Oasis Health, Population & Environment Education Book 10

i. Forest conservation programs should be launched and executed effectively. ii. People must be made aware about collecting old and dry forest products for household use. Young plants should be preserved for sustainable use of forest resource. iii. Effective laws and acts against deforestation, forest encroachment, and its exploitation should be enforced and implemented. iv. Alternative sources of energy like hydroelectricity, solar energy and biogas energy should be given priority. Such measures reduce the dependence of the people on forest-based products for fuel. v. Applicable environment education should be included in school and higher education curricula. vi. Afforestation program should be launched on barren mountain areas. vii. People encroach forests near the dwelling areas. Such activities should be watched closely, and appropriate legal steps should be taken to control them. * Specific measures for mountain and hilly region • Collection of fodder for domestic cattle is practised more in the mountain and hilly region. Farmers should be encouraged not to collect excessive fodder from the forests. They should minimize it to an appropriate level or raise fodder plants in their fields. * Specific measures for Terai region • There are many furniture industries in the Terai region. In this region, the illegal collection of timber is mainly done for industrial purpose rather than domestic. Industrial consumption of wood is higher than domestic use. Therefore, such industries should be made to abide by the rules through regular inspection, awareness and legal provisions. c) Depletion of pastureland and grassland by overgrazing Pasturelands and grasslands are the wide areas of land covered with dense grass. People living in different regions of Nepal raise livestock as a traditional occupation. It is followed more professionally in the mountain and hilly regions. When people take their cattle to the same pastureland Health, Population and Environment - 10 101

frequently, it loses its vegetation diversity. Depletion of pastureland may result in soil erosion, landslide, degradation of the ecosystem and extinction of living organisms. Therefore, such activities should be controlled by adopting the following mitigating measures: Mitigating measures against depletion of pastureland * Common measures for all ecological regions i. Domestic animals should be taken to those pasturelands where there is mature and abundant grass. ii. Young plants must be preserved for production of seeds and continuation of new generations. Plants should be protected from being extinct. iii. A grass culture should be promoted and facilitated. iv. Fodder plants should be identified and preserved well. A system of feeding fodder plants can prevent excessive use of grass and herbs. Pasturelands * Specific measure for mountain region • In the mountain region, where there is a practice of taking many domestic animals for grazing at once, rotational or alternative grazing system should be followed to provide sufficient time for the herbs to grow after grazing once. d) Degradation of fertility of soil Soil is an important component of the ecosystem. Soil loses its fertility by many natural and men-manipulated reasons. Over cultivation, excessive use of inorganic manure, insecticides, pesticides, and herbicides are few 102 Health, Population and Environment - 10

examples of foolish activities of the people that degrade the fertility of soil. Fertility of soil is directly related to agricultural production. Loss of fertility may result in scarcity of food, famine, starvation and widespread death. There may be loss of vegetation in the forests and grassland. Such a system affects the ecosystem adversely. In order to protect the fertility of soil, the following measures can be followed: Mitigating measures against degradation of fertility of soil * Common measures for all ecological regions i. Farmers should be encouraged to use compost manure. ii. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, herbicides should be discouraged. iii. In the mountain and hilly region, excessive cultivation should be discouraged on steep land to prevent soil erosion. * Specific measures for mountain and hilly regions • Terrace farming technique should be encouraged in the mountain and hills to prevent loss of fertile top soil and its components like humus and other organic compounds. • Glacier and lake outbursts in the mountain region become destructive sometimes and cause heavy soil erosion in the lower land. Such dangerous lakes and glaciers should be identified early and preventive measures should be taken. Construction of dams and management of controlled water outlet can mitigate such problems. * Specific measures for Terai region • Chemical pollutants produced by industries, especially in this region, should be managed using scientific methods of neutralizing the pollutants. • The industries in the Terai produce huge amounts of pollutants like dust, gases, etc. A green belt should be created around the industries to minimize the adverse effects of pollution on the environment. e) Overexploitation of other natural resources like water, wildlife, minerals, etc. Due to population overgrowth, the demands of the people are also increasing. In order to fulfill the needs, people exploit the natural resources. They have started development works near and around the natural resources like rivers and forests. Deforestation has affected the habitats of living things adversely, water resources have been polluted, wildlife has been depleted, and several mineral resources are on the verge of extinction. Health, Population and Environment - 10 103

Mitigating measures against overexploitation of natural resources like water, wildlife, minerals, etc. Common measures for all ecological regions i. An awareness program should be run among the people to provide them knowledge about the status, importance and ways to protect the appropriate presence of natural resources. ii. Formulation of appropriate laws and their strict implementation against hunting, smuggling, poaching and such other activities are necessary. iii. New technologies with advanced machines and devices, which produce less pollution, should be adopted to conserve the natural resources. iv. Wise use of natural resources should be emphasized. Unnecessary exploitation and haphazard destruction of natural resources should be controlled. v. While carrying out the development works, the principles of sustainable development should be followed. 4.4 Environmental Conservation and Management Management of environment is a part of environmental conservation. Management signifies basically balancing procedures of the environments components. There are various types of development works. Almost all of them use natural resources. Natural resources are used in two ways: haphazard utilization and sustainable utilization. Haphazard utilization is random utilization without conserving those resources for the future. But the concept of sustainable utilization assures the long-term existence of natural resources, for future generations. Developmental work involving such utilization is called sustainable development. Human beings have been the primary and main cause of environmental degradation due to destructive, polluting and environment-exploiting activities. Therefore, it is the first duty of human beings to correct their faults and conserve the common environment of all living creatures. Some of the main activities of environmental conservation in Nepal are given below: Activities of environmental conservation in Nepal • Conservation of forests • Conservation of land • Management of waste • Control of pollution 104 Health, Population and Environment - 10

a) Conservation of forests Forest is a major constituent of the environment. It has several trees, shrubs and herbs. In addition to these, it is a home for numerous animals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and microorganisms. Maximum share of the total land of the earth is covered by forests. Forests help in conservation and balance of ecosystems. Uncountable unknown and unexplored living creatures still remain hidden in various forests. Nepal is also rich in forest resources though many trees in the forests have been cut down and reforestation has not taken place. There was a saying “Hariyo ban, Nepal ko dhan” or the green forests are the wealth of Nepal. But, due to lack of proper policies to utilize such a valuable resource, we could not take much benefit from the forest resources. Forest is being destroyed in Nepal. In recent years, Nepal has adopted the community forestry program. This program motivates community people in conservation programs by allowing them to generate income from forest products. People are encouraged to plant trees, conserve as well as utilize forest products in a proper way for their livelihood. A separate forest and land conservation ministry is there in Nepal. This ministry works for the conservation of forests. A forest Act was introduced in Nepal in 2018 BS, and after few amendments, the Forest Act, 2049 BS categorized the forests of Nepal into seven types. They are national, protected, protected by the government, kabuliyati, community, religious and private forests. This has been helpful to formulate appropriate rules and laws to protect the forests of different conditions. b) Conservation of land Land is the basis of the total environment. Many creatures, including human beings, are terrestrial and live on land. Plants grow on land, animals live on land, and land ecosystem exists on the land. Conservation of land includes activities like control of landslide and soil erosion, protection of pasture land, conservation of forests and water resources, control of soil contamination, etc. There are two main ministries, which work for Health, Population and Environment - 10 105

the conservation of land. These are the Forest and Land Conservation Ministry, and Agriculture Ministry. Environment education in now part of the school level educational program as well as higher level education. Through this, production related human resource and manpower has been possible. Many government and non-government organizations are also working for the conservation of land and awareness programs among the people. c) Management of waste Waste management is the main task in environmental conservation. Waste management has been a big problem in towns. Our effort at solving this problem is still not sufficient. The responsibility of collecting and managing day- to-day waste materials has been taken by the municipalities and Village Development Committees. In the towns, necessary vehicles and manpower have been collecting solid waste for appropriate disposal in the dumping sites. But, due to lack of public awareness, proper sanitation has not been maintained. Rivers are polluted and walking around has been difficult in towns. In the villages, there is no system of using safe latrines. Open defecation near and around residential areas are a common problem throughout Nepal. In order to control such situation in the villages and towns, there must be proper education, awareness and assistance programs for people. The school level curriculum includes much information regarding the harmful effects of unsafe or open defecation. Students can share their knowledge to make their family and society aware about this. d) Control of pollution Pollution control is a must in environmental conservation. Pollution and pollutants are mainly produced by vehicles, industries, and public dwelling areas. People use excessive amounts of chemical fertilizers, 106 Health, Population and Environment - 10

insecticides, and pesticides to increase agricultural production. In the long- term, it is harmful for maintenance of soil-fertility. Such activities should be controlled. Industries produce poisonous, acidic, alkaline and other harmful chemical substances. Such substances should be managed well. There are some laws to control pollution. Two-stroke vehicles are banned in some town areas as they produce many pollutants like CO, CO2, methane , carbon dust and others. Industries producing sound pollution and other pollutants cannot be established and run near residential areas. School education and other higher level education give information and knowledge about such topics. It helps in controlling pollution in towns as well as in the rural areas. Project Work Findanythreebasesofdistinguishingthephysical,biologicalandsocio-aspectsof the geographical regions of Nepal. Mountain Hill Terai Physical i. Altitude ................... ................... ................... ii. Land Structure ................... ................... ................... iii. Temperature ................... ................... ................... Bilogical i. ................... ................... ................... ii. ................... ................... ................... iii. ................... ................... ................... Socio-eco- i. ................... ................... ................... nomic ................... ................... ................... ii. iii. ................... ................... ................... Health, Population and Environment - 10 107

Notes • There is unequal distribution of population in the different regions. People want to live in those areas where they can find more facilities and services. • Population distribution can be defined as the arrangement of population on the basis of geographical, ecological , developmental or any other form of land division at a given time. • Terai region has very high population density in comparison to the hilly and mountain regions. It has more than half of total population of Nepal according to the census 2011. • Though 35 percent of the land is in the mountain region, it has only 6.73 percent of the population. • The physical aspect of an environment includes factors like altitude, temperature, climate, land division, land topography, nature of soil, humidity, area and such other physical components constituting the environment. • The biological aspect of an environment includes factors like flora and fauna, ecosystem, habit and habitat of living things, biodiversity, food chain and such other factors related to the biotic components pertaining to the environment. • The socio-economic aspect of an environment includes factors like social norms and values, traditions, customs, religions, beliefs, trades and business, income generating activities and such other social and economic characteristics of the people. • Major adverse effects of human activities on ecosystem include destruction of forest and forest resources, depletion of pasture-land, loss of soil fertility, and over-exploitation of other natural resources. • We can have control over adverse effects of human activities on ecosystem through specific mitigating measures and environmental conservation programmes. 108 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Exercise A. Give very short answers to the following questions. 1. How is the total land of Nepal divided on the basis of ecological perspective? 2. What is the population share of the hilly region of Nepal according to the 2011 census? 3. Which geographical region of Nepal has the maximum population percentage according to the recent census of Nepal? 4. What is the altitude range of mountain region? 5. Where does Dolpa district lie? Write the name of the geographical region. 6. Which region consists of rocky land structure in Nepal? 7. Where do Sherpas predominantly live? 8. What is the population density of the Terai region? 9. How many districts are there in hilly region of Nepal? 10. What are the sub divisions of the Terai region? 11. Write any one adverse effect of uneven population distribution on the environment of the mountain region. 12. Give an example of alternative source of energy. B. Give short answers to the following questions. 1. Why is the distribution of population unequal in the mountain, hilly and Terai regions of Nepal? 2. Compare the population distribution of Nepal in the different developmental regions of Nepal according to the 2011 census? 3. Describe the physical aspects of the mountain region of Nepal in brief. 4. Compare the biological aspects of the hilly region and mountain region in five points. 5. What are the major income generating activities of the people in the mountain region? Explain briefly. 6. Write a paragraph comparing the physical aspects of the hilly region and mountain region. Health, Population and Environment - 10 109

7. List five differences between the biological aspects of the Terai region and mountain region. 8. Describe briefly about the socio-economic aspects of the Terai region. 9. What are the reasons behind the highest population density in Terai? Explain. 10. Ecosystem differs in accordance with geographical region. Clarify it. 11. How can you say that mountain region is rich in biodiversity? 12. There is more biodiversity in hilly region. Explain. 13. Mountain region is the least affected area in Nepal. Justify. 14. Terai region is the most affected area in Nepal. Justify. 15. Explain mountain ecosystem. 16. Explain hill ecosystem. 17. Explain Terai ecosystem. 18. How can environment be managed? Explain. C. Give long answers to the following questions. 1. How can we minimize the problems of environmental pollution in the mountain region? Describe with examples. 2. What does 'overexploitation of forest' mean? How can we control the effects of overgrowth of population on forests? 3. What are the major programs of Nepal for environmental conservation and management? Explain. 4. What kinds of activities are being performed for environment conservation in your school? Explain. 5. Explain in detail about the interrelation between natural environment and human beings. 6. How is solid waste managed in your locality? Explain. 7. How can we conserve soil? Explain with examples. 8. How can we control pollution? Explain the methods that you can apply in your community. 110 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Family Life 5 Education and Quality of Life Contents 5.1 Introduction to Quality of Life 5.2 Elements of Quality of Life 5.3 Bases of Quality of Life 5.4 Indicators of Quality of Life 5.5 Human Development Index 5.6 Interrelationship between Quality of Life and Low Quality of Life Family life refers to the set of life features concerning with family-related matters. In this light, family life education can be defined as the process of developing knowledge, attitude and behavior linked with family concerns and issues. Family life education focuses on healthy family functioning within a family system. It primarily provides a preventive approach for shaping family patterns according to generally expected family norms and values. The central objective of providing family life education is to uplift the quality life of the family. Health, Population and Environment - 10 111

5.1 Introduction to Quality of Life Literally, quality means a measure of excellence or a state of being free from defects and problems. Life is the experience of being alive. When we live without any problems and hazards in life, there lies quality of life. Quality of life is a collection of interacting objective and subjective dimensions. Quality of life is also a dynamic concept; values and self-evaluations of life may change over time in response to life and health events and experiences. Each area of quality of life can also have knock-on effects on others. For example, retaining independence and social participation may promote feelings of emotional well-being, but are partly dependent on retaining health and adequate finances. These can also be influenced by local transport facilities, type of housing, community resources and social relationships. Quality of life is multidimensional and its parts affect each other as well as the sum. It poses inevitable challenges for measurement. Therefore, there are many non-identical techniques existing for the measurement of quality of life. Satisfaction and happiness in one's life are the key requirements of quality of life. In order to be satisfied with existing needs and aspirations, we need to have the ability to take proper decisions regarding the determination of needs. The basic aspects of human needs, which are to be fulfilled for maintaining the quality of life, are described below: a) Physical aspects Human needs including food, housing, clothing and such other things of physical existence, that fulfill human's aspirations for the addition of quality in life are called physical aspects of quality of life. It includes those factors which have physical or material existence. The materials which can be seen, touched and are needed for our survival are included under this 1. Pizza : a delicious food made from a round flat piece of bread, cheese, vegetables and other tasty items, which is comparatively expensive in the market 112 Health, Population and Environment - 10

aspect. Drinking water, transportation, communication, security, sanitation, income, health services, etc. are some other examples of the physical aspect of quality life. b) Psychological and emotional aspects Human needs, including love, satisfaction, entertainment and such other abstract factors that do not have any material existence but are associated with psychological and emotional satisfaction for the addition of quality in life, are called psychological and emotional aspects of quality life. This aspect includes abstract factors, which are non-materials but needed for a happy life. Recreation, entertainment, cooperation, etc. are also included in this aspect. c) Spiritual aspects Human needs including freedom to practise one's culture, freedom to trust in God, honor, social prestige, fundamental rights and such other high-ranked abstract factors, which are regarded as the products of advanced thoughts of human beings, are called spiritual aspects of quality of life. Spiritual aspects encompass abstract or non-material elements. These are ranked higher than psychological and emotional aspects. The above mentioned aspects include various human needs. These needs are to be fulfilled in order to get satisfaction in one’s life. Besides, various social, political, aesthetic and other contextual needs play a vital role in determining the quality of life of people. The fulfilment of the needs and degree of satisfaction may differ from person to person. For example, a hungry beggar can get high satisfaction by getting a single piece of bread, whereas a child of a rich family ignores a similar piece of bread and demands pizza1 . One can be very happy by getting a bicycle but another person may be unhappy even with motorcycle and tries further to get a car. We cannot say that a similar sort of fulfillment of need will create a similar degree of satisfaction. It depends upon the status, background and extent of desire for something that an individual has. But, everybody agrees that basic needs are a must for all because they are the needs for survival. Without having the basic needs fulfilled, no one can have more advanced desires. Quality of life, to some context, is regarded as life style with a process of promoting satisfaction and happiness by fulfilling every sort of needs which arise in life. 2. Persuade : to induce to undertake a course of action or embrace a point of view by means of argument, reasoning or entreaty Health, Population and Environment - 10 113

United Nation’s Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) gave a definition of quality of life in 1976. It states: “The quality of life is a sense of being pleased or satisfied with those life elements that are most important to a person.” This definition has given more emphasis to the sense of being pleased or satisfied. Quality of life is complex and abstract. Therefore, it should be understood in a broader sense. In such context, we can define quality of life as the degree of satisfaction achieved in one’s life by the fulfillment of Activity Case one: Gopal’s father wakes up early in the morning at 6 a.m. and goes to work before 7 a.m. He earns Rs. 200 by doing hard work for the day. He has a family of five members. He manages food and other day-to-day needs with this income every day. Case two: A 15 year-old girl works as a servant in a house of a rich family in a town. Her parents live in a remote area from the town with many difficulties for survival. She wakes up early in the morning, cleans the house, prepares tea and breakfast, provides to all the family members, cleans utensils, and helps three children of the family go to school. During the day time, she washes a huge pile of clothes of the family. When evening starts, she has no time even to look after herself, being too busy in household chores. She sleeps late at night after carrying out all her responsibilities. Case three: There is a rich person with abundant wealth. He has four sons who always quarrel over property. The rich man tries to control them, but they threaten him not to persuade1 . The sons blame him for everything. The rich man becomes thinner and thinner due to the tension and torture. And, the sons cannot have a sound sleep for fear of the other. Find out similar cases in your community and make a list of such cases. Take it for discussion in your class, and select one of them for your study. Now make a report upon that case and present your report in class. Try to answer the following questions: i. What problems do they suffer from? What is the condition of quality of life in them? ii. Are there similar problems in other families, too? iii. How do you compare these cases? iv. How do you compare each of the cases with your life? 114 Health, Population and Environment - 10

basic needs as well as physical, mental, emotional, spiritual, socio-cultural, biological, psychological and other aspects of human needs that arise in human life with a desire to fulfill them. 5.2 Elements of Quality of Life Elements of quality life mean the factors that are responsible for determining the quality of life. Some of the elements are discussed below: a) Nutritious food Food is one of the basic needs since without having this need fulfilled, no one can survive. There must be supply of nutritious food and a balanced diet for quality life. We can get immunity power to be safe against many infectious as well as non-infectious diseases from a balanced diet, which includes the basic elements of nutrition values like carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals. Nutritious food adds happiness and satisfaction in life by fulfilling hunger, strengthening the immunity power, saving us from health hazards and problems, and in this way adding quality to our life. Junk foods, stale foods and an unbalanced diet may satisfy instant hunger but cannot contribute to quality of life. b) Small family size Family size plays a vital role in determining the quality of life. A small family has less number of family members. Where there are less family members, there is less demand for basic and additional needs. These needs can be fulfilled easily with limited resources. Fulfilment of needs increases the happiness and satisfaction in life, ultimately increasing the quality of life. c) Health We have a saying: ‘Health is wealth.’ If we are healthy, we can go ahead wherever we want. If we are unhealthy, we cannot work, study and even entertain ourselves in desired way. Without having the sound health, family members suffer from different diseases, become handicapped and Health, Population and Environment - 10 115

disabled. Such a condition becomes a burden for the healthy members, too and they cannot involve themselves in other income generating activities. Without sufficient income, there is further problem of fulfilling the needs that arise in the family. Therefore, health is regarded as an important element for gaining quality of life. The status of health can be promoted by following the given activities: i. Managing a balanced diet in the family. ii. Maintaining personal hygiene and cleanliness among family members. iii. Making community members aware and involve them actively in community cleanliness. iv. Managing safe drinking water. v. Managing regular health check-ups and appropriate treatment in case of any disease. vi. Providing basic health education for all. vii. Making people aware about a healthy life style with good food habits and proper exercise and rest. d) Sanitation Sanitation is the process of maintaining cleanliness. The cleanliness clears the dwelling place of micro-organisms, which cause diseases. Sanitation promotes a healthy life. Healthy life further assures quality of life. e) Education Education brings many changes in human beings. One can have skills and knowledge for employment, know about a healthy life style, can have techniques to tackle against many problems which arise in life, and can acquire much happiness and satisfaction in life. In this way, education is considered a vital factor in acquiring quality of life. 116 Health, Population and Environment - 10

f) Income of the family Income is regarded as the primary tool in fulfilling the basic as well as additional needs in life. Fulfillment of one's needs determines the quality in life. Family income becomes more if there are more active members in the family. Active members go for job to earn money. They can manage their profitable business and other income generating activities. More income in a family assures fulfilment of the needs in the family and maintains the quality of life. g) Security Security can be categorized into three groups: physical, economical and emotional security. The family is an institution where members can get all sorts of security. When one member is in problem other members share the problem and use their collective effort to solve this. With the support of family members, one can get security. This adds satisfaction to life and uplifts the quality of life. h) Saving Saving is considered as a wise move to be ready for any certain or uncertain event in the future. Allocation of total income must have a portion of saving. Saved amount can be utilized against a sudden attack of disease, to have assurance for a safe future and to grab beneficial opportunities in the future. Such advantages become more helpful in gaining more satisfaction and improving the quality of life. i) Housing Housing is one of the basic needs. Houses are made and managed to live in. A house provides physical security against environmental factors like sunlight, wind, storm, rainfall, dust, and so on. A good house gives a degree of satisfaction to the persons who live in it and adds to quality of life. j) Socio-cultural values Socio-cultural values and norms affect the degree of quality of life. Discrimination among people in the name of caste, ethnicity, poverty and gender, etc. creates a feeling of humiliation in the suppressed group. Such a feeling declines the quality of life. Socio-cultural values support some superstitious us beliefs and practices, too. witch doctors, dowry system, isolation of girls in menarche, similar isolation of mothers in pregnancy, use of alcohol in social rites, rituals, feasts, and festivals, etc. degrade Health, Population and Environment - 10 117

the quality of life of the concerned group of people. Some socio-cultural practices are beneficial for improving the health status of people. Taking a bath everyday in the morning, eating nutritious foods, and fasting at times help in improving the health status of the people. In this way, the socio-cultural values influence human health positively or negatively. 5.3 Bases of Quality of Life Quality of life is a complex and abstract feature of human life. Therefore, measurement of quality in one’s life has been very difficult though we are trying to find ways to measure it. Here are some of the ways, which are found somehow useful to measure quality of life. a) Basic needs-oriented approach This approach was the first attempt to measure quality of human life. It was brought in practice during the 1970s. In Nepal, the target of fulfilling at least basic needs of all people was included in the Sixth Five-year Plan. It was the first attempt at addressing the issue of basic needs formally in the national plan. The basic needs-oriented approach is a technique of measuring quality of life on the basis of fulfillment of the basic needs of the people of a country in a certain period of time. This approach assumes that if the basic needs are fulfilled in greater extent, there is quality of life and if in lesser extent, there is low quality of life. Basic needs, which are regarded as the major determinants for the quality of life, are given below: i. Food ii. Clothes iii. Shelter iv. Education v. Health vi. Drinking water and sanitation 118 Health, Population and Environment - 10

b) Physical quality of life index (PQLI) It is a numeric index representing the quality of people's life determined by their average Child Mortality Rate, life expectancy and literacy rate of a certain place at a given time. PQLI may range from zero to a hundred. In order to get the PQL Index, the following data are taken as its basis: i. Child Mortality Rate, i.e. mortality rate of children under five years of age ii. Life Expectancy at birth iii. Literacy rate Though PQLI provides important information to understand people's quality of life, it is criticized for the following weakness. i. It does not take people’s income under consideration. ii. Mortality rate and life expectancy may have some overlapping features. iii. It does not measure the spiritual factors of quality of life. iv. It does not take education under consideration. 5.4 Indicators of Quality of Life When there is quality of life, some specific features are found in people’s life. Such features indicate the presence of quality in life. Some of such features, or indicators, of quality of life are as follows: a) Fulfillment of basic needs Basic needs are the most essential needs of human life because these are associated with life and survival. Without fulfilling the basic needs, no one can survive. It includes food, water, clothes, shelter, etc. In order to maintain quality of life one has to get his/her basic needs fulfilled. A Lifestyle with low quality of life creates difficulties in the ability to fulfill those needs. b) Attainment of quality education Quality in life assures the possibility of getting quality education. Quality education can be achieved if the basic needs are fulfilled and there is happiness and satisfaction in life. We need time for quality education. In some conditions, quality education is not accessible for poor people. They have to be busy and work very hard for survival. Where there is no quality in life, poverty exists with numerous hazards and obstacles. That creates problems in getting quality education. Health, Population and Environment - 10 119

c) Management of health services, facilities and sanitation Low quality of life makes people totally centered on fulfilling the basic needs. They have to struggle more for food and sustainability of life. Management of health services, facilities and sanitation can get priority in one’s life if those basic needs are fulfilled first. When there is quality of life, one can manage health services for his/her family members and live with sanitation, cleanliness and a hygienic life. d) Facilities for maternal and child welfare In rural and remote areas, where the life standard is low, there is no proper care of mothers and even infants and children. We can still hear from the elderly generation that they had given birth to their children while doing household work inside or outside the home. They delivered when they were working inside the home collecting or when they were away from home harvesting crops and fodder for the cattle. This is because they didn't have knowledge about maternal child health care (MCHC) . That’s why maternal and infant mortality in the past was observed to be very high. Such conditions still exist in some underdeveloped remote areas of Nepal. In order to manage proper MCH care for all people, we must try first to increase quality in life by uplifting their life standard. People having quality of life can easily afford the required facilities for maternal and child welfare. They become familiar and well aware regarding the importance of MCH care. So, there is better health of the mother and children in the family. e) Opportunities for income generating activities and employment Unless there is quality in life, there is no possibility of increasing knowledge and skills needed income generating activities. We have already discussed that we can have quality education and sound health by attaining quality in life first. Without having education, skill and sound health, we cannot get opportunities. f. Women empowerment The female population occupies more than half the total population of the world. In almost all countries, including Nepal, the population of females is slightly more than that of males. By observation, we can find that gender discrimination and women suppression is found more in those places where people are uneducated, backward and have low quality of life. High quality of life assures gender equality. When there is quality in life, there is access to education, awareness, understanding and 120 Health, Population and Environment - 10

a sense of humanity. Such a condition motivates people towards women empowerment against gender discrimination. 5.5 Human Development Index The practice of measuring Quality of Life (QOL) with the basic needs oriented approach and physical quality of life indices were found to have some drawbacks. From the year 1990, UNDP (United Nations Development Program) started preparing and publishing the Human Development Report (HDR) annually with the Human Development Indices of many countries of the world. From that year, this new method has been brought into practice to measure QOL more suitably. HDI was first developed by late Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq for the annual report of UNDP. It has an index range between zero and one. Nowadays, it is found more appropriate to measure this abstract aspect of human life with Human Development Indices. Human Development Report (HDR) includes the data related to human development issues corrosponding to the previous year. For example, HDR 2020 includes the values of HDI for the year 2019. Human Development Index is a tool to measure the quality of life in numeric figures that comprise of a country’s average achievements in three basic aspects of human development: health, knowledge and income in a certain time period. UNDP has defined Human Development Index (HDI) as “a composite index measuring average achievement in three basic dimensions of human development–a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living.” The basics of HDI Calculation of HDI encompasses the analysis of data revealing three major aspects of human development. They are health, knowledge and income. They are measured mathematically with the help of certain major indicators as given below: a) Health (Measured by life expectancy at birth) b) Education (Measured by adult literacy and enrolment in the primary, secondary and tertiary level of education) c) Income Measured by GNI: Gross National Income per capita; adjusted purchasing power parity, PPP ) Health, Population and Environment - 10 121

Though the above indices are comprehensive measures of human development and quality of life, they do not include important indicators such, as gender or income inequality, respect for human rights and political freedoms. They cannot explain the quality of life determined by the mental, emotional and spiritual aspects of human needs, which are very strong and important determinants of life’s quality. What they do provide is the complex relationship between income and well-being. Nowadays, HDI is a widely accepted tool to analyse human development and quality of life. It adopts procedural uniformity in the evaluation of all countries on the same basis. UNDP used to categorize the countries under its study into three groups on the basis of HDI in the past. They were highly developed (with HDI of 0.800 and above), average (with HDI of 0.500 to 0.799), poor (with HDI less than 0.500). From the year 2010, UNDP started making four categories. This categorization is not based on the index range. It is based according to their placement on four statistical quartiles. They are: a) Very High HDI countries (Placed on the top quartile) b) High HDI countries (Placed on the second quartile) c) Medium HDI countries (Placed on the third quartile) d) Low HDI countries (Placed on the lowest quartile) Nepal was in average category of human development according to the reports published by UNDP. In 2004, the HDI of Nepal was 0.504 and ranked 140th among all countries and in 2006 AD the index was 0.527 and ranked 138th in the world. Human Development Report 2015 shows the rank of Nepal in year 2014 as 145th with an index of 0.548. (Human Development Report, HDR analyzes the characteristics of human development for the previous year). As the index lies in the fourth quartile, Nepal belonged to the low HDI category. In 2015, Nepal stepped in Medium HDI quartile with 0.558 HDI and 144th rank. In HDR 2020, Nepal's HDI (2019) was 0.602 with 142nd place in the world. Human development index of Nepal over the period 2004 to 2019 is given in the table below: Year RANK HDI Category 2004 104 0.504 Average 2006 138 0.527 Average 122 Health, Population and Environment - 10

2012 157 0.463 Low HDI 2014 145 0.548 Low HDI 2015 144 0.558 Medium HDI 2019 142 0.602 Medium HDI The following two tables reflect the status of different countries of Asia and the world according to the Human Development Report prepared by UNDP in the year 2014 AD and 2015 AD. Human Development Indexes of SAARC countries, UNDP 2015, 2016 HDI 2014 AD HDI 2015 AD HDI 2019 AD (According to HDR, 2015 AD) (According to HDR, 2016 AD) (According to HDR, 2020 AD) Country Rank HDI Country Rank HDI Country Rank HDI Sri Lanka 73 0.757 Sri Lanka 73 0.766 Sri Lanka 72 0.782 Maldives 104 0.706 Maldives 105 0.701 Maldives 95 0.740 India 130 0.609 India 131 0.624 India 131 0.645 Bhutan 132 0.605 Bhutan 132 0.607 Bhutan 129 0.654 Bangladesh 142 0.570 Bangladesh 139 0.579 Bangladesh 133 0.632 Nepal 145 0.548 Nepal 144 0.558 Nepal 142 0.602 Pakistan 147 0.538 Pakistan 147 0.550 Pakistan 154 0.557 Afghanistan 171 0.465 Afghanistan 169 0.479 Afganistan 169 0.511 Source: UNDP, Human Development Report (HDR) - 2015, 2016, 2020 AD Human Development Indexes of first ten countries, UNDP, 2015, 2016 HDI 2014 AD HDI 2015 AD HDI 2019 AD (According to HDR, 2015) (According to HDR, 2016) (According to HDR, 2020 AD) Rank Countries HDI Rank Country HDI Rank Country HDI 1 Norway 0.944 1 Norway 0.949 1 Norway 0.957 2 Australia 0.935 2 Australia 0.939 2 Ireland 0.955 0.939 3 Switzerland 0.930 2 Switzer- 0.926 2 Switzerland 0.955 land 4 Denmark 0.923 4 Germany 4 Hong Kong 0.949 (SAR, China) Health, Population and Environment - 10 123

5 Nether- 0.922 5 Denmark 0.925 4 Iceland 0.949 lands 6 Germany 0.947 7 Sweden 0.945 6 Germany 0.916 5 Singapore 0.925 7 Nether- 0.924 6 Ireland 0.916 0.923 lands 8 United 0.915 8 Ireland 8 Australia 0.944 States 9 Canada 0.913 9 Iceland 0.920 8 Netherlands 0.944 9 New Zea- 0.913 10 Canada and 0.920 10 Denmark 0.940 land USA Source: HDR, 2015 Source: HDR, 2016 Source: HDR, 2020. 5.6 Interrelationship between Quality of Life and Low Quality of Life Quality of life and low quality of life both exist in the same individual. The extents of these two often differ and the sum of these two provides a complete status of life. A person can neither have full quality in life nor nil quality in his/her life. These two parameters actually balance the life processes of each individual. The balancing mechanism of life process with quality and low quality of life is well demonstrated by the given diagram: Quality of Life(%) Low quality of Life(%) Quality of Life(%) Low quality of Life(%) 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 10 10 10 10 Diagram A-20% Quality of life and Diagram B-70% Quality of life and 30% 80% Low quality of life. Low quality of life. The diagram shows that when quality in one’s life increases, there is less extent of low quality. And, adversely, when quality in life decreases, there is low quality. In the first diagram (A), there is 20% of quality and 80% of low quality in life. The second diagram (B) represents a new situation in 124 Health, Population and Environment - 10

life. The situation changes when happiness and satisfaction in life increase through fulfilment of the needs. In this situation, quality of life increases up to 70% and only 30% low quality exists. From the above diagrams, we know that there are two contrasting characteristics of quality in life. This can be demonstrated with a pyramid- diagram of quality of life: Quality of Life Q O Q Saving Lack of happiness and L O Satisfaction L Family income Low life expectancy Nutritious Food Lack of quality Education Family Size Lack of employment opportunities Low income and poverty Security Lack of fulfilment of basic needs Sanitation Family disputes Education Health hazards and malnutrition Hight child mortality rate Pyramid Showing the Relationship between Quality of Life and Low Quality of Life The above figure shows that there are two sides of life towards quality of life. One side has the elements of quality of life, through which quality ascends and through another side, quality declines. Ascending to gain quality of life is difficult, because it needs fulfillment of respective needs in life. When those needs are not fulfilled, quality declines showing adverse characteristics in life as shown on another side of the pyramid. Health, Population and Environment - 10 125

Notes • Family life education is the process of developing knowledge, attitude and behavior linked with family concerns and issues. • Human needs including food, housing, clothing and such other things of physical existence, that fulfill human’s aspirations for the addition of quality in life are called physical aspects of quality life. • Human needs, including love, satisfaction, entertainment and such other abstract factors that do not have any material existence but are associated with psychological and emotional satisfaction for the addition of quality in life, are called psychological and emotional aspects of quality life. • Human needs including freedom to practise one’s culture, freedom to trust in God, honor, social prestige, fundamental rights and such other high- ranked abstract factors, which are regarded as the products of advanced thoughts of human beings, are called spiritual aspects of quality life. • Quality of life is a lifestyle with a process of promoting satisfaction and happiness by fulfilling every sort of needs which arise in life. According to UNESCO “Quality of life is the sense of being pleased or satisfied with those life elements that are most important to a person.” • The basic needs-oriented approach is a technique of measuring quality of life on the basis of fulfillment of the basic needs of the people of a country in a certain period of time. • From 1990 AD, UNDP (United Nations Development Program) started preparing and publishing the Human Development Report (HDR) annually. • Human Development Index is a tool to measure the quality of life in numeric figures that comprise of a country’s average achievements in three basic aspects of human development: health, knowledge and income in a certain time period. According to UNDP, Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index measuring average achievement in three basic dimensions of human development–a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. • There are two contrasting characteristics of quality in life. They are mutually regulated by specific ascending and descending factors for quality of life. 126 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Exercise A. Give very short answers to the following questions. 1. Write any one element of quality of life. 2. Write any one example of socio-cultural values that degrade the quality of people's life. 3. When did the 'Basic Needs Oriented Approach' come into practice? 4. Write any one indicator of quality of life. 5. Who developed the Human Development Index? 6. What is the full form of UNDP? 7. Write the full form of PPP. 8. What was HDI of Nepal according to Human Development Report 2016? B. Give short answers to the following questions. 1. How can we improve the status of our health? Explain. 2. Why is saving regarded as an element of quality of life? Justify with examples. 3. How does women empowerment indicate quality of life? Justify. 4. What are the four major categories of HDI? How is it categorized? 5. Write a paragraph comparing the top ten countries on the basis of HDI of the recent year. 6. How can quality of life be achieved through human needs? 7. Why is quality of life necessary? 8. How do nutritious food and health help to achieve quality of life? 9. How does education improve living standard? 10. How do saving and housing improve living standard? 11. How do social and cultural values improve living standard? 12. How is quality of life measured through HDI? 13. What are the indices of happy life? Explain. 14. How do nutritious food and gender equality help to maintain happy life? Health, Population and Environment - 10 127

C. Give long answers to the following questions. 1. How does quality of life bring change in the people's lifestyle and behavior? Explain with examples. 2. Explain any five elements of quality of life in detail. 3. How are quality of life and low quality of life interrelated? Compare the ascent and descent in quality with reference to the presence or absence of the elements of quality of life. 4. How do elements of quality of life improve your living standard? Explain. 5. What kinds of works can you perform to maintain the quality of life of your family and people of your area? Give logics. 6. What kinds of employment opportunities can be created to control emigration of Nepalese youths ? Explain. 7. Which factors are necessary to make your life happy and qualitative? Explain. 8. How does the size of family affect the quality of life? Explain. 128 Health, Population and Environment - 10

N at u ral 6 Resources and B i o d i v ers i t y Contents 6.1 Concept of Biodiversity 6.2 Importance of Biodiversity and Rare Living Things 6.3 Conservation Measures of Biodiversity 6.4 Biodiversity of Nepal according to the Geographical Regions 6.5 Rare Living Things 6.5.1 Status of Some Rare Living Things (Plants and Animals) in Nepal 6.5.2 Main causes of Rareness 6.5.3 Rare Plants 6.5.4 Conservation Measures of Rare Plants 6.5.5 Rare Animals and Birds 6.5.6 Conservation Measures of Rare Animals and Birds 6.5.7 Protected Animals and Birds 6.6 Adverse Effects on Biodiversity and Their Mitigating Measures Useful things for human being that occur naturally on the earth are called natural resources. They are available on the earth according to the rules of nature. Natural resources include both living and non-living things. Animals, plants micro-organ- isms, etc. are living natural resources. Air, water, soil, stones, etc. are the examples of non-living components of natural resources. Living and non-living natural resources present in our surroundings make our existence possible, viable and comfortable. Health, Population and Environment - 10 129

6.1 Concept of Biodiversity The word biodiversity is composed of two words: ‘Bio’ and ‘Diversity’. ‘Bio’ means living thing or life and ‘diversity’ means variation or vividness. In this light, biodiversity can be defined as variation or vividness of various types of living things in the environment. Studying biodiversity of an undefined environmental area is quite difficult. That’s why, in an advanced way, we define biodiversity as the degree of vividness of living things, genes, ecosystems and micro-organisms in a unit square area of the earth. Biodiversity can be classified into three categories. They are: ecosystem diversity, genetic diversity and species diversity. a) Ecosystem diversity It is the degree of vividness of ecosystems in a unit area. There are 118 types of ecosystems in Nepal. An ecosystem consists of a network of many biotic and abiotic factors, which are interdependent with certain interrelationships among them. For example, a forest ecosystem has wild trees, herbs, herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, microorganisms, water, soil, humus, air as well as organic and inorganic substances. A wetland ecosystem includes reptiles, amphibians, indigenous aquatic and terrestrial herbs, migrated and indigenous birds, water, soil, humidity and other components existing in the wetlands. Similarly, a pond ecosystem consists of aquatic plants, algae, other animals, water, sand, soil, and other factors which influence one another in a predefined way of interrelationships. b) Genetic diversity Gene is the basic determinant of structural and functional properties of life. Every living organism has genes in the chromosomes inside the nuclei of 130 Health, Population and Environment - 10

its cells. The genes contain the code of living processes, life span, body structure including shape and size of organs and its whole body, adaptational characters as well as all other features. Due to variation of genetic characteristics among the members of a species of a living organism, they develop or lose their capacity to adapt in the changing environment. According to Charles Darwin, this is the vital feature that determines the continuation of a generation or extinction of living things on the earth. Some genes in different organisms represent similar characteristics. For example; all mammals have mammary glands in their breasts, all reptiles have cold blood, all fishes have gills, etc. On the other hand, a single creature has different genes to represent different characteristics within its body. Genes for the structures of bone-cells and muscle-cells of the human body are different. Therefore, the total presence of living things can be studied with the presence of total genetic characteristics in a certain area. Genetic diversity is defined as the degree of vividness of genes and genetic characteristics in a unit area on the earth. c) Species diversity Species means a group of living organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. All fishes are not similar from all the aspects. There exist many species of fishes in a pond ecosystem. Some frogs have wings, some have poison glands, some are edible too, some are very small and some are large. In this way, species differ among living creatures of certain area. Species diversity means the degree of vividness of living species within a unit area of an ecosystem. Nepal occupies 0.03% of total surface area and 0.1% of total land area of the earth. Due to diversity of the structure of land, a wide-range diversity of the living things can be found here. 2.2% of the total plants of the world are found in Nepal. The following table shows the status of species diversity in Nepal and the world, as presented by Biodiversity Project Profile, 1995. Health, Population and Environment - 10 131

Present Situation of Species Diversity in Nepal Nepal is a land-locked country with the northern border connected to China and the rest three sides with India. Though it is a small country in comparison to its neighboring countries in area, it has wide geographical, climatic and biological diversity. The total area of Nepal is 1, 47,181 sq. km. The total area of Nepal covers 0.3 percent of Asia and 0.003 percent area of the earth. It lies between latitude 26'22'and 30'27' north and the longitude 80'4' and 88' 12' east. The east-west length of the country is only about 880km. North-south breadth of Nepal varies from 145 km to 241 km. Biodiversity of Nepal is famous all over the world. Many tourists visit Nepal every year for research and observation of its vivid and wonderful natural scenario. The ministry of Forest and Land Conservation carried out intensive study on the biodiversity of Nepal in 2002 AD with the help of two international organizations and published a report 'Nepal Biodiversity Strategy, NBS). The assisting organizations were UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) and Global Environment Facility. In 2009, the ministry published Nepal's Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity'. According to the data published in these reports, the biological diversity of Nepal can be reflected in the given table: World Known Nepal's Share in the Species Global Data (%) 5292 Flora 2316381 31 5.9 Gymnosperms >140003 6973 3.0 Angiosperms 103691 1150 8.2 Bryophytes >170003 534 5.1 Pteridophytes >400003 771 4.5 Lichens >700003 1001 2.5 Algae 2025 2.9 Fungi 4675 Flora Total 3.2 10000 FAUNA 212 4.4 Mammals 876 8.76 Birds 132 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Reptiles 7870 123 1.9 Amphibians 4780 117 1.6 Fishes 10000 230 2.4 Mollusks N/A 217 N/A 16000 3958 2.5 Moths 17500 651 3.7 Butterflies 39490 175 0.4 Spiders N/A 61 N/A Rotifers N/A 59 N/A Crustaceans N/A 5052 0.7 Other Insects N/A 168 1.4 Platyhelminthes Source: MoFLC, 2014; Neapl National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2014-2020. 6.2 Importance of Biodiversity and Rare Living Things Biodiversity has a great importance for human beings as well for the aggregate environment. Biodiversity provides the main foundation for a livelihood. Biodiversity has a direct relationship with our lifestyle, food, shelter, social phenomenon and economic aspects of human life. Some of the major importance of biodiversity are described below: a) Agricultural production i. Vegetative production Vegetation includes plants. We have various types of agricultural plants due to the presence of biodiversity. It makes possible to obtain numerous types of nutrients, which are needed to run our life, from various agricultural plants. Biodiversity is important for us to provide those required nutrients to our body through the consumption of different fruits, vegetables, grains, cereals and beans. ii. Animal production We can obtain different animal products like leather, wool, fur, milk, eggs, etc. from animals. Livestock farming has been a major occupation to generate income for many people living in different places. These have been possible due to the presence of vividness or biodiversity of animals. Health, Population and Environment - 10 133

b) Improvement of breeds Breeds are different species of living things. A scientific agricultural technique adopts development and production of new breeds with improved quality products, strong immunity, longer life and increased production. New breeds in fruits like the seedless litchi, Amrapali mango, etc. can give higher quantity as well as better taste and quality. New breeds of rice that have been developed by scientists can be planted even in mountain regions with higher yield. Holstein and Jersey are new breeds of cows, which give more milk than local ones. Layer hens lay eggs every day, and broilers can grow faster to yield more meat for us. Such new breeds are developed by crossing two other species. More varieties of species can assure more probability of new breeds. In this way, biodiversity helps us to develop more and more new breeds, which are important for us to get more quantity as well as better quality. c) Sustainable conservation of natural resources i. Soil Biodiversity helps in sustainable or long-term conservation of soil. Soil needs inorganic as well as organic materials, which can be obtained from dead and living organisms. Trees hold the soil with their roots and prevent landslide and soil erosion. Grasses and shrubs help in the conservation of the upper layer of soil, called top soil. ii. Water Water is the main component of the environment. Living things play important roles in the preservation of water resources. Plants maintain the moisture of the soil. They prevent direct sunlight on the soil and absorb water from the soil. On the other hand all living things produce water vapor during respiration, transpiration, and excretory processes. This helps in maintaining humidity or amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Huge amounts of water sent from plant bodies in the atmosphere helps in the formation of clouds and rainfall. In this way, biodiversity is important for the preservation of the water and to run water cycle on earth. 134 Health, Population and Environment - 10

iii. Forest A forest is a large collection of trees, shrubs, herbs, and other minor plants. The plants in a forest have certain interrelationships, which can be maintained properly due to the vividness among them. They play an important role in the ecosystem, food chain, and other natural and ecological processes. iv. Wildlife Wildlife is an important part of natural resources. It is one of the most important constituent of biodiversity. Wildlife maintains food chain in forests. It plays very important roles in sustainable existence and continuation of ecosystem. Biodiversity assures possibility of suitable relationships among many types of living creatures and makes them interdependent (with one another). v. Watershed Watershed is a wide piece of land that is enclosed between two water resources like rivers, its tributaries, or any other forms of water drainage systems and remains wet throughout the year. Less area of the world is occupied by watersheds. These areas hold a great significance in preserving many rare plants and animals. Biodiversity helps to maintain the existing watershed areas by preserving the natural quality of soil, presence of adequate amount of water, and other interdependent elements of living things in those areas. d) Environmental balance The environment encompasses living and non-living things. We cannot imagine a balanced environment in the absence of living things. Living things maintain vital features of the soil, water, gases and other organic as Health, Population and Environment - 10 135

well as inorganic components on earth. Biodiversity helps in maintaining the water cycle, CO2 cycle, N2 cycle, etc. which are essential processes to maintain a balance in the environment. Biodiversity maintains the existence of the ecosystem, where it regulates itself. It helps in balancing the food chain among the living creatures. In this way, biodiversity keeps the environment balanced. e) Natural scene Beautiful scenery is made by the vividness of living things on earth. Flowering plants, attractive birds and animals, sweet songs sung by the different birds in the forests, beautiful fishes in the rivers and ponds add beauty to nature. We can feel peace and enjoy in those places where there is presence of good biodiversity. f) Tourism development Tourism in Nepal Natural scenery is important for the economy of the nation as it attracts tourists. Tourism is the main source of income for Nepal. In order to enjoy the beautiful diversity of animals and plants, tourists visit our country. g) Economic development Biodiversity is the backbone for the overall economic development of a country. Nepal is an agricultural country. Nepali people enjoy a good company of different crops, fruits, flowers, fishes, domestic animals, birds etc. to earn their livelihood. Farmers produce crops and supply them for all people living in rural and urban areas. Industries run with the raw materials produced from plants and animals. There are valuable plants in the forests. These are utilized to make medicines and other useful materials, which can be exported to foreign countries for income generation. Some plant products like sap, oil, wood, etc. are utilized as sources of energy. In this way, biodiversity is utilized by human beings all over the world as a source of economic development, directly or indirectly. h) Function of natural ecosystem An ecosystem is a dynamic process because of its continuous functions of adjustments and interrelationships. The functions include maintaining the proportion of different species of living things. One component of a biotic thing depends upon other biotic things. The same component controls other 136 Health, Population and Environment - 10

biotic things, too. In this way, numerous biotic things make a complex network of interdependence and control mechanism in the ecosystem; this way, biodiversity carries out the main function of balancing ecosystems. i) Study and research Biodiversity has endless dimensions on earth. The origin of new species and extinction of the existing ones is a regular process. It provides a broad area for study and research as uncountable hidden mysteries and unexplored facts are there among living things, the aggregate of which is termed as biodiversity. New knowledge and facts explored can be applied in further study of living things as well as in the conservation of biodiversity on earth. 6.3 Conservation Measures of Biodiversity a) Spreading knowledge and information of biodiversity People should be aided with information about biodiversity. Information about biodiversity should includes the present status of different types of living organisms. Which members of the biodiversity have more number? What are the rare and extinct living beings? What is the statistics of living things? What are the interrelationships and interdependences among living organisms? What is a suitable environment for living things? Such questions are answered in the information prepared for the concerned people. b) Disseminating and focusing on the importance of biodiversity The importance of biodiversity should be disseminated among the people, making them aware about maintaining the ecological balance and ecosystem. People should know about the role of each and every living element in the environment. c) Formulation and implementation of policies and plans The central and local government can play an effective role in the conservation of biodiversity by formulating appropriate policies and plans. d) Utilization of religious and cultural values for conservation There are various religious and cultural norms and values, which can be utilized for the conservation of rare plants and animals. For example: Banyan, Peepal, Tulsi, elephant, lion, snakes, tortoise are not destroyed or killed by people due to the belief that they are associated with some sort of religious myths and stories. Publicity and utilization of such beliefs in Health, Population and Environment - 10 137

conservation are found useful in the conservation of biodiversity. e) Participation of local people in conservation program Conservation of biodiversity cannot become effective unless the local people living around the target area actively participate in the conservation program. Knowledge, information, laws, rules, plans, policies and all other information must be disseminated among the people. f) Focus on sustainable conservation Sustainability of conservation exists there, where there is conservation of all living beings in a balanced way. The ecosystem has many living elements surviving within an environment of interrelationship and interdependence. Sustainable conservation gives emphasis on the conservation of all living things according to their role in the ecosystem. g) Economic use of biodiversity People can generate income from many types of medicinal herbs, fungi like mushrooms and cordyceps, trees, flowers, animals, and insects like silkworms, bees, etc. Utilization of those living things in income generating activities by the people can be fruitful in the conservation of biodiversity. 6.4 Biodiversity of Nepal according to the Geographical Regions Due to difference in the features of the land structures, climate, temperature, availability of water and inorganic and organic components present in the environment, status of living things also differs in different ecological regions. The study of biodiversity is done on the basis of the following three ecological regions in Nepal: a) Biodiversity of Mountain region b) Biodiversity of Hill region c) Biodiversity of Terai region In the mountain region, there is less biodiversity with regard to specific plants and animals, which are adapted to the cold environment. The plants in this region have thick leaves, thick bark and less number of stomata for preservation of water and prevention from the cold temperature. The animals have thick fur and hair. Yak, snow leopard, panda are some examples of animals found in the mountain region. In the same way, we can get other information about biodiversity in all the three regions from the 138 Health, Population and Environment - 10

previous chapter, in which necessary information is given under the topic of biological aspects of the mountain, hill and Terai region. 6.5 Rare Living Things 6.5.1 Status of Some Rare Living Things (Plants and Animals) in Nepal Nature has its own system of maintaining living things. The total number of different living things differs according to their position in the ecosystem. In a terrestrial ecosystem, the biomass of carnivores is less than that of herbivores, whereas in a pond ecosystem, the total biomass of carnivores is more than that of herbivores. If we analyse the numbers of carnivores in the terrestrial and pond ecosystem, the number of herbivores is always found more in both the ecosystems. Rareness is caused basically due to decrease in the number. The total existing number is the real determinant of the rareness of plants and animals. We can understand rare living beings as those living things which have less number comparatively in the existing ecosystem. There are various causes that make certain living things rare. Encroachment of human beings, over exploitation of their habitats, natural calamities, imbalance in the ecosystem, and natural evolution are some of the main reasons behind the rareness. 6.5.2 Main Causes of Rareness Certain species of plants become rare primarily due to the decrease in their number in their habitat. There are many reasons behind the reduction in the number of those plants. Some of these are: i. Ecological imbalance can create an undesired increase in the number of one creature, which can destroy its prey rapidly. In the same way, if there is decrease in the number of one creature rapidly, other dependent creatures become rare and even extinct. ii. Environmental imbalance can create lack of abiotic factors like water, minerals, humus and other factors. Such condition can decrease the number of a creature. iii. Depletion of grassland, pastureland and forests causes scarcity of food. Health, Population and Environment - 10 139

Due to lack of sufficient food, dependent living things get reduced in number. iv. Human encroachment of forests, watershed areas, and other habitats of living things depletes the number of creatures of that habitat and make them rare. v. Illegal hunting and collecting forest products are especially focused on rare plants and animals, which become rarer due to such activities. vi. Genetic changes and lack of adaptability in the environment cause difficulty in the survival process, and these creatures become rare. vii. Natural calamities and destruction of the habitat on a wide range kill numerous living things, some of which may become extinct or rare. viii. Charles Darwin says: There is a continuous struggle for existence among living things. One which cannot struggle for its own survival cannot increase its number, becomes rare, and ultimately extinct from the environment. 6.5.3 Rare Plants There are some rare plants in Nepal, which have been distinctly mentioned in the list of rare plants. These plants are given emphasis for conservation by making provisions for them. Laws have been made to ban illegal collection and export of those plants and their products. Special programs are sometimes launched for awareness and conservation program. Some of the important rare plants are described below: a) Golden Michelia (Champ) Scientific name : Michelia champaca, Michelia kisopa General introduction: It is a perennial tree. It appears evergreen throughout the year. There are two species of Golden Michelia found in Nepal. It has light yellowish- golden-colored flowers with a sweet smell. It has thick branches and leaves, creating a distinct shadow below it. Unauthorized collection and export of the Golden Michelia has been banned. Habitat : Mid-hill region and some parts of the Terai region at an altitude of 600-1500 meters from the sea level. 140 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Height : About thirty meters. Medicinal Use : Oil extracted from the flowers is used in eye disease and gout arthritis. Its flowers and fruits are utilized as a energetic supplement. Bark is also used for medicinal purpose. Other Use : Its timber is used to make furniture Reproduction : Sexual: by seeds Asexual : Cutting of branch b) Spike Nard (Jatamashi) Scientific name : Nardostachys grandifloral General introduction: It is a small herb with reddish-brown roots, reddish-white flowers and a pleasant smell. It is banned by the law of Nepal to collect illegally and export. Habitat : Northern high mountains at an altitude of 3000-5000 meters from the sea level. Medicinal Use : Oil extracted from the roots is used in the preparation for medicine of cholera and heart disease. It is used in preparation of many types of Aurvedic medicines. Its root is used as an expectorant in lung infection. Other Use : Its oil is used to make incense because of its pleasant smell. Reproduction : Sexual: by seeds Asexual : By roots c) Serpentina: (Sarpagandha) Scientific name : Rauvolfia serpentina General introduction: It is a small evergreen shrub with long and wide leaves, dry and white stems, white and red flowers and pea-sized fruits, which remain green in the early stage but turn red and black in the later stage. It is also listed as a rare plant of Nepal and banned for illegal collection and export. Habitat : Sal forest of the Terai region and southern hills up to an altitude of 1200 meters from the sea level. Health, Population and Environment - 10 141

Height : About one meter Medicinal Use : Its roots are used in the preparation of medicine for high blood pressure, insomnia (a disorder when one cannot sleep well), and as analgesics (i.e., pain reliever). Reproduction : Sexual: by seeds Asexual : Cutting of branch d) The Himalayan Yew: (Lauth Salla) Scientific name : Taxus wallichaiana General introduction: This is a perennial tree of pine species. It remains evergreen with pointed, thin and comb-like leaves. It is listed as a rare plant of Nepal and banned for export. Habitat : At an altitude of 1700-3400 meters from the sea level in the central and western part of Nepal. Height : About eight meters Medicinal Use : Its leaf is used to prepare medicine to treat the earlier stage of cancer. It is also used in the preparation of Aurvedic medicines for intestinal diseases, nervous disorders, respiratory infection, headache, diarrhea, blood pressure, etc. Other Use : Its timber is used to make furniture Reproduction : Sexual: by seeds Asexual : Through roots and stems e) Dactylorhiza (Panch Aule) Botanical Name: Dactylorhiza hatagirea General introduction: This is a small herb with rosy-colored flowers and finger-like roots. This plant is listed under the rare plants of Nepal. Illegal collection and export has been banned in Nepal. Habitat : At an altitude of 2300-3600 meters from the sea level Height : Few centimeters Medicinal Use : Roots are taken as an energy giving medicine. Reproduction : Sexual: By seeds 142 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Asexual : Through roots. As it reproduces through the roots, some portion of the root is left under the soil for its preservation. Root collection is done every three to four years. f) Cordyceps (Yarchagumba) Scientific name : Cordycpes sinensis General introduction: It is a seasonal fungi plant, which grows on the back of a specific species of caterpillar. As the Cordyceps grows on the back of caterpillar, people think that it is half-plant and a half-animal. Caterpillar part Fungal part But, the reality is that these two creatures are different. Cordyceps is a parasitic plant, which absorbs the necessary nutrients from the body of its host the caterpillar. In the winter season, the plant seems to move with the movement of the caterpillar. In rainy season, when the caterpillar dies, the plant portion remains fixed to the soil. Unauthorized collection and export of Cordyceps has been banned in Nepal as it has been listed as a rare plant. Habitat : Meadows of the mountain region at an altitude of about 3000- 4200 meters from the sea level Height/Length : Five to eight centimeters Medicinal Use : It is an effective energy-giving plant. It is used in the treatment of weakness, infirmities and impotence. It is taken with honey and milk for more effectiveness. Other Use : It is a good source of income. Its price in the market is very high. People can get permission for its collection. Many people Activity in the mountain region are utilizing the Cordyceps as a source of good income. i. Find some rare plants in your locality. ii. Write an introduction of those plants about their main habits, and habitat. iii. Mention the cause of their rareness and methods of conservation. Health, Population and Environment - 10 143

Reproduction : It is a minor plant of fungi group. It reproduces by the process of sporulation or production of spores. Those spores germinate if they get attached to the back of the host the caterpillar. 6.5.4 Conservation Measures of Rare Plants Conservation of rare plants is a must for the conservation of the environment and ecosystem. We are also a part of the ecosystem. Imbalance of any one element in the ecosystem results in harm and hazard to us, too. In order to carry out conservation programs of rare plants, the following measures can be taken: a) Research and identification of rare plants First of all, we must identify rare plants, which have decreased in number. In order to identify such rare species, appropriate research works are necessary with scientific techniques. b) Information and awareness of importance and knowledge of rare plants Conservation of rare plants needs information about rare plants. Such information includes the habit, habitat, environmental status and their role in the ecosystem, which are considered for formulating appropriate methods of conservation. c) Controlled consumption about rare plant products Rare plants may have medicinal and economic values. There must be controlled consumption of such rare plants. Production of seeds and other vegetative propagations should not be disturbed by the collection and utilization of such plants. d) Control of over-grazing Over grazing causes depletion of many rare plants. When there is excessive grazing by domestic animals, plants cannot grow up to maturity and produce seeds. Young plants are plucked out from soil and roots die earlier without undergoing vegetative reproduction and development into new offspring. Therefore, there must be controlled grazing of domestic animals on the grasslands and in forests. e) Control of fire in forests and grasslands Fire is a destructive event in many forests. Sometimes fire extends over very wide areas and destroys many plants as well as animals. Fire destroys young plants badly. It also destroys trees and climber plants too. 144 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Therefore, fire should be controlled in the forests and grasslands. Special attention should be given for the prevention of fire in the forests and grasslands. In order to prevent fire in the forests and grasslands, there must be awareness programs and laws for forest conservation. f) Formulation and implementation of laws Some laws and acts have been made for the conservation and protection of rare plants. The forest Act, 2076 (2019) BS has made some important provisions for the conservation of plants in the forests. Laws and acts regarding import and export also have banned rare plants and plant products. Such laws should be implemented effectively. g) Use of economic and religious value of rare plants We can conserve some of the rare and valuable plants by utilizing religious values and myths. The Banyan, Peepal, Tulsi, Rudrakshya and other plants which are connected with Hindu religion are not destroyed by Hindus. In the same way, some rare plants can be cultivated and preserved for their economic values. The Cordyceps in the mountain region has been a good source of the income in some places of mountain and northern hilly region. People try to conserve it for future production and to make it a regular source of income. h) Conservation of Ex-situ and In-situ i. Ex-situ conservation of rare plants It is the conservation of man-made or artificial habitat of rare plants. Ex- situ conservation method is followed especially in the conservation of very rare and endangered plants. Establishment of a nursery, promotion of gardens, plantation of the rare plants in parks, promotion of the tradition of using rare plants in home decoration, etc. are included in this method. ii. In-situ conservation of rare plants It is the conservation of natural habitat of rare plants. In such a habitat, plants grow, develop and reproduce naturally. It includes protection of the natural habitat of rare plants. Establishment of national parks, conservation of forests and watershed areas, conservation of water resources for conservation of aquatic plants, etc. are included in this method. Health, Population and Environment - 10 145

6.5.5 Rare Animals and Birds a) Clouded leopard (Dhwase Chituwa) Scientific name : Pardofelis nebulosa General introduction: It is a mammalian carnivore. It is one of the rare and protected wild species of Nepal. Its teeth, skin and other body parts are sold illegally at expensive price. It is found to be hunted illegally by poachers and hunters. Laws have been made to ban its illegal hunting, export, and any other form of unauthorized commercial utilization. Body features: Its color varies from gray, earthy brown, pale to rich yellowish brown. Abdominal part is white or pale tawny. Face seems marked with brown-yellowish and black cheek strips. Circular stripes on the tail make it attractive. The body and tail are elongated. There are marks of large spots on the limbs and dorsal parts of the body. Weight : about 16-20 kg. Height : about 0.8-0.9 meter Food habit : It preys on small and large mammals and birds. Upper canine teeth are bigger. Life span : about eight years Habitat : Dense forest of tropical and sub-tropical zones of eastern Nepal; protected in Langtang National Park, Makalu-Barun National Park and Annapurna Conservation Area b) Red Panda (Habre) Scientific name : Ailurus fulgens General introduction: It is a mammalian omnivore. It is also listed as one of the rare and protected wild animals of Nepal. Its number is very low. It is an endangered wild animal. Its teeth, skin and other parts of body are sold illegally at expensive prices. It is found to be hunted illegally by poachers and hunters. Laws are made and enforced to ban illegal hunting or any other commercial utilization. Body features: It has rusty red body color with dark red ears and gray or black 146 Health, Population and Environment - 10

stripes on its body. The tail has black rings, feet are black, ventral part is white, face and lower lips are white. It has a rounded head, pointed large ears and a stumpy muzzle. Weight : about 10-15 kg. Height : about 0.3-0.5 meter Food habit : It preys upon small insects and grubs. Its main food items also include grass, roots, leaves, fallen fruits, bamboo shoots, etc. Habitat : Primarily in the temperate forest at an altitude of about 3,500 meters from the sea level; protected in Langtang National Park, Makalu-Barun National Park, Sagarmatha National Park and conservation areas. c) One-horned Rhinoceros (Ek Singe Gaida) Scientific name : Rhinoceros unicornis General introduction: It is a huge mammalian herbivore. It is the second largest terrestrial mammal on Earth. It is one of the rare and protected wild animals of Nepal. Its horn (Khag), nail (Khur), teeth, skin, and other parts of body are sold illegally at expensive prices. It is hunted and killed by poachers and hunters. Such activities are legally banned in Nepal. Body features: Its horn, which is actually an extension of the nasal bone, is very expensive and sold illegally. It has very thick and folded skin on its body. The folds are present on the front and back of shoulders and in front of the thighs and buttocks, too. It is blackish gray in color. Weight : about 2-4 thousand kg. Height : about 1.1-1.7 meters Food habit : Its main food items are grass, shrubs, fodder, foliage and aquatic plants Life span : about 40-50 years Habitat : Their main habitat is the tropical Terai forests, swampy grasslands and watershed areas; protected in Chitwan National Park, Bardia National Park and Parsa Wildlife Reserve Health, Population and Environment - 10 147

d) Bengal Tiger (Pate Bagh) Scientific name : Panthera tigris General introduction: It is a mammalian carnivore. It is one of the rare and protected wild species of Nepal. Its teeth, skin, and other parts of body are sold illegally. It is hunted illegally by poachers and hunters. Body features: Its body color varies from rich reddish-yellow to orange ruff with black stripes on all parts of the body except on the ventral surface of its belly. The ventral surface is milky white. It has black-spotted small ears. Weight : about 130-200 kg. Height : about one meter Food habit : It preys on small and large mammals, reptiles, mollusks, fishes, crabs and birds. Upper canine teeth are sharp and bigger. Life span : about fifteen years Habitat : Dense forest of tropical and sub-tropical zones of the Terai region; protected in Chitwan National Park, Bardia National Park and Suklaphata Wildlife Reserve e) Asiatic Elephant (Asian Hatti) Scientific name : Elephas maximus General introduction: It is a huge mammalian herbivore. It is the largest terrestrial mammal on Earth. It is also one of the rare and protected wild animals of Nepal. It has a huge body with flat ears, small eyes, a thin tail and stumpy legs. Its tusk or ivory, skin, and other parts of the body are sold illegally. It is hunted and killed by poachers and hunters. Extreme punishment and fine have been provisioned in the acts of Nepal to protect this elephant. Body features: Its body is massive and extremely huge with a large head and a strong muscular trunk with a nasal passage in front. It sucks water and collects food with the help of the trunk. Upper incisor teeth of male elephants are modified 148 Health, Population and Environment - 10

into tusks, which are highly expensive. It has wide ears small eyes, and a small tail. It is blackish gray in colour. Weight : about four to five thousand kg. Height : about 2.5-3.5 meters Food habit : Its main food items are grass, shrubs, fodder, foliage, wild fruits and other plants Life span : about 70 years Habitat : Their main habitat is the thick tropical Terai forests; protected in Chitwan National Park, Bardia National Park and Parsa Wildlife Reserve f) Giant pied hornbill (Thulo Dhanesh) Scientific name: Buceros bicornis General introduction: It is listed among the rare birds of Nepal. It is an omnivore. It preys on insects, small vertebrates, and fruits. Two species of hornbill (i.e., small and large) are found in the Terai region of Nepal. It is hunted and killed illegally by poachers and hunters because its bone and fat is used in medicinal uses. Such activities are legally banned in Nepal. Body features: It has a long beak with two small nostrils on its upper part. There is a distinct yellowish-flattened crest above its beak. Wings are highly developed. Body color is brownish black and white with a long tail. Weight : 3-3.5 kgs. Body length : 0.9 meter (with tail) Life span : Observed about 50 years in captivity, lives longer in the natural habitat Habitat : Its main habitat is tropical deciduous Terai forests. It is protected in Chitwan National Park, Bardia National Park, Shuklaphata Wildlife Reserve and Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. g) Asiatic rock python (Ajingar) Scientific name: Python molurus General introduction: The Python is the largest reptile of the world. It is nonpoisonous with a huge and long body structure. It is included in the list of Health, Population and Environment - 10 149

rare reptiles of Nepal. It is a carnivore. It preys upon young and small vertebrates of the forest. Its mobility in the forest is less, and it captures its preys whenever it come close to it. It is hunted and killed by poachers for its skin to make bags, belts, etc. It is also killed by villagers to protect their domestic animals like young calves and goats from it, and sometimes thinking wrongly that it is poisonous. Such activities are banned in Nepal, because it is a creature protected by law. Body features : It has a long body with a flat head. It is the largest and heaviest snake in the world. The body is light yellowish brown with thick circular patches of dark brown colour. Weight : up to 90 kgs. Body length : up to seven meter Life span : about 19 years Habitat : Its main habitat is the tropical deciduous Terai forests. It is protected in Chitwan National Park, Bardia National Park, Shuklaphata Wildlife Reserve and Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. 6.5.6 Conservation Measures of Rare Animals and Birds a) Study, research, and identification of rare animals and birds The conservation program of any animal and bird can be carried out if we know the status of this creature. First, there must be study and research works to identify the rare animals or birds. b) Information and awareness of the importance and knowledge of rare animals and birds After knowing about the status of a bird or an animal, there must be collection and dissemination of information about the habit, habitat, specific features, environmental adaptation characters, other biotic and abiotic components close to them in the food chain and ecosystem, and other such important information and knowledge about those rare birds and animals. c) Conservation of ecosystems The ecosystem is common for all members of an ecosystem. Conservation 150 Health, Population and Environment - 10