A History of Architectural Conservation-ประวัติศาสตร์และการอนุรักษ์สถาปัตยกรรม

286 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 9.43 Fredericksburg, Virginia, has been protected as a preservation district. The policies are promoted especially by local preservation societies as in Louvain, it was a faithful replication of the use of the Catholic University in the 1960s. historic forms.27 The different alternatives This project has been claimed to be the first ranged from a full replica of the destroyed where the ‘potential combination of monu- historic structures, as in Warsaw and Saint-Malo ment preservation and modern practical use (France), to reconstruction in contemporary was proved’ (De Naeyer, 1980:155; Linstrum, architectural forms. This last alternative was 1983:91ff.). In the case of Strasbourg, the adopted in London in the area of Saint Paul’s, restorers looked for a compromise, and which was rebuilt as modern office blocks in restorations were integrated with modern a manner that has been severely criticized in buildings respecting the relevant urban scale. the 1990s. The ruins of the old Coventry Cathedral were respected, and a modern In many cases, like in Orleans, the old streets design was selected for the new cathedral. Also were widened and some historic elevations in the case of Rotterdam, a modern solution were rebuilt. Occasionally, surviving old build- was chosen for the reconstruction of the totally ings could also be removed to a new site if destroyed city; this has since become a classic convenient for new town plans. In Hildesheim, reference for contemporary town planning. the important Romanesque churches were rebuilt in simplified forms respecting the pre- Between these two extremes, there were war restoration criteria. The destroyed parts of many solutions that were tested in restoration the historic city were rebuilt in modern forms and partial reconstruction in the post-war but retaining the old street pattern. In the 1980s, period – not necessarily related to war destruc- instead, the criticism against the new construc- tion. In Louvain, in the 1950s, the nephew of tions justified the second reconstruction of the Canon Lemaire, Professor Raymond Lemaire centre square, where the 1950s architecture was (1921–97), future Secretary General and replaced with replicas of the old buildings. One President of ICOMOS, was involved in various can see this as a national monument with a restoration projects. While emphasizing respect specific political message that goes beyond for the original material, it was often decided ordinary restoration. The same could be said of to remove surface renderings to expose the the Frauenkirche in Dresden, which remained underlying brick or stone structures, and to try in ruins since the war; its reconstruction in the to enhance the appreciation of the original old form as another national monument for spatial quality of the buildings. This was the German unification was started in the early case, for example, in the Grand Beguinage in 1990s. the historic centre of Louvain, rehabilitated for In Nuremberg, the churches and fortifica-

International influences and collaboration 287 Figure 9.44 After destruction in the Second World War, the historic centre of Hildesheim was first rebuilt in contemporary forms in the 1950s; subsequently these were replaced with replicas of historic buildings in the 1980s tions were restored as historic monuments, (Roerich Pact) in Washington, on 15 April 1935. while the city centre was rebuilt in modern According to the preamble of the pact, immov- architectural forms, but respecting the scale, able monuments should be preserved and pattern and materials of the destroyed old protected because they constitute the heritage town. In Dresden, Magdeburg, Naumburg and of the people’s culture. Such protection should Munich, there is a wide range of examples be valid both in time of peace and of war. The from neutral reintegration to full reconstruc- principles of the pact were later to inspire tion.28 An interesting example is the triumphal UNESCO and found the basis for international arch, the Siegestor by Friedrich von Gärtner, agreements after the Second World War where one side was rebuilt with remaining (Clément, 1993). Such common responsibility elements while the other was left as a does not, however, remove the responsibilities fragment with an inscription about the new of single states. In fact, the respect of national meaning29 (see Figure 10.3). Also in Italy, the sovereignty of each state remains a fundamen- destruction came as a shock to the people. An tal question in the context of international immediate reaction by many was the idea of efforts to protect and monitor the condition of rebuilding and restoration even if against the ‘common heritage of mankind’. established guidelines. It is here that the emerging principles of ‘restauro critico’ were The huge losses in human lives and proper- tested and clarified, as has been noted in the ties promoted new efforts in international previous chapter. politics to establish a platform where potential disputes could be solved before they escalated 9.2.4 International organizations in open conflicts. Against this background, in 1945, the old League of Nations was refounded The early international documents regarding the as the Organization of United Nations, the conservation of cultural heritage, including The International Committee of Intellectual Co- Hague Convention (1907), did not define a operation was succeeded by the United Nations collective responsibility for the international Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, community. Instead, this issue was first UNESCO, and the International Museums Office discussed by the members of the Union of was formed into the International Council of Panamerican States who adopted the Washing- Museums, ICOM (1946). In 1956, after various ton Pact for the Protection of Artistic and initiatives, the General Conference of UNESCO Scientific Institutions and Historic Monuments in New Delhi, adopted the proposal to found the International Centre for the Study of the

288 A History of Architectural Conservation Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Property, ICCROM, placed in Rome. Finally, in Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property in 1965, the founding meeting of the International 1970, and the other concerning the Protection Council on Monuments and Sites, ICOMOS, was of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the organized in Warsaw and Cracow concluding ‘World Heritage Convention’) in 1972. the principal group of international organiza- Furthermore, UNESCO has adopted eleven tions responsible for cultural heritage at the international recommendations concerning, world level (Jokilehto, 1996). To this should be e.g., archaeological excavations (1956), pro- added regional organizations, such as the perties endangered by large operations such as Council of Europe, founded in 1949, and others, the High Dam on the Nile (1968), safeguard- both governmental and non-governmental, in ing historic areas (1976), and safeguarding of different regions of the world (Council of traditional culture and folklore (1989) Europe, CC-PAT 96 58). (UNESCO, 1982; Cleere, 1996; Jokilehto, 1996). It is obvious that such international recom- At the beginning of its activities, UNESCO’s mendations can only provide the general interests in the field of conservation focused principles, and need to be properly interpreted on museums, but in 1949 it called an interna- through national norms and standards. At the tional expert meeting to decide about the close of the twentieth century, amongst its establishment of the International Committee many initiatives, and due to an increasing on Monuments. The statutes of the committee concern for cultural minorities and cultural were approved two years later, and the first diversity, UNESCO has collaborated with the meetings were organized in Paris and Istanbul. United Nations to establish the World The committee expressed a concern for Commission on Culture and Development, legislative and administrative questions, and which reported in 1995 (UNESCO, 1995). proposed the publication of a manual for the restoration of historic monuments.30 In 1951, it 9.2.5 The Venice Charter was decided to send to Peru the first mission organized by UNESCO to assist the authorities In 1957, UNESCO collaborated with the French in the restoration of the city of Cuzco, authorities to organize an international seriously damaged in an earthquake. Another meeting of architects and technicians respon- mission was undertaken by Cesare Brandi to sible for historic monuments. The meeting was advise on the restoration of fresco paintings in attended by some 25 countries, and drew Ochrid, Yugoslavia. From this time on, attention, e.g., to the need for multidisciplinary UNESCO missions became more frequent to collaboration and training of specialists. There different parts of the world, developing into was also criticism, especially by the French, international campaigns, such as those of the against modern elements executed in oversim- Nile Valley due to the construction of the plified forms that differed too drastically from Aswan dam, Venice, Florence, India, Sri Lanka, the original decorative patterns. As a continu- Cambodia, etc. (Bekri, 1991; Valderrama, 1995). ation to this meeting, the Italian government invited conservation architects and technicians An important function of UNESCO has to meet in Venice, from 25 to 31 May 1964. It related to the preparation of conventions and was attended by over 600 participants from 61 recommendations as an international reference countries, and representatives of international for conservation legislation and practice at the organizations, UNESCO, ICCROM, ICOM and national level. The issue of armed conflict had the Council of Europe. The important result of already given rise to international agreements the meeting was the International Charter for before the foundation of UNESCO, especially the Conservation and Restoration of Monu- the Hague Convention with its first versions in ments and Sites. This ‘Venice Charter’ was 1899 and 1907, and for which an updated conceived as a revision of the 1931 Athens version was under study by the International Charter and was based especially on the Museums Office in the 1930s. The first action Italian norms, the Carta by Giovannoni. It also of UNESCO was to provide an updated version reflected the current debate about conserva- of the Hague Convention, in 1954, which opened the way for others, including two more conventions, one on the Means of Prohibiting

International influences and collaboration 289 tion vs. restoration, taking note of the theory Committee of ICOMOS prepared guidelines on of Cesare Brandi, published the previous year. training and education, adopted in 1993, empha- sizing the multidisciplinary character of conser- While still placing major attention on build- vation and specialized training, and listing the ings, the concept of ‘historic monument’ was principal competencies that conservationists of extended to cover historic urban and rural different disciplines should have. These ICOMOS areas. The previous references to ‘dead’ and guidelines were a result from years of experi- ‘living’ monuments were not considered ence and international collaboration. At the inter- relevant. The congress gave clear attention to national level, such activity has been developed architectural integrity, but also emphasized a especially by ICCROM, who organized the first respect for historical authenticity and integrity – courses in architectural conservation in 1962 in considering that there had been an overem- collaboration with the University of Rome, phasis of stylistic reconstruction since the war. followed by others in the conservation of various Several speakers stressed the specificity of each types of heritage resources, such as conservation cultural heritage site, and the fact that any of mural paintings (1968), stone structures, charter could only provide guidance – not be timber structures, earthen architecture, territorial a rule to be applied without criticism. The and urban conservation (1997), as well as charter was adopted as the principal doctrinal museum and archive material. The purpose of document by ICOMOS, founded the following such training programmes has been to collabo- year. The charter has been translated into a rate with member states in order to provide their large number of languages, and it has gener- conservation services with adequate professional ated numerous other charters, recommen- and technical capacity, as well as to support the dations, and guidelines related to different development of research initiatives, and national aspects of safeguarding cultural heritage, as and regional training courses. well as becoming the principal reference for the assessment of cultural heritage sites inscribed Although recognized as essential, training in on the UNESCO World Heritage List. One of conservation is relatively late in comparison the best-known documents inspired by the with the restoration practice. France paid Venice Charter is the so-called Burra Charter, attention to this issue in the middle of the drafted by Australia ICOMOS in 1979, and nineteenth century, followed by England, edited in 1981, 1988 and 1999. While based on Germanic countries and Italy. However, most the main policy of the Venice Charter, the Burra training has only been established since the Charter introduces the concept of ‘place’ Second World War. The first ‘new’ countries instead of ‘monument and site’; it emphasizes in this regard were Denmark in the 1950s, USA the less tangible aspects of cultural signifi- and Turkey in the 1960s, followed by an cance, associations and meanings that places increasing number of courses in the 1970s and have for people, and the need to involve 1980s, especially in Europe. With the help of people in the decision-making process. It is UNESCO and ICCROM, training was gradually essential, however, to be aware that such ‘exported’ to other countries as well. Accor- international charters need to be well under- ding to the ICCROM databases (GCI–ICCROM, stood in their intent, and not used to justify 1994), there had been an increase of 41 per all applications (Cleere, 1996; Jokilehto, 1996). cent in the number of specialized courses from 1978 to 1994. However, in 1995, most training 9.2.6 Training and education programmes were still organized in Europe (57 per cent), and few in Africa (2 per cent). The The questions of education and training have majority of international training programmes been emphasized as a priority in almost all had been initiated by ICCROM, or organized charters, recommendations and conventions, in collaboration with ICCROM and UNESCO. including the World Heritage Convention. The The programmes promoting awareness of Venice Charter has been one of the principal heritage have had a similar distribution. references in terms of conservation principles. In order to provide an international reference for 9.2.7 Care for environment training institutions, the International Training

290 A History of Architectural Conservation The second half of the twentieth century has Venice Charter. In his view, the 1960s marked been a period of increasing international collab- an important change considering that: oration, reflected in the activities of UNESCO and the other international organizations. The period ‘the ensemble of properties that referred to has been marked by a growing consciousness of cultural history came to constitute the cultural the built and natural environment, of the limits heritage of a nation. This meant a shift from the of resources on earth, the explosive population criteria related to protection of things of remark- growth, and the huge differences in the share of able interest (1931 Athens Charter) to criteria wealth, food, water and energy. The previous related to conservation of an ensemble of things belief in unlimited progress based on techno- including the single object, the urban environ- logical growth and consumption has been ment, and the landscape, which together formed demonstrated to be unsustainable. At the the testimony of a culture, of a significant evolu- ‘closing’ of the era of the so-called ‘industrial tion, of an event. All this was with reference revolution’ in westernized countries in the 1960s, even to modest works that had acquired cultural the focus has shifted on information manage- significance over time’. (Gazzola, 1978:242) ment – still in full progress at the end of the century. Furthermore, the political, economic The concept of conservation had thus evolved and social changes accelerated since the fall of from dealing with ‘historic and artistic work of the ‘Iron Curtain’ in Europe, in 1989, have had the past’, in 1931, to also include ‘more modest consequences in the different world regions works of the past which have acquired cultural facing a variety of new challenges. significance’, in 1964, and to recognizing, e.g., Europe’s unique architectural heritage as ‘the One of the emerging issues is the new common heritage of all her peoples’, in the definition of the role of governments and 1975 Amsterdam declaration of the Council of public authorities in view of the increasing Europe. In other words, the concept of relativ- involvement of the private sector in com- ity of values was now being applied by national munity planning, the decision-making process authorities to assess the properties not only for and funding. This increasingly globalizing their individual merits, but as a representation view of the heritage means that the question of the entire national heritage. It was noted that is no more about state-owned properties but heritage conservation should be integrated in of the entire patrimony of a nation. The found- community life as an essential part of the activ- ing President of ICOMOS, Pietro Gazzola, ities of a society. This same policy concept was having travelled extensively, summarized the clearly expressed in the general principles of trends in this regard before and after the Figure 9.45 The historic centre area of Recife, Brazil, where efforts are made to introduce new activities after a long period of neglect in the 1990s. Buildings are painted in bright colours in order to attract investors

International influences and collaboration 291 Figure 9.46 A spontaneously built, ‘slum’ area outside The Recommendation further states that such the historic centre of Recife, where the quality of life areas and their surroundings ‘should be may be better than in some planned areas. The regarded as forming an irreplaceable universal municipality is considering the construction of heritage’ (art. 2). Considering this broad defini- infrastructures tion of heritage, Gazzola emphasizes that the questions of economics and use have become the 1976 Recommendation of UNESCO dominating factors in decision-making dealing concerning the Safeguarding and with heritage resources. Such emphasis, Contemporary Role of Historic Areas: however, would mean ignoring the cultural dimension of heritage, and the ‘plus-value’ that Every historic area and its surroundings should such cultural properties would reach. Therefore, be considered in their totality as a coherent Gazzola notes, it is essential that areas that have whole whose balance and specific nature been recognized for their heritage value be depend on the fusion of the parts of which it is managed according to the principles of conser- composed and which include human activities as vation and not simply by planning and renewal much as the buildings, the spatial organization as was customary in the 1960s and 1970s. and the surroundings. All valid elements, includ- ing human activities, however modest, thus have Since the 1970s, there has been an increas- a significance in relation to the whole which ing awareness of the limits of growth, as must not be disregarded. (art. 3) declared by the Club of Rome in the 1970s, and a concern for the ecological situation on the earth, recognized by the conference of Stockholm in 1972, the Habitat conference in Vancouver in 1976, and the Rio de Janeiro conference on the environment in 1994. The causes and principles for the consequent need for sustainability in development were written out in the Brundtland Report of the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (United Nations, 1987). This report did not specify conservation of cultural heritage, but it prepared a basis for it, and the environmentally sustainable plans of several countries have successively started taking into Figure 9.47 The historic centre of Bologna was well known for its conservation plan in the 1970s. Safeguarding and rehabilitating historic fabric was justified by interpreting it as a ‘social service’ to inhabitants

292 A History of Architectural Conservation account the built historic environment as a entièrement respectées, en accord avec les substantial national resource and capital intérêts archéologiques et artistiques; on investment requiring careful conservation s’est efforcé essentiellement de conserver management. This approach was confirmed in et de réparer, ne recourant qu’en dernier the declaration of the Habitat II Conference in ressort aux restaurations proprement dites; Istanbul, in June 1996 (Habitat, 1996). on s’est attaché à ce que les travaux modernes ne fussent jamais une falsifica- Towards the end of the twentieth century, the tion, qu’ils pussent toujours se différencier world scenario in relation to the management nettement de la construction originale . . . of heritage resources has thus changed radically On a rétabli les lignes d’ensemble et les since the Second World War. The rapid growth masses quand on a pu disposer de of tourism and an increased communication documents sûrs pour opérer de la sorte; have been additional factors in this develop- mais on a laissé nu tout ce qui a été ajouté. ment. The issue of conservation of cultural A une certaine distance, on a l’impression heritage has been applied to an increasingly que le bâtiment ancien est complet, avec broad spectrum of properties, and, at the same sa forme primitive; mais en s’approchant, time, the policy of environmental sustainability on différencie fort bien les parties in the development of the built environment has anciennes et modernes’ (Torres Balbás, become essential as a part of the survival strat- 1933:69). egy on earth. The two policies have many issues 2 Canon Raymond Lemaire was the uncle of in common. In both cases the question is about Professor Baron Raymond Lemaire, the management of existing resources; the purpose latter being rapporteur to the working of sustainability is to meet the demands placed group of the Charter of Venice in 1964, and upon the environment by people and commer- one of the founders and a former president cial or other functions without reducing the of ICOMOS. capacity of the environment to provide for itself 3 Later, the national romantic Jugendstil and future generations (Hyde Peyton, 1996; architecture became an expression of Fin- United Nations, 1987). nish identity in the work of Eliel Saarinen, Armas Lindgren (1874–1929), Lars Sonck Applying conservation policies to large terri- (1870–1956) and others. tories means integration of heritage values into 4 One of Viollet-le-Duc’s last books, L’Art the planning process; this requires that the russe, 1877, was immediately translated, population is ready to recognize the values, and influenced architectural theory and and is favourable to the process (Feilden and practice. Jokilehto, 1993). The process is not without 5 These included the Archaeological Institute conflicts of interest resulting from different of America and the Bureau of American value judgements – often to the detriment of Ethnology in 1879, the American Historical historic features in urban fabric or of traditional Association and the National Geographic types of functions in the community life. In any Society in the 1880s, and the American case, values depend on the community, and Scenic and Historic Preservation Society in need to be continuously regenerated as part of 1895. a learning process. It is the relative social attri- 6 Lee, 1951:12f. The Antiquities Act is repro- bution of qualities to things or to the environ- duced on p. 65f. ment that makes them valuable to us (Zancheti 7 ‘An Act to Establish a National Park Ser- and Jokilehto, 1997). This means that the vice, and for other purposes.’ 25 August conservation of cultural heritage, in the future, 1916. The aim of the organization was ‘to will be increasingly dependent on the educa- conserve the scenery and the natural and tional process guaranteed by the society, and historic objects and the wildlife therein and the continuous communication and regenera- to provide for the enjoyment of the same tion of values within communities. in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment Notes of future generations.’ 8 The colour schemes were later proved to 1 ’Les constructions anciennes ont été

International influences and collaboration 293 be too pale compared with originals, United States’, was published with the acts probably because the colours were based of the seminar, Historic Preservation Today, on research on weathered samples. 1966. 9 The policy adopted by the National Park 11 The Standards for Rehabilitation state, e.g.: Service in 1938 recommended: ‘In attempt- ‘1. Every reasonable effort shall be made ing to reconcile these claims and motives, to provide a compatible use for a property the ultimate guide must be the tact and which requires minimal alteration of the judgement of the men in charge. Certain building, structure, or site and its environ- observations may, however, be of assis- ment, or to use a property for its originally tance to them: 1. No final decision should intended purpose. 2. The distinguishing be taken as to a course of action before original qualities or character of a building, reasonable efforts to exhaust the archae- structure, or site and its environment shall ological and documentary evidence as to not be destroyed. The removal or alteration the form and successive transformation of of any historic material or distinctive archi- the monument. 2. Complete record of such tectural features should be avoided when evidence, by drawings, notes and possible. . . .’ transcripts should be kept, and in no case 12 Persepolis was identified with the ‘throne should evidence offered by the monument of Solomon’, a Koranic as well as a Biblical itself be destroyed or covered up before it prophet. In 1339, for example, a ruler from has been fully recorded. 3. It is well to Shiraz recorded his appreciation to this bear in mind the saying: ‘Better preserve architecture having visited it in state than repair, better repair than restore, (Rogers, 1976:10f). better restore than construct.’ 4. It is 13 Herrmann, 1977. The early travellers ordinarily better to retain genuine old work included: Pietro della Valle 1616–23, Sir of several periods, rather than arbitrarily to Thomas Herbert 1627–28, the Dane, Svend ‘restore’ the whole, by new work, to its Orhammer Andersen, in the 1630s, and aspect at a single period. 5. This applies John Struyus 1671–72. even to work of periods later than those 14 English translation: The Protection of now admired, provided their work repre- Movable Cultural Property, Collection of sents a genuine creative effort. 6. In no legislative texts, Iran, Unesco, 1988. In case should our own artistic preferences or 1936, the Archaeological Survey initiated prejudices lead us to modify, on aesthetic the publication of a magazine on Iranian grounds, work of a by-gone period repre- monuments, Athar-e Iran. senting other artistic tastes. Truth is not 15 In 1975, the Organization initiated the only stranger than fiction, but more varied publication of the magazine Farhang and more interesting, as well as more Memari-ye Iran for the publication of honest. 7. Where missing features are to be reports on restoration works. replaced without sufficient evidence as to 16 Works were carried out under several their own original form, due regard should directors, and advised by the President of be paid to the factors of period and region IsMEO, Professor Giuseppe Tucci, as well in other surviving examples of the same as by Professor G. De Angelis d’Ossat, time and locality. 8. Every reasonable Giuseppe Zander, Domenico Faccenna and additional care and expense is justified to Eugenio Galdieri. approximate in new work the materials, 17 Venkataramana, 1956; Desai, 1970; Carrol, methods, and quality of old construction, 1972; Cascoigne, 1976; Grover, 1980; but new work should not be artificially Fletcher, 1987. ‘antiqued’ by theatrical means. 9. Work on 18 Archer, Mildred, Early Views of India, The the preservation and restoration of old Picturesque Journeys of Thomas and buildings requires a slower pace than William Daniell 1786–1794, Thames and would be expected in new construction Hudson, London, 1980, ill.29. (Lee, 1951:34f). 19 In 1989 it has been decided to remove this 10 The document, ‘Report on Principles and filling and to use modern technology for Guidelines for Historic Preservation in the the consolidation of the structures.

294 A History of Architectural Conservation 20 Nabi Khan, 1979:11ff. John Marshall was designated as important cultural properties later knighted and he retired in 1928. amounted to 3488, including 136 western- style buildings. Furthermore, the list 21 ‘Ancient Monuments’ are defined in the included important intangible properties: Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 76 individuals representing 52 skills (e.g., 1904 as follows: ‘any structure, erection or lacquerwork, wood and bamboo work), monument, or any tumulus or place of and 23 groups representing as many skills. interment, or any cave, rock-sculpture, in- 24 Garner, 1915:101; Posner, 1944:49; Williams, scription or monolith, which is of histori- 1978:20; De Naeyer, 1960:167ff. cal, archaeological or artistic interest, or 25 De Naeyer, 1980:172ff: On the debate in any remains thereof, and includes (a) the Louvain: Canon R. Lemaire, La reconstruc- site of an ancient monument; (b) such tion de Louvain, rapport présenté au nom portion of land adjoining the site of an de la Commission des Alignements, Louvain ancient monument as may be required for 1915. Reference was also made to Camillo fencing or covering in or otherwise pre- Sitte. serving such monument; and (c) the means 26 Report by S. Lorentz, in Pane, 1950:49ff. of access to an convenient inspection of an 27 Lemaire, 1915; De Angelis, 1952; Perogalli, ancient monument.’ 1954; De Naeyer, 1980:167ff. 28 Several countries have published material 22 The burnt-out remains of the temple were on destroyed buildings and restorations. preserved in a special shelter next to the 29 ‘Dem Sieg geweiht, vom Krieg zerstört, zum original site, where the temple was rebuilt Friede mahnend’ (‘Dedicated to victory, (Larsen, 1994:26). destroyed by war, urging for peace!’). 30 A manual was published in Museum, iii, 23 As of July 1994, the number of buildings 1950, edited by R. Pane.

10 Definitions and trends Modern conservation is principally character- imitated (mimesis) in order to reach the closest ized by the fundamental change of values in possible resemblance was relevant not only to contemporary society, a paradigm based on all human products but also to nature, human relativity and the new concept of historicity. beings themselves and society. With the Therefore, identification of historic objects and gradual change of values during and since structures as cultural heritage has led to differ- Romanticism, the question of universally valid ent objectives than was the case with ‘tradi- models was not relevant any more. tional’ repair. To use Alois Riegl’s expression, Nevertheless, the issue of universal value modern work reflects a new ‘Kunstwollen’. As continues being proclaimed even in modern a matter of fact, as has been seen above, Riegl society; it is at the basis of international collab- was the first to provide a clear analysis of the oration, and the justification for the World values that distinguish traditional and modern Heritage Convention of UNESCO. Modern approaches, i.e., the distinction between a society, having recognized the specificity of monument in the sense of being intentionally heritage resources in relation to their cultural built as a memorial to carry a message, and a and physical context and the essence of historic monument being subsequently recog- authenticity in creative diversity, has given a nized as historical, and associated with specific new focus for the issue of universal signifi- values. The traditional aim of repair of a cance. Accepting the definitions of Nietzsche, memorial was to keep its message intact; the Heidegger and Brandi, universality should be modern notion of historic monument, instead, searched for in what is common in the true qualified by Riegl with age value, reflected the (authentic) expressions of specific cultures. new concept of historicity and the values in Indeed, such common factors can be found in relation to a specific culture. Modern values the creative process itself of which the created associated with cultural resources can thus not product, the work of art, is the result. be presented within a coherent hierarchy as was the case in ‘pre-modern’ society where The modern sense of universal significance creative action was referred to ideal or univer- in cultural heritage does not, therefore, derive sal models guiding human action and artistic from the notion that all products resemble a productivity. particular ideal or model, but from the concep- tion that each is a creative and unique expres- 10.1 Modern aspects of heritage and sion by a particular artist or community and, conservation at the same time, represents the relevant cultural context. For a cultural heritage 10.2 Universal value resource to have universal value does not – in itself – imply that it is ‘the best’; rather it In the modern context, there is a need to means it shares a particular creative quality, a reflect on the change in the meaning of uniqueness, and the quality of being ‘true’, ‘universal’. The traditional idea to refer univer- original, authentic, as a constituent part of the sal to ‘divine’ models or ideas that were to be common, universal heritage of humanity. Within such a context, it may be possible to identify groups or classes of products with 295

296 A History of Architectural Conservation similar characteristics, out of which to select rests on authenticity, if the duration in time the most representative or outstanding. In the ceases to matter as a result of replication, what essence, universal value implies that the single is really jeopardized is the authority of the item be not only seen for its individual merits original object, its ‘aura’ (Benjamin, 1979:223). but always also as a representation of the Benjamin has also drawn attention to the common heritage of humanity; within this meanings of original and copy in the age of context, the heritage of a particular culture can mechanical reproduction, as in the case of be characterized by its specificity. photography or film. He has noted that the technique of reproduction ‘detaches the repro- 10.1.2 Authenticity duced object from the domain of tradition. By making many reproductions it substitutes a The Nara Document on Authenticity (1994) plurality of copies for a unique existence. And declared that our ability to understand heritage in permitting the reproduction to meet the values depends on the degree to which the beholder or listener in his own particular situa- relevant information sources may be under- tion, it reactivates the object reproduced’ stood as credible or truthful, and therefore (Benjamin, 1979:223). authentic. In the Middle Ages authenticity was related to legal authentication of texts; gradu- The question of authentic vs. copy was ally it was also extended to the authentication debated in the context of the emerging conser- of objects, such as relics of saints. The word vation movement. It was a fundamental refer- ‘authentic’ refers to the Greek authentikòs ence to the Venice Charter, inviting to hand (autòs, myself, the same) and the Latin auctor on to future generations the inherited cultural (an originator, authority), and thus to original properties ‘in the full richness of their authen- as opposed to copy, real as opposed to ticity’ (Venice Charter, preface). As a result of pretended, genuine as opposed to counterfeit. threats caused by air pollution and the risk of Comparing ‘authentic’ with ‘identical’ is to accelerated weathering, copies have since compare the specific with the general. Being become increasingly accepted as a way to authentic refers to acting autonomously, allow placing the originals under shelter. This having authority, being original, unique, sin- question has been discussed in relation to cere, true, or genuine. Being ‘identical’ refers important World Heritage Sites, and has to what is representative of a class with the involved important works of art, such as the same properties, e.g., an identical reproduc- sculptures on the Acropolis of Athens, the tion, replica, copy, reconstruction. In relation horse statues over the entrance to San Marco to the creative process and time, the authen- in Venice (1994), and the Roman statue of ticity of a work of art is a measure of truthful- Marcus Aurelius on the Capitol Hill (1997). ness of the internal unity of the creative process Another question is the Stele of Axum: as a and the physical realization of the work, and result of the bilateral agreement between Italy the effects of its passage through historic time.1 and Ethiopia, its transfer from Rome back to its original site in Axum is foreseen. This definition takes a stand in relation to Considering the established image and cultural artistic or creative quality, and requires a reference of the stele at the far end of the judgement based on a critical assessment of Circus Maximus, the question of making a the essence of the work and its relation to the copy has emerged as one of the feasible ways context. It also stresses being genuine and to fill in the urban and cultural ‘lacuna’. true. In this sense, there can only be one ori- ginal. Walter Benjamin (1892–1940) has In the 1970s and 1980s, the question of noted that in the pre-modern era, what authenticity tended to remain in the shadow mattered was cult value, and art value was of scientific development, and the issue was only generated with the start of collections and only revived with the approaching thirtieth exhibitions. Works of art were always repro- anniversary of the Venice Charter. The ducible, but, at the same time, the presence purpose was to clarify the meaning of heritage of the original was the prerequisite to the concepts in the broader international context, concept of authenticity – and authenticity was and particularly in the relationship between not reproducible. Since historical testimony the Western world and traditional societies. As a result, the Nara Document on Authenticity

Definitions and trends 297 Figure 10.1 The ancient bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius was brought to the Capitol Hill in the sixteenth century. Due to damage from air pollution, it was replaced with a replica in 1997, and the original has been restored and placed in the Capitol Museum

298 A History of Architectural Conservation emphasized the issue of credibility and truth- ing use and function. Such variety of refer- fulness of sources, but also cultural diversity ences may tend to leave space for different as a fundamental reference to the definition of interpretations and even misunderstandings. authenticity: ‘Cultural heritage diversity exists The question of authenticity has been raised, in time and space, and demands respect for for example, in the case of the Sydney Opera other cultures and all aspects of their belief House, which was originally designed by Jörn systems’ (Nara Document, art. 6). This refer- Utzon, but completed by other architects. The ence was made with particular concern to possibility of ‘restoring’ the interior so as to safeguarding areas with on-going traditional correspond to Utzon’s intentions could be cultures that risk losing their cultural essence challenged by the historicity of the entire under the impact of Western, industrialized creative process. At the same time, the creative influences. significance of the Opera House is seen in its overall cultural-historical context of the sea- In the late twentieth century, the issue of scape of the Sydney Harbour, from where its authenticity has become relevant in multi- design had received its major inspiration cultural communities, closely related to the (Sydney, 1996). concept of cultural identity. While the urban environment traditionally was an important A more limited interpretation to authenticity source in regenerating creative thought and has been given by the Finnish conservation communication, the explosive population authorities: ‘Authenticity can best be experi- increase in large metropolises has had the enced as the atmosphere originally built into opposite effect. The Canadian philosopher the building, a certain kind of unchanging Charles Taylor has identified the concerns in characteristic of the building’ (Mattinen, 1997: modern society, including exaggerated indi- 20). Taken literally, the statement would tend vidualism, disenchantment with traditional to equal ‘authentic’ with ‘identical’ (or ‘con- values in favour of maximum efficiency, and form’), and to emphasize the documented restriction of choices in a mechanized environ- evidence of the first construction, ignoring the ment in favour of mass production (Taylor, impact of time and giving less importance or 1991). Such detachment of people from their attention to later changes and additions.2 The traditional values has caused severe limitations definition of authenticity should, in fact, be to their creative capacity, and has led to the related to the historicity of the heritage fragmentation of society, and to social con- resource; only then does it achieve its true sig- flicts. The re-establishment of creative commu- nificance to modern conservation. The process nication and improved social integrity may, of defining the authenticity of a historic struc- however, take place through education and ture or object can be a demanding undertak- sensitization. In this process, cultural proper- ing. In the case of a clearly definable work of ties can play an important role in providing art, the analysis will more easily result in physical references for the re-establishment of deciding whether or not it is authentic and collective memory and cultural identity. true than with more complex structures; here Nevertheless, the process is delicate and can the definition may need to be articulated in lead to political domination or exacerbation of reference to different periods or to the overall nationalistic feelings of particular groups. In historicity. fact, in the armed conflicts of the early 1990s, cultural heritage was often being taken as a 10.1.3 Integrity target for the destruction of the enemy’s cultural identity. In its general definition, ‘integrity’ refers to undivided or unbroken state, material whole- In the process of nominating sites to the ness, completeness, or entirety. This is re- UNESCO World Heritage List, authenticity has flected in article 8 of the Venice Charter, been referred to the design, material, work- recommending that ‘items of sculpture, paint- manship and setting of the site concerned ing or decoration which form an integral part (Operational guidelines, 1996). These refer- of a monument may only be removed from it ences can be understood to cover the aesthetic if this is the sole means of ensuring their and historical aspects of the site, as well as its preservation’. However, in the United States it physical, social and historical context, includ-

Definitions and trends 299 has also been used to qualify the significance methods to decipher them. In the nineteenth of heritage resources particularly recognized in century, with growing scientific knowledge, seven aspects of integrity: location, design, there was an increasing interest to test setting, materials, workmanship, feeling and methods to conserve paintings, stone and association.3 In the nomination process of architectural surfaces; a debate arose about natural heritage to the World Heritage List, cleaning and consolidating historic buildings. such sites are examined for their integrity in In the period of positivism, archaeology and reference to different notions, such as struc- restoration were included in the field of tural integrity within an ecosystem, functional sciences and, e.g., Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc integrity and visual integrity.4 While cultural were proud of being scientific in their studies heritage has been tested for its authenticity, and work. the question of integrity in relation especially to historic cities or cultural landscapes has also In the twentieth century, the development been discussed. and potential use of modern scientific methods and techniques in conservation have been The intrinsic problem of the concept of amply recognized by the conservation world. integrity is its reference to ‘material whole- The 1931 Athens conclusions recommend: ‘the ness’, which may stress the trend to reinte- judicious use of all the resources at the gration, stylistic restoration, or reconstruction. disposal of modern technique and more Nevertheless, referring the concept to heritage especially of reinforced concrete’ (art. 4). The sites, one could propose it as a tool for the 1932 Italian norms of Giovannoni propose identification of elements that make up an that: ‘the results of research must be applied ‘organic’ whole, such as the complexity formed in the complex, detailed activities, involved in of the fabric and infrastructures of a historic the conservation of dilapidated structures and settlement, and the mutual relationship of such ad-hoc, empirical solutions must be put aside elements within the whole and the setting. in favour of strictly scientific ones’ (art. 9). The This would have particular importance for the Venice Charter states: ‘The conservation and conservation planning and management of restoration of monuments must have recourse such areas; it could help to define the signif- to all the sciences and techniques which can icance of single historic structures within the contribute to the study and safeguarding of the overall context, and justify even minor architectural heritage’ (art. 2). It is interesting elements that only have meaning in relation to to recall that the Italian classification of the the whole. approach represented by Giovannoni has been called ‘scientific restoration’, a name which has 10.1.4 Modern science and technology been used by many conservators to describe their work even later. Since the Age of Reason, science5 has acquired a particular position in human activities. Con- The use of sciences as a support to conser- sidering that exact sciences were related vation work was first developed in laboratories especially to mathematics, these were consid- attached to museums. The first museum labora- ered the most rigorous and objective way to tory was founded at the Staatliche Museen of acquire knowledge. Modern interests in herit- Berlin in 1888; this was followed by laborato- age and its conservation have always been ries at the British Museum in 1919, in Cairo, closely connected with sciences and a scien- Louvre and Harvard in 1925, and others, tific approach. In the eighteenth century, the especially from the 1930s on, specialized in a discovery of ancient buried cities, such as variety of subjects such as paintings, ceramics, Herculaneum and Pompeii, was linked with metal and paper; the laboratories of Rome, New the development of archaeological studies and Delhi and Tokyo date from 1938 (Philippot, exploration of the unknown. These discover- 1963:352). Important advances were made in ies stimulated the development of methods for conservation research, especially in the 1970s the conservation of finds, such as objects and and 1980s, when the scientists and experts of mural paintings; the discovery of papyrus roles different countries established regular connec- inspired curiosity to open and read them; tions to compare research methods and results. ancient scriptures such as hieroglyphs inspired Specific areas included conservation of archae- ological finds, collections, different architectural

300 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 10.2 The antique theatre of Eraclea Minoa in Sicily was restored in the 1960s, using transparent plastic display as a ‘scientifically’ planned protection. The microclimate under the plastic, however, has seriously threatened the preservation of the original stones. In 1996, the authorities decided to remove the plastic, and design a more appropriate form of protection materials, such as stone, wood, and metals, as The question whether conservation should well as architectural surfaces, mural paintings be included in sciences or not was answered and mosaics. by Argan, in 1938, when he recognized the various technical and humanistic skills The advantages of modern technology are required for conservation and restoration, and partly in the improved capacity to obtain emphasized the critical approach to the appre- exact knowledge on the behaviour and condi- ciation of works of art. The conclusion from tion of particular structures and materials in this is that sciences should be used as a ‘tool’ view of their conservation. It has also been according to the requirements of the different possible to develop methods and products tasks coming up in conservation. Conservation that allow the consolidation, preservation and itself should not be considered a science, sometimes the recovery of seriously damaged rather it forms a special modern discipline artefacts and structures. Modern science and belonging to liberal arts – as Brandi has technology have become invaluable tools for suggested (see Chapter 8). He has also insisted modern conservationists, who are expected to that a work of art is not a message in itself; base their work on multidisciplinary collab- accordingly, it does not communicate, but it oration. presents (Brandi, 1966:31). Nor is it only the physical phenomenon represented by its A somewhat dubious result, however, will material; its presence is in the human be achieved when the priority given to consciousness – as anticipated by Riegl who modern technology results in the often referred to art value as a present-day value. overwhelming use of Portland cement and We can refer to Brandi who defines the work synthetic products. To some degree, modern of art as a ‘phenomenon that is not a phenom- conservation philosophy has introduced a enon’ (fenomeno-che-fenomeno-non-è; Brandi, reluctance to use traditional construction 1966:16); i.e., although a work of art materi- methods as part of conservation work – except ally exists – and therefore is a phenomenon, in countries where such methods are still in its fundamental concept remains in the human everyday use. Consequently, restoration mind – which is not a physical phenomenon. practice has often transformed historic con- When approaching critically an existing work structions into modern structural systems. of art, the observer will first see the material Although their aesthetic appearance may have phenomenon, but he would then proceed to been preserved, they may have lost part of their original authenticity.

Definitions and trends 301 recognize the non-physical concept of the the statement that conservation of cultural work, its ‘world’ through its ‘earth’, according heritage is fundamentally a cultural problem. to Heidegger. The role of science is to assist in analysing the genuine, historical material of 10.2 Influences on treatments such work as a support to the critic who needs to perceive the artistic concept in human Consciousness of the significance of this com- consciousness. mon heritage is the outcome of a long devel- opment and results from a variety of different This position can be referred to the role of influences. Such influences can be grouped science in relation to history as discussed by under four principal headings, relating to: Thomas Kuhn in his Structure of Scientific Revolutions, first published in 1962 (Kuhn, 1. monuments as memorials 1970). The book itself was a small revolution, 2. stylistic restoration and was not necessarily received unanimously. 3. modern conservation Kuhn observed that each time science ad- 4. traditional continuity. vanced in a radical manner, it necessitated the community’s rejection of theories honoured in Although chronologically introduced in this the past, and a consequent shift in the order, the four influences have evolved practi- problems available for scientific scrutiny. A cally in parallel since the eighteenth century, typical example was the discovery of oxygen, and have come to form part of the vast which introduced a radically new way of scenario of current safeguarding policies. Each looking at nature and the behaviour of materi- of the four lines of influence should be under- als. Kuhn noted that a new theory implied a stood as a complex ensemble of ideas and change in the rules governing previous scien- policies, and the practice can be a result of tific practice, and it reflected on the interpre- the combination of several of them. The tation of much of past work. ‘Its assimilation following is an attempt to summarize the main requires the reconstruction of prior theory and characteristics of each category. the re-evaluation of prior fact, an intrinsically revolutionary process that is seldom 10.2.1 Monuments as memorials completed by a single man and never overnight’ (Kuhn, 1970:7). Renaissance protection focused initially on ancient monuments containing Latin inscrip- Concerning the possibility of fixed scientific tions due to their value as a document; subse- goals or truths, Kuhn concluded, the entire quently such documentary value was extended process of scientific research may have to objects and structures without an inscription occurred ‘without benefit of a set goal, a considering their component material as docu- permanent fixed scientific truth, of which each ment. In Rome, the first ‘list of protected stage in the development of scientific knowl- monuments’ consisted of the publication of the edge is a better exemplar’ (Kuhn, 1970:172f). inscribed texts. The principal meaning of such In defining their conservation-restoration monuments was in their being a memorial that theories, both Riegl and Brandi were cons- recalled antiquity as a lesson to be learnt from cious of the importance to stress the human for the sake of humanity and contemporary and cultural aspects of modern restoration vs. design. Moreover, monuments were conceived technology and science, which could only be with political-patriotic connections to Christian a necessary support – not the goal. The state- martyrs and the history of the church, as well ment by Kuhn is important in showing that as being a ‘status symbol’ (to use a modern not only humanities but also sciences depend expression). At the same time, there emerged on value judgements, and that ‘science’ does the artistic significance of ancient sculptures or not represent ‘absolute truth’ as had been architectural monuments, and the consequent thought over the past two centuries. Through trend to restore the aesthetic integrity, the his remark, Kuhn has brought science and ‘idea’ of the work of art, for use as public focal humanities closer together after a long separa- points or as ornaments in private residences. tion. This is particularly relevant in relation to modern conservation, in its essence based on the definition of values, and coinciding with

302 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 10.3 Munich triumphal arch, the Siegestor by Friedrich von Gärtner, where one side was left as a fragment with an inscription about the new meaning The dialectic between the political and the cance. It has resulted in full reconstructions, artistic significance of an ancient monument such as the Campanile of San Marco in Venice, obtained a new meaning with the historical as well as several sites destroyed during the consciousness of the eighteenth century, and Second World War – including the centre of continued to dominate the policies of safe- Warsaw, but also the centre of Hildesheim in guarding monuments. Later, reading and inter- the 1980s and the Frauenkirche of Dresden in preting the message was associated with the the 1990s. To the same category can be added field of philology and linguistics (Boito). In the ruins of Babylon in Iraq, reconstructed ex- modern practice, this resulted in solutions novo principally in the 1980s. such as the restoration of the Arch of Titus, where the aesthetic unity of the monument 10.2.2 Stylistic restoration was re-integrated in order to allow the appre- ciation of the artistic unity, while differentiat- The new relativity of values in the cultural ing new material from old in order to context, the identification of mediaeval build- emphasize the historicity of the original ings as part of national heritage in northern document. countries, and emerging Romanticism were at the roots of the restoration movement that Still remaining within the field of a ‘memor- started in the late eighteenth century, and ial’, there are cases where the purpose of further evolved with historicism and eclecticism modern treatment has not been the preserva- especially in the second half of the nineteenth tion of the original message, but to redefine century. While an initial aim was to protect the an existing monument or building and associ- ‘national monuments of history, science and ating it with a new political or patriotic value. art’ (during the French Revolution), the policies In many cases, such an intent has been later developed toward the restoration of the reflected in the definition of particular historic lost stylistic integrity. The relevant justifications buildings as national monuments, and their varied from the religious-moral motives of the consequent restoration to represent a signifi- Ecclesiologists in England to the national- cant moment in the nation’s history, such as romantic values of the Germans, and the ratio- Windsor Castle, Cologne Cathedral, Pierre- nal-scientific approach of the French. The fonds Castle. Going further, the idea of a absolute ‘idea’ of beauty in Classicism was now national monument can also be associated associated with the concept of style, i.e., with the image of a historic structure that has human conception but still an external refer- been lost, and is rebuilt with a new signifi-

Definitions and trends 303 Figure 10.4 The village of Shirakawa in Japan is an integral part of a traditional land use system. Relevant products are used for maintenance and repair. Survival of such cultural heritage depends on the continuation of an appropriate land use system ence to the object itself, an ideal scheme to be growing criticism of stylistic restorations, and taken as a reference for ‘stylistic restoration’. in the emphasis on the need to preserve the genuine and original, the different layers and Restoration of the unity of style was defined transformations of history, as well as the patina in a systematic manner by Mérimée and of age. Being ‘authentic’ thus received a new Viollet-le-Duc in the mid-nineteenth century. meaning as a representation of ‘universal value’ The movement was strengthened by the in humanity, discrediting the most ‘faithful’ pragmatic and positivistic attitude of architects restorations that were content with the repro- who emphasized the need to make use of duction of ancient forms. The principles of historic buildings – rather than just preserving modern conservation were anticipated by them as documents, and by the political Bellori and Winckelmann, gradually advanced ambitions of decision-makers for whom through criticism by early conservationists such restoration became a question of national as Carter, Ruskin, Morris and Boito, to be prestige. It evolved from the ‘unification to formulated into modern conservation theory by purification’ of style in Central European Riegl, Giovannoni and Brandi. historicism, to ‘restauro storico’ in Italy, and to ‘period restoration’ in USA (Colonial Williams- In practice, conservation has promoted the burg). With the increase of knowledge in advance of new scientific methods for history and the augmentation of tourism as an research, and the techniques for the analysis important ‘beneficiary’, stylistic restoration has and documentation of the existing condition continued throughout the twentieth century, of objects and structures, causes of decay, influencing practically all regions of the world consolidation of original material, the policies and continuing as a dominant feature in of maintenance and conservative repair. The practice. approach has shifted restoration and conser- vation from an artistic to a critical sphere and, 10.2.3 Modern conservation instead of proposing models to be followed, it has established a critical process for the The new historical consciousness that emerged definition of what is to be conserved and how. in the second half of the eighteenth century The results of these efforts have been felt first became fundamental in changing the approach in the treatment of works of art, archaeologi- to the evaluation of historic structures, and cal objects and ancient monuments; subse- marking the beginning of modern conserva- quently, the approach has gained importance tion. The new historicity manifested itself in a in the care of historic buildings, and has

304 A History of Architectural Conservation extended to the management of historic urban 10.3 Trends in practice and rural areas. Conservation of cultural heritage is the basic reference and the line of Too often there is a gap between theoretical conduct for international charters and recom- intent and practical execution, and the diverse mendations. influences mentioned above certainly add to the difficulty of interpreting conservation 10.2.4 Traditional continuity policies in practice. Authenticity is a basic concept in modern conservation, but its con- Parallel to the other trends, the definition and ventional reference has mainly been the regeneration of values have emerged as funda- genuine material documenting the different mental issues in relation to the conservation historical phases of a particular structure or of cultural heritage seen in an ever-expanding place. Using the same word in another context perspective. Since the eighteenth century there can cause confusion. For example, the expres- has been a growing concern to record authen- sion of ‘authentic reconstruction’, meaning a tic sources of folk art and creativity as an new construction representing the form of an expression of cultural identity. Consequently, earlier building and based on secure this has resulted in efforts to safeguard tradi- documentation, should perhaps rather be tional areas and communities and, towards the called ‘accurate reconstruction’. The use of the end of the twentieth century, to guarantee word ‘authentic’ has, in fact, become a fashion cultural diversity and continuity of living in the late twentieth century – possibly due to cultures. These policies have evolved parallel a desire for truthful references in an otherwise to global ecological interests and the question increasingly fragmented world. Yet, when the of sustainable development, both of which word is overused, its meaning becomes obfus- have emerged as priority issues in inter- cated; in fact, some conservation specialists national policies in the last decades of the tend to look for other expressions to avoid twentieth century. using the word ‘authentic’ – such as ‘identity’ or ‘integrity’ – although these obviously can Previously, the main values associated with have different meanings. cultural heritage were cultural and scientific; with the new trends of globalization these are Brandi holds the view that the modern ap- confronted with the social and economic real- proach towards the past should generally be ities, and the policy of environmentally best defined as ‘restauro’, like in the Italian sustainable development. While the care for Carta del Restauro of 1972. (This word does historic resources was generally aimed at the not necessarily correspond to the English re-establishment of a status quo, the shift to usage of ‘restoration’, however.) De Angelis safeguarding traditional know-how and living d’Ossat, instead, has suggested that the use of cultures requires the acceptance of change as essential terms should be specified and limited an essential parameter in the process. The within the scope of their agreed definitions, purpose is to define the essence of what is distinguishing especially between two types of maintained, and the criteria for managing activities: ‘restoration’ and ‘innovation’; he did change whether dealing with historic gardens, not refuse new creative insertions, considering cities, rural villages, or cultural landscapes; all them legitimate (De Angelis d’Ossat, 1983). of these are subject to continuous change even This would confirm the Venice Charter’s state- if gradual or seasonal. While recognizing some ment, ‘the process of restoration is a highly precedents in the nineteenth and early twenti- specialized operation’ (art. 9) and that the eth century, the methodology for the conser- word ‘restoration’ should be used accordingly. vation of historic areas has primarily been Attempts have been made to define terms in developed since the 1950s. Potential actions international charters and recommendations have resulted in guidelines and international (e.g., UNESCO, ICOMOS, the Council of recommendations which are expected to be Europe), but substantial variations do remain. reflected in planning strategies at the local and Referring to practice, there is often confusion national levels. when concepts are used beyond their specifi- cally defined limits, although problems are also caused due to differences between

Definitions and trends 305 languages (e.g., Romance and Germanic), the years 1967 to 1978, and further research between the various disciplines, and due to was carried out through on-site analyses, the the expanding field of cultural heritage, the study of historic documents and the examina- complexity and variety of management tion of the factors having influenced the urban requirements. The problem is clearly seen in and architectural development of the city. This the often forceful debates between conserva- study allowed the systematic presentation of tionists representing different positions.6 the different phases of the palace and the town since their origin (Marasovic and Initially and for the most part of the Jokilehto, 1994:II; Marasovic, 1997). nineteenth century, the conservation movement hardly went beyond criticism of on- During the execution of field projects, it going practice. Gradually, since the early became evident that there was a need for twentieth century, however, modern conserva- systematic training to ensure the required skills, tion policy has had an impact in promoting an as well as a necessity to provide funds in the increasing concern for the preservation of long term in order to guarantee continuity of historic materials and the consequent methods work and employment. While respecting the of survey, scientific studies, guidelines and overall historical stratigraphy, the projects standards for practice, as well as the develop- included interventions in specific spots, such as ment of a variety of techniques required for the rehabilitation of underground spaces for maintenance, cleaning, consolidation and cultural and commercial activities, re-establish- conservative repair. ment of the connection from the Peristyle to the sea front, presentation of ancient ruins in the The historic city of Split is an example of core area, and the restoration of selected historic the modern development of a consistent buildings. Historical stratigraphy is typically methodology for the conservation and restora- manifest in the palace of the Grisogono and tion of a historic urban ensemble. The core of Cipci families, the first town hall of Split, in the the town was built within the ancient imper- Peristyle, with Roman and mediaeval structures, ial palace of Diocletian, and today forms an and an upper floor in the early Renaissance example of a living ensemble with exception- style, later transformed to allow for more space ally rich historical stratigraphy. Previously, in in the attic. The restoration, under the direction the nineteenth century, restoration was carried of Jerko Marasovic, consisted of the recomposi- out in the spirit of classicist purification, stress- tion of the Renaissance aspect of the upper floor ing the importance of Diocletian’s palace, and through the anastylosis of original fragments leading to the demolition of later structures. At rediscovered on the site and their partial re- the end of the century, ‘romantic attitude’ integration in new material. prevailed, and when the bell tower was renewed its Gothic–Renaissance top was Some of the questions related to the debate rebuilt in the style of Romanesque Revival about historical authenticity and traditional (1882–1908). Systematic excavations of the continuity can be exemplified in the restora- substructures of the palace started in 1946. A tion of the old wooden church of Sodankylä department for the built heritage was estab- in Finnish Lapland. Built in 1689 as a simple lished within the Town Planning Institute of log construction (13.5 ϫ 8.5 m), it was pro- Dalmatia in 1955, and the Institute for the vided with external panelling in the eighteenth Protection of Cultural Property of Split was century, when also the roof was renewed in created in 1961. These two institutes worked wooden shingles. From 1859 the church was to integrate research and heritage protection in abandoned, but became subject to protection the process of rehabilitation of the historic city, in the early twentieth century. In the restora- which was included on the World Heritage List tions of 1926 and 1950 the exterior was rebuilt of UNESCO in 1979. The work entailed special in wood using modern industrial techniques, attention to architectural surveys and a but these did not give satisfactory results. thorough study to define the original state and While the structure and the interior were still the spatial evolution of the historic ensemble, in relatively good condition, the exterior of the and also in order to reveal hidden values as church required another intervention in a basis for protection and rehabilitation. The 1993–5. Being one of the oldest and best entire historic core of Split was recorded in preserved examples of construction techniques

306 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 10.5 Historic phases in the transformation of the house of Cipci in the Peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace in Split. The last phase shows the restoration of the house in the 1980s. (Drawing by J. Marasovic)

Definitions and trends 307 Figure 10.6 The eighteenth-century church in Sodankylä, Finland, after restoration in the 1990s with new weather boarding and roof in wooden shingles in the traditional manner. (National Board of Antiquities, Lauri Yli-Tepsa) that had been in use since the Middle Ages, authenticity’ (Kairamo, 1996:51). The question the decision was to rebuild the exterior using in this certainly well-managed restoration pro- the same type of traditional technology. Such ject is, however, how to distinguish between traditions had been discontinued at the end of the concept of ‘genuine’ related to historicity, the nineteenth century, but were ‘relearnt’ and and the meaning of revived traditions or tradi- revived for the restoration: the new, manually tional continuity in relation to modern restora- split wooden planks for the walls and the tion. hand-cut wooden shingles for the roof respected the patterns of the eighteenth Notwithstanding international recommenda- century. The three flag poles, previously lost, tions and official policy statements, the general were rebuilt on the roof on the basis of tendency in the field, especially regarding documentary evidence. The parts added in the public buildings, has been towards stylistic twentieth-century restorations were removed, restoration. This may have been partly inspired but care was taken to respect earlier changes. by an increased confidence acquired through At the conclusion of the works, the question learning in the history of art and architecture, was raised about authenticity, and according and by the availability of traditional know-how to Maija Kairamo: ‘Sodankylä church can be and skills. Moreover, rebuilding of lost parts is understood as a contemporary interpretation facilitated when the original structural systems of the principles of the Venice Charter. The and methods of construction have been based ageing process of the whole will continue in on clearly established modular patterns; this is a traditional way. This is, in my opinion, the case in classical buildings and in Oriental temples and shrines.

308 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 10.7 The main portal and ribbed dome of Gur-i Amir mosque (1404) in Samarkand were restored on the occasion of Timur’s Jubilee in 1996. Like this mosque, which contains Timur’s tomb, many of the historic monuments of Samarkand have been isolated from the urban fabric that used to surround them The issue of ‘national monuments’ is often Figure 10.8 Reconstruction of Bibi Khanum mosque in loaded with political values, and can be Samarkand, in 1997, using reinforced concrete for the conceived as a question of national pride. structure and traditionally produced bricks and tiles for Such values can provoke reconstruction and the surface. New glaze differs from the old in quality stylistic restoration of desired features of the and for its slightly lighter tonality monument, and the elimination and destruc- tion of others that are contrary to political goals. As a result of regained independence in 1992, for example, the authorities of Uzbekis- tan granted ancient Timurid monuments added value and increased political significance. In the Soviet period, the monuments had already been isolated by demolishing the surrounding urban fabric, but restorations had mostly been limited, generally reflecting the principles of the Venice Charter: the new parts were mostly made in simplified forms without attempting to reproduce the original colour schemes (see Figure 8.12). Due to the independence, a decision was taken to rebuild several of the fourteenth- to seventeenth-century mosques and shrines of Samarkand which had been in ruins since the nineteenth century. The work was based on reinforced concrete structures covered with traditional bricks and tiles. The same question is relative to some of the major archaeological sites in Europe and the Mediterranean, as well as in other regions of the world; the examples include the recon- struction of the ruins of Babylon in Iraq and the remains of the ancient city of Chan Chan in Peru. Such reconstruction trends can easily be connected with tourism, and are often justi-

Definitions and trends 309 Figure 10.9 Reconstruction of the architectural remains of Babylon, Iraq, photographed in 1978. The work has since continued extensively on the site Figure 10.10 Stoa of Attalos, Athens: the large- scale reconstruction is out of balance in the context of an otherwise shallow ruined landscape fied due to ‘didactic’ values, and with the aim In the example of the archaeological site of to ‘have something to show to visitors’. If the the former imperial palace of Nara, the author- reconstruction of monuments is not carefully ities have wisely prepared a long-term excava- controlled, instead of conserving the historicity tion programme – thus allowing future of an ancient site according to the intent of the generations the possibility to ‘visit’ virgin Venice Charter, the results risk becoming kitsch. ground for purposes of study, and to use, if Another problem of extensive reconstruction on possible, more advanced techniques of exam- archaeological sites is that, like in the case of ination and diagnosis. The site has a variety the Stoa of Attalos in Athens, it tends to stand of examples of different systems of presenta- out of the context of shallow ruins; instead of tion, such as keeping the original fragments facilitating the interpretation of the site, the new underground and preparing synthetic casts to construction easily upsets the relationship of a show to visitors, or presenting the original single monument with its historical context. structures under a shelter. At the same time,

310 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 10.11 Ad-hoc display of architectural fragments Figure 10.12 Detail of Celsus Library, where new at Ephesus, Turkey, constituting what has been called parts are moulded in plaster, imitating the visual effect by H. Schmidt ‘intellectual ruins’ of the original but avoiding reproduction of details some selected historic structures are being ‘intellectual ruins’, the policy of presentation rebuilt, including examples of palaces, houses, relies on the intellectual capacity of the visitor shrines or gates, and this is done mainly for to comprehend the significance and the history touristic purposes – in order to demonstrate of the site, and to make the site intelligible by the former aspect of such buildings, and to doing the minimum necessary. The presentation provide more buildings above ground in the of existing fragments would be done with the otherwise relatively ‘flat’ area. The question in help of modern structures, without pretending the case of such reconstruction effort is real reconstruction. The idea is also to related, once again, not only to the justifica- document the destruction process as a compo- tion of the single structure, but to the overall nent for reflections stimulated by the fragmented balance in the presentation of the site, which state (e.g., the arbitrary compositions of should be allowed to retain its historical fragments in Ephesus). The concept of ‘natural integrity. ruins’ refers to the use of ruined features as elements in an English-type landscape garden. The issues pertinent to the treatment of ruins Sometimes, the aim of presentation is to design have been articulated by Hartwig Schmidt who and build credible-looking ‘ruins’ in picturesque has taken into account the following situations: settings. This is done using original fragments conservation of fragmented remains, restoration supported and harmonized with modern struc- of standing ruins, and reconstruction of tures and reintegrations, such as the ruined destroyed or excavated structures. He has temples of Aegina and Bassae, or the structures divided the cases as: intellectual ruins, natural created in central-European garden layouts, e.g., ruins and objective ruins. In the first case, the

Definitions and trends 311 Figure 10.13 The front elevation of the Celsus Library, Ephesus, was rebuilt in order to create an architectural space at the end of the main road in the 1980s. Such ‘objective ruins’ are based on archaeological research Schwetzingen. The presentation of ‘objective approach starting from the research and ruins’ is based on confidence in the objectivity excavation of the site, identification of its of science and anastylosis, and it often results historical stratigraphy and the present state, in new spatial compositions within the land- and proceeding to conservation, consolidation scape of partially reconstructed remains. The and interpretation. The general policy was to ruins themselves tend to cease being ‘ruined’, preserve all layers of history, and to help the and rather become new constructions reflecting visitor identify the meaning of each element contemporary aesthetic perceptions, e.g., the in relation to the whole. The principle was to Celsus library of Ephesus, the marble courtyard avoid reconstruction, and to hide technical of the Gymnasium of Sardes (examples are intervention in order not to spoil the given in Schmidt, 1993:43–57; Segarra, 1997). picturesque effect of the ruins. If modern structures were needed, e.g., for visitor access, The British practice in presenting archaeo- safety and services, these were designed as logical sites developed from the early interest unobtrusive and modern in aspect. A typical in picturesque ruins and from the policies of feature of the British practice has been the use the conservation movement. It was recognized of neatly-cut lawns representing lost floor that the presentation of different types of surfaces – although obviously not necessarily structures had different problems; for example, recommendable for all contexts. The presen- sites representing the Iron Age and the Roman tation of the original remains on the site itself period compared to mediaeval sites. was completed with museum exhibits in Earthworks, such as hillforts, were considered reception areas (Thompson, 1981). best to leave undisturbed, while the standing remains of mediaeval abbeys required substan- There is perhaps no absolute priority to be tial works for their intelligible presentation. In given to one or the other of these approaches any case, there was a need for a systematic as the decision will depend on the critical

312 A History of Architectural Conservation Figure 10.14 Fountains Abbey, England: these ‘natural ruins’ are an integral part of the eighteenth-century landscape garden assessment of each case in relation to value their historical and suggestive value as ruins, perceptions. It is also worth remembering that and the impossibility of a rigorous anastylosis Brandi was convinced that the restoration of in this case. The important issue is that ‘con- the remains of a work of art, such as a ruined, servation principles’ or ‘conservation ethics’ ancient temple, required the same critical will not replace the critical approach required process as the restoration of any work of art. by modern conservation; in this context Each case should be taken for its own merits, conservation theory is to be understood as a and not as a question of principle. He was, systematic description of the required critical therefore, critical of the indiscriminate use of process – not as a ‘working hypothesis’. the so-called ‘archaeological restoration’ prin- ciples, where the purpose would simply be Architects are generally expected to leave a to guarantee the presentation of existing mark of their creativity on the building where fragments to visitors. If there was something they work, although when dealing with a to safeguard of the potential unity of a work historic structure the principle has been to of art, this should be done. On the other hand, prefer being humble and respectful instead. he defended the ruins of Selinunte in Sicily for This approach has not been necessarily accepted unanimously, and the on-going

Definitions and trends 313 Figure 10.15 Toronto harbour front; an example of rehabilitation of former industrial areas in commercial and cultural activities debates clearly show conflicting positions in of publications, including examples of this regard. To take some Italian theorists as recycling, rehabilitating and converting historic an example, Renato Bonelli defined restoration buildings to new uses. In many cases, ‘a critical process and then a creative act’; although dealing with historic ensembles, such Brandi considered all our approaches to the conversions have not necessarily aimed at past to be ‘restoration’, but accepted new restoration. The problem would not be raised, creative additions of quality; De Angelis if such existing structures were not conceived d’Ossat did not exclude ‘innovation’ from the of as historical, and therefore requiring the historical context – except that it should not necessary critical process and the identification be confused with ‘restoration’. Marco Dezzi of their significance. Projects have included Bardeschi has insisted on the total preserva- rehabilitation of old barns into residences, tion of all historical materials and their aged coffee shops, offices or exhibition rooms, old appearance. Paolo Marconi, instead, has opted castles into visitor centres or hotels, former for the use of traditional forms and technology harbour areas into commercial and cultural in the completion and reintegration of lost centres (e.g., New York, Toronto), desecrated parts of historic structures, sustained by careful churches into concert halls, residential apart- study and understanding of building traditions, ments or offices. In cold climate countries the documented in the buildings themselves, and 1980s trend has been to transform existing sustained by relevant building manuals urban street spaces or courtyards into covered (Marconi, 1992). malls, or building historic city or village centres into pedestrianized shopping areas The policies have had a tendency to (Fitch, 1982; Strike, 1994). develop on two main lines, generally charac- terized by ‘pure conservation’ and ‘restoration’; One of the most disconcerting and diffused in Italy the first is represented by Dezzi phenomena in the second half of the twenti- Bardeschi, the second by Marconi. In most eth century has been the all too frequent countries, there have been similar debates as, choice of ‘façadism’. This is often falsely justi- for example, in Great Britain. The general fied on the grounds of economics vs. archi- emphasis, however, has varied from country tectural or picturesque values; it is often to country; e.g., Italians have been more accepted as the least bad solution, and inclined toward ‘conservation’, while the sometimes excused due to the different dates preference in France has been toward ‘restora- of the elevation and the interior. In practice, tion’. This has been documented by a variety façadism is expensive and has generally meant

314 A History of Architectural Conservation a total destruction of the historic fabric, while Figure 10.16 Instead of destroying the mediaeval wall keeping or rebuilding only the external image that concealed the ancient Roman site in Tarragona, of the past architecture. Looking beyond a Spain, architect A. Bruno provided an access to restored single architectural structure, such practice has Roman remains by making a vertical cut through the had the most serious impact on the integrity wall – as if opening the book of history. (A. Bruno, of historic cities or villages, undermining 1987–94) efforts to introduce integrated conservation planning at the level of settlements and opted for the reconstruction and anastylosis cultural landscapes. using all surviving fragments, not without some criticism from conservationists who were All cultural property is at risk, e.g., due to concerned that there was too little debate fire, flood, earthquakes, or armed conflicts; about the choice, and that the result pretended risk preparedness and appropriate documen- to be too perfect (〈␯␣␥␬⑀, V). In the case of tation are an essential part of mitigation of La Fenice, the external walls remained stand- such hazards. Moreover, the use of appropri- ing while the interior was totally destroyed. In ate databases is fundamental as an instrument the debate, conservation professionals gener- for planning and development of historic ally firmly supported a solution that would areas, taking into account heritage values and respect the place but would also be an expres- the relevant social-economic context. The sion of ‘our time’. The authorities and the following are a few examples of restoration general public of Venice, instead, seemed to approaches, identified mainly in Italy. be mostly in favour of a replica (come’era e dov’era) (〈␯␣␥␬⑀ XIII, 1997).7 Other countries In the 1980s and 1990s, Italian cultural have had similar experiences. In Vienna a part heritage was hit by several disasters including earthquakes, floods and landslides. In the autumn of 1997, these included an exception- ally long period of earthquakes hitting the regions of Umbria and Marche in Central Italy; numerous important historic towns and villages, such as Assisi and Foligno, suffered serious losses. Amongst the damaged struc- tures was the St Francis Basilica in Assisi, where a part of the vaults collapsed, and where some important paintings by Giotto and Cimabue were severely damaged or lost. There have also been other disasters, including the collapse of the tower of Pavia in 1989, a fire in Theatre Petruzzelli in Bari 1991, bomb attacks in Florence (the Uffizi art gallery) and in Rome (San Giorgio al Velabro) in 1993, collapse of the dome of the cathedral of Noto in 1996, a fire in La Fenice in Venice in 1996, and a fire in Guarini’s chapel (Cappella della Sindone) in Turin Cathedral in 1997. In most cases, the practical decision has been to rebuild the destroyed structure, but at the same time there has been a growing concern for a need to strengthen prevention. Furthermore, the events have been followed by a debate with strong arguments in favour of opposite approaches, related to philosoph- ical issues concerning the significance and authenticity of what remains or is restored. In the case of the collapsed portico of San Giorgio al Velabro, the Italian government