A History of Architectural Conservation-ประวัติศาสตร์และการอนุรักษ์สถาปัตยกรรม

236 A History of Architectural Conservation construction, a part of another work of art; in clear criteria for the reintegration of losses such a case, the unity of this second construc- (lacunae). Further application of these criteria tion should be duly respected. For example, on historic buildings and ruined structures has rebuilding a mediaeval mullioned window also been reflected, particularly, by Paul Phili- within a classical elevation can hardly be justi- ppot in his lectures and papers at ICCROM fied. (A typical tendency in many European (Philippot, 1976). Brandi himself formulated countries.) three principles (Brandi, 1963:45f): Brandi maintained that the material in 1. Any reintegration should be easily recog- relation to the aesthetic aspect of a work of nizable at close distance but, at the same art could be understood as having two time, it should not offend the unity that is functions: one related to providing the ‘struc- being restored. ture’ (struttura), the other concerning the ‘aspect’ (aspetto) of the object. Considering the 2. The part of material that directly results in artistic importance of such objects, priority the images is irreplaceable so far as it should generally be given to what is most forms the aspect and not the structure. important artistically. If, for purposes of safeguarding, it should be necessary to make 3. Any restoration should be so made that it an intervention, such as consolidation or will not be an obstacle for necessary future reinforcement, this should be limited to the interventions; indeed, these should be facil- part of material that forms the structure rather itated. than interfering in the aspect. For example, when structural consolidation is carried out in Referring to restoration in the past, Brandi historic buildings the purpose is to maintain quotes the rebuilding of the Pantheon by the architectural aspect of the building. On the Hadrian as an example not for restoration but other hand, Brandi’s distinction should not be of re-establashing the idea of the monument. understood in the sense that the structure The principles guiding the action of ‘re- would have no significance. Particularly when completing’ ancient statues in the Renaissance dealing with historic buildings, the original (e.g., Apollo of Belvedere, Laocoön) were structural system should be considered as an based fundamentally on the idea of beauty in essential element contributing to the signifi- harmony with the Platonic philosophy; the cance of the building. In some cases, the struc- restorers spiritually linked the statues with ture can even be more important than the their own time, ‘in a historical presence’ – as appearance, and it often contains archaeolog- if translating them into a new language. This ically essential information. Façadism certainly corresponds to Brandi’s interpretation of the is not the purpose in safeguarding historic Renaissance not as the rebirth of antiquity but buildings. as a new style utilizing past elements and concepts as part of a new creative context. For Concerning the aesthetic aspect of a work Thorwaldsen, instead, classical antiquity was of art, be it a historic building or even a perfect and remote, and the ‘re-completion’ of partially ruined ancient monument, any re- the arms and legs of the Aeginetan statues was integration can be referred to the experience based on an erroneous assessment of estab- gathered in the Gestalt-psychology in assess- lished canons; he thus reproduced the lost ing the visual weight of different types of parts as if in an artificial language of the reintegrations in relation to the existing origi- nineteenth-century neo-classicism. According nal surfaces; new, sharp-edged, bright to Brandi, nineteenth-century revivals mostly additions can easily detract attention from the tried to copy old schemes without really creat- old, patinated originals. Considering that the ing a new architectural language. purpose of restoration is to conserve and not to renovate an historic monument, it is neces- From the historical point of view, however, sary to adjust modern reintegration to histor- additions can be seen as a new phase of ical parts rather than the other way round. history, and, especially in architecture, this can Under the direction of Brandi, methods were relate to development and the introduction of developed for the application of the theory in new functions. Additions can thus be legiti- the practice of painting restoration, including mate, and, in principle, should be conserved. Generally, it is necessary always to respect the

Theories and concepts 237 new unity that has been reached through preparation of a new guideline for the Italian creative interventions – especially as these government administrators, the Carta del represent history. Any removal should be Restauro of 1972. The goal of this charter was correctly justified, and a trace should be left to group together the different types of herit- on the monument itself. Otherwise, destruction age resources (antiquities, architecture, paint- would easily result in the abolition and falsi- ings, sculptures, ‘historic centres’), and to fication of history. Concerning reconstruction, propose the principles of the same type of the situation is different so far as it tends to methodical approach to each (Monti, 1995: interfere in the creative process and abolish 156FF). time between coming into being and the moment of restoration. Brandi disagreed with 8.6 The impact of Brandi’s thinking the reconstruction of the Campanile of San Marco, because what was required was only a The theory of Brandi has not lacked critics: its vertical element, not a full reconstruction. focus on aesthetic values has created difficul- ties in applications on products with little or Copies, replicas or reproductions can be no aesthetic significance, or, similarly, compar- conceived for the purposes of documentation, ing the requirements of the Italian artistic and they are conceivable so far as the process heritage with what is required in other parts does not damage the original, e.g., when of the world (Iamandi, 1993; Scarrocchia, 1995: making casts. Although a copy or a fake can 91). The theory has been accused of placing be produced using similar methods, a fake major attention on the conservation of the results from the intention to falsify. This can ‘image’ rather than taking into account the be done either by pretending to pass a replica whole structure, in particular concerning archi- for an original, or by producing an object in tecture. The theory has been often interpreted the style of a past period and offering it to the as a theory of painting conservation. Many of market as an original of that period (Brandi, the questions can, however, find an answer in 1992b:368; see also Jones, 1990). Misconceived the texts of Brandi himself, as has been shown ‘restoration’ can also falsify the artistic concept by Carbonara, who maintains that Brandi, of a work by misinterpreting its proportions, instead of contradicting the principles of surface treatments, or materials – a risk often restauro critico, has actually introduced them met on archaeological sites in particular. into a more general framework (Carbonara, 1976:46; see also Carboni, 1992). Moreover, In his theory, Brandi has summarized the Paul Philippot has given particular attention to essential concepts of conservation in relation the interpretation of Brandi’s theories in to works of art, including architecture; he has relation to specific practical situations, espe- emphasized their specificity and the role of cially paintings, sculpture and architecture historical critical definition as a basis for any (e.g., Philippot, 1976, 1989a, 1990). intervention, and he has underlined the im- portance of the conservation of historical and Three of the first directors of ICCROM have artistic authenticity. The theory illustrates the published major handbooks on various aspects critical process that is required any time of the conservation of cultural heritage; all of modern restoration is contemplated, and it them have become classics in their fields. The forms a sort of grammar, the use of which first of these, by Dr Harold James Plender- requires mature historical consciousness. The leith (1898–1997), Director Emeritus of theory of Brandi can be seen as a paradigm ICCROM, was The Conservation of Antiquities recognized at an international level in the and Works of Art (2nd edn with A. E. A. development of conservation policies. It has Werner, 1971), concerning especially materials been the basic guideline in training pro- sciences. The second was on the conservation grammes in many schools of specialization, of mural paintings, written by Professor Paul including the international courses of ICCROM, Philippot, Director Emeritus of ICCROM and in Rome and the different countries of the Professor Emeritus of Université Libre of world. It has been a reference when writing Brussels, jointly with Professor Paolo Mora the Venice Charter, and in the development of (1921–1998) and Mrs Laura Sbordoni-Mora, other conservation policy statements and guidelines. Brandi himself was involved in the

238 A History of Architectural Conservation the Chief Restorers of the Istituto Centrale del Figure 8.17 Pompeian wall painting with complex Restauro in Rome (Mora et al., 1977). The third spatial constructions. The inner spatiality of such was written by Sir Bernard Feilden on the decoration can have an important relationship with the conservation of historic buildings (Feilden, architectural space 1982). Of particular interest in connection with Brandi’s theory is the book by Mora et al., as colour and the arrangement of lighting. In the underlying concepts were developed and restoration, it is essential to take into account tested in direct contact with Brandi himself as the complexity of the issues, which also the director of ICR, resulting from a report by emphasize the requirement to conserve mural the ICOM International Conservation Com- paintings in situ rather than detaching and mittee (1959). In the preparation of the study presenting in a museum; which can only be a number of experts were consulted in differ- justified in exceptional circumstances. ent countries in order to verify the relevance of the methods proposed.33 The concepts and From the organizational and technical points methodology developed by Mora et al. have of view, it is necessary to prepare appropriate also been applied in a publication edited by inventories, recording and documentation Marie Cl. Berducou on the conservation of systems before, during and after the operation, archaeological sites and finds in various to organize a system of monitoring and regular materials (Berducou, 1990). maintenance, and to train the professional teams responsible for restoration. Furthermore, The study of Mora, Sbordoni-Mora and it is essential to have a good knowledge and Philippot starts with the statement that conser- specific understanding of the materials, tech- vation-restoration, before being a technical niques used, the condition and the causes of operation on the material of the object, is alteration of the mural paintings in question. based on ‘a critical judgement aiming at the Such surveys and analyses need to be identification of the object in its specific extended to the architecture and the environ- characteristics, the definition and illustration of the particular values or the significance that distinguish it and justify its safeguarding. The purpose is also to determine the aim and the scope of required technical operations’ (1977:1). The structure of the study itself is so arranged that the critical basis for judgement always precedes and provides the context for the clarification of relevant technical issues. In contrast with the nineteenth-century positivis- tic attitude tending to classify and separate arts according to techniques of production, mural paintings are here conceived strictly in an organic relation to the whole of the architec- tural context, as part of a Gesamtkunstwerk. This is essential from the iconographic point of view: through the image, the figurativeness qualifies the architectural space and visualizes the significance and liturgical essence of the monument. Formally, mural paintings partici- pate in the articulation of the pictorial, sculp- tural and architectural spatiality. Each element has its specific role in this complex, and the painting has the particular capacity to simulate or to add (e.g., trompe-l’oeil) to the sculptural and architectural effects and dimensions. Architecture, on the other hand, conditions the mural paintings through the quality of space,

Theories and concepts 239 ment of which the paintings are part, and Figure 8.18 Reintegration of old, weathered and treatments need to be calibrated so that no consumed surfaces demands sensitivity so as not to harm is caused, but rather a basis is estab- emphasize the visibility of new parts at the cost of lished for optimal presentation and long-term reducing the originals. An example of reintegration in conservation. The particular problems that the brick wall of the Pantheon, Rome need to be taken into account, e.g., in relation to fixatives, include their gluing and penetra- ment with reference to a critical intuition of tion capacity, flexibility, optical properties, the expected result. Cleaning is closely related biological resistance, resistance to atmospheric with the treatment of lacunae, the losses of agents and the reversibility. material forming the image (see also Philippot, 1975). In the past, such losses were often The specific theoretical questions are related reintegrated by a method of ‘retouche’ paint- to the presentation of mural paintings, the ing, which could even extend over the origi- problems of cleaning, treatment of lacunae, nal. Such treatment is part of artisanal lighting and the eventual removal from the tradition, but cannot be conceived within original site. As all works of art, mural paint- modern restoration, which instead requires a ings have a double historical character, the critical-historical interpretation of the work in first owing to their having been accomplished respect to authenticity. On the other hand, in a particular historic moment, and the Mora, Sbordoni-Mora and Philippot do not second a result of the time that has passed share the rigidly archaeological attitude of since. Some of the transformations caused over ‘pure conservation’ regarding the mutilated time may be worth conserving due to their state of a work of art, a refusal to consider the aesthetic or historic value; others may have negative impact that the lacunae can give to hidden, distorted or mutilated the image. the appreciation of a work of art. Even this is Mora, Sbordoni-Mora and Philippot remind us a form of presentation, but it completely that cleaning and removing substances that were not part of the original work does not return or re-establish the original condition; the operation simply allows to reveal the present state of the original materials (1977:325). In an international conference in Williamsburg in 1972, Philippot has further emphasized that: ‘it is an illusion to believe that an object can be brought back to its origi- nal state by stripping it of all later additions. The original state is a mythical, unhistorical idea, apt to sacrifice works of art to an abstract concept and present them in a state that never existed’ (Philippot, 1976:372). The formation of patina, sometimes called ‘noble patina’, is part of the normal ageing process of materials, and it should not be confused with the dirt. The treatment of such patina is not so much a problem of chemistry, but one of critical judgement. In fact, the problem in cleaning is a question of degree, and the aim should be that of ‘finding a balance in relation to the whole which, taking into account the present state of the materials, can re-establish as faith- fully as possible the original unity of the image that the materials have transmitted through time’ (Mora et al., 1977:327). Cleaning needs to be gradual and system- atic, based on a progression and critical judge-

240 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 8.19 Detail of restoration work on the Athens especially in the period following the Second Acropolis in 1984; new marble has been carefully World War, when a large number of works of carved to fit the old form. At the same time, new parts art, including paintings, needed to be safe- are identified so as not to mislead the observer at close guarded and restored. The lacunae are identi- distance fied according to their nature, the depth, position and extent. The smallest problem is ignores the aesthetic instance of the work of the reconstitution of continuity in small areas art, its principal raison-d’être (1977:348). where patina or a part of the paint layer are Instead, they refer to the discoveries of Brandi worn using water-colour to give correct tonal- and the Gestalt-psychology in how the ity. When the lacuna is more substantial but lacunae tend to ‘produce figure’ over the artis- not excessive, nor the position too critical, tic ensemble, and therefore to interrupt the there is the possibility for reintegration, for continuity of form. The real critical problem in example, using the technique of tratteggio, the presentation of a painting is the need ‘to small vertical lines to gradually provide the reduce this nuisance in order to provide the lost continuity in the image. The colours and image the maximum presence that it is still tonalities should correspond to the original, as likely to realize, in full respect of its creative seen from a normal distance; the necessary and documentary authenticity’ (Mora et al., distinction is provided by effect of tratteggio, 1977:349). seen at close distance. When the potential unity has been lost, or the losses are too There can be many ways of doing this, and extensive to justify reintegration, or too criti- obviously the problems related to painted cal for the quality of the image to allow such surfaces differ from buildings, architectural treatment, it is preferable to leave them as remains, pottery or textiles. The basic prin- lacunae; the treatment should be such as to ciples are however the same. This question give minimum disturbance to the original was faced by ICR in a systematic manner, image retained in existing fragments. When dealing with mural paintings, the critical judge- ment for reintegration should be made with reference to the architectural whole of which the paintings are part, which is different compared to dealing with a painting alone.34 The above example of the conservation and restoration of mural paintings gives an idea about the use of the methodology based on the theory of Brandi. There is abundant liter- ature about other applications. Furthermore, many of the issues related to architectural conservation and restoration should be seen in a more general environmental context, i.e., the conservation of historic towns and villages, or the conservation management of archaeologi- cal sites and cultural landscapes. These issues had been given special attention in the 1970s and 1980s, when, due to rapid development and consequent destruction of historic fabric and environment, there was a growing ecolog- ical awareness in favour of conservation of existing resources, an emphasis on sustainable development, and an increased international collaboration, research and training of spe- cialists. Some of the outcome of this development is summarized by Sir Bernard M. Feilden in

Theories and concepts 241 his Conservation of Historic Buildings, pub- that the practical alternative lines of action be lished in 1982. Feilden writes out of personal determined before testing them critically in the experience in extensive practice in Great light of ‘theory’ [meaning here ‘hypothesis’] in Britain, having been surveyor of major cathe- order to find the ‘least bad’ solution. This drals, York, Norwich, St Paul’s, as well as procedure enables realistic decisions to be responsible for the conservation and rehabili- made. Conservation of historic buildings thus tation of a large number of historic buildings ‘constitutes an inter-professional discipline co- and historic areas, working, e.g., in Norwich ordinating a range of aesthetic, historic, scien- and Chesterfield. As Director of ICCROM, he tific and technical methods. Conservation is a tested this experience in the international rapidly developing field, which, by its very context, in Italy, the Middle East and Asian nature, is a multidisciplinary activity with countries. In the preface to his book, Feilden experts respecting one another’s contribution emphasizes that conservation of historic build- and combining to form an effective team’ ings instances ‘wise management of resources, (Feilden, 1982:22). This, in a nutshell, can be sound judgement and a clear sense of propor- understood as the modern approach to the tion’ (Feilden, 1982:v). In the introduction, he conservation of historic buildings – with provides a panorama extending from the respect to the enormous complexity of the definition of a historic building, and causes of task, and considering not only the variety of decay to what is conservation; the meaning of heritage and cultures concerned, but also the the latter is defined as follows: issues related to traditional and modern societies. Conservation is the action taken to prevent decay. It embraces all acts that prolong the life of our Notes cultural and natural heritage, the object being to present to those who use and look at historic 1 ‘Die Beseitigunt des an sich Seienden, das buildings with wonder the artistic and human Töten des Gottes, vollzieht sich in der messages that such buildings possess. The Bestandsicherung, durch die sich der minimum effective action is always the best; if Mensch die stofflichen, leiblichen, seelis- possible, the action should be reversible and not chen und geistigen Bestände sichert, dies prejudice possible future interventions. The basis aber um seiner eigenen Sicherheit willen, of historic building conservation is established by die die Herrschaft über das Seiende als das legislation through listing and scheduling build- mögliche Gegenständliche will, um dem ings and ruins, through regular inspections and Sein des Seienden, dem Willen zur Macht documentation, and through town planning and zu entsprechen. Sichern als Beschaffen von conservative action. (Feilden, 1982:3) Sicherheit gründet in der Wertsetzung. Das Wertsetzen hat alles an sich Seiende unter Feilden’s book does not attempt to present a sich und damit als für sich Seiendes theory of conservation; it is a practical manual umgebracht, getötet’ (Heidegger, 1980b: and a handbook for architects, surveyors and 257). builders. Nevertheless, it provides a useful reference to the extent that conservation/ 2 It is interesting to compare the thinking of restoration theories evolved in the post-war Nietzsche with the conception of the period. The major emphasis lies in the techni- French philosopher Henri Bergson, who cal issues, the structural aspects of historic defied Darwin’s theory with the notion of buildings, causes of decay in materials and ‘élan vital’, the ‘vital impetus’, that drives structure, and the work of the conservation life to overcome the downward entropic architect, techniques of survey and repair. At drift of matter (Bergson, 1994; first pub- the same time, the book takes into account, lished in 1941). in a systematic and practical manner, issues that reflect also the critical approach and 3 ‘Werksein heisst: eine Welt aufstellen’ methodologies illustrated by Brandi and by the (Heidegger, 1980a:31). example of the conservation of mural paint- ings referred to above. Feilden recommends 4 ‘Die Einrichtung der Wahrheit ins Werk ist das Hervorbringen eines solchen Seienden, das vordem noch nicht war und nachmals

242 A History of Architectural Conservation nie mehr werden wird’ (Heidegger, 1980a: 9 ‘In beiden Fällen – den gewollten wie den 48). ungewollten Denkmalen – handelt es sich 5 Mittheilungen der Kaisel. Königl. Central- um einen Erinnerungswert, und deshalb Commission zur Erforschung und Erhalt- sprechen wir ja auch da wie dort von ung der Baudenkmale, Herausgegeben “Denkmalen”; in beiden Fällen interessiert unter der Leitung des k.k. Sections-Chefs uns ferner das Werk in seiner und Präses der k.k. Central-Commission ursprünglichen unverstümmelten Gestalt, in Karl Friedrich von Czoernig, Redacteur Karl der es aus der Han seiner Urheber Weiss, I Band Jahrgang 1856, Wien 1856. hervorgegangen ist, und in der wir es zu 6 ‘Unter Denkmal im ältesten und schauen oder doch in Gedanken, in Wort urprünglichsten Sinne versteht man ein oder Bild wiederherzustellen trachten; aber Werk von Menschenhand, errichtet zu dem im ersteren Falle wird uns der Erin- bestimmten Zwecke um einzelne mensch- nerungswert von anderen (den einstigen liche Taten oder Geschicke (oder Kom- Urhebern) oktroyiert, im letzteren wird er plexe mehrerer Solchen) im Bewustsein durch uns selbst bestimmt’ (Riegl, 1903:6f). der nachlebenden Generationen stets gegenwärtig und lebendig zu erhalten’ 10 ‘Wir sind also noch nicht so weit, den (Riegl in Bacher, 1995:55). Giovanni reinen Maßstab des Alterswertes in Carbonara, while recognizing the distinc- vollkommen gleicher Weise an alle tion by Riegl, notes that etymologically Denkmale ohne Wahl anzulegen, sondern ‘monument’ means document, admonish- wir unterscheiden noch immer, ähnlich wie ment, testimony. It does not only relate to zwischen älteren und jüngeren, auch mehr ‘intentional monuments’, but to other types oder minder genau zwischen gebrauchs- of ‘documents’ or objects as well. fähigen und gebrauchsunfähigen Werken, Therefore, it is justified to refer ‘monument’ und berücksichtigen somit wie im ersteren to an ancient fragment or tool, and even Falle den historischen, so im letzteren den an entire historic town with its public Gebrauchswert mit und neben dem monuments and its humble residential Alterswert’ (Riegl, 1903:43). quarters (Carbonara, 1997:12). 7 ‘Der historische Wert der unlösbar am 11 ‘Man kann füglich sagen, daß auf den Einzelnen klebte, mußte sich allmählich zu Postulaten der Stilursprünglichkeit (his- einem Entwicklungswerte umgestalten, torischer Wert) und Stileinheit (Neuheits- dem das Einzelne als Objekt gleichgültig wert) die Denkmalbehandlung des XIX.Jh. wurde. Dieser Entwicklungswert ist eben ganz wesentlich beruht hat’ (Riegl, 1903 der Alterswert, den wir vorhin kennen :52). gelernt haben: er ist sonach das fol- gerichtige Produkt des ihm in der 12 ‘Die letzte Konsequenz dieser Theorie wäre Ausbildung vier Jahrhunderte vorangegan- die Selbstaufhebung der Denkmalpflege’ genen historischen Wertes’ (Riegl, 1903:16). (Huse, 1984:128). 8 ‘Nach der gemein üblichen Definition ist Kunstwerk jedes tast- und sichtbare oder 13 ‘Wir konservieren ein Denkmal nicht, weil hörbare Menschenwerk, das einen künst- wir es für schön halten, sondern weil es lerischen Wert aufweist, historisches ein Stück unseres nationalen Daseins ist. Denkmal jedes ebensolche Werk, das Denkmäler schützen heißt nicht Genuß historischen Wert besitzt . . . Historisch suchen, sondern Pietät üben. Ästhetische nennen wir alles, was einmal gewesen ist und selbst kunsthistorische Urteile und heute nicht mehr ist; nach modernsten schwanken, hier ist ein unveränderliches Begriffen verbinden wir damit noch die Wertkennzeichen gefunden’ (Dehio, 1905). weitere Anschauung, daß das einmal Gewesene nie wieder sein kann und jedes 14 ‘Diese Fassung dünkt uns, um es gleich zu einmal Gewesene das unersetzliche und sagen, eine zu enge; Dehio steht damit offen- unverrückbare Glied einer Entwicklungs- bar doch noch unter der Nachwirkung des kette bildet’ (Riegl, 1903:2). Bannes der Anschauung des XIX.Jh., welche die Bedeutung des Denkmals wesentlich im “historischen” Momente gesucht hatte’ (Riegl, 1905b, in Huse, 1984:147). 15 ‘Die Denkmale entzücken uns hienach als Zeugnisse dafür, daß der große Zusam-

Theories and concepts 243 menhang, von dem wir selbst einen Teil concordemente considerato come attività bilden, schon lange vor uns gelebt und rigorosamente scientifica e precisamente geschaffen hat’ (Riegl, 1905b, in Huse, come indagine filologica diretta a ritrovare 1984:147). e rimettere in evidenza il testo originale 16 ‘Nur auf dem Vorhandensein und der allge- dell’opera, eliminando alterazioni e sovrap- meinen Verbreitung eines Gefühls, das, posizioni di ogni genere fino a consentire verwandt dem religiösen Gefühle, von jeder di quel testo una lettura chiara e storica- ästhetischen oder historischen Spezial- mente esatta. Coerentemente a questo bildung unabhängig, Vernunfterwägungen principio, il restauro, che un tempo veniva unzugänglich, seine Nichtbefriedigung ein- esercitato prevalentemente da artisti che fach als unerträglich empfinden läßt, wird spesso sovrapponevano una interpre- man mit Aussicht auf Erfolg ein Denk- tazione personale alla visione dell’artista malschutzgesetz begründen können’ (Riegl, antico, è oggi esercitato da tecnici special- 1905b, in Huse, 1984:147). izzati, continuamente guidati e controllati 17 Mitteilungen der k k Zentral Kommission, da studiosi: a una competenza generica- 3.F., 2. Bd, Wien 1903, Sp. 14–31. mente artistica si è così sostituita una 18 ‘Bericht uber den diokletianischen Palast competenza rigorosamente storicistica e zu Spalato’, Mitteilungen der k k Zentral- tecnica’ (Argan, 1938). Kommission, 3.F., 2. Bd., Wien 1903, Sp. 24 ‘L’apparente limitazione del restauro a 333–341 (Bacher, 1995:172ff). compiti puramente conservativi non 19 Riegl, A., Report on Split, 6 November rappresenta dunque una vittoria della 1902. meccanica sulla attività intelligente del 20 Dvorak, M. 1907, Österreichische Kunst- restauratore, ma sposta semplicemente topographie. l’attività del restauro dal campo artistico al 21 ‘So muß sich aber der Denkmalschutz nicht campo critico’ (Argan, 1938). nur auf alle Stile der Vergangenheit 25 ‘Nel restauro architettonico si è scoperta erstrecken, sondern überall auch die lokale solo in questi ultimi decenni la necessità di und historische Eigenart der Denkmäler rispettare i monumenti nella forma in cui erhalten, die nach irgendwelche Regeln zu ci sono pervenuti: ma questo dovere, pur korrigieren wir nicht befugt sind, weil wir applicato fin dal secolo scorso nel restauro durch solche Korrekturen in der Regel delle opere letterarie, non è ancora esatta- gerade das zerstören, was auch den mente compreso. Cause di questa difficoltà bescheidenen Denkmälern einen unerset- di penettrazione delle nuove norme sono zlichen Wert verleiht’ (Dvorak, 1915:28). per lo più la scarsa preparazione filologica, 22 It is interesting to compare Giovannoni’s la conseguente carenza di critica e approach with the conclusions of the l’irriducibile presunzione, che solo superfi- meeting of the CIAM in Athens in 1933. cialmente fa negare la tradizionale teoria These conclusions, later edited by Le del progresso nell’arte’ (Gazzola, 1963:119). Corbusier (La Charte d’Athènes, 1941–42, 26 ‘Il restauro – dovendo infatti collegarsi con see Le Corbusier, 1957), accepted that la storia analitica del monumento – presup- architectural values of the past should be pone una conoscenza non sommaria della conserved if this corresponded to ‘a storia dell’architettura e insieme di quei general interest’, and did not mean that the fattori complessi che apparentemente son residents should live in unhealthy condi- solo un supplemento della erudizione tions. In order to avoid destruction, it was storico-estetica di uno specialista, ma in proposed to keep major traffic outside realtà sono espressione di quella maturità significant historic areas. If destruction of culturale che è elemento primario per qualsi- old buildings was justified for hygienic and asi realizzazione valida’ (Gazzola, 1963:119). health reasons, this could give opportunity 27 Perogalli, 1954:109f; Berenson, 1958:1: to introduce green areas, and to emphasize Berenson is in favour of the conservation the architectural values of single of the remaining structures and their recon- monuments (Gerosa et al., 1977:27). struction at least externally against those 23 ‘Il restauro delle opere d’arte è oggi who wanted to modernize the area.

244 A History of Architectural Conservation 28 ‘Processo critico e poi atto creativo, l’uno una determinatezza, una necessità, una in- come intrinseca premessa dell’altro; così variabilità che non aveva quando ti appariva resta ormai definito il restauro monumentale’ unicamente come un dato empirico’ (Bonelli, R., ‘Il restauro come forma di (Brandi, 1992a:8f). cultura’ in Bonelli, 1959:13). See also Bonelli, 31 ‘. . . fra la presunta mancanza di oggetto e R., ‘Principi e metodi nel restauro dei la rispondenza ad un bisogno, io sostitu- monumenti’ (1959), and ‘Danni di guerra, isco, per l’architettura, la sua funzionalità e ricostruzione dei monumenti e revisione l’impossibilità di essere soltanto funzionale, della teoria del restauro architettonico’ senza negare se stessa come architettura e (1995); Pica, A., ‘Attualità del restauro’, ridursi ad una passiva costruttività’ (Brandi, Costruzioni–Casabella, CLXXXII, Feb. 1943. 1992b:165). 32 ‘Il restauro costituisce il momento meto- 29 Paul Philippot gives a critical overview of dologico del riconoscimento dell’opera Brandi’s philosophy in Philippot, 1989b. d’arte, nella sua consistenza fisica e nella sua duplice polarità estetica e storica, in 30 ‘Vedi, Carmine, se tu ti affacci ad una fines- vista della sua trasmissione al futuro’ tra e guardi il panorama, l’intuizione di (Brandi, 1963:34). ‘Si restaura solo la quel panorama avviene di colpo, per dato materia dell’opera d’arte’ (1963:35). ‘Il e fatto della percezione che immediata- restauro deve mirare al ristabilimento della mente si ordina nella tua coscienza: unità potenziale dell’opera d’arte, purchè sarebbe impossibile per te ostacolare la ciò sia possibile senza commettere un falso formazione interiore di quella conoscenza, artistico o un falso storico, e senza cancel- se non chiudendo gli occhi, ossia inter- lare ogni traccia del passaggio dell’opera rompendo il nesso esistenziale con quel d’arte nel tempo’ (1963:36). paesaggio. Ma, se tu sei un pittore e, 33 Experts included: P. Rotondi, G. Urbani nell’occhiata che getti al panorama, senti (ICR), J. Taubert (Munich), R. Sneyers risvegliarti un interesse particolare per quel (Brussels), O.P. Agrawal (New Delhi), T. paesaggio, avverrà un cambiamento Iwasaki (Tokyo), A. Na Songla (Bangkok), impercettibile dentro di te, eppure fonda- V. Dragut (Bucharest), J. Cama (Mexico), mentale, che può di lontano suggerire il G. Thompson (London), S. Bjarnhof confronto con quello che avviene, quando (Copenhagen). si aggiusta le lenti di un binocolo: con una 34 Umberto Baldini, former director of Opificio nuova chiarezza ti balzerà contro il paesag- di Pietre Dure, Florence, and of Istituto gio. Ma, in questo caso, non con più preci- Centrale del Restauro, Rome, has empha- sione ottica, se mai piú definito all’interno sized the chromatic aspect of paintings, and stesso della sua apparenza. Questa seconda proposed a personal solution to the treat- visione, che in senso proprio si può dire ment of losses, using hatching in colours fenomenica, non si identificherà alla prima, and movements inspired by the artistic esistenziale, che ne hai avuto, né la image (Baldini, 1978–81). The method, distruggerà, ma sarà meno vivo in te, in un however, has generally not been accepted. certo senso, perché si porrà decisamente fuori del tuo approdo, eppure acquisterà

9 International influences and collaboration 9.1 Influences in other countries scientific methodologies for the analysis and care of heritage. The policies and practices described in previ- ous chapters were subsequently diffused to In Turkey, the first legislation on historic other parts of Europe as well as to other con- monuments and archaeological objects dated tinents, especially from the mid-nineteenth from 13 February 1869 (Asar-i Atika Nizam- century on. This resulted in the establishment namesi, amended in 1874, 1884, 1906); a new of legal and administrative frameworks for the law on the protection of monuments was protection of cultural heritage, and the impact passed in 1912 (Muhafaza-i Abidat). The can be measured by the fact that, by the Turkish Republic was established in 1923, and 1990s, most states of the world had ratified the the remains of earlier cultures were recognized UNESCO World Heritage Convention (164 as a part of common heritage. The Supreme states in August 2001). The policies that were Council on Monuments was established in initially developed in the European context 1951. In Turkey, as in other Islamic states, the have been tested in an increasing number of responsibility for religious Islamic buildings different social-cultural contexts and physical was with the Waqf department. In Egypt, a realities. A need has appeared to define some Committee for the Conservation of Monuments common parameters; these are expressed in of Arabic Art existed since 1881. In the case international charters, recommendations and of Algeria, a French protectorate, the authori- guidelines, as well as in the development of ties decided to apply the French legislation of 1887 for the protection of antiquities in this Figure 9.1 The ancient Maya city of Uxmal in the Yucatan underwent excavation from the nineteenth century on, and was restored in the twentieth century 245

246 A History of Architectural Conservation The current authority for the protection of cultural heritage, Instituto Nacional de Antro- pología e Historia (INAH) was established by law in 1939 (Diaz-Berrio, 1990:79ff). Figure 9.2 Detail of a restored Mayan pyramid in 9.1.1 Western Europe Uxmal The early nineteenth century in Spain was country although with relatively mild sanctions characterized by internal wars and conflicts, (Brown, 1905:238ff). including occupation by France from 1804 to 1814. A more stable period began when the In Latin America, the most notable example so-called moderados came into power (in in the field of safeguarding ancient monu- 1844–54). Although the Jesuits had been ments is Mexico, where the rich heritage of expelled (1767), and religious properties had the ancient Mayas has been explored since the met with a period of suppression and destruc- eighteenth century. The first signs of interest tion, the traditional Catholic society continued in protecting ancient sites were the establish- strong, and the ideas of the Enlightenment ment of the Junta de Antigüedades in 1808 were considered heretical. The beginning of and the foundation of the National Museum in Romanticism coincided with the 1830s, a 1825. This was followed by the first decree period of civil unrest, and was marked by a prohibiting export of antiquities in 1827, the growing interest in the history of the country, founding of national institutions, such as the and a gradual concern for the repair and National Archive (1830) and the Academia protection of historic buildings. The initiatives Nacional de Historia (1835), and the passing in France and Italy were known in Spain, and of laws that allowed confiscation of historic similar ideas were first expressed in the properties by the state (1859). In 1885, a magazine El Artista, founded in 1835. In 1835, decree established the position of the the Academia de San Fernando started active Conservador de Monumentos Arqueológicos e efforts to protect suppressed convents and Históricos, and the principal legislation for the monasteries, and from the beginning of 1936 protection of historic sites was passed in the there was a series of government orders and twentieth century, the first in 1914 and 1916. lists for protection. Valentin Carderera (1796–1880), a Roman scholar, was commis- sioned to record monuments in Valladolid, Burgos, Palencia and Salamanca, as well as the complex of the Alcázar de Sevilla. In 1844, the government established a Cen- tral Commission and a number of Provincial Commissions on Monuments (Comisión Cen- tral and Comisiónes Provinciales de Monu- mentos), later absorbed by the Academia, which had the task of preparing inventories and evaluating the national cultural heritage. Restoration activities started towards the end of the decade. There was interest particularly in mediaeval cathedrals and Islamic monu- ments. The complex of Alhambra in Granada and the Giralda in Sevilla were amongst the first major monuments to be restored, initiated by Rafael Contreras. Other restorations included the cathedrals of Léon, Burgos, Sevilla, Córdoba and Palma de Mallorca, as well as the church of San Vicente de Àvila. The cathedral of Léon was in a ruinous condi-

International influences and collaboration 247 Figure 9.3 Léon Cathedral, Spain, before the nineteenth-century restoration. Engraving from Parcerisa, 1855. (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas)

248 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.4 Léon Cathedral in 1895, showing the restoration ‘in style’. The new parts are visible due to lighter tonality in stone colour. (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas)

International influences and collaboration 249 Figure 9.5 La Alhambra, Palacio de los Leones, Patio del Harén. Detail of the west portico in which are visible the criteria used by L. Torres Balbás in the 1920s. The work consisted of the reconstruction of the original space and the general decorative frame. The block of the reproduced element is left without decoration. (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas) tion, and became a major subject for structural the principal restoration architect in Spain studies as well as a school for restoration from 1870. In his writings, Lázaro emphasized architects and technicians from 1858 to 1901. the historical specificity of each building, and Restoration developed in three main periods; criticized the danger of formalism in restora- the ‘Romantic’ (1835–1864) was marked by tion. There was contact also with England: G. historiography and inventories, the ‘stylistic’ E. Street published Some Accounts of Gothic (1865–1915) followed the French models, the Architecture in Spain in 1865. The writings of ‘scientific’ (1916–1936) was characterized by Boito were known in the 1880s, but Ruskin influences from Italy and England, and and Morris, although not ignored, had an showed a growing respect to original material impact on restoration works only in the first (Ordieres, 1995). quarter of the twentieth century. The most important exponent of the conservation The French Voyages Pittoresques were movement was Leopoldo Torres Balbás known in Spain, and found a counterpart in (1888–1960). From 1923, he was responsible the work of Perez de Villaamil y Escosura; for the works in the Alhambra, introducing the the Annales Archéologiques published articles conservation approach instead of the previous on Spanish ‘archaeological movement’, and restoration. In 1931, in the international Viollet-le-Duc’s Dictionary was translated into meeting in Athens, he summarized this Spanish in 1860s, contributing to the start of approach: systematic studies on mediaeval buildings at the School of Architecture. The French princi- Ancient structures have been fully respected in ples were followed by, e.g., Elias Rogent agreement with their archaeological and artistic (1821–97), characterized as archaeological- interests; the essential effort has been to philological, José de Manjarres y Bofarull conserve and repair, and using real restoration (1816–80), who reflected Didron’s principles, only as the last resort; the aim has been to Juan Bautista Lázaro (1849–1919), who was

250 A History of Architectural Conservation assure that modern work would never be falsi- attention of the international congress of European and American architects in Madrid in fication, and that it could always be distin- 1904. The resulting recommendation on ‘The preservation and restoration of architectural guished from the original . . . The purpose has monuments’ reflected the principles of stylistic restoration, and proposed that while ‘dead’ been to re-establish the main features and monuments belonging to past civilizations and serving obsolete purposes should be consoli- masses whenever this has been feasible on the dated and preserved, ‘living’ monuments that continued to serve the originally intended basis of reliable documents; any additions have purpose ought to be ‘restored so that they may continue to be of use, for in architecture utility been left plain. At a certain distance, there is an is one of the bases of beauty.’ impression that the building is complete in its In 1938, Canon Raymond Lemaire,2 Pro- fessor at the University of Louvain, in Belgium, primitive form; but coming closer, one can well published La Restauration des Monuments distinguish ancient and modern parts.1 anciens, in which he divided the approaches to the treatment of historic buildings into two Torres Balbás concluded by stating that each groups, ‘the maximalists’ and ‘the minimalists’. historic building had its individual character, The first group included Montalembert, Pugin, and that it would be ‘childish’ to try to estab- Tornow and Mérimée, who aimed at a unity lish general rules for restoration. The only of style; the second included Ruskin and those possibility would be to provide general guide- who aimed at the conservation of the original lines, i.e., to have an absolute respect for the archaeological and documentary values of the ancient building avoiding any additions if not monuments. For his part, Lemaire maintained indispensable; any new works should be made that historic buildings could have four types distinguishable from the old, and should not of values: use value, artistic value, historical- harm the artistic effect of the monument. archaeological value and picturesque value and that the aim of restoration should be to In Belgium the earliest orders for the protec- maintain or augment each of these values as tion of churches go back to the time of the far as possible. In a case when there was a union with Holland; a decree to this effect was risk that a value might be diminished, the issued in East-Flanders in 1823, and other results should be judged from the point of regions followed. The Commission Royale des view of benefit to the whole. Lemaire accepted Monuments was founded in 1835, and in 1912 the division of historic buildings into ‘living’ its scope was enlarged to include also historic and ‘dead’, and considered that some values, sites. Amongst the first stylistic restorations such as the picturesque, were less relevant were the town halls of Louvain (1829–40) and when dealing with ‘living’ historic buildings. Bruges (1854–71). The principal promoter of the Gothic Revival in Belgium was Baron de In the Netherlands, the ideas of the Gothic Bethume (1821–94), who had studied glass- Revival found an echo around the middle of painting with English artists, and was a good the nineteenth century. Amongst its principal friend of Pugin. Viollet-le-Duc was consulted promoters was J. A. Alberdingk Thijm, editor about several restoration works in the 1860s of Dietsche Warande and Spectator and a and 1870s, including the town hall of Ghent. follower of Montalembert and Pugin; he wrote The theory of stylistic unity remained strongly about the Christian aspects and the treatment in favour until the end of the century. In 1893, of mediaeval art. Influences came also from Louis Cloquet (1849–1920), an engineer from German countries; architect Alfred Tepe from Ghent who promoted the Gothic as a rational Utrecht and the Sint Bernulphus gilde, a structural system, divided monuments into society for Catholic art chaired by G. W. Van ‘dead monuments’ (having mainly documen- Heukelom, represented this impact. Dr Petrus tary value), and ‘living monuments’ (such as Josephus Hubertus Cuypers (1827–1921) churches and other buildings with contempor- from Roermond, a Gothic Revival architect and ary use). He could accept ‘the English formula’ restorer, who worked in Amsterdam, was one of conservation so far as ‘dead’ monuments were concerned, but he considered it totally unacceptable for ‘living’ monuments. It was obvious to him that eighteenth-century furnish- ings should be removed from mediaeval build- ings, and that these should be restored to their original form. Cloquet brought his ideas to the

International influences and collaboration 251 Figure 9.6 Kasteel de Haar, the Netherlands, in ruined state in 1887. (Rijksdienst voor de Monumentenzorg, Zeist, Netherlands) Figure 9.7 Kasteel de Haar after restoration by P. J. H. Cuypers, the ‘Dutch Viollet-le- Duc’. (Rijksdienst voor de Monumentenzorg, Zeist, Netherlands) of the principal followers of Viollet-le-Duc. In 1873, Victor E. L. de Stuers (b.1843), a Known as ‘the Dutch Viollet-le-Duc’, he was lawyer from The Hague and Member of Parlia- responsible for numerous restorations in this ment, published his cri-de-coeur, ‘Holland op spirit. Cuypers, who had known Viollet-le-Duc zijn smalst ’, (Holland at its narrowest) com- since 1854, consulted him amongst others in plaining, as had Victor Hugo in France earlier, the 1860s about the much discussed restora- that historic buildings were not taken care of, tion of the exterior of the Munsterkerk of but treated with ignorance and recklessness. Roermond, and as a result the church was As a result, the Government established an ‘purified’ to Romanesque form. Cuypers rebuilt Advisory Council on Historic and Artistic the ruined mediaeval water castle Kasteel de Monuments in 1874, including Cuypers and de Haar in the fashion of Pierrefonds, and Stuers as members. The Council provided restored churches, including St Odilienberg measures for the inventory and protection of and Susteren. objects and monuments significant for the

252 A History of Architectural Conservation nation’s history. A more conservative approach Germany, France and northern Italy, and was was introduced by Dr Jan Kalf (1873–1954), well aware of Viollet-le-Duc’s theories. He who attacked Cuypers and de Stuers, in 1911, entered the office of the Superintendent of considering any stylistic restoration a fake, and Antiquities in 1860, later becoming its director. emphasized the documentary value of the The cathedral was practically rebuilt to obtain original material. In 1917 he wrote an intro- stylistic unity, in 1862–80, and the interior was duction to the new conservation law, referring painted according to the models of Worms to the various approaches in the history of and Speyer. There was strong opposition to restoration. Personally, he favoured a continu- this work, led by Brunius. Zettervall became ous use of historic buildings, and insisted that one of the leading restoration architects of the any additions should be made in the style of northern countries, restoring a number of the time in order to avoid falsification. important buildings in Sweden, including the Town Hall of Malmö (1865–69), and the 9.1.2 Nordic countries cathedrals of Kalmar (1879), Uppsala (1885– 93) and Skara (1886–94). Towards the end of Sweden had been a forerunner in the inven- the century, voices were raised against drastic tory and protection of antiquities in the seven- restorations such as those of the cathedrals of teenth century, but this had remained mainly Lund and Uppsala. One of the early anti- an academic issue. After an attempt to revive restorationists in Sweden was Verner von protection in 1814, a new National Antiquary Heidenstam, who published a small book on was appointed in 1828, J. G. Liljengren modern vandalism in 1894, and declared: (1826–37), who brought the breath of German ‘Quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt – arkitek- Romanticism, e.g., the description of Gothic terna’ (what was not done by barbarians was structures by Friedrich von Schlegel and publi- done by architects), and soon had followers cations on Cologne Cathedral. The 1666 (Heidenstam, 1894). The principles of the Ordinance was revised in 1828, followed by treatment of historic buildings were re-estab- decrees in 1867, 1873 and 1886, leading to the lished in new legislation; the administrative establishment of the Central Office of National structure was renewed as the Central Office of Antiquities. One of the first expressions of the National Antiquities, and the new generation emerging mediaeval revival was the rebuilding of conservators was represented by Sigurd in Gothic form of the spire of Riddarholm Curman, who was appointed National Anti- church in Stockholm, after the 1835 fire. The quary in 1923, and held this office until 1945. architect was English, P. F. Robinson (1776– 1858), who had worked at the Royal Pavilion, In Denmark, research into the mediaeval Brighton, and was a member of the Society of heritage was promoted especially by Niels Antiquaries. The first Swedish representative of Lauritz Hoyen (1798–1870), who translated the Mediaeval Revival was Carl Georg Victor Hugo’s Guerre aux démoliseurs, and Brunius (1793–1869), Professor at Lund became the leading art-historian in the University, a self-taught architect and archae- country. Danish architects and artists were ologist, who promoted protection of mediae- active also abroad, studying in Rome and val structures, and was responsible for the contributing to the restoration of ancient restoration of the twelfth-century Romanesque monuments in Greece. From the early 1830s, cathedral of Lund from 1833 to 1859. The Hoyen made plans for Viborg Cathedral interior was opened up for an uninterrupted aiming to remove additions made after the fire perspective in order to harmonize the whole of 1726, and to restore it back to the mediae- with the original Romanesque appearance. val appearance – identified with German Brunius was widely consulted as an expert in Romanesque tradition. In 1859, after a fire, the the repair and enlargement of mediaeval archi- decision was made to rebuild Fredericksborg tecture, such as the cathedrals of Växsjö and Castle in its original form as a national Linköping. monument. In 1863–1876, a thorough restora- tion was carried out by Hoyen together with After Brunius, the responsibility for Lund architects N. S. Nebelong and Denmark’s Cathedral was given to Helgo Nikolaus ‘Zettervall’ H. B. Storck (1839–1922). Storck’s Zettervall (1831–1907), who had travelled in restorations started with the Helligandskirken

International influences and collaboration 253 Figure 9.8 The construction of Trondheim Cathedral in Norway was completed only in the twentieth century. The elevation thus contains sculptural elements from the Middle Ages through to modern times in Copenhagen (1878–80), rebuilt on the basis required professional consultancy. At the of a seventeenth-century document, and fol- beginning, ten of the most important churches lowed by a long series of restorations of were under their control, including the cathed- churches. In the little round church of rals of Viborg, Aarhus, Ribe and Roskilde. Bjernede, he rebuilt an attractive saddle-back roof in conical form, thus drastically changing The separation of Norway from Denmark, the appearance. To him, restoration meant and its union with Sweden in 1814, brought ‘keeping the style and character of the out strong patriotic feelings, reflected in the monument’, including reconstruction of lost approach towards the country’s past, and its parts and little concern for additions after the historic buildings. In the same year, the unfin- first construction (Storck, 1903–04:454). ished cathedral of Trondheim, which was of Following Hoyen’s proposal, the idea of ‘origi- mediaeval origin, was named Norway’s coro- nal style’ was even expressed in the Danish nation church. Following the example of law for church protection (Lov om kirkesyn) of Cologne Cathedral, plans were made for its 19 February 1861. The order was finally completion by Heinrich Ernst Schirmer removed in 1922, and the treatment of historic (1814–87), a German-born architect, who had buildings was based on careful building- worked in England and Normandy. Restoration archaeological studies, represented by the of the Chapter House was completed by work of Mogens Clemmensen. The 1861 law Captain Otto Krefting in 1872. The work on also included orders for annual inspections, as the cathedral was then taken over by Eilert well as the establishment of a special board of Christian Brodtkorb Christie (1832–1906), experts, a historian with two architects, who and continued by other architects, resulting in could be called upon when church restoration a construction that reflects the contributions of several centuries. At the same time, due to a

254 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.9 Interest in protecting ancient stave churches developed in the second half of the nineteenth century in Norway. Many of these had been lost or transformed over time. The church of Urnes is a representative example included on the World Heritage List need to provide more space for congregations, building activity in the new neo-classical many mediaeval stave churches were changed capital, where the principal architect was Carl drastically or replaced with new constructions. Ludwig Engel (1778–1840), who had studied There was, however, an early attempt to with Schinkel in the Berlin Academy. In 1824, protect historic buildings by Johan Christian Engel succeeded to Charles Bassi as the Chief Dahl (1788–1857), a Norwegian-born artist of the Intendent Office responsible for public and close friend of Caspar Friedrich David, buildings, and supervised the renovation of who studied in Italy and became professor at mediaeval churches in a classical taste to adapt the University of Dresden. He made several them to use requirements. tours to Norway to paint mountain landscapes, and edited the first Norwegian publication on In the middle of the nineteenth century, stave churches (Malmanger, 1989). In 1841, he nationalism emerged as a powerful movement founded the Society for the Protection of inspired by Germans, especially Hegel, and Ancient Buildings in Norway. As a result of also marked the identification and protection these developments, an open-air museum was of national heritage.3 The Society of Antiquities established in Oslo in the 1870s. Similar under- was founded in 1870 with the aim of promot- takings existed in Sweden where the open-air ing the study of churches, mediaeval paintings museum of Skansen was initiated by Dr Artur and other works of art and history. In 1872 a Hazelius in 1891, becoming a model for other bill was presented to the Parliament for the countries. protection of ancient monuments; the estab- lishment of the Board of Antiquities Finland, since the twelfth century part of (Muinaistieellinen toimikunta) was approved Sweden and thus affected by the law of 1666, in 1883, and appointed in 1884. The law had also its own identity. Under the influence concerned the protection of the remains of of German intellectuals and philosophers, ancient forts, churches or other public build- including J. G. Herder, attention was given to ings, as well as inscriptions, wall paintings or traditional folk poetry, resulting in the publi- decorations, which were part of buildings in cation of the Kalevala by Elias Lönnrot in the use; it was required that the original technol- early nineteenth century (1815 and 1835). In ogy and material of documentary value should 1809, Finland was assigned to Russia as a be preserved. No ‘Zettervalls’ were born in Grand Duchy, and Helsinki was chosen as the Finland although churches and castles were capital of the country. This caused important restored; the mediaeval cathedral of Turku was

International influences and collaboration 255 Figure 9.10 The historic centre of Warsaw was rebuilt after massive destruction in the Second World War. The site has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1980 for its universal value in the ‘restoration’ of national identity an important project for which models were system. Immediately after the war, the general looked for from other Nordic restorations, policy was certainly that of reconstruction and such as Lund, Uppsala, Roskilde and Trond- economic development, and this was based heim, as well as from Germany and France principally on industrial production. Tradi- (Knapas, 1983). The conservation movement tional technology was a low priority although was brought in by modern architects, Lars tolerated to some degree especially in rural Sonck who emphasized the importance of areas and in the repair of historic monuments. historic stratification, Bertel Jung who referred to the conservation policy of Heiden- Of the socialist countries, Poland took a stam and Ruskin, and Armas Lindgren who particular pride in safeguarding its cultural referred to the international meeting of archi- heritage, finding expression in the immediate tects in Brussels in 1897, where the problem initiative to reconstruct and restore destroyed of ‘errors’ in historic buildings had been historic town centres, e.g., Warsaw, Gdansk. It discussed but without a definite answer is worth noting that this national effort was (Knapas, 1983). The protection of historic rightly acknowledged by including Warsaw on buildings received influence especially from UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 1980 for its German and Austrian conservation theories. universal value as an expression of the national identity of the Polish people. Polish 9.1.3 Eastern Europe experts were active internationally, including Stanislav Lorentz, one of the founders of As a result of the division of Europe after the ICOMOS; Poland was also the country where Second World War, the eastern part formed ICOMOS was founded in 1965. With these the so-called socialist block. Although the activities, Poland established an expertise in historic bases in relation to safeguarding restoration technology that came to be utilized cultural heritage were the same as in the rest as an export item to other socialist countries, of the continent, the new political situation and even to other continents. The national imposed particular conditions on the countries management structure was based on central- of this region, giving an impact on their ized organization according to a model that policies. Nevertheless, there remained differ- was applied also elsewhere in the region. ences amongst them, and the people’s cultures Generally, such care focused mainly on listed continued to be felt even through the new monuments, such as churches, palaces and castles. An essential part of the policy of

256 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.11 Naumburg Cathedral was seriously protection was to find a socially suitable use damaged in the Second World War, and the vaults were for the historic buildings; as a consequence rebuilt under the direction of the cathedral architect, E. churches were transformed into concert halls Schubert. The colour scheme was chosen in tonalities of or museums, and castles were rehabilitated as grey (‘Schubert grey’) holiday resorts for workers and employees. At the same time, ordinary residences suffered from the lack of maintenance and repair partly due to limited financial resources, partly due to the priority given to industrial production and the lack of traditional types of materials. At the end of the Second World War, all Germany faced the problem of rebuilding its cities (Beyme et al., 1992). The German Demo- cratic Republic was more than a problem of rebuilding; it was conceived as a ‘pilot project’ for the establishment of an ‘ideal society’. A part of this scheme was to attempt to cut the roots with the past; one of the results was the demolition of politically significant historic areas, such as the Royal Castle of Berlin and the centre of Leipzig. Nevertheless, there was also a spontaneous reaction from the people to care for historic buildings; such was the priority given to a respectful repair of Naumburg Cathedral under the direction of cathedral architect Ernst Schubert, while houses were still in ruins. Similar was the struggle of Hans Nadler, the Denkmalpfleger of the region of Saxony, to safeguard some essential features of the heavily bombed historic centre of Dresden at the end of the war. This included ‘freezing’ the remains of the Figure 9.12 The Semper Opera of Dresden was rebuilt in the 1980s. The foyer area is an example of reconstruction with full colour scheme based of careful archival and field research, as was the case in several restoration projects in the former German Democratic Republic

International influences and collaboration 257 Figure 9.13 The restoration of war-damaged to modern times. Veneration of relics has been Kreuzkirche in the centre of Dresden is an example of part of such traditions, and has often led to minimum intervention; instead of reconstruction, rough building new sanctuaries over sacred sites. A cement was applied on damaged surfaces – providing similar interest was shown in 1820, when the also good acoustics first attempts were made to carry out archaeo- logical excavations on the site of Dime, the first Frauenkirche at the former Old Market, leaving cathedral of Kiev. A special effort was now it to wait for its reconstruction – initiated 50 made not only to respect the tenth-century years hence. Later, the initial ban on historic church symbolically, but also in its form. Such structures was not enforced, and, under the historic buildings were interpreted for their direction of Ludwig Deiters, the relatively values as archival documents of important small Institut für Denkmalpflege took the spiritual or ideological memories – rather than responsibility for the important monumental for their architectural or historical values heritage of the country. (Chtekov, 1992). An Imperial Archaeological Commission was constituted in 1859; together Russia stretches out from Europe across to with the Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts, Asia, and forms a combination of Eastern and this commission was in charge of historic Western influences. Its culture has always been monuments (Brown, 1905:200ff). characterized by a deep spirituality mixed with popular traditions and myths, extending even The general development of conservation interests in Russia followed similar lines with the rest of Europe, from Romanticism to Historicism. The restorations of the House of the Boyars Romanov (1858, by F. Richter) and the monastery of the Nativity in Vladimir were early examples of the use of scientific prin- ciples. The restoration and reconstruction of stylistic unity became dominant in the second half of the nineteenth century, when the theory of Viollet-le-Duc was well known in the country.4 Towards the end of the century, there was a decisive shift towards a conserva- tion movement, already expressed in the first Figure 9.14 Dresden Frauenkirche was destroyed as a result of bombardments in 1945, and the site was kept as a memorial for the war for half a century. The reconstruction of the church started in 1994, gaining thus a new significance

258 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.15 The House of the Boyars Romanov, Moscow. Example of early restoration in Russia to the design by F. Richter in 1858. (Natalia Dushkina) Congress of Russian architects, in 1892, and scientific research, but the aim was mostly a well exemplified in the restoration of the full reconstruction or stylistic restoration of the church of the Saviour on Nereditsa in Nov- principal historic palaces and monuments, gorod, by P. Pokryshkin in 1902–1908 such as the palaces of Leningrad or Moscow. (Dushkina, 1995:88). An important criterion in their reconstruction was the introduction of contemporary use; this The years following the Bolshevik Revo- could be a museum function, tourism, or other lution (1917) were marked by persecution of public use. An example was the transforma- the church, but early on the opportunity was tion of Souzdal from a historic town into a taken to carry out archaeological studies in old tourist complex. This involved restoring impor- churches and monasteries. The situation tant churches (Nativity) as a museum, adapt- changed in the 1930s, when the state decided ing the old monastery as a tourist hotel, and to wipe out all cultural traditions, including building wooden houses in traditional style to religion. Thousands of religious buildings were provide accommodation for visitors (Raninsky, destroyed, traditional villages were trans- 1992). The destruction and modern recon- formed, ateliers were closed, and restorers struction of historic cities, such as Moscow were included in the lists of persecution itself, has continued through the following (Podiiapolsky, 1992). It is difficult to assess the decades to reach the turn of the millennium entire loss of cultural properties in this period, (Dushkina, 1995:95). and it has been said that ‘no other European country has treated its cultural heritage with Romania, the ancient Dacia, was formed into such barbarism as USSR’ (Miltchik, 1992:105). a modern state through the unification of two The political utopia of a new world and the principalities in the mid-nineteenth century modern movement in architecture completed (1859), and its independence was recognized the picture (Dushkina, 1995:91). under a Hohenzollern monarch in 1878. The period was marked by a strong nationalistic After the Second World War, there were movement and the revival of the old Romanian signs of new trends, but there were hardly any language. In the second half of the century, restorers of the old generation left. The Venice efforts started for an inventory of historic Charter was recognized as an official docu- monuments, which was published from 1894 ment in the USSR, but this did not prevent a to 1909. The first law for the conservation and variety of different approaches. To some restoration of historic buildings dated from degree, the works were based on careful,

International influences and collaboration 259 Figure 9.16 The cathedral of Our Lady of Kazan in the Red Square, Moscow, was reconstructed by O. Zhurin in the 1990s. (Natalia Dushkina)

260 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.17 The Gates of the Resurrection in Red Square, Moscow, were reconstructed to the design by O. Zhurin in 1992–5. (Natalia Dushkina) 1892, inspired by the French example. At the Figure 9.18 The Moldavian church of Humor is an same time, a consultative commission for the example of a series of monasteries with external mural protection of historic monuments was estab- paintings in eastern Romania. Subject to international lished within the Ministry of Cults and Edu- restoration campaigns in the 1970s, the churches have cation. The monarchy survived until 1947, been included on the World Heritage List since 1993 when the USSR demanded a complete take- over. The difficult times of occupation following the Second World War (1944–58) did not prevent continuation of the inventory, and, in 1955, the norms concerning the protection and utilization of cultural monuments were revised. The years from the mid 1960s to early 1970s showed a positive development: Romania joined ICCROM in 1969, and formed a National ICOMOS Committee in 1971, followed by an active period of international collaboration, research and training under the directorship of Vasile Dracut. The programmes focused on the richly painted, fifteenth-century churches in Moldavia, the fortified monasteries and historic town centres in Transylvania, the valuable wooden buildings and villages in rural areas. The 1970s saw an important increase in the number of museums and cultural institutions, and, in 1974, a new law was established for the protection of cultural heritage (Paléologue, 1990). As part of its economic programmes, Romania undertook an ambitious programme to renew its agricultural structure; this caused

International influences and collaboration 261 Figure 9.19 The centre of Bucharest after demolition of the historic town centre, and the construction of the area with the aim of political representativity the systematic destruction of historic villages maintenance and upkeep of historic buildings and town centres, especially in Moldavia. In have been aggravated by the emigration of March 1977, Bucharest was hit by an earth- people of Germanic origin, the consequent quake, leaving 1500 dead and destroying and abandonment of historic churches, and the damaging a large number of historic buildings. occupation by nomads of the houses left In the same year, the General Direction of empty. Historic Monuments was abolished by the government, in full contradiction with the In Hungary, the interest in the protection of existing legislation. Some conservation activ- its rich heritage dates from 1846, when the ities were maintained with the educational Academy of Sciences, under the influence of authorities and the Romanian Academy. Imre Henszlmann, an eminent cultural Starting in 1984, under the personal control of personality, launched an appeal for the protec- President Ceausescu, there started the tion of ancient monuments. In 1872, the construction of a massive new political and government established a provisional commit- administrative centre. To provide the necessary tee for the protection of cultural heritage with space, a vast area was demolished in the Henszelmann as rapporteur, the first legal historic centre of Bucharest, including many authority in the country. The first law was important historic buildings, leaving some passed in 1881 (Horler, 1996:10ff). Following isolated monuments and old residential areas the 1956 revolution, the National Office for the inside the new quarters. The project was only Protection of Historic Monuments was created partly accomplished at the fall of the old in 1957, and one of the major restoration sites regime in 1989. of the following years was the Buda castle with its surrounding urban area in Budapest, In the 1990s, the country is facing new and an area of great national significance. The site manifold problems of general economic devel- had suffered badly in the Second World War, opment and privatization of properties and and in the following reconstruction particular institutions. Within this context, Romania has attention was given to careful display of all re-established an authority and legislation for original fragments as a document and testi- the protection of cultural heritage, reviving its mony of the past. This restoration has become interest in international cooperation, and the one of the best-known examples of Hungarian development of training programmes for policies, and was presented to the ICOMOS specialists. The problems related to the General Assembly held in Budapest in 1972.

262 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.20 Old Buda in Budapest was rebuilt after damage in the Second World War. The policy was to display original fragments in the reconstructed buildings as a testimony of the past Figure 9.21 The relatively large modern complex of the Hilton hotel was integrated within historic structures in the Old Buda In 1990, following the 1989 revolution, the directly by the state in the past, its role is now protection of historic buildings was placed more in guiding the process of rehabilitation under the administration of the Ministry for the and appropriate utilization. This process has Protection of Environment and Management of introduced the notion of ‘good proprietor’, Territory, and the criteria for protection were which is a key concept in relation to the defined in a new law of 1991. While about 60 modified status of protected monuments. per cent (c. 6000) of the 10 500 protected Some of the principal problems relate to the monuments had previously been state owned, lack of finances, allowing only a limited the figure is expected to be nearer to 2 per number of works to be undertaken, and cent (200 to 250) in the new situation, where forcing priority to be given to emergency major attention is given to privatization. This repairs and water-proofing. One of the pos- means that the role of the state in the care of sible financial sources is seen in tourism; sites historic sites is going through a radical change. such as Gödöllö, an ancient village close to While the interventions were taken care of Budapest and also on the World Heritage List,

International influences and collaboration 263 and the many beautiful castles of the country While the early preservation movement was form an important potential in this regard. The mainly in the hands of private citizens, a director of the National Office, Tamás Fejérdy, number of nation-wide societies or organiza- has emphasized that financial resources may tions were established which contributed to also be diversified if the challenges of the new public awareness and knowledge about herit- status of historic sites and their protection, age.5 In addition, the Smithsonian Institution maintenance and appropriate use are faced in and the General Land Office of the Depart- an appropriate manner. Particular attention ment of the Interior had a significant role to should be given to the potential of foreign play in the development of Federal preserva- tourism, and the possibilities of international tion. In 1889, the Congress of the United States collaboration (Fejérdy, 1995). took the first action toward the establishment of a Federal archaeological reservation; this 9.1.4 The preservation movement in the was to preserve the lands embracing the USA prehistoric ruin called Casa Grande in south- ern Arizona. On 8 June 1906, the archaeolog- In the United States, the romanticized history ical interests resulted in the Antiquities Act, of early settlers was reflected by Washington which authorized the President to establish Irving and James Fenimore Cooper, and some national monuments by proclamation on voices to save historic places were raised in Federally owned lands in order to preserve the early nineteenth century, although most historic landmarks, historic or prehistoric struc- attempts failed to reach their objective. A tures, or other objects of scientific interest for turning point in the preservation movement the benefit of the nation.6 As a result of the was the campaign to save the residence of efforts of the veterans of the 1860s Civil War, President George Washington, Mount Vernon. a large number of battlefields were proclaimed In the late 1840s there were various plans national military parks authorized by an Act of concerning this site, including the proposal to Congress in 1890; other parks followed. While turn it into an asylum for disabled soldiers the first concern was mainly about Colonial or (1851). In December 1853, Miss Ann Pamela pre-Colonial buildings and sites, Henry Russell Cunningham addressed the women of the Hitchcock was the first to promote interest in South calling for the preservation of the house, nineteenth-century architecture then rapidly and in the same month the State Governor disappearing under modern development. His sent a message to the legislature for its protec- appeal of 1928 was echoed by some other tion. These events led to the foundation of the voices, and more publications diffused infor- Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association of the mation about preservation; the Architectural Union, 17 March 1856, and to a campaign to Record became one of the chief voices in this raise funds and to obtain the right of acquisi- campaign, later supported by the American tion of the property by the Association. The Society of Architectural Historians. example of Miss Cunningham’s association was followed by other ‘little old ladies in blue With the development of traffic and increase hair and tennis shoes’ attempting to reach of visitors, systematic management and admin- nation-wide dimension, or at least to save one istration of the properties became necessary. historic building. A humble log cabin, where In 1916, the Congress enacted legislation creat- Abraham Lincoln was supposed to have been ing the National Park Service as a bureau of born, was shown in an exhibition in Nashville the Department of the Interior with Stephen in 1897 and later preserved as a relic inside Mather as its first director.7 In 1935, the his memorial monument – although many Historic Sites Act was passed further clarifying doubts were expressed on its authenticity. The national policy and the responsibilities in home of President Jefferson, Monticello near preservation, and creating an Advisory Board Charlottesville, Virginia, was another building on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings and subject to a long legal battle for its acquisition Monuments. The National Park Service took an as a national property, concluded only in active role in guiding the preservation of 1923. historic properties in the United States, although its possibilities to interfere and its resources were limited. The Historic American

264 A History of Architectural Conservation (a) (b)

International influences and collaboration 265 (c) 1953 the Council and the Trust merged into the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Figure 9.22 (a) The archaeological area around the ruined Casa Grande in southern Arizona was established Experiences from European conservation as a Federal archaeological reservation in 1889. The and restoration were transmitted by lecturers remains of the house are protected under cover. (Photo: and writers to the United States, and also John P. O’Neill. HABS/HAER Collection, Prints and through direct contacts by American travellers Photographs Division, Library of Congress). (b) White with societies, museums and worksites in House Ruin in the National Park of Canyon de Chelly, England, France, Germany and Scandinavia. Arizona. (HABS/HAER Collection, Prints and William Sumner Appleton (1874–1947), Photographs Division, Library of Congress). (c) Totem founder and corresponding secretary of the Bight Community House, Ketchikan, ALaska. Society for the Preservation of New England (HABS/HAER Collection, Prints and Photographs Antiquities, made significant efforts in the early Division, Library of Congress) phase. He travelled in Europe and was in contact with SPAB, the English National Trust, the French Monuments historiques and the Skansen open-air museum in Stockholm. Appleton favoured the concepts of Ruskin and Morris, and became a pioneer in promoting restoration based on accurate recording and research even if his own restorations could contain conjectural elements (Hosmer, 1965: 236; Hosmer, 1981:998ff). The role of the National Park Service became more important as the main employer in restoration projects in the 1930s; it also became a major contributor to the definition of preser- vation policies in the United States. Charles W. Porter III, who advised on research and restoration policies, and Ronald F. Lee, later the chief historian of the Park Service, had both studied the English conservation movement and were aware of international Buildings Survey (HABS) was launched in Figure 9.23 Stratford Hall, Virginia, was restored by 1933 sponsored jointly by the Park Service, the architects Fiske Kimball and Erling Pedersen, sponsored American Institute of Architects and the Library by the Robert E. Lee Foundation. (Photo: Jack Boucher. of Congress. HABS/HAER Collection, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress) Since the travels of the English artist, Charles R. Ashbee, in the United States in 1901, the idea started maturing for a national organiza- tion to deal with the preservation of private properties on the lines of the English National Trust (Hosmer, 1965:94, 255, 302). Finally, in 1947, this resulted in the creation of the National Council for Historic Sites and Buildings. The task of the new organization was to mobilize sentiment and opinion, to inform about the needs and methods of preservation, to examine and support specific projects, and to conduct research and surveys. The Council soon turned to the establishment of a National Trust for Historic Preservation chartered by an Act of Congress in 1949. In

266 A History of Architectural Conservation initiatives such as the Athens declaration of building might have contained (Perry, 1935). 1931. Restoration activities under the guidance Moving-in old houses from nearby commun- of the Park Service started in 1933, including ities or designing ‘representative’ replicas was Stratford Hall sponsored by the Robert E. Lee therefore not possible. Restorations and recon- Foundation, and restored by Fiske Kimball and structions had to be based on ‘authentic’ Erling Pedersen. Other major restorations in the documents, either found in archives, such as 1930s included the reconstruction of the ruined drawings, descriptions, paintings, photographs, buildings at the Mission La Purissima Con- and on the site itself as revealed in archae- ception, in Lompoc, California, as well as the ological surveys. Rockefeller himself had a stabilization of the architectural remains as keen interest in the architectural aspects of ruins and development of a museum at the restoration, and emphasized this aim even in Tumacori National Monument in Arizona. Each archaeological excavations. The consulting site presented new problems, which had to be architects to the project included Fiske discussed and decided ad hoc, but through Kimball and Lawrence Kocher, editor of the these works experience was gradually gathered Architectural Record. to face the questions on a more systematic basis. Kimball insisted on retaining important buildings of later date, and there was a shift The first major project and the first real to enlarge the scope to what was ‘known or school in restoration in the United States was believed to have existed’ in Williamsburg Colonial Williamsburg, which started in 1928– between 1699 and 1840; this would permit 29 and was forced to define restoration in visitors to see the architectural development of practice. Williamsburg was the capital city of the community (Hosmer, 1981:963). Post- Colonial Virginia from 1699 to 1780, and Greek-revival buildings were not considered played an important role in a crucial phase of suitable to the ideal picture of the colonial the country’s development. In 1776 it was the town. Both Kimball and Kocher insisted on place where the Virginia Convention passed having new materials clearly marked as in resolutions urging the declaration of indepen- England. It was preferred to retain original dence. The promoter of the idea of restoring material even if this was more expensive than the eighteenth-century colonial aspect to the building new, but with time ancient tech- town was Rev. William Archer Rutherford niques were relearnt such as making and Goodwin (–1939). In 1924 he met with John laying eighteenth-century bricks. The question D. Rockefeller, Jr and with members of the of historical accuracy was raised in relation to Henry Ford family. In 1926, the Colonial the 1732 entrance pavilion in the Wren Build- Dames of America contributed to the restora- ing, which did not please some architects, tion of the Wythe House; later the same year who wished to improve its aesthetics. On the Goodwin reached an agreement with Rocke- basis of archaeological and historical evidence feller, obtaining a fund for the study, with this was kept, however, because it was architect William G. Perry, of a restoration thought that invention would have defeated scheme and for the initial acquisition of some restoration. properties. Goodwin dreamed of restoring the town as the ‘unspoiled’ capital of Colonial In the restoration of interiors preference was Virginia, seeing its educational potential, and given to the use of original or original type of aiming at representativity. The works started panelling rather than elements brought in from the following year, in 1928 (Hosmer, 1976). other buildings. Curators used inventories and other documents to define the furnishings, but It was soon realized that research was when no documents were available, work was essential in order not to end up with a ‘movie based on similar buildings of the same period. set’. When the study proceeded, the academic Historical ‘accuracy’ was brought to the point nature of the problem became even more that in the Courthouse where no documentary apparent. It was understood that it was impor- evidence was found that columns would have tant to retain what was original even when this supported the pediment in the eighteenth did not correspond to previously fixed ideals century, it was decided to remove those added of beauty, to give priority to authenticity rather later. By 1933, the first phase of restorations than to embellishments that one hoped a was concluded, and it became necessary to

International influences and collaboration 267 Figure 9.24 The Wren Building in Williamsburg was a case study for the question of historical accuracy. The restoration raised a conflict between historical and aesthetic values. (Photo: Jack Boucher. HABS/HAER Collection, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress) assess the work done so far; it was also indis- areas with a ‘Disneyland syndrome’ (G. McCue pensable to provide facilities for visitors. The in Timmons, 1976:357). Such areas easily be- model of Williamsburg became an important came targets for commercial tourism, pro- influence on restoration practice and ‘period ducing an environment which was far from a restoration’ – in the United States as well as living district. In due time, this tendency was abroad. Goodwin himself and his team of counter-acted and the concept of architectural architects and experts were continuously heritage was widened to include living historic consulted for similar projects. Newspapers and areas. In 1972, ‘historic districts’ were defined magazines, such as Architectural Record, by William J. Murtagh as ‘areas that impact House and Garden and National Geographic, human consciousness with a sense of time and published information about restored buildings place’ (Timmons, 1976:388). and diffused the fashion of eighteenth-century interiors and ‘Williamsburg colour schemes’, During the 1930s and 1940s, historical even if the ‘neatness’ and the idealized picture groups started joining forces to save whole of history were criticized.8 districts, and rapidly this new preservation effort was accepted in historic communities all With the development of the activities of the through the country. An early example was National Park Service, particular attention was Charleston, where the first zoning ordinance given to educational policies and programmes, was given in 1931 (Hosmer, 1981:232). At the and Colonial Williamsburg became a classic same time, several state governments included example for these activities. It was considered preservation objectives into their programmes important to use trained professional staff to although not yet systematically. Pennsylvania conduct educational programmes, to carry out created a historical commission as early as research for dependable facts, to use field 1913. More organized efforts came after the trips, lectures, exhibits and literature to make Second World War with a growing number of the sites understandable to the public, and to historic districts, including Philadelphia, encourage visitors to study the genuine origi- Annapolis, Savannah and Providence. A water- nal rather than using second-hand information. shed for historic preservation was the 1966 However, this emphasis on heritage interpre- National Historic Preservation Act at the tation could also become one-sided. In 1963, Federal level. In this act, Congress authorized Ada Louise Huxtable detected a tendency, the Federal Government to give maximum which could be seen as disturbing and encouragement to agencies and individuals, as counterproductive (Huxtable, 1963): the term well as to assist state and local governments ‘historic district’ had come to mean a treatment and the National Trust for Historic Preservation similar to Williamsburg thus creating museum in expanding and accelerating their historic

268 A History of Architectural Conservation programmes and activities, and creating a a new set of principles and guidelines Presidential Advisory Council on Historic published by the National Trust the same year Preservation. The Secretary of the Interior was (Williamsburg, 1967). In 1972, there was an authorized to develop a grants-in-aid pro- international meeting in Williamsburg, gramme for the states and the National Trust. organized jointly with ICCROM to discuss the principles and practices of preservation and The establishment of policy guidelines conservation, and especially interdisciplinary remained with the Federal agencies. In the first collaboration (Timmons, 1976). decades of its activities, the Park Service had little direct impact on the activities of other The Advisory Council for Historic Preserva- institutions or restorations. After 1933, however, tion continued developing preservation policy, when the Park Service was made directly and the results were published by the responsible for a great number of historic sites, Secretary of the Interior as the Standards for it was seen necessary to provide guidelines for Historic Preservation Projects, including the this task. In 1938, the Advisory Board recom- Standards for Rehabilitation and the Guide- mended a policy statement that was adopted lines for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings,11 by the Park Service. This document took into which broadened the attention from major consideration the various aspects of cultural landmarks and monuments to historic build- heritage, and was aware of the possibility of ings and historic areas in general. The new conflicting judgements according to the empha- concepts, which were thus introduced, sis laid on them, such as aesthetic, archaeo- included the concept of ‘rehabilitation’, which logical, scientific and educational aspects. Too emphasized the need to provide a compatible much emphasis on educational motives often use for historic structures, while recognizing led to the re-constitution of the object, but satis- the need for restoration activities at the same fying scholarly demands too rigidly might leave time: ‘Rehabilitation means the process of the monument with insufficient interpretation to returning a property to a state of utility, the public of its major historical aspects; too through repair or alteration, which makes much attention to aesthetic unity or original possible an efficient contemporary use while intentions, instead, might not be compatible preserving those portions and features of the with the values of the present weathered and property which are significant to its historic, picturesque state (Lee, 1951:34). architectural, and cultural values.’ One can detect a criticism of previous restorations, and In order to reach a proper judgement in an effort was made to guide treatments toward each case, it was recommended that ‘the more respect for historic phases rather than ultimate guide must be the tact and judgement restoring the ‘original’ state, as had often been of the men in charge’. Decisions should be the case. The guidelines were addressed to based on documentary evidence and priority individual property owners to help them in the given to the preservation of genuine old work rehabilitation and preservation of historic of different periods rather than restoration or structures. Concerning local building code reconstruction to the form of a single period. requirements it was recommended that these It was noted that preservation and restoration be applied in such a manner that the essen- usually required a slower pace than modern tial character of a building be preserved intact, work.9 These guidelines reflect a spirit not and when necessary alternative safety meas- dissimilar to the recommendations of the ures should be looked for so as not to damage Athens meeting of 1931 or the 1938 Italian the building. guidelines. In 1963, the National Trust co- sponsored a seminar in Colonial Williamsburg An important contribution toward a new to discuss the policy of historic preservation in sensitivity in the built environment was made the United States.10 The following year, two by Jane Jacobs in her The Death and Life of members of the Trust, Dr Charles W. Porter III Great American Cities, which provoked many and Charles E. Peterson, attended the inter- to look at their surroundings with new eyes. national congress which produced the Venice However, also the ability to visit European Charter, and the principles were revised countries and to see the efforts made there for accordingly. In 1967, Colonial Williamsburg the survival of historic cities and monuments hosted another meeting on policy resulting in made young architects perceive the measure

International influences and collaboration 269 of their isolation from their roots, and think what could be done in America. One of the travellers was James Marston Fitch (Fitch, 1981), who was conscious that throughout its formative years the preservation movement had been in the hands of laymen; according to him there was little or no contact with professional architects and town planners. On the contrary, these professions were fascinated by the modern movement, and were often responsible for the destruction of the heritage. In the mid-1960s he was involved in initiating the Historic Preservation programme at Colum- bia University, the first in the United States – and one of the earliest in the world. The aim was to encourage students of different disci- plines to communicate and to work together, Figure 9.25 (a) Interior of St James-the-Less, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (Photo: Jack Boucher. HABS/HAER, National Park Service). (b) South elevation of St James-the-Less, Philadelphia. The drawing is made according to the standards established by the Historic American Buildings Survey. (HABS/HAER, National Park Service)

270 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.26 The Mixer Ruins in Ensley, Birmingham, Alabama, are an example of protected industrial heritage in the USA. The site belonged to Tennessee Coal and Iron Company and was active from 1899 to 1980. (Photo: Jett Lowe. HABS/HAER Collection, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress) as well as to put the participants in contact Sasanian and Parthian architecture (Pirnia, with artisans and with building sites so as to 1971). Persepolis and ancient rock carvings of learn to intervene personally when necessary. Persia became places for ceremonial visits.12 The first European to speak about Persepolis 9.1.5 Iran was Friar Odoricus di Pordenone who visited the site in 1325. After much devastation, a new The Achaemenid dynasty of Cyrus, Darius and era started in the sixteenth century under the Xerxes (6th to 4th BC) brought the ‘Land of the rule of the Safavids with the construction of Aryans’ to a leading position in the region, and fabulous palaces, mosques and cities such as Persepolis became the symbol of the greatness Isfahan, the capital of Shah Abbas of Persia. Its palaces were burnt in 330 BC by (1589–1627). The European interest in the the order of Alexander the Great to destroy Orient and its ancient monuments, such as the Persian identity, although, at the same Persepolis, Babylon and Baalbek, increased in time, he showed respect in front of the tomb the seventeenth century, leading to the devel- of Cyrus, taking action for its repair. The opment of Orientalism.13 Descriptions re- arrival of Islam in AD 640 brought major mained unsystematic though until J. B. Fraser’s changes, but there remained an interest in the geological survey of eastern Persia and his past; during the Abbasid caliphate (750–821), account of Islamic buildings. Later visitors the traditions of Chivalry and the deeds of included Lord Curzon, who wrote extensively Rostam were collected by Ferdowsi (935– about the country, its culture, Persepolis and 1020/6) in the Shahnameh (Book of Kings) other Achaemenid and Sasanid ruins, in 1889. that became the Persian national epic. In the ninth and tenth centuries the Buyids led the Archaeological activities, excavations and development to an Iranian renaissance; the records were started in the nineteenth century, Persian language became the second language principally by Europeans: the British worked of Islam and excelled in literature and poetry; in Naqsh-i Rustam in 1811–18, in Bisotun historians and geographers wrote descriptions 1836–41 and in Susa 1851–53; the French of cities and buildings and attention was given worked in Iran from the 1840s, others arrived to recording inscriptions. Construction styles later. Arthur Upham Pope’s (1881–1969) and followed earlier examples in a revival of Roman Ghirshman’s (b.1895) studies of Persian art and architecture are of great significance. One of the foremost Iranian architectural histo-

International influences and collaboration 271 Figure 9.27 Iran, the archaeological site of Persepolis, where conservation and restoration works have continued in the 1980s and 1990s without interruption. The purpose has been to re-erect and display existing doorways and columns rians has been Professor M. K. Pirnia (1920– architect André Godard, who also designed 97), who studied the traditional structural the new Iran Bastan museum (1937). In 1930, forms and architectural styles. The early times a law was passed concerning the preservation are marked with the loss of important archae- of national antiquities before the end of the ological finds abroad. With the Pahlavi Zend dynasty (1794), and in 1932 rules were Dynasty in the 1920s, there was a more approved for its application.14 The state took organized national approach to the study and 50 per cent of the finds, the rest could be kept the protection of historic sites. In 1925, sacred by the institute responsible for the excavation. places were opened to foreign researchers, (This rule was only abolished in 1971.) All and in 1928 the Archaeological Survey of Iran restoration works and changes to the was founded under the direction of the French monument or its immediate surroundings had Figure 9.28 The monumental square of Isfahan, Meidan-i Naqsh-i Jahân, was planned at the time of Shah Abbas (1589–1627) as a crucial point linking the old part of Isfahan to the new town planning scheme. The shop fronts have been rebuilt on the basis of archaeological evidence, and the square has been redesigned for pedestrian use in the 1990s. The site is on the World Heritage List

272 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.29 The dome of the mosque of Mâdar-i Shah in Isfahan is an example of restoration in the traditional manner. Broken tiles are renewed at reasonable intervals thus maintaining the architectural appearance intact to be approved by the Ministry of Education from time to time covering the ancient struc- (Smith, 1939; Iran–Unesco, 1969; Paone, 1977). ture (Tilia, 1972:3). The first modern restora- tions in Persepolis were carried out by the Early restorations included interventions in Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago the Friday Mosque of Isfahan, in 1935, and in under the direction of Professor Ernst other public monuments in Isfahan, Gazvin, Herzfeld starting in 1931, and later under the Kashan and Yazd. The traditional way of direction of Professor Erich Schmidt. Works repairing the palaces of Persepolis was to cut were carried out to protect parts of the palace, out the defective part to insert new stone and restorations included some floor repairs material of the same kind. Cracks were and replacement of sculptural details in stone. repaired by inserting iron clamps bedded in Damaged and cracked areas were repaired in lead. Wooden parts were generally replaced cement. Mud brick walls were protected with when decayed, walls and floors were renewed

International influences and collaboration 273 Figure 9.30 Traditional replacement of tiles at the culture could be protected under the law. entrance to the Masjid-i Shah, today Masjid-i Imam of From 1964 to 1972, the works in Persepolis Isfahan were entrusted to the Italian Institute of the Middle and Far East (IsMEO), under Professor layers of mud and straw, and reinforced by Giuseppe Tucci and the Italian Ministry of burning the edges. Foreign Affairs.16 At the same time excavations and restorations were carried out in the In 1964, in a reorganization the Archaeo- monuments of Naqsh-i Rustam, Pasargadae logical Survey came under the jurisdiction of and Dorudzan. The project was organized in the Ministry of Culture and Arts as the General collaboration with the Ministry of Culture and Office for Archaeology. In the different regions Arts and Archaeological Department of Iran, of the country, collection of data was carried and one of the aims was to train a team of out by regional offices of culture and arts. In restoration specialists and craftsmen. The 1965, the Ministry established the National guidelines for the restoration work were Organization for the Conservation of Historic elaborated by Professor Giuseppe Zander, Monuments, which worked through regional who insisted on accurate archaeological study, offices in the different parts of the country.15 prevention of further decay, and on secure In 1973, the date limiting protection of historic evidence in restorations according to the monuments was removed, and all historic Italian guidelines. All material and restoration structures considered important to history and works were documented and published (Zander, 1968). After the Islamic Revolution, the Iranian parliament approved, in 1985, a new law for the conservation of cultural heritage, and the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization (ICHO, Sàzmân-e Mirâs-e Farhanghi-e Keshvar), first directed by Mehdi Hodjat, President, and Baqer Shirazi, Vice President. The ICHO provided a basis for the coordination of all heritage activities within one organization, including survey, research and inventory, as well as planning and execution of conserva- tion and restoration works. The headquarters Figure 9.31 The traditional mountain village of Massule in northern Iran has remained outside commercial routes, and is currently under protection for its cultural values

274 A History of Architectural Conservation of ICHO and specialized offices (museums, temples, shrines and cities, such as the Sun monuments, palaces, traditional arts, etc.) are Temple of Konarak, the caves of Ajanta and placed in Tehran, and each province has its Elephanta, Fatehpur Sikri and Taj Mahal. Some own regional office to look after all aspects of of these sites were visited by Europeans, who heritage (Soheil, 1995). The new organization admired the achievements in Mughal architec- has allowed for better use of resources and ture. The English landscape painter William available expertise, such as the workshops of Hodges (1744–97) described Taj Mahal in Isfahan on ceramics and Persepolis on stone. 1789: ‘The whole appears like a most perfect ICHO is also able to participate in the national pearl on an azure ground. The effect is such, and provincial planning commissions with a I confess, I never experienced any work of veto on historic areas, and a central research art.’18 In certain cases, the temples could have laboratory was established in Tehran. new uses; such was the case at the Elephanta Particular attention was given to the develop- caves, where Lord Valentia observed in 1804 ment of appropriate training strategies. that the figures in a temple were perfectly Academic training in the field of conservation preserved due to the fact that the Portuguese dates from 1976 at the Farabi University in had transformed it into a church and painted Isfahan. Such earlier initiatives were reorgan- it red. The former audience hall of a Rajah in ized within an overall structure, including his Palace at Madura had deteriorated to the specialized courses for technicians, university degree that it was little more than a shelter for degree and PhD research programmes for cattle at the end of the eighteenth century, conservation specialists (Isfahan and Tehran), even though it was later repaired and used as as well as specialized training for students in government offices and law courts by the architecture (Vatandoust, 1994). British. With the growing interest in ancient monuments in Europe, and especially the 9.1.6 India development of the picturesque movement in England, artists started travelling to India in The Indian subcontinent is the home of some the last quarter of the eighteenth century. The of the world’s oldest and most influential most impact was made by Thomas Daniell civilizations with a rich cultural heritage distin- (1749–1840) and his nephew William guished by its antiquity and its great variety.17 (1769–1837), travelling from 1786 to 1794. On The establishment of the Mughal Empire in the their return in England, they published several north of India, 1526–1761, had great national series of views of landscapes, historic sites and and international importance. The third architecture, including a series of twelve views emperor, Akbar the Great (ruled 1556–1605), on Indian antiquities dedicated to the Society placed all religions at an equal level, and of Antiquaries. generated a social and political revolution that enabled the country to achieve unprecedented One of the first statements in favour of the unity and progress. There was a long tradition study of Indian antiquities was by Dr Samuel of town planning guidelines in ancient scrip- Johnson who in 1774 encouraged the tures, and special skills existed for different Governor General of Fort William to have the tasks from planning to execution traditions and histories of the East examined (Venkataramana, 1956). Many of these rules and surveyed. This wish found concrete and norms were, however, defeated with the response in the founding of the Asiatic Society invasion of Huns, the introduction of Islam, of Bengal in 1784 by Sir William Jones and the arrival of Europeans. The British (1746–1794), British lawyer and Orientalist, supremacy over India was declared in 1818. who was judge to the Supreme Court in After the Second World War the subcontinent Bengal in 1783. The aim of the society was to was divided in two independent countries, encourage studies in the history, the antiqui- India and Pakistan. ties, arts, sciences and literature of Asia, and it published a journal, Asiatic Researches, The architectural heritage of India has marking the beginning of a systematic greatly suffered as a result of many battles and research. The society also started a conserva- wars. However, there still remained ancient tion movement that led to growing awareness of Indian culture, discovery and publication of

International influences and collaboration 275 ancient monuments, and study of Indian archi- steps towards the protection and restoration of tecture (Rau, 1981; Thakur, 1986). ancient monuments at the national level were taken after the British Crown had taken over The collections of the maharajas and the government of India. The Archaeological temples were not made in the modern sense, Survey of India was founded 1860 for the but were objects dedicated to divinities. The northern part of the subcontinent, and ten Society of Bengal was the first to initiate years later for the central parts. The first collection of antiquities on the sites of ancient Director of the Archaeological Survey was monuments, where architectural fragments, Alexander Cunningham of the Royal inscriptions and other antiquities could be Engineers, one of the scholars trained by the kept in custody. In 1814, the Society donated Asiatic Society. He initiated a fruitful period of its collection to the first museum of India research and documentation, travelling around founded in Calcutta as the Indian Museum, the country and producing 23 volumes as which had its own building in 1875. The next Archaeological Survey of India Reports on museum was founded in Madras, in 1851. Of ancient monuments. The conservation of special interest here were decorative sculp- monuments was, however, left to the respon- tures from the Stupa of Amaravati and other sibility of local administrations, who were Buddhist monuments, which had been reused scarcely prepared for this task; in 1884, the in the construction of dams and roads, and care of monuments was assigned to provincial were discovered and collected by the British. governments. Major H. H. Cole, who had The Prince of Wales Museum of Western India already worked in Lahore, Delhi and Agra, was established in Bombay as a result of the was appointed Inspector of Ancient Monu- visit by the Prince in 1905. Smaller museums ments for three years, and produced a series were established in a number of other cities, of preliminary reports on all the important and the archaeological sites themselves were monuments. In 1873, the Royal Asiatic Society gradually formed into open-air museums with recommended proper classification of monu- their traditional Moghul gardens and land- ments and the use of trained officers for their scapes. conservation. An example of early interests in protection When the 1st Marquis Curzon of Kedleston is the Sun Temple of Konarak; in 1806, the (1859–1925) was Viceroy he was responsible Marine Board requested measures to be taken for the start of a new era in the protection of against the removal of stones from the temple, ancient monuments in India. A graduate of known as the ‘Black Pagoda’, and to ascertain Oxford University, he was appointed under- the cost for the preservation of the building. secretary of state for India in 1891, and The initiative was justified mainly by the fact Viceroy of India from 1898 to 1905. Curzon that the temple served as an essential land- took a keen personal interest in the ancient mark for ships on the shallow coast. Although sites, visiting them frequently, and giving the Governor General did not agree funding instructions about repair and conservation. He for preservation work, steps were taken to admired the Taj Mahal, and made a special prevent moving the stones (Mitra, 1986:15). contribution towards its restoration. A number From 1838, the Asiatic Society of Bengal of artisans were trained to cut marble and to started promoting protection of the temple repair the damages that had been caused by with scarce results, although some fragments visitors who had taken fragments from the were placed in a museum in Calcutta. In 1900, monument as souvenirs. The cracks caused by the temple area was excavated unearthing earthquakes were consolidated, and marble other buildings not previously known. surfaces were polished. The ancient garden Subsequently, restorations were carried out layout was excavated, and flowers and trees and in 1905 the porch interior was filled with were replanted also to improve the access. soil to avoid collapse.19 Curzon was proud of his work on the Taj Mahal, and wrote later: ‘If I had never done In 1800, Samuel Buchanan undertook a anything else in India, I have written my name topographical survey in Eastern India; and in here, and the letters are a living joy’ (Carrol, 1810, the Bengal Government gave the first 1972:134). regulation for the protection of monuments, followed in 1817 by one in Madras. The first

276 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.32 The mausoleum of Taj Mahal and the surrounding garden were restored during Lord Curzon’s government in the early twentieth century In 1902, he decided to reorganize the Figure 9.33 Detail of Taj Mahal showing the delicate Archaeological Survey, and Dr John Marshall hand work in marble was nominated the Director General, initiating an active period in excavation and explor- to assist the officers of the Archaeological ation, in the conservation of monuments, and Survey in their daily work. Concerning the the various fields of research. Conservation of principles of conservation, Marshall wrote: ancient monuments became one of the prin- cipal responsibilities of the Archaeological Although there are many ancient buildings Survey, and two conservation departments whose state of disrepair suggests at first sight a with appropriate personnel were created, renewal, it should never be forgotten that their Frontier Circle and the Northern Circle. The historical value is gone when their authenticity works were reported regularly in Annual is destroyed, and that our first duty is not to Reports.20 In 1904, the government passed the renew them but to preserve them. When, there- Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, the first fore, repairs are carried out, no effort should be act for India.21 Major reforms were made in spared to save as many parts of the original as 1919 and 1935 which reinforced the status and possible, since it is to the authenticity of the old the protection of ancient monuments. Sir John parts that practically all the interest attaching to Marshall created a sound and uniform basis for the new will owe itself. Broken or half decayed the legislative framework. original work is of infinitely more value than the Curzon continued his interest in the Indian heritage even after he had returned to England, and was in correspondence with Thackeray Turner, Secretary of SPAB, to discuss appropriate restoration principles. At the end, the SPAB accepted that ‘Indian build- ings were on a different footing from Euro- pean mediaeval buildings, because whereas in Europe all mediaeval traditions have died out, in India the building traditions are, to some extent, still alive’ (Turner to Marshall in 1910, in Linstrum, 1995:7). SPAB continued to have considerable influence on the aims of conser- vation action as reflected in the Conservation Manual (1923) published by Sir John Marshall

International influences and collaboration 277 Figure 9.34 Fatahpur Sikri, India, is a magnificent site which remained abandoned shortly after construction in the sixteenth century; it is currently on the World Heritage List Figure 9.35 Problems of planning control and protection in the historic city of Hyderabad, in 1979 smartest and most perfect new work. (Marshall, repaired, and floral designs only exceptionally. 1923:9f) Historic evidence should never be obscured. Historic gardens could be restored keeping Much attention was given to maintaining their original character but without being too ancient monuments as ‘undisturbed’ as pos- pedantic. In ‘living monuments’, i.e. historic sible; modern elements were to be hidden buildings still used for original purpose, more rather than differentiated. In cave temples, restoration was acceptable than in the case of new masonry should be made with as ‘incon- ruins. It was recommended, however, that any spicuous’ joints as possible, new work could such work should be clearly stated by the also be artificially stained if this was in the responsible officer in the Annual Reports. character of the site. Fallen figures or images Concerning religious buildings, the agreement should not be re-erected unless there was to protect them under the Ancient Monuments certainty that the image had been there ori- Preservation Act could be terminated subject ginally; human figures should never be to due notice given by the owner. Particular

278 A History of Architectural Conservation reservations were therefore made on spending climate and other causes of decay, the build- money on their maintenance or repair, and the ings required regular care and repair in order Manual recommends a clause to be inserted in to remain in use. Through experience, build- the listing agreement, according to which any ing technologies were adapted and developed moneys spent by the government should be in order to facilitate the necessary dismantling refunded by the owner if the protection ended and replacement or repair of decayed (Marshall, 1923:10). elements. This included the development, since the twelfth century, of the techniques of After the independence of India, in 1947, the kiku (a technique to design the eaves and to Monuments Act was amended to correspond to position the rafters) and kiwari (system of the new constitutional requirements; the proportions), which are unique for Japan and Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites can allow for an exact identification of the Act of 1958 was similar to the law of 1904, but original design concept (Larsen, 1994:109). it gave greater powers to the Archaeological Buildings could thus be easily dismantled Survey of India. In Pakistan, similarly, an either partially or completely for purposes of Ancient Monuments Preservation Amendments repair; for example, the Hokki-ji three-storied Ordinance was given in 1962, and new acts in pagoda, built in the late seventh or early 1968 and 1975. A list of protected monuments eighth century, had partial repairs in the was maintained by each Archaeological twelfth, fifteenth, eighteenth and nineteenth Superintendent responsible for their mainte- centuries, and complete dismantling in the nance and for yearly reports on their condi- thirteenth, seventeenth and twentieth centu- tion. Monuments had to be inspected at least ries. As a result of such traditions, the build- yearly. Priority in using government funds was ings could be kept in use for long periods of given to the preservation of as many monu- time, although through the repair process ments as possible; any repairs should be there was a gradual loss of original material carried out only if really necessary and if especially externally and in the upper parts. special funds were available for this purpose. (In the case of this pagoda the loss was about However, annual maintenance was to be 50 per cent.) Partly, such loss can also be due carried out so as to avoid major interventions. to changes made in different periods (Larsen, The establishment and development of the 1994:11f). Another question is the ritual recon- National Conservation Laboratory in Lucknow struction of Shinto shrines, a practice assumed under the direction of O.P. Agrawal from the to go back to the end of the seventh century. 1970s was an important step towards greater The last such reconstruction was accomplished autonomy in scientific research and capacity with the Ise Jingû shrine, rebuilt at twenty-year building. With the gradual industrialization and intervals for the sixty-first time in 1993. Apart population growth in urban centres, historic from an interruption during the period of civil cities came under growing pressure to expand wars in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, both horizontally and vertically. After the such reconstructions were common in presti- Second World War, this became a major gious monasteries. One interpretation is as a problem. In the 1980s, some Urban Planning reflection of life cycle in agricultural society. Authorities such as Hyderabad, and the estab- Another is related to the origins of Shinto lishment of the Indian National Trust for Art traditions, when no permanent temples existed and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), have and when temporary shrines were built for provided a forum for discussing this problem, deities on special occasions. and have encouraged professional planners to penetrate the problem, study specific historic After a relatively long isolation, Japan areas, and propose solutions, both for the opened to foreigners in the middle of the general control of cities, and for the conserva- nineteenth century. In 1868, there began a tion of historic areas in particular. period of social and political changes that returned power to the imperial throne. This 9.1.7 Japan Meiji period of restoration had the slogan of return to antiquity, but it also marked the Until the nineteenth century, Japanese build- introduction of new issues including western ings were almost entirely of wood. Due to the architectural and town planning concepts;

International influences and collaboration 279 Figure 9.36 Kasuga Shrine near Nara, Japan, was founded during the Nara period in the eighth century, but the present form of this Shinto shrine results from a reconstruction in 1863. (Kasuga Shrine management) Figure 9.37 The roof of the Kasuga Shrine being rebuilt during recent restoration (c. 1994). (Kasuga Shrine management) such issues were introduced selectively and objects (Larsen, 1994:31). In 1871, the govern- according to their usefulness and suitability to ment issued a decree for the protection of Japanese society (Jinnai, 1995). Amongst other antiquities and the preparation of inventories, issues, there was a new approach to cultural followed by funds for maintenance (1880). In heritage. The increased interest in industry and 1897, the government passed the Ancient development led to the impoverishment of Shrines and Temples Preservation Act allow- traditional Buddhist and Shinto institutions, the ing listing of historic shrines and temples for decay of temples and export of valuable protection, and state contributions for their

280 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.38 The Buddhist temple in Nara, Horyu-ji, where eventual restoration is based on the principle of replacement of decayed or rotten elements care. The Minister of Home Affairs (later Figure 9.39 Detail of a former repair of the Buddhist Education) was advised in the listing process temple of Cyojuji. The date and signature of the repair by the Commission for the Preservation of have been inscribed inside the new element Ancient Shrines and Temples, and the number of listed properties reached 1116 by 1929. The main criteria for listing were ‘artistic superior- ity’, and ‘value as historical evidence and wealth of historical associations’, but also age had an important role (Sekino, 1929:7f). In 1919, a law was passed for Historic Sites, Places of Scenic Beauty and Natural Monu- ments. In 1929, the Preservation of National Treasures Act replaced the 1897 act, extend- ing the coverage to castles, mansions and private residences. After the Golden Hall of Hôryû-ji temple in Nara was destroyed in fire in 1949,22 the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties (1950) with subsequent provisions further broadened the scope of legal protection, including intangible cultural properties (related to performing arts or applied arts), folk-cultural properties (tangible and intangible), tangible cultural properties (buildings, etc.), historic sites, places of scenic beauty and natural monuments. Preservation districts for groups of historic buildings were included in 1975.23 It is characteristic of Japanese conservation policy to have regard to both physical and intangible properties. Considering that the question is mainly about objects and structures in wood, the policy implies that their preser- vation is not conceivable without keeping up

International influences and collaboration 281 Figure 9.40 The historic town of Imai-cho, near Nara, is an example of an urban group of buildings protected on the basis of Japanese law the skills required for continuous maintenance Japan acted as host to the international expert and repair. Knut-Einar Larsen has noted that meeting on authenticity in the context of the the European value concepts and preservation World Heritage Convention of UNESCO in theories were adopted in Japan at the end of December 1994 (Inaba, 1995; Larsen, 1995). the nineteenth century, and that was a The Japanese approach to continuity of tradi- moment when concepts of stylistic restoration tions was clearly emphasized in the final were still dominant; however, these ideas were document, which stated: ‘All cultures and ‘not only imported and imitated, but the societies are rooted in the particular forms and Japanese have gradually transformed them in means of tangible and intangible expression such a way as to suit Japan’s natural and which constitute their heritage, and these cultural conditions’ (Larsen, 1994:155). Further- should be respected’ (par. 7). This approach more, Larsen sees the present policy to consist may well show new directions for safeguard- of an amalgam of two phenomena: continua- ing cultural heritage in the broadest sense. It tion of age-old traditions of craftsmanship and may help to establish links with the traditional technical knowledge, and use of scientific world while heading to a new and sustainable research methods. One could add that the relationship with existing building traditions Japanese approach is characterized by a and the environment. challenge for perfection. This is reflected in the conscious choice – within the limits of 9.2 International collaboration documented knowledge – to aim at the aes- thetically most perfect form of a historic build- The concept of a universal heritage developed ing. Such choice is made feasible by the need gradually during the eighteenth and nineteenth for dismantling as an essential part of the centuries, and came to reach a formal expres- repair process. At the same time, the purpose sion in international agreements and conven- is to safeguard the maximum amount of tions. Already in the eighteenth century, genuine historical material, and to use modern Emmerich de Vattel (1714–67), a Swiss jurist, technology so far as necessary. in Le droit des gens (The Law of Nations, 1758), touched on the question of works of Japan forms a case, which in its uniqueness art being the common heritage of humankind, represents a serious search for a modern and the consequences of this concept in approach to safeguarding cultural heritage in warfare. He maintained that ‘for whatever a particular cultural context. One of the key cause a country is ravaged, we ought to spare issues in this search is the question of ‘authen- ticity’ as was demonstrated by the fact that

282 A History of Architectural Conservation those edifices, which do honour to human the case of sieges and bombardments, ‘all society, and do not contribute to increase the necessary steps must be taken to spare as far enemy’s strength, such as temples, tombs, as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, public buildings, and all works of remarkable science, . . . historic monuments’ (The Hague beauty’ (de Vattel, 1844:367ff; Williams, Convention, 1907, art. 55). 1978:6). This question was brought to a test in the case of Napoleon who took to France, 9.2.1 The First World War on the basis of different treaties, works of art from occupied territories, especially Italy and Unfortunately, this document was not suffi- the German states. When he had been cient to prevent cultural disasters during the defeated, these countries insisted on having First World War (1914–18), such as burning their treasures back, because they claimed the important University Library of Louvain in they had been obtained contrary to all the Belgium in August 1914, the bombardment of rules of warfare. A similar question was raised, Rheims Cathedral in France, or the many although without result, concerning the Greek historic buildings and towns in Central marbles that Lord Elgin had taken from Europe. Due to a general outcry, these disas- Athens, and which had been declared to be ters were recognized at an official level and, in British ownership by an Act of Parliament in 1914, the German army attached special ‘art (Williams, 1978:8). officers’ to military units to identify and protect cultural property. One of them was P. The principles expressed by de Vattel were Clemen, Conservator of Rhineland, who initi- followed in the United States of America, ated an inventory of damages.24 Belgium had where Dr Francis Lieber (1800–72), a jurist rapidly been occupied and had become a of German origin, drafted a Code for the theatre of warfare. Many historic towns, such Government of Armies, issued in 1863, for the as Dinant, Vise, Mechelen, Lier and Antwerp, codification of protection in the case of were seriously damaged. Ypres was warfare. Eleven years later, following the completely destroyed, and of Louvain, one- Franco-Prussian war (1870–71), Emperor eighth. The Belgian government in exile soon Alexander II of Russia called the first inter- initiated provisions for the restoration and national conference in Brussels to discuss this reconstruction of the damaged buildings and question. A Project of an International Decla- towns. According to a law of 1919, compen- ration Concerning the Laws and Customs of sation was guaranteed to all those who had War was adopted by the conference on 27 suffered damage. Destroyed public buildings August 1874 (Williams, 1978:16). In this were to be replaced by equivalent structures, document, culture was declared to belong to and historic monuments were to be rebuilt to the common heritage of mankind, artistic their pre-war appearance (Law of 10 May treasures once destroyed were considered 1919). The debate about the reconstruction of irreplaceable, and their cultural worth was Ypres moved in three directions; there were declared to be of value to all people, not just those who wanted to keep the ruins as a to the nation in whose territory they were memorial for the destruction, there were those situated. It was also proposed to design a who wanted to profit from the recent devel- visible sign to identify the buildings under opments in town-planning and prepared protection. This declaration remained on proposals for a garden city lay-out, and there paper, but in 1899 and 1907, conferences were were those who were concerned about the organized in The Hague for the preparation of symbolic value of the mediaeval city and an international convention. The occupying insisted on rebuilding it exactly as it had been state was here recommended to be regarded before the destruction. It was this third only ‘as administrator and usufructuary’ of the solution that was accepted in Ypres. Similarly, public buildings and estates belonging to the the Louvain University Library was rebuilt occupied country. Accordingly, it should exactly as it had been. Town houses were ‘safeguard the capital of these properties, and rebuilt by their owners – mostly as replicas, administer them in accordance with the rules but in some cases as a free composition of of usufruct, the right of temporary possession surviving elements.25 and use’. It was further recommended that, in

International influences and collaboration 283 Figure 9.41 The historic centre of Louvain, Belgium, suffered serious destruction in the First World War, and a large part of it was rebuilt after the war. The town hall (in the picture) survived in part, and was later restored. In France, where the damage and destruc- Commission des monuments historiques in tion in 1914 included Rheims and Soissons charge, listing of buildings was extended to cathedrals, the sixteenth-century Hotel de cover not only monuments but also historic Ville, the splendid Renaissance squares of areas, such as the hill of Vézelay with the Arras, and even the Nôtre-Dame of Paris, the church of La Madeleine. In 1932, there were country had to mobilize its forces for the 8100 listed historic buildings in France; out of restoration and reconstruction. Fortunately in these 3000 were churches. The supplementary many cases it had been possible to save list was rapidly increasing and, in 1934, it treasures from destruction by evacuating them contained 12 000 entries. In the post-war to safe places. In 1917, the Ministry of War restoration, there was no longer a question of had also protected the important stained-glass keeping strictly to conservation, but it was windows of the cathedrals of Rouen and necessary to accept the reconstruction of the Chartres. At the end of the war, with the destroyed parts of damaged buildings. This led

284 A History of Architectural Conservation necessarily to a reconsideration of both the The Conclusions of the conference stated: principles and the techniques applied. Much use was made of modern technology, and Whatever may be the variety of concrete cases, especially reinforced concrete. In ten years, each of which is open to a different solution, more than 700 buildings were restored or the Conference noted that there predominates in rebuilt (Verdier, 1934:195ff). the different countries represented a general tendency to abandon restorations in toto and to 9.2.2 The Athens meetings avoid the attendant dangers by initiating a system of regular and permanent maintenance At the end of the First World War, the 1919 calculated to ensure the preservation of the Paris Peace Conference gave birth to the buildings. When, as the result of decay or League of Nations, an organization for inter- destruction, restoration appears to be indispens- national cooperation with its offices in able, it recommends that the historic and artistic Geneva. Within the new organization was work of the past should be respected, without established the International Committee on excluding the style of any given period. The Intellectual Cooperation, which met for the Conference recommends that the occupation of first time in Geneva in 1922 under the presi- buildings, which ensures the continuity of their dency of Henri Bergson (1859–1941). life, should be maintained but that they should Considering the needs of cultural heritage, the be used for a purpose which respects their Committee decided to create the International historic or artistic character (art. 1). Museums Office, in 1926, located in Paris. Its activities included the publication of the Particular attention was given to the role of Mouseion periodical (since 1927), promotion community in safeguarding historic monu- of activities related to museums and the ments, and the question of extending appro- conservation of works of art, as well as the priate measures even to privately owned organization of international meetings. In properties and cases of emergency. It was con- October 1930, an international conference was sidered necessary to try to keep monuments in organized in Rome for the study of scientific their original location, and respect their pic- methods for the examination and preservation turesque character. The use of modern tech- of works of art (Mouseion, xiii, 1931:162ff). nology, such as reinforced concrete, was Another meeting was held in Athens from 21 approved, and it was preferred that modern re- to 30 October 1931 to discuss the problems inforcement be concealed in order to preserve related to the conservation of architectural the character of the monument. In the case of monuments. ruined structures, original fragments could be reinstated using the method of anastylosis; any The Athens meeting was chaired by Jules new material should be recognizable. Destrée, President of the International International co-operation was emphasized in Museums Office, and was attended by some order to strengthen the protection of historic 120 representatives of 23 countries mainly works of art, forming an international centre from Europe, including Paul Léon from France, for documentation, and promoting education Gustavo Giovannoni from Italy, Leopoldo of the general public. The conclusions were Torres Balbás from Spain, A-R. Powys and Sir forwarded to the attention of the International Cecil Harcourt-Smith from England. The Committee of Intellectual Cooperation and the sessions were oriented according to seven Member States of the League of Nations. Later major topics: doctrines and general principles, the conclusions have been called the ‘Athens administrative and legislative measures, Charter’, marking a significant change in the aesthetic enhancement, restoration materials, attitudes towards historic properties, and being deterioration, conservation techniques and the first international document to promote international collaboration. A special recom- modern conservation policy. The Athens mendation was made on the restoration of Charter formed a model soon followed by the Acropolitan monuments. The general tendency document of Giovannoni for the Italian norms was to abandon stylistic restoration, and to of restoration. favour the conservation and maintenance of monuments respecting the styles of all periods. The destruction of historic cities in the First

International influences and collaboration 285 World War also promoted an increasing inter- town mainly externally; many changes were est in the field of modern architecture and city made in the interiors to accommodate modern planning. This was the reason for the fourth facilities. The effort to rebuild Warsaw as a congress on modern architecture organized in national monument has been recognized as an Athens, in 1933, as part of the Congrés inter- event of special significance. In a report in nationaux d’Architecture moderne (CIAM). 1949, Stanislav Lorentz, the Director General The members of the congress took a ship from of Museums and the Protection of Historic Marseille on 27 July 1933 to Athens, where Monuments, stated that ‘by reconstructing they spent a week (2–9 August), then return- historic buildings we at least save the authen- ing to Marseille by 14 August. The proceed- tic remains of the original edifices’.26 In 1978, ings included the presentation of 33 cities as the reconstructed centre of Warsaw was case studies. The acts of the congress were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List published in November 1933 in Anals Tecnics, for its ‘outstanding universal value’. in Athens, including the recommendations of the congress as ‘La lettre d’Athènes’. The The huge reconstruction effort that had to recommendations were later edited and be carried out was accompanied by debates published by Le Corbusier with his comments about approaches to different situations. Simi- as La Charte d’Athènes, in 1941. The recom- lar problems had of course been discussed mendations also included a section on the after the First World War, when, in Belgium, protection of historic areas of cities. Such it had been decided that it was not possible respect was recommended for historic monu- to leave the country as a cemetery but that ments (understood either as single monuments reconstruction was necessary. In most cases or as urban ensembles) if these were an this was done in modern forms; exceptionally, expression of past culture and of a general interest, and if the population was not forced to live in unhealthy conditions. Their protec- tion could mean deviation of traffic or trans- fer of some public functions from the centre of the city. However, any aesthetic assimila- tion of new architecture with historic buildings was refused categorically (La lettre d’Athènes, November 1933, in IUAR 1976:95). 9.2.3 The Second World War Figure 9.42 Albania, the historic centre of Berat was protected as a museum city on 2 June 1961 The Second World War (1939–45) was more destructive than the first; in France alone, about 460 000 buildings were destroyed, and about 15 per cent of the listed buildings were damaged – half of them seriously. Many important historic cities suffered major damage, including London, Berlin, Dresden, Hildesheim, Warsaw, Saint-Malo, Florence. In December 1944, the decision was taken to rebuild the historic centre of Warsaw, and in February 1945 the town was again declared the capital of Poland. The reconstruction was justified by its national significance for the identity of the Polish people, and it was pos- sible due to the existing measured drawings, prints, paintings (e.g., Bernardo Bellotto) and other pre-war documentation. The new Warsaw, however, corresponds to the old