to determine whether there were any statistical significant associations between any of the parental and home environment factors, sedentary and physical activity participation and sleep duration and the children’s BMI percentiles. The majority of the children (65%) were found to be equal to or greater than the 95th percentile according to WHO BMI for age and gender growth charts. 24.3% participants were within the 5th and 85th percentile, whilst 5.26% fell in either the less than 5th percentile group or the 85th percentile to the 95th percentile group. Statistical analysis revealed that 49.3% of the parent population never eat when lonely, bred, nervous or upset, 38.8% did so occasionally, 5.9% frequently, 3.2% usually and 2.6% always displayed this behaviour. 64.4% of the parent participants used food to reward their children while 32.8% occasionally did practice this behaviour. Responses to allowing child to snack between meal- time, 55.2% responded occasionally, 25% usually, 8.5% responded frequently, while 7.2% and 3.9% never and always displayed this behaviour, respectively. Whether meals are served with fruits and vegetables 35.5% responded frequently, 28.2% did so occasionally, 19% responded always, 15.1% usually did, and just about 1.9% never engaged in this behaviour. When asked about if the child is allowed to select any amount of candy to eat 73% responded never, 24.3% occasionally allow this behaviour, 1.9% always do while less than 1% do frequently and 0 responded usually. In conclusion, high prevalence of overweight and obesity was found among the children, but no association was found between the children’s weight status and home environment. No significant associations were found between children’s BMI percentile and the following factors: parental eating habits, parenting related to the child’s eating, parenting related to the home environment, parental perceived feeding responsibility, parental monitoring of child’s intake of certain foods, sedentary behaviours, and physical activity patterns. 59

THE IMPACT OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES, ST AUGUSTINE CAMPUS ON THE LEVEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND DIETARY BEHAVIOURS AMONG STUDENTS Sa’eed Bawa, Afisha Ravello and Marquitta Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The built environment influences a person’s level of physical activity, for example inaccessible or non-existent sidewalks and bicycle or walking paths contribute to sedentary habits. These habits may lead to poor health outcomes such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and some types of cancer. A built environment that facilitates more active lifestyle and reduces barriers to physical activity is desirable because of the positive relationship between physical activity and health. The built environment denotes the form and character of communities, and includes all of the physical parts of where we live and work. The way the built environment is created can affect many daily decisions, such as whether persons walk to school or work, and eat frequently at fast food restaurants. These factors all depend on how neighbourhood and communities are built. The built environment has three major dimensions, namely: the transportation system (continuous street network, street connectivity, bike paths, sidewalks, bus stops, and train stops), land use (commercial and residential uses, business density, employment density, population density) and urban design (side walk width and surface, lightening, benches, garbage cans, parking, pedestrian crossing, building height and width as well as architecture). The built environment can facilitate or constrain physical activity; it can be structured in ways that give people more or fewer opportunities and choices to be physically active. It can be changed in ways that increase opportunities for, and reduce barriers to physical activity. An environment that promotes ready access to food retailers, like supermarkets, that are located near residents’ homes and offer healthy affordable foods has been associated with a greater consumption of fruits and vegetables and reduced prevalence of overweight. The purpose of the study was to analyse whether the built environment at the university of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus had an influence on the level of physical activity and dietary behaviours among students. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on the levels of physical activity and dietary behaviours among the participants. Food frequency questionnaire was used to determine the dietary patterns of the participants, while the International Physical Activity Questionnaire was applied for the collection of data on the levels of physical activity. The study was cross-sectional in 60

nature and took place in the months February- April, 2017. A total of 225 students participated in the study. For the data analysis, SPSS Version 23 was used to calculate means, standard deviations, and frequencies. To calculate frequencies and percentages, descriptive analysis was used. Participants were predominantly female (n=143; 63.6%), age 18-24 (n=183; 81.3%), fulltime students (n=200; 88.9%). The prevalence of obesity among students was 12.9%; in addition, 26.7% were overweight, 45.3% had normal weight, and 9.9% were underweight. Of all the students, only 31(13.8%) said they never purchased food items from outlets, of those who made a purchase, only did so once or twice a week. Most students participated in physical activity outside of campus (97; 43.1%), while 83; 36.9% did not partake in physical activity at all. Students found that safety (101; 44.9%) was the main factor, which greatly hampered them from partaking in physical activity with improper street lighting, crime, and inappropriate walking and biking trails as the main reasons for the students’ low physical activity level. The built environment was found to greatly influence the physical activity and dietary behaviours of students at the university of the West Indies St, Augustine campus and much should be put in place to reduce barriers to physical active and healthy dietary habit so that students may adapt to a more active and healthy lifestyle. This can be achieved among others by the introduction of a cheap bicycle rental program, which students may find attractive. 61

THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN CAFFEINE INGESTION AND ANXIETY AMONGST UNIVERSITY STUDENTS Sa’eed Bawa, Sri Lata Nankissoon and Marquitta Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The global current prevalence of anxiety disorders adjusted for methodological differences has been estimated to be 7.3% (4.8–10.9%) and range from 5.3% (3.5-8.1%) in African cultures to 10.4% (7.0-15.5%) in Euro/Anglo cultures. Anxiety is a general term for nervousness, dread, apprehension, and worry, generally related to an unpleasantness. Mild anxiety is vague and unsettling, while severe anxiety can be extremely debilitating and can even be categorized as a disorder. Anxiety is not the same as fear, which is a response to a real or perceived immediate threat; anxiety is the worry or unfounded expectation of a possible future threat. Caffeine has been reported to increase anxiety in some individuals and it is suggested that this effect may be linked to a polymorphism of the A2A (adenosine) receptor gene. However, tolerance to this anxiety raising effect of caffeine may occur, even in genetically susceptible individuals. Further research supporting an association with an A2A polymorphism showed that a dose of 150 mg caffeine (equivalent to 2 cups of coffee) increased anxiety in subjects with this polymorphism. Therefore, caffeine may be associated with an increase in anxiety at moderate levels of intake (150 mg caffeine – approximately two cups of coffee) in individuals who are predisposed to this effect. Symptoms of anxiety are less likely to be seen at lower levels of caffeine intake. Caffeine is so widely consumed in the world that little attention is paid to the fact that about 80% of the population voluntarily and routinely manipulate their mind pharmacologically. Such widespread use suggests that caffeine has at least some reinforcing effect and that it is well tolerated in habitual doses. The purpose of this study was to determine the association between caffeine consumption and anxiety levels in UWI students. Permission was sought from the UWI Ethics committee to conduct a cross-sectional study in the form of short, web-based surveys. Due to the high prevalence of both anxiety and caffeine consumption among adults, the sample size was determined to be 350 subjects. This value was determined by using The Research Advisors (2006) sample size table, a 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error, based on a population value of 5981 students (2019 figure obtained from university website). Data were collected using a questionnaire constructed as a Google Form. IBM SPSS® software version 23 was used to analyze for significant trends and associations among the collected variables. Students’ anxiety was assessed using the GAD 62

(Generalized Anxiety Disorder) Scale. Severe and moderate anxiety disorders were not common in UWI students, and overall caffeine consumption was found to be low. However, the most prevalent forms of caffeine consumption were coffee, chocolates, tea and energy drinks. Mild anxiety disorders were the most common amongst UWI students. Excessive weekly caffeine consumption was associated with increased anxiety in UWI students, but moderate to optimal levels of caffeine intake were associated with reduced anxiety. It can be concluded that overall caffeine consumption was low in the student population, with the main sources being coffee, chocolates, tea and energy drinks. Excessive weekly caffeine consumption (greater than 135 mg/week) was associated with increased anxiety in UWI students, but optimal levels of caffeine intake (84-200 mg) were associated with reduced anxiety. 63

SOCIAL MEDIA USE AND EATING DISORDER RISK AMONG STUDENTS AT A UNIVERSITY IN THE WEST INDIES Gervelle Lafeuillee, Marquitta Webb and Sa’eed Bawa Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine The etiology of eating disorders is complex. Eating disorders are caused by a number of factors that influence individuals to engage in destructive eating habits. These factors include biological, psychological, and environmental components that increase an individual’s likelihood that they will be diagnosed with an eating disorder. One of the factors that was implicated with eating disorders is social media. Social media has made its way in every aspect of our lives, in the classrooms, at dinner tables, and in workplaces. With a wide range of social media platforms being used among children, teenagers, and adults, it can be difficult to elude the pressures and influences associated with social media. It is important to note however that social media itself does not cause eating disorders but it can drive individuals to engage in disordered patterns of eating. Individuals are constantly comparing themselves to thin models, their peers, and celebrities and begin to feel inadequate about their own self-image. Moreover, persons use social media as a platform to talk negatively about someone’s image which affects the emotional well-being of individuals who already struggle with disordered patterns of eating. This study aimed to investigate if there is an association between social media use and eating disorder risks among students at a university in the West Indies. The hypothesis for this study was: there will be no statistically significant relationship between social media use and risk of developing eating disorders among university students. The study utilized a convenience sampling method. Students were recruited from one university in Trinidad and Tobago. The inclusion criteria for participants were registered students, 18 years of age and/or above, and used social media platforms. The exclusion criteria for participants were non-registered students, under 18 years of age, and did not use any social media platforms. Ethical approval was obtained from the Campus Research Ethics Committee in keeping with the ethical standards recommended by the Declaration of Helsinki. Written consent was obtained from each participant. Chi Square tests were used to conduct bivariate analyses to obtain the statistical significance between variables. The statistical significance was set to be p<0.05. Cronbach’s alpha was also calculated in order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire and items used in the SCOFF tool. The study sample consisted of 150 registered students. The reliability of the questions within the study without the SCOFF questionnaire was found to be 0.634 and 64

the reliability among the SCOFF items was 0.468. Students were predominantly female (n=103, 68.7%). Majority of respondents were undergraduate students (n=122, 81.3%). Respondents were predominantly found in the Faculty of Science and Technology (n=46, 26.7%). Year One (1) students comprised majority of the population (n=61, 40.7%) while respondents were predominantly local Trinidadian students (n=117, 78%). There was no association (p>0.05) between social media use and eating disorder risk. The total percentage of persons likely to suffer from anorexia nervosa or bulimia was found to be approximately one third of the students (38.1%). In the responses provided by students when asked ‘did social media use affect your appetite’, approximately 67% indicated that there was no effect of social media on appetite. Additionally, approximately 70% stated that food does not dominate their lives. This study is not without some important limitations. Since the study utilized a cross-sectional design causal inferences cannot be made. All data were self-reported; therefore, it is likely that students were not be truthful although they were assured that their responses were confidential. In summary, there was no statistically significant association found between social media use and eating disorder risk among the university students. Although this study did not find an association between social media use and eating disorder risk, other studies highlighted the implications social media can have on one’s psychological wellbeing and the influence celebrities may have over their followers. Therefore, it is imperative that dietitians and nutritionists become more engaged on popular social media platforms to promote healthy eating guidelines. Social media has the ability to facilitate healthy food choices. However, the accuracy and content of nutrition-related posts must to be closely monitored. 65

INTUITIVE EATING AND WEIGHT STATUS AMONG TERTIARY LEVEL STUDENTS IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Kyle Jemmott, Marquitta Web and Sa’eed Bawa Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Obesity and overweight are preventable conditions through effective weight management. Intuitive eating (IE) is touted as a method of managing weight as it is associated with a positive change in weight status. IE is a non-dieting, adaptive approach to eating behaviour characterized by eating for physical rather than emotional reasons, relying on internal hunger and satiety cues, unconditional permission to eat when hungry and what food is desired, and choosing nutritious foods to help one’s body function well. In this context, this study assessed the prevalence of IE among tertiary level students in Trinidad and Tobago and examined the association between IE which consists of the reliance on hunger and satiety cues, unconditional permission to eat, eating for physical rather than emotional reasons and body-food choice congruence, as well as weight status among university students. This study utilized a self-administered questionnaire. Inclusion criteria were university students who were enrolled and over the age of 18 years at the time of data collection. Exclusion criteria included university student who were not enrolled at the university and under the age of 18 years. Anthropometric measures was assessed using a stadiometer and a Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis scale (BIA). The stadiometer was used to assess the height of the participants. The BIA scale assessed body composition, i.e., weight (pounds), body mass index (BMI) (Kg/m2), body fat percentage, muscle mass percentage and visceral fat (grams). In addition, physical activity level was assessed using the Saltin-Grimby Physical Activity Scale and IE and its respective subscales were assessed using the 23 item Intuitive Eating Scale – 2 (IES-2). The association between IE and weight status was assessed using multinomial logistic regression models. The study was approved by the University Research Ethics Committee. A total of 201 persons participated in the study, of which 145 were females and 56 were males. The majority of the participants (n = 176) were under the age of 25 years. Most of the participants were of normal weight (47.3%), 19.9% were obese, 17.4% were overweight, and 15.4% underweight. The majority of participants indicated that they engage in some light physical activity (50.2%), 23.4% of participants were engaged in regular physical activity (23.4%). Most respondents’ scores (58.2%) indicated that they did not practice IE principles. Statistically significance associations were found between physical activity level and gender (p = 0.023), reliance on hunger and satiety cues and weights status (p = 0.010), and intuitive eating and weight status (p = 0.007). In 66

conclusion, the results show that there was a negative association of intuitive eating and body mass index. Negative associations were observed for intuitive eating as a general principle and weight status and for one of its subscales -- reliance on hunger and satiety cues and weight status. In the past, weight management strategies have focused on changing dietary behaviours. However, considering adaptive behaviours, such as IE could be useful in developing behaviour guidelines that are not restriction. BMI, NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE AMONG NUTRITION AND NON-NUTRITION COLLEGE STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES K. Reyes and I. Francis-Granderson Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine This study assessed nutrition knowledge and healthy dietary practices between nutrition and non-nutrition college students in relation to body mass index classification. A convenience sample of 224 students (112 nutrition students; 112 non-nutrition students) participated in the study. Data was collected face to face using a structured questionnaire. Nutrition knowledge, healthy dietary practices and body mass index were assessed. The study was conducted at the University of the West Indies Campus, St. Augustine during the months of March to April, 2018. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 21.0 to perform descriptive statistics and correlations. The mean knowledge score of nutrition students was 24 ± 4.47 and non-nutrition students were 20 ± 3.87. BMI classification of nutrition students, 56.3% were overweight, 43.8% had normal BMIs and 2.6% were underweight. Among the non- nutrition students 41% were overweight, 57.2% had normal BMIs and 1.8% were underweight. In relation to dietary practice, among groups, there was no measured significant difference with association to sound dietary practices. Nutrition students at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus were observed to have higher BMIs and unhealthier BMI classifications compared to non-nutrition students. Sound dietary practices did not differ among the groups; nutritional knowledge levels however were higher in nutrition students than non-nutrition students. 67

USE OF THE KETOGENIC DIET AS AN ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT FOR CHRONIC DISEASES AMONG CARIBBEAN ADULTS: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY Eden Augustus1, Isabella Francis-Granderson 2, and Kern Rocke1 1The University of the West Indies, Cave hill Campus, Barbados 2 Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Knowledge of complementary alternative therapies for cancer treatment remain crucial for improving quality of life among patients, however little is known of their effectiveness during treatment. The present study aimed to explore Caribbean adults’ opinions on the effectiveness of using the ketogenic diet as an alternative to traditional cancer therapies. The objectives of the study were that participants can gain a better understanding on the use of the ketogenic diet for the treatment of Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases in the Caribbean, and to be able to identify which chronic diseases will the use of the ketogenic diet have the most success compared to other complementary alternative medicines for the treatment of early and advance stage malignant neoplasms/cancer. A convenience sample of 1100 adults in the Caribbean were recruited through social networking outlets to participate in the present study. An online encrypted survey was administered to all recruited participants which was used to assess the opinions of the use of the ketogenic diet as alternative treatment for chronic disease currently plaguing the Caribbean. Written approval was required for all participants by selecting an option “I Agree to participate” before access to the survey was grated. Overall 42.2% of participants reported that they had a minimal knowledge level of the ketogenic diet. Sources of this information was obtained primarily from internet advertisements and television commercials. Most participants (24.3%) reported that the KD will aid with health and wellness. A fair amount of participants 22.5 % reported that the KD will aid with cancer and obesity. While 8.9% and 11.8% respectively reported that the KD will aid with diabetes and hypertension. There was a general consensus (94.2%) that healthcare providers should be more knowledgeable of the benefits of the ketogenic The KD was seen as the most beneficial complimentary alternative treatment. The findings of the present study show that there is a needed to improve the knowledge and awareness of the ketogenic diet as an alternative. The use of convenience sampling may have led to selection bias. This could allow for a multidisciplinary approach for the treatment of chronic diseases in the Caribbean. 68

SURVEY OF DIETARY AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY HABITS AND THEIR IMPACTS ON THE RISK OF DEVELOPING CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES AMONG ABLE-BODIED RETIREES IN TRINIDAD Sa’eed Bawa, Ayanna C. Elias and Marquitta Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine There are four main types of chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs), mainly, cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory disease and diabetes. They are preventable through both personal and organisational interventions that target risks factors with the aim to reduce or completely eliminate them. These common risk factors are the excessive use of alcohol, physical inactivity, unhealthy diets and tobacco use. These risk factors result in both metabolic and physiological changes such as increased blood pressure, overweight and obesity, increased blood glucose and blood total lipid levels. A retiree is classified as a person who is out of the workforce with zero engagement in work activity, thus being in retirement, in early retirement or having given up business. As we age, there tends to be a natural gradual decline in body functions as cells age, die and normal biological processes occur. Aging is associated with increased body fat, decreased muscle mass and decreased basal metabolism, results in decline in muscular strength, aerobic capacity and bone density, which consequently increases the risk of CNCDs. The purpose of this cross sectional study, with convenient sampling, was to assess existing habits that contribute and exacerbate CNCDs among able-bodied retirees in Trinidad and to assess if the retirees were aware of factors that contribute to CNCDs, especially metabolic syndrome. Retiree associations were contacted and advised of the research and visits were conducted at leisure gatherings, where participation was on a voluntary basis. The research instruments were designed to obtain both descriptive quantitative and qualitative data from participants in relation to their dietary and physical activity habits. Data were collected between September 2018 and February 2019. Two interviewers were recruited to assist in collection of data, since some potential participants requested assistance. These interviewers were required to review the questionnaire with the secondary researcher to clarify any misconceptions they encountered. The target population were persons, who were retired between the ages of 50–80 years of age, who participated voluntarily in completing a food frequency questionnaire, 24-hour dietary recall and basic anthropometric measurements. Body composition measurement was conducted using an Omron Full Body Sensor Body Composition Monitor and Scale. Complete data (FFQ, 24-hr dietary recall, anthropometric measurements) were 69

collected for only a total number 74 retirees. USDA nutrient database was used to analyse the 24-h dietary recall of the participants. Statistical analyses were carried out using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 23. Chi-square test was performed for association between metabolic syndrome and changes to lifestyle occurring during retirement, CNCDs risk and associations between duration of retirement, age and knowledge of metabolic syndrome. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Statistical analysis revealed that retirees were not aware of metabolic syndrome. There were relationships between marital status and energy consumption, education level and fibre consumption, physical activity and waist circumference and alcohol, physical activity and tobacco with CNCD risks. The average intake of total energy among the 74 respondents was 1396.26 kcals, which lower than the recommended amount for this population. However, the contribution of carbohydrates, protein and fat in supplying energy was with the normal rages and amounted to 51%, 18% and 31%, respectively. The intake of dietary fibre was found to be low, the mean being 19.58 ± 11.04 g/d; the lowest intake was found to be 2.2 g/d and the highest 53.60 g/d. The mean dietary cholesterol intake was 201.39 ± 140.73 mg/d. Body fat percentage across the genders was found to be in obesity category and stood at > 25 and 31% for males and females, respectively. It can be concluded the consumption of fruits and vegetables were reported to be higher during the retirement period, but decreased intake of alcoholic beverages, tobacco use and physical activity. High percentage body fat found in the participants as well as low intakes of dietary fibre can predispose them to CNCDs. 70

EXERCISE, DIETARY HABITS, BODY COMPOSITION AND DYSMENORRHEA AMONG STUDENTS AT A UNIVERSITY IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Aneesa Siew, Marquitta Webb and Sa’eed Bawa Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Dysmenorrhea is identified as the most common menstrual problem among various gynaecological complaints and poses a greater burden of disease than any other gynaecological problem. Many factors were identified as contributors to dysmenorrhea, such as poor dietary habits, lack of exercise, and body composition. Therefore, in order to manage and treat this problem, it is important to identify the prevalence of dysmenorrhea development among the tertiary level population since most university students tend to consume fast foods especially on campus. Further, since limited information exists about the correlation between dietary intake patterns, exercise, and dysmenorrhea among the female students, this present study determined the prevalence of dysmenorrhea among students at a university campus and the association between exercise, body composition, dietary habits, and dysmenorrhea among the target population. A cross-sectional study was carried at a University Campus among all registered female students. Inclusion criteria were female students who were enrolled at the university, presence of menstrual periods, no chronic diseases, and no history of abdominal surgeries. Exclusion criteria included a history of substance abuse or use of drugs, such as psychoactive drugs, antidepressants, presence of menopause, women who are on any particular food restrictions, pregnant and lactating women and participants who were not students or registered at the university. A self-administered questionnaire was utilized for this study. The stadiometer was used to assess the height. The Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis scale assessed body composition. Physical activity was assessed using a modified version of the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Chi-squared was used to determine the associations between variables (exercise, dietary habits, and body composition) and dysmenorrhea. Binary Logistic Regression was used to determine if diet, exercise, and body composition were predictors of dysmenorrhea. The level of statistical significance for all tests was P = < 0.05. Of the 204 female students, 173 students (84.8%; 95% CI: 79.1, 89.4) reported having dysmenorrhea. The majority (59.3%) of students reported performing physical activity. Of those performing physical activity, low physical activity was predominant (30.9%). Body fat percentages were very high (38.7%) among the majority of participants (n = 79%). The students predominantly followed poor dietary habits (83.8%). Significant associations (p= <0.001) were found between the frequency of consumption of whole milk and low fat 71

milk over the past 6 months and dysmenorrhea, as well as frequency of consumption of low fat dairy products (p=0.012), high fat dairy products (p= 0.005) and root vegetables (p= 0.009) over the past 6 months and dysmenorrhea. Binary logistic regression showed that low-fat milk was the only predictor of dysmenorrhea. There is a high prevalence of dysmenorrhea among female students and more than half of dysmenorrhic females reported having severe pain. The majority of the females indicated having low physical activity and no association was found between exercise and dysmenorrhea. BMI and body fat were not associated with dysmenorrhea despite results showing that the majority of participants had very high body fat percentages. Poor dietary habits were predominantly followed but were not associated with dysmenorrhea. However, foods that were associated with dysmenorrhea included whole milk, low-fat milk, low-fat dairy products, and high-fat dairy products. Further, low-fat milk was found to be the only predictor of dysmenorrhea. The high prevalence of dysmenorrhea suggests the need for education regarding factors, such as foods that cause dysmenorrhea and maintaining a healthy body composition. Increased physical activity is also needed among the female students. 72

EVALUATION OF RISK FACTORS FOR OSTEOPOROSIS BASED ON THE DIET AND LIFESTYLE OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS AND ASSESSMENT OF OSTEOPOROSIS AWARENESS Sa’eed Bawa, Charis H. R. Seejattan, Marquitta Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Osteoporosis is defined as a disease that reduces the density and quality of bones, significantly increasing the risk of fractures. Until the first fracture occurs due to the abnormally porous bone, signs and symptoms usually go undetected. Bone is a firm body tissue that is made up of cells rooted in an intercellular substance known as osteoid, which is primarily made of collagen and calcium phosphate. Bone functions include bodily structural support, especially for the mechanical action of tissues and organs; protection of vital tissues and organs; is a location for production of blood cells (bone marrow); and finally, acts as storage for minerals such as calcium and phosphate. The main determinants of bone health are the intakes of calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, zinc, fluoride, vitamins C, D and K as well as physical activity. Worldwide, the risk of women experiencing an osteoporotic fracture is one in every three women over the age of 50, while for men, the rate is one in every five men. However, in the Caribbean region and more specifically, Trinidad and Tobago, there are low rates of osteoporosis prevalence and little to no research has been done on the rate of prevalence of osteoporosis, there it is interesting to evaluate the awareness of osteoporosis risk factors among students. The purpose of this study was to assess awareness of osteoporosis risk factors as well as dietary and physical activity patterns amongst UWI students the diets and lifestyles of UWI students. The study conducted was a cross-sectional investigation where information was gathered via a self- administered data collection questionnaire. Random sampling was utilized throughout the main campus of the University of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine. Using a 95% confidence level and +/- 5 margin of error, sample size was determined as follows: Sample size = [(Z-score)2 x (Standard deviation) x (1-Standard deviation)] ÷ (margin of error)2 = [(1.96)2 x (0.15) x (1-0.15)] ÷ (0.05)2 = [3.8416 x 0.15 x 0.85] ÷ 0.0025 = 0.489804 ÷ 0.0025 Sample size = 195.9216 which was approximated to 200/ Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire that consisted of demographic data questions, true/false/don’t know osteoporosis knowledge- based questions and questions assessing the diet and lifestyle of the participant as well as a food frequency questionnaire which consisted of 73

foods rich in calcium as well as foods that may be detrimental to bone health. Body weight and height of the participants were measured and the BMI calculated. Mean BMI of participants was calculated to be 23.272 ± 5.5883. The minimum being 13.3 and the maximum 46.4. The majority of participants fell within the normal BMI category (107; 53.5%), followed by 35 participants (17.5%) falling in the underweight BMI category. 31 participants (15.5%) were found to be overweight whilst 27 participants (13.5%) were obese. The majority of participants never experienced a fracture, had a family history of fractures or had a family history of osteoporosis. Very little of the study population smoked, and whilst the majority did consume alcohol, most stated that they did so occasionally. A few of the participants admitted to previously having smoking and excessive alcohol consumption habits but ceased. Amongst the female participants, the minority experienced irregular periods and amenorrhea. Very little students took calcium and vitamin D supplementation; however, the majority said they consumed dairy products often and only one caffeinated beverage. Most students did not know whether they consumed calcium-fortified food/drink and in what ways they were exposed to aluminium. The majority of students were physically active, with some specifying that they partook in high intensity sports. In conclusion, the majority of students led a relatively healthy lifestyle; however, their knowledge of osteoporosis was very low. 74

LIFESTYLE FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION AMONG STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES, ST. AUGUSTINE CAMPUS, TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Sa’eed Bawa, Justin Roget Hay, Marquitta Webb Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine There is an increasing prevalence of anxiety and depressive disorders worldwide among tertiary level students, understanding what lifestyle factors and dietary habits are associated with anxiety and depression among tertiary level students are paramount to encourage lifestyle changes to reduce the prevalence of anxiety and depression. Moreover, identifying which lifestyle factors including dietary habits are associated with anxiety and depression can attenuate the long term consequential effects of anxiety and depression such as suicide. The purpose of the study was to determine the prevalence of anxiety and depression and what lifestyle factors including dietary habits are associated with anxiety and depression among students at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago. A cross- sectional design study was employed in which a structured questionnaire was administered to 222 students utilizing random convenience sampling over a 6-week period. Lifestyle factors including dietary habits were assessed throughout the questionnaire. Data was analyzed utilizing SPSS version 21 to produce frequencies, descriptive statistics, ANOVA and Multiple Comparison tests. A total of 64.5% of the student population (n = 143) had generalized anxiety disorder while a total of 60.4% of the student population (n = 134) had depressive disorder. The male population (n = 72) had a mean anxiety score of 0.9167 ± 1.04477 and a mean depression score of .8611 ± 1.02511 while the female population (n = 150) had a mean anxiety score of 1.0667 ± 0.93167 and a mean depression score of 1.1267 ± 1.12505. Overall, strong positive associations were found with higher depression and anxiety scores in the population with low physical activity, lower B12 intake in the population with anxiety, lower folate intake in the population with depression and higher Omega 6 intake in the population with depression. In conclusion, it was observed that the student population had a high prevalence of anxiety and depression, but no statistically significant associations were found between anxiety and depression with respect to gender, ethnicity, relationship status, level of education, household monthly income and where students lived and with whom students lived with. Data analysis showed strong positive associations with lower intake of specific nutrients and anxiety and 75

depression. However, in spite of no association between physical activity level and micronutrient intake, higher physical activity levels might have offered a protective role in suppressing anxiety and depression as well as increased in the consumption of whole foods and decrease in the intake of processed foods. INCREASING THE LOCAL FOOD CONTENT IN A CARIBBEAN SCHOOL FEEDING SYSTEM Savita Maharajh, Carlisle Pemberton and Isabella Francis-Granderson Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine In the Caribbean, increasing domestic agricultural production is a major economic benefit of the state subsidies to School Feeding Programmes (SFPs). This economic benefit is important in the Caribbean countries, because of the decline of the agricultural sector and the need to identify and promote a vehicle to propel agricultural development, such as an SFP. In particular, SFPs can be a valuable means of generating demand for local agricultural production. However, in most of the Caribbean countries, this impact of the SFPs has not taken place and in many countries, instead, the SFPs may have been using increasing amounts of imported, as opposed to local foods. This paper sets out to present a methodological approach that can be used to reverse this trend. For the case of the SFP in Trinidad and Tobago, the paper will attempt to demonstrate a methodology to determine whether the caterers can utilize greater quantities of farmers’ production in their school meals. This methodology will involve using a basic linear programming model to develop several simulations or solutions and analysing the benefits that farmers and the economy will derive from such solutions. The solutions will determine the school meals, utilizing the ingredients in common use by the caterers and meeting the nutritional and cost constraints of the National School Dietary Services Limited (NSDSL), the agency which delivers the SFP in Trinidad and Tobago. A Benefit-Cost platform will be used in the analysis of economic benefits and costs. 76

ASSESSMENT OF BREADFRUIT (ARTOCARPUS ALTILIS, (PARKINSON) FOSBERG) CULTIVARS FOR RESISTANT STARCH, DIETARY FIBRE AND ENERGY DENSITY Daley OO1, Roberts-Nkrumah LB1, Alleyne AT2, Granderson I3, Broomes J1 and N Badrie1 1Department of Food Production, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Cavehill, Barbados 3Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, W.I. Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) is being promoted for increased consumption as a staple for food and nutrition security, improved livelihoods and environmental conservation, especially, in tropical regions such as the Pacific, Africa and the Caribbean where the species is well adapted. The fruit has a high starch content and further information is needed on nutritional properties that influence its energy density which could have implications for how it is consumed especially considering the high incidence of diet related non-communicable diseases. This study evaluated dietary fibre; total, resistant and non-resistant starch contents; total and available carbohydrate contents; and energy density of flour from 21 Caribbean and Pacific breadfruit cultivars. There were significant differences (p<0.05) among cultivars for all parameters measured. Depending on cultivar, the values ranged from 6.7 to 13.73 g/100 g for dietary fibre exclusive of resistant starch, from 28.16 to 50.53 g/100 g for resistant starch, from 14.87 to 34.93 g/100 g for non-resistant starch, from 63.68 to 82.57 g/100 g for total starch, from 83.54 to 93.64 g/100 g for total carbohydrate and from 25.37 to 40.61g/100 g for available carbohydrate. Available carbohydrate content was approximately 36% of the total carbohydrate, indicating that although total carbohydrate content was high, most of it is not readily digested and absorbed in the small intestines. Based on low available carbohydrate content due to high dietary fibre content inclusive of resistant starch, the overall mean energy density was 158.14 ± 2.56 kcal/g and values ranged from 113.39 to 179.39 kcal/g, indicating that breadfruit flour can be classified as a low to medium energy density food depending on cultivar. These results showed the importance of screening to identify cultivars with unique nutritional properties related to resistant starch, dietary fibre and energy density. Additionally, the observed energy density values may support the promotion of breadfruit as a functional food with considerable potential for the dietary management of diet related non-communicable diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. 77

GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY 78

HOMELESSNESS IN PORT OF SPAIN: AN ANALYSIS OF SELF- ESTEEM AND SOCIAL SUPPORT IN RELATION TO PERCEPTIONS OF REINTEGRATION Leevun A. R. Solomon Department of Geography, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine There is a need for psychosocially-informed approaches to the pervasive social problem of homelessness in Trinidad and Tobago. However, such approaches must be preceded by an empirical analysis of the social and psychological aspects of local homelessness. As is widely noted, an extended period of homelessness is riddled with damaging stereotypes and stigmas that are proven to have negative effects on sense of self and societal expectations. In Trinidad and Tobago, and by extension the Caribbean, bourgeoning research on homelessness has largely focused on demographics, risky behaviours and healthcare needs, street-children, services and policies, and understanding individual and structural causes of homelessness. Although these research areas are important and necessary for the development of a scholarly understanding of homelessness in the region, the social and psychological experiences and implications of being homeless have been ignored. As such, in a two-fold approach, this study addresses that gap by: (1) examining homelessness as a determining factor of a person’s self-esteem and perception of social support and; (2) investigating the cascading influence of homelessness on their perceptions of reintegration. In so doing, this research provides an insight into the psychosocially-related influences of homelessness as it pertains to feelings about self, social environment, and a re-integrative outlook. To achieve this, the study employed a mixed methods approach that surveyed homeless people about their self-esteem and perceptions of social support (N=96). Additionally, a sub-sample of eighteen (18) people participated in in-depth interviews that explored their thoughts on reintegration. Recognizing the heterogeneity of urban spaces in relation to the lived experiences of homeless people, participants were recruited from three different sites: (i) open public spaces, (ii) a drop-in centre and, (iii) a live-in centre. The complexities of homelessness in the capital city emerged through the study’s findings, which included the impact of income earning strategies, and number of homeless episodes on self-esteem and perceptions of social support (p=0.05 statistical significance). Similarly, a thematic analysis of the narratives elicited from the in-depth interviews demonstrated differences in perceptions of reintegration according to factors such as the participant’s age, previous failed attempts at rehousing, and length of time homeless. By combining key quantitative and qualitative results, the study uses joint inferences to discuss demographics, chronic and episodic 79

homelessness, material survival strategies, and sources of emotional support. Ultimately, this research provides an empirical foundation to inform re- integrative and assistance strategies that consider the social and emotional well-being of homeless people in addition to their material needs. This study contributes to the geographical literature on urban homelessness by exploring the relationship between social psychology, time, and space. ON THE STREETS OF PORT OF SPAIN: THEORIZING THE SPATIAL-TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF STREET-DWELLERS Leevun A. R. Solomon and Priya Kissoon Department of Geography, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Street-dwelling is a common occurrence among the homeless population in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. For street-dwellers, the city is a place where they can fulfil their basic survival needs, but it can also be a place where they experience socio-spatial injustice. Previous studies have already concluded this type of homelessness as unhealthy, unsafe, and it usually follows an array of punitive responses aimed at restricting the presence of homeless people in open public spaces. The propensity for street-dwellers to congregate in specific spaces at specific times in the city raises questions about the determinants involved in their day-to-day spatial distribution. Among the growing and varied body of research in this area however, conclusions on the spatiality of street-dwellers in several world cities are usually based on a single point-in-time (PIT) survey. While these studies offer some understanding about their presence in a particular space and at a particular time, little attention has been paid to the temporality (or time-based changes in function) of different spaces within the city and its influence on the spatial distribution of street-dwellers. By choice, or out of necessity, street-dwellers move within, between, and through different spaces for numerous reasons — such movements can be seen as strategic responses to the (un)availability of survival resources in different spaces at different times of the day or week. Likewise, such movements depend on the presence (or absence) of manmade features (e.g., pavements, streetlights, benches, and parks) within the built environment and its capacity to accommodate their access to survival resources. In line with this premise, we examined the spatial-temporal presence of street-dwellers in the downtown area of Port of Spain. This was achieved by obtaining their Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates for nine (9) non-consecutive days in a single month. Additionally, their spatial distributions throughout the study site during this 80

period were analyzed and discussed in relation to field observations of street- dwellers’ interactions with existing features in the social and built environment. Coordinates were transferred electronically from the GPS handheld devices to the software, ArcGIS. Thereafter, geospatial shapefiles were created according to periods — that is, “Early Week” (Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday), “Late Week” (Thursday, Friday, and Saturday), and “Sundays” (×3). Kernel Density was used as the analysis tool to calculate and represent the magnitude per unit area geographically. Fig. 1 demonstrates the study’s temporal approach to a geospatial understanding of street- dwelling in an urban setting. Findings showed that among a sampled group of predominantly unaccompanied male street-dwellers, their spatial distribution varied according to the period of the week and is supported by the presence of various elements in the built and social environment. Furthermore, one way to conclude this type distribution is spatiality based on level of development where, in less developed areas in Downtown Port of Spain there is a denser presence of street-dwellers, while in more developed areas the opposite was discovered. These findings are used to advise on foreseeable socio-spatial conflicts, highlight possible vulnerable spaces, and to provide a characterization of survival spaces for street-dwellers. 81

TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES WITHIN PINUS CARIBAEA AND ADJACENT NATURAL SECONDARY FOREST ON STEEP SLOPES IN TRINIDAD Jesse R. Francis1, Kegan Farrick1 and Mark N. Wuddivira2 1Department of Geography, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Tropical forests have experienced rapid deforestation due to demand from agriculture, timber and urbanisation. The degradation of soil and water resources, along with the need for carbon sequestration, has produced various reforestation strategies. One strategy throughout the Caribbean is planting the resilient, fast growing exotic Caribbean Pine (Pinus caribaea). The lack of information on how Caribbean Pine alters hydrological processes and soil properties, is essential for long term land management. To quantify and characterise the hydrological dynamics of Caribbean Pine, we examined the rainfall interception and shallow soil water dynamics along a steeply sloped Pine and contiguous Natural Secondary forest in Trinidad. A total of 1208 mm of rainfall was recorded and preliminary data shows that canopy of the Pine forest intercept larger volumes of rainfall (31% annual rainfall), compared to natural forests (24%), despite having a less dense forest canopy. Furthermore, the Pine forest understory had a total cumulative rainfall interception of 701mm (58% annual rainfall). The infiltration rates were 2 and 22 times lower in the Pine than natural forest at the start and middle of the dry season respectively, while soil water repellency strongly repellent or greater in 18 of 20 sampling locations, suggesting that these non-native forests reduce water flow to deeper soil layers. These results suggest that Pine forests substantially reduce the amount of rainfall reaching the soil surface, while simultaneously enhancing surface flow, thereby reducing the overall water availability. The information gathered highlights the importance of suitable reforestation and management practices utilising exotic species. 82

SOIL ORGANIC CARBON VARIABILITY UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USES IN A TROPICAL ECOSYSTEMZ Melissa A. Atwell1 and Mark N. Wuddivira2 1Department of Geography, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Food Production, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Unregulated land use conversion influences carbon storage and sequestration and soil organic carbon (SOC) fluctuations. As one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change impact, the Caribbean small island ecosystems require the formulation of strong adaptation strategies to cope with the vagaries of climate change impact. Therefore, understanding soil carbon dynamics under land use change is critical. With increasing popularity of proximal soil sensing, relating obtained signals to soil property of interest, offers a time and cost efficient procedure for characterizing the property. Hence, inference of SOC in small island ecosystems, using electromagnetic induction (EMI) instrument response as influenced by land use change is of considerable interest. In this study, apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) measured by a DUALEM 1S-EMI sensor was used to spatially characterize SOC under different land uses. Spatial maps showed that EMI signals were suitable for distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic land uses, with anthropogenic land uses generally having higher and more variable ECa values (Quarry= 22.8-30.5 mS/m, Agriculture = 5.0-11.3 mS/m, Residential = 39.2-60.0 mS/m, Forest = 9.3-14.5 mS/m, Grass = 13.6-17.0 mS/m). Natural land uses were assessed to have better soil ecosystem health than anthropogenic land uses. Soil resilience is therefore a function of soil properties such as SOC which vary in response to land use. 83

MITIGATING N FERTILIZER ACIDIFYING EFFECTS THROUGH ORGANIC AMENDMENTS Gaius D. Eudoxie, Shaquille Stone and Hemant Ganesh Department of Food Production, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Soil acidity and acidification associated with the use of nitrogen (N) fertilizers presents a significant challenge for small scale crop cultivation under tropical climates. Inorganic liming materials have traditionally been used to ameliorate soil acidity, but availability and costs limit their use and compound the soil acidity problem. Organic amendments have been shown to possess some capabilities to neutralize soil acidity and raise soil pH. However, the nature and scope of the effects is mostly unknown in tropical soil with faster rates of organic matter degradation. The modifying effects of three readily available organic amendments (vermicompost, chicken and cow manure) on soil pH were investigated for three contrasting soils fertilized with (NH4)2SO4. Buffering ability of soils and amendments followed the sequences; Montserrat (M) > St. Augustine (STA) > Piarco (P) and Vermicompost (VC) > Cow Manure (CM) > Chicken Manure (PM) respectively. Addition of N fertilizer reduced the pH of all soils, whereas application of organic amendments resulted in increased pH values, except for Montserrat. The Montserrat soil series was least affected by N fertilizer based acidification. Vermicompost amendment increased soil pH above 6 for all soils and was superior at mitigating the decrease in pH associated with N fertilizer application. Chicken manure plus N fertilizer resulted in a significantly (P<0.05) lower soil pH for Bejucal, which corresponded with a significantly higher NH4+ content. Ammonium content was almost undetectable across all treatments for Montserrat soil, whilst this soil showed the greater content of NO3-. For both inorganic N species, higher values were associated with N fertilizer application. Application of vermicompost and chicken manure considerably increased soil EC (< 2 dS m-1) for Montserrat but not the other soils. Vermicompost proved to be a suitable amendment for mitigating against N fertilizer acidification, however, potential phytotoxicity is a concern. At current and probably elevated application rates, vermicompost can serve as an effective liming material where inorganic sources are limited or where there is a preference for solely organic inputs. 84

IDENTIFICATION OF RESISTANT CULTIVARS FOR SHEATH BLIGHT AND USE OF AMMI MODELS TO UNDERSTAND GENOTYPE AND ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS Rajendra Persaud1,2, Mahendra Persaud2 and Duraisamy Saravanakumar1 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Plant Pathology, Guyana Rice Development Board, Rice Research Station, Burma, Mahaicony, East Coast Demerara, Guyana One hundred and one rice germplasms were evaluated for their resistance against sheath blight disease under screenhouse and low land irrigated conditions at various locations in Guyana. The results showed that two genotypes FG12-56 and GR1631-35-16-1-2-1-1 were immune to resistant; five genotypes were highly resistant to resistant and seven genotypes observed with consistent resistant reactions. The genotypes GR 1568-31-9- 1-1-2-1 and Rustic expressed susceptible reactions in all experiments. Additive Main Effects and Multiplicative Interaction (AMMI) analysis was employed to study the genotype and environment interactions. The analysis revealed that 52.98% of the total sum of square (SS) was attributed to genotype (GEN) effect; 7.50% to environment (ENV) effect and 39.52% to genotype by environment (GxE) interaction effects. The GxE interaction was almost as large as GEN, thus indicating the differences of genotypes across the environment were sizeable. This revealed that resistance was slightly influenced by GxE interaction effects. The genotypes that showed stable resistance in all environments as identified by the AMMI analysis, could be used for breeding the sheath blight resistance. Source: An International Journal of Applied Plant Pathology- Plant Disease 103 (9) 85

PLANT EXTRACTS, BIOAGENTS AND NEW GENERATION FUNGICIDES IN MANAGEMENT OF RICE BLAST DISEASE IN GUYANA Rajendra Persaud1,2, Mahendra Persaud2, Duraisamy Saravanakumar1 and Govind Seepersad3 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Plant Pathology, Guyana Rice Development Board, Rice Research Station, Burma, Mahaicony, East Coast Demerara, Guyana 3Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Blast disease (Pyricularia oryzae Cav.) is one of the most devastating worldwide. It has been reported to destroy sufficient rice that can fulfill the dietary needs for over 60 million persons on an annual basis. The current research was carried out to test the bio-efficacy of botanicals, biocontrol agents and new generation fungicides for the management of rice blast disease in Guyana. Eleven aqueous plant extracts viz. Neem (Azadirachta indica); Tulsi (Ocimum basalicum); Lemon grass (Cymbopogan flexousus); Thick leaf thyme (Thymus vulgaris); Aloe (Aloe vera); Marigold (Tagetes patula); Black sage (Cordia curassavica); Bael (Aegle marmelos); Chives (Allium fistulosum); Clove (Syzygium aromaticum); Madar plant (Calotropis gigantean (C. procera)) were tested at 5, 10, 15% W/V in vitro against rice blast pathogen. The extracts of Tagetes patula; Cordia curassavica; Aegle marmelos; Allium fistulosum and Calotropis gigantean (C. procera)) significantly inhibited mycelial growth of blast fungus (P. oryzae) at 5, 10, 15, 10 and 5 percent concentration, respectively. Similarly, Bacillus cereus OG2L, B. subtilis OG2A and Azotobacter SAG19 were evaluated against P. oryzae under in vitro. All three strains inhibited the growth of P.oryzae while promoting the growth of rice. Five fungicides Antracol 70WP (Propineb) at 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 g/L, Nativo 75 WG (Trifloxystrobin+ Tebuconazole) at 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 g/L, Silvacur Combi 30 EC (Tebuconazol+Triadimenol) at 1.0, 2.5, 4.0 ml/L, Serenade 1.34 SC (Biological-Fungicide -Bacillus subtilis Strain QST 713) at 2.0, 4.0, 6.0 ml/L, Cyclops (Organic Fungicides -Cinnamon Oil 8%, Clove Oil 2%) at 0.75, 1.0, 1.25 ml/L along with standard practice, Fugione (Isoprothiolane) at 1.5 ml/L were evaluated for their efficacy against blast pathogen in vitro. All of the various fungicidal treatments, significantly inhibited blast pathogen. The botanicals, biocontrol and funigicides that exhibited superior performance in vitro were further evaluated against blast disease in field trials. Application of extracts of Cordia curassavica (10%); Aegle marmelos (15%) and Calotropis gigantean (C. procera)) (5%) and B.cereus and B.subtilis and fungicides Antracol 70WP (2.5 g/L) and Nativo 86

75WG (0.5 g/L) recorded low disease incidence compared to control. Each of these individual treatments also increased grain yield compared to control. Source: Submitted for Publication in “Archive of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 2019” DISTRIBUTION OF BEMISIA TABACI (HEMIPTERA:ALEYRODIDAE) BIOTYPES IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Kenia-Rosa Campo1, Duraisamy Saravankumar1, Wendy-Ann Isaac1, Judith Brown3, Jorge Paredes3, Ayub Khan2 and Richard A.I Brathwaite1 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of life sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine 3University of Arizona School of Plant Sciences, Tucson, Arizona Bemisia tabaci is a putative complex of at least 36 cryptic species. The Middle East-Asia Minor 1 species (MEAM1 formerly known as the B- biotype), has emerged in many tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world and is believed to have displaced the indigenous populations of B. tabaci. After the 1998 discovery of the Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) B biotype in Trinidad and Tobago. There was a vital need to determine the geographic and host distribution of B. tabaci and the native indigenous population of B. tabaci. An extensive survey of B. tabaci was conducted on the island of Trinidad and Tobago. The biotype status of submitted samples of B. tabaci was determined by polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I. Sixty samples were collected from weed species in rural parts of the island of Trinidad and Tobago during February 2016-August 2017. Based on analysis of the MtCOI gene the T biotype of Bemisa tabaci (Gennadius, 1889), a population found in two locations on the island Santa Cruz (100 7’19.540”/ - 610 4’53.678”) and Valencia (100 29’4.749”/ -610 5’17.34”) colonizing the plant species Leucaena glauca, Mormordica charantia, Solanum melongena and Amaranthus spinosus was molecularly characterized. To our knowledge this identification represents the first report of the T biotype Bemisia euphorbia on the island since its rapid displacement in the 1980s after the introduction of the B biotype. The data obtained further unifies our knowledge of the diversity and distribution of B. tabaci on the island of Trinidad and Tobago. 87

EVALUATION OF LETTUCE QUALITY RESULTING FROM DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Jessica Churaman, Kathiravan Gopalan, Wendy-Ann Isaac and Nkosi Felix Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies Achieving food and nutritional securities and reaching sustainable development goals are the priorities for the governments in CARICOM. Eliminating or minimizing the harmful effects of chemicals and pesticides during the process of ensuring food and nutritional securities are imperative to save the wellbeing of humans and environment. Currently, most marketed volumes of vegetables, especially lettuce are from conventional open field production systems which encountered many polluting factors. Modern Controlled Environment (CE) Agriculture which is an alternative solution might increase the cost of production. As the knowledge on the consumers’ acceptance and WTP for lettuce produced under CE would help in evaluating the sustainability of the system, a study was carried out to compare lettuce grown in three production systems, viz., (i) open field, (ii) greenhouse, and (iii) CE, and to elicit the consumers’ WTB and WTP for CE lettuce in Trinidad. A sample of 160 respondents recruited through two stage random sampling were interviewed for the WTP survey, while a panel of 103 individuals were used for sensory evaluation of lettuce varieties. Sensory evaluation was conducted with Eden lettuce variety grown under three production systems. The data collected were subjected to Kruskal-Wallis H test, Ordered Probit Regression, Binary Logit Regression and Tobit regression analysis. Sensory evaluation indicated that CE lettuce had the most favored texture, flavor and color. Lettuce grown in greenhouse ranked second to CE lettuce while open field lettuce was the least accepted. Among the attributes of lettuce, consumers ranked appearance as the most important, followed by price and taste. WTB and WTP for lettuce from CE were influenced by education, age, ethnicity, income, environmental damage and hazardness to human. The study concluded that the CE has positive influence on the sensory qualities of lettuce, which the consumers were willing to buy with a premium price. 88

CLIMATE CHANGE 89

MAKING IT DRIER: HOW PINUS CARIBAEA INFLUENCE THE HYDROLOGY IN FORESTED TROPICAL WATERSHEDS Jesse R. Francis1, Kegan Farrick1 and Mark N. Wuddivira2 1Department of Geography, Faculty of Food and Agriculture 2Department of Food Production, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine In the tropics, there have been rapid declines in the extent of natural forest cover due to the pressures from agriculture, timber and urbanisation. The degradation or removal of the primary forest has resulted in different management responses to limit further land degradation. One such method is planting exotic species such as Pinus caribaea due to their high level of resilience. In many temperate forests, it has often been observed that the introduction of non-native species substantially alters hydrological processes including rainfall interception, infiltration, runoff and evaporation. While well recognised in temperate climates, such work is poorly described in the tropics and given the expected changes in climate forecasted for the region, the need for improved understanding of the hydrology in these forests are essential. A hydrological investigation on the impact of Pinus caribaea on water fluxes along steep slopes in Trinidad began in January 2018. Rainfall, throughfall, stemflow, litter interception was monitored weekly while changes in soil properties were assessed seasonally. Preliminary data shows that the pine forests intercept larger volumes of rainfall compared to natural forests despite having a less dense forest canopy. The infiltration rates and soil water repellency in the pine forests suggest that these nonnative forests reduce water flow to deeper soil layers. Source: The Caribbean Academy of Sciences - 21st General Meeting and Conference (CAS-2018), 27th – 30th November 2018. Kingston, Jamaica. 90

AGGREGATE STABILITY AND MOISTURE DYNAMICS OF HUMID TROPICAL SOILS UNDER AMMONIUM CHLORIDE AMENDMENT Mark N. Wuddivira1, De Shorn E. Bramble1, Micah Alexander1, Gregory A. Gouveia1, Ronen C.A. Francis1, and Kegan K. Farrick2 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Geography, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Soil aggregate stability and soil moisture are important components of soil natural capital required for soil functioning and provisioning of ecosystem services. Fertilization has the potential of altering soil properties, hence affecting the soil aggregate stability and moisture dynamics in soils. Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is a commonly used fertilizer directly applied to soils of the humid tropics to supply nitrogen (N) to growing crops. We hypothesized that the stability of soil aggregates is increased by NH4Cl since N addition can increase organic matter (OM) decomposition and the generation of hydrophobic compounds, which in turn decreases the slaking sensitivity of soil aggregates. We investigated the change in aggregate stability, repellency and water content in a Typic Fragiaquults (Arena loamy sand), Mollic Fluvaquents (Nariva clay), Typic Kanhaplaquults (Piarco loam), Aquentic Eutrudepts (Princess Town clay) and Aquertic Eutrudepts (Talparo clay) amended with three concentrations of NH4Cl, ammonium-N (0%, 0.005% and 0.025%) incubated for 2 wetting cycles, each of 8 days. Aggregate stability was tested using a single sieve apparatus after rapid wetting at the end of each wetting cycle. Water repellency (water drop test method) and water content (gravimetric method) were tested after every two days of incubation. Results revealed a general increase in aggregate stability, although not significant in all soils with increased ammonium-N concentration. Water repellency increased with incubation time when the soil was allowed to dry in all soils with ammonium-N concentration of 0.025% generally giving the highest repellency. This effect was most pronounced in the Nariva soil and could be linked to an N-induced increase in microbial activity and concomitant release of humic substances. Irrespective of NH4Cl addition, however, the strongest repellency was developed in the Nariva soil, which had an organic matter content that was ~ 3 to 20 times greater than the other soils. Our results, therefore, suggest that in these predominantly medium to heavy textured soils, OM rather than clay content or fertilization control the hydrophobicity of the aggregates. Further research is ongoing to 91

unravel the interactive effects of NH4Cl amendment with OM on the dynamic changes on important soil properties. Source: Soil Physics and Hydrology General Oral. Embracing the Digital Environment, 2019 ASA-CSSA-SSSA International Annual Meeting | Nov. 10-13 | San Antonio, Texas. 92

LOOKING BEYOND TAP WATER: MEASURING COMMUNITY LEVEL VULNERABILITY IN SIDS - THE CASE OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Afiya Shalla De Sormeaux and Sharon Hutchinson Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Livelihoods rely on the availability of natural resources, such as water, whose availability can be impacted by climate change. Data collection is usually poor in SIDS, so the main objectives of this chapter were to calculate the level of vulnerability and identify the key factors which influence household, community and watershed livelihood vulnerability based on actual, as well as perceived resource availability. This chapter constructed a framework and calculated a livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) for three communities in the Nariva watershed, Trinidad and Tobago. This framework consisted of six capitals or key components of livelihoods - (1) environmental, (2) physical, (3) social, (4) human, (5) economic and (6) natural disasters and climate variability. This was done using survey data from 343 households in 2014 together with a focus group discussion. The paper also identified areas which require targeted intervention and recommended measures to reduce community and watershed vulnerability. This research adds to the body of work on LVIs in several ways. Firstly, it used the framework by Hahn, Riederer, and Foster (2009), but modified some key elements, such as incorporating households’ perception of changes in their environment as it relates to water quality and quantity, biodiversity and climate change. This is an important addition of local knowledge which fills a gap, as in many SIDS such as this one, where data collection on physical resources is extremely scarce. Secondly, this paper looked more in-depth at social assets as sources of capital. This is particularly important as social networks are increasingly being viewed as a way to improve welfare. The results indicated that the Nariva watershed had a medium level of vulnerability (LVI = 0.460 out of 1), which was mainly attributed to a medium-high level of environmental vulnerability (Vulnerability Index (VI) = 0.630) and a medium level of Social capital (VI = 0.556). Specifically, limited quantities of agricultural resources, limited agricultural diversity and a strong perception of deteriorating water quality and quantity were the main contributors to the vulnerability of the communities. These factors were coupled with inadequate participation in community groups and a weak disaster recovery system. Residents noted that while there have been improvements in the water supply, specifically to residents along the main road in Plum Mitan, those located in secondary streets still relied on water trucks and community tanks. Policy-makers and community leaders can use the measure to identify specific areas which 93

require intervention for vulnerability reduction. These areas therefore reflect the key areas that policy makers should focus on for vulnerability reduction. Based on the findings in this study, multiple policy recommendations can be made to minimise the vulnerability of Nariva residents to both climate and non-climate related shocks. Two of these are highlighted here. Since climate change is expected to result in significant decline in rainfall in Trinidad and Tobago, less water may be available for municipal water distribution and from rainwater harvesting. While these climate projections are national in scope, if the anticipated climate change also occurs in the Nariva watershed this means that there may need to be more variety or newer water conservation activities in homes and for all activities. A key dilemma is that the watershed includes an environmentally sensitive area, so there is a need to have carrying capacity limits in terms of the population size, while at the same time reducing the vulnerability of households. While many residents focus on tap water access, many in the community have not directly linked declines in surface flows to climate change. Regional and community planning should therefore focus on long-term potential changes in rainfall within the context of an Integrated Watershed Management Plan for this watershed to ensure that sufficient water remains available for crop irrigation and other uses. This analysis was done since the region-wide approaches to governance and managing assets that are the foundation for appropriate livelihood strategies, often hide the community-level disparities which exist. This enhanced LVI can highlight specific community-level and household strengths and weaknesses, which can then provide a platform for more tailored decision-making. For Nariva, reduced water quantity and quality in surrounding waterways and poor agricultural assets contributed most to relatively weak environmental assets, which was the main component of vulnerability, by score. This was followed by poor social cohesion and network support in these communities as contributors. Development action should focus on building resilience at the community level, in terms of strengthening religious and other community groups, enhancing disaster response systems and providing an Integrated Watershed Management Plan. 94

FACTORS AFFECTING CO2 EMISSIONS FROM AGLIME- TREATED ACID SOILS De Shorn E. Bramble1, Gregory A. Gouveia1, Ravindra Ramnarine1, and Richard E. Farrell2 1Department of Food Production, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Soil Science, University of Saskatchewan Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important greenhouse gas contributing to global warming and climate change, of which soils may serve as a significant source if not managed properly. Liming is a long-standing management practice that aims to improve the productivity of acid soils by raising their pH. However, this practice may drive the production of CO2 when agricultural lime (aglime)—the most popular liming agent—is applied. Since acid soils occupy ~30% of the world’s arable land, even small changes in the carbon (C) dynamics from these soils following the addition of aglime could significantly impact global atmospheric CO2 fluxes. Despite this, the factors regulating aglime-induced CO2 emissions from these soils have not been widely investigated, which limits our ability to accurately estimate the global warming effect (GWE) associated with the usage of aglime. The current research therefore assessed the effects of intrinsic soil factors and soil management factors—particularly the addition of organic residues and ammonium fertiliser—on the magnitude of aglime-induced CO2 emissions from agriculturally important Trinidad acid soils. This aim was systematically addressed by conducting a series of short to medium term studies that utilised either alkali trap or gas chromatography techniques to quantify CO2 emissions. Carbon-13 enriched aglime was also utilised to trace aglime-derived CO2 emissions from these soils. Results showed that aglime- CO2 emissions were affected by the addition of organic residues, with the effect being more pronounced in the low buffering soil. These effects were mediated by the organic residue-induced changes in pH rather than organic residue-induced changes in C mineralisation. Unlike organic residues, ammonium had no significant effect on aglime-CO2 emissions. Both organic residues and ammonium, however, regulated the impact of aglime on C mineralisation, particularly in the coarse textured, low C soil. Overall, the results of this research will help to more robustly estimate the GWE that is associated with aglime use. 95

EFFECT OF ACID FUMIGATION OF POULTRY LITTER ON AGLIME-CO2 EMISSIONS De Shorn Bramble, Venercia Herelle, Gregory Gouveia, Ravindra Ramnarine, and Bryan A.M. Smith Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Agricultural lime (aglime), commonly applied to ameliorate soil acidity, may serve as a direct source of CO2 emissions upon dissolution, thereby contributing to global warming and climate change. Poultry litter, an organic soil fertility amendment was recently found to reduce the magnitude of these emissions when applied in combination with aglime. However, the mechanism (s) underlying this effect remains elusive, although the carbonates present in the litter was suggested to play a role. Since large acreages of arable land are limed annually, an improved mechanistic understanding of the key processes controlling the dynamics of aglime-C in acid soils is paramount to understanding carbon-climate feedbacks on a global scale. This study therefore compared the effects of aglime rates and acid fumigation (with 10.5 M HCl to remove carbonates) of poultry litter (P) treatments in a 2 × 7 completely randomised factorial design with three replicates on an acid loam. The two aglime rates (L0 and L1) corresponded to 0 and 4 Mg CaCO3 ha-1 respectively. Organic amendments were applied at a rate of 3.88 Mg of organic carbon (C) ha-1 in the form of non-fumigated poultry litter (P1), fumigated poultry litter (P2) and fumigated washed poultry litter (P3). The other four P treatments included a compost tea-spiked fumigated poultry litter (P4), compost tea-spiked fumigated washed poultry litter (P5), compost tea (P6), and a no-organic amendment control (P0). All 42 experimental units were adjusted to 100% water holding capacity (WHC) and incubated in 500- mL glass jars for 14 days. Results showed that there was a significant (p < 0.05) interactive effect of aglime and P treatments on cumulative CO2 emissions, where the magnitude of increase in these emissions with aglime addition varied significantly across the P treatments from 27.9% in PL1 to 193% in PL5. The apparent CO2-C derived from aglime (ACCDFL) at the end of the experiment also varied significantly (p < 0.05) across the P treatments, ranging from 57.7 to 180% following the order P5L1 = P6L1 = P4L1 > P3L1= P2L1 = P0L1 > P1L1. These results suggest that the carbonates in the poultry litter mediated the impact of this amendment on aglime-CO2 emissions. 96