Oasis Health, Population & Environment Education Book 10

a happy and prosperous family. The community cannot see progress if male and female are discriminated. There is a strong preference for sons over daughters in Nepal because sons are said to provide social security when parents grow old. Also, sons are expected to continue the family to lineage. Males are given more priority. The Cairo Conference (International Conference on Population and Development 1994), Beijing Conference (The 4th World Conference on Women, 1995) and Copenhagen Conference (The World Conference on Social Development, 1995) and their review meetings are emphasizing on women's rights. Different efforts have been made to uplift the status of women, which helps to control the rapid growth of population. d) Uplifting the status of female Male and female are like two sides of a coin. More interestingly, some people say that they are the two wheels of a cart. Both sexes are equally important to run a happy life. Females play a significant role in determining the family wealth and welfare. More than half the population of our country make up female population. If women's status is uplifted, population growth would be controlled. Nepali women are far behind in education. They hesitate to adopt the methods of family planning because they don't know about them and they are afraid to adopt them. If they were to become literate, they would adopt the methods of family planning. Education is a strong factor in raising the status of women and controlling population growth. e) First conception at age The appropriate age for conception is 20 years for reproductive health. The first pregnancy should be only after 20 years. Women become safe from different health hazards and risky factors. The fertility period of women can be reduced by delayed marriage. Due to this, conception starts later in their life, and they can get the following advantages: i. They can give birth to a physically and mentally healthy baby. ii. There is low chance of abortion, miscarriage and mortality of the mother and child. iii. They can get opportunity of job, higher education and happy family. iv. They can involve in income generating activities. f) Contraceptive methods Contraceptive methods are the tools which prevent the meeting of the ovum and sperm for fertilization. The discharge of the sperm from males cannot Health, Population and Environment - 10 51

meet the ovum in the fallopian tube of women by the use of contraceptive devices. This situation eliminates the chance of fertilization. It can be classified into two groups, i.e., natural and artificial methods. Natural Contraceptive Methods In this process, the safe and unsafe period of the monthly cycle is detected, and sexual intercourse is committed during the safe period only. A woman releases 300 to 400 ova throughout her fertilization period, which generally runs 34 years in her life. It begins from 14/15 years of age to 49 years. In general, one ovum is released each month alternatively from each side of the ovary. The sperm deposits in the fallopian tube after sexual intercourse, which can survive only 5 to 7 days, but its capacity to fertilize the ovum remains for 3 days only. If the ovum is present in the fallopian tube, there is a chance of fertilization with sperm. If ovum is not present in the fallopian tube, fertilization is impossible. If the menstruation cycle is of 28 days, the unsafe period or fertilization period is 10 to 19 days of menstruation. The period 10 days before and 19 days after menstruation is the safe period. Sexual intercourse during the time period when there is no ovum cannot lead to conception. It is not necessary to use any sorts of artificial contraceptive methods. Couple just follow the system of nature to avoid pregnancy. Some of the natural methods of contraception are: a) Calendar method b) Withdrawal method c) Cervical mucus method d) Breastfeeding method e) Basal body temperature method (BBT method) a) Calendar method This is also called the 'rhythm method'. According to this method, sexual intercourse is avoided during the unsafe period. The unsafe period is defined as the days of 10 to 19 of the menstruation cycle. Following the safe period to have sexual intercourse is known as calendar method of contraception. To avoid the conception the sexual intercourse should take place only during the safe period, i.e., 1 to 9 and 21 to 28 days of the menstruation cycle. This is effective only in women whose menstruation cycle regularly takes place in an interval of 28 days. 52 Health, Population and Environment - 10

b) Withdrawal method This is also called coitus interrupt method. According to this method, sexual intercourse takes place without using any devices, but the sperm is ejaculated outside by taking the penis out of the vagina. The male can properly know the period of discharging the sperm during sexual intercourse. While the sperm begins to discharge the male immediately pulls out his penis from the vagina and ejaculation is made outside from vagina. As a result, the sperm cannot meet with the ovum, and conception will not take place in the female body. c) Cervical mucus method It is also known as the mucus testing method which is done by females. Two types of mucus are secreted by the cervix in the fertile and infertile stages. Thick, slippery and viscous mucus is discharged when an ovum is present in the fallopian tube. If the intercourse takes place during this time, women can be pregnant. When thin and watery mucus prevails, it means that there is no active, ovum, and therefore, it is safe for sexual intercourse. In order to find out the nature of mucus, she should wash her hand properly and insert fingers into the vagina to take a little cervical mucus out. She can test the thickness of the mucus by keeping it in between the forefinger and the thumb. Health, Population and Environment - 10 53

d) Breastfeeding method During breastfeeding, the hormone produced by the pituitary gland for the stimulation of the breast and secretion of milk (i.e. prolactin hormone) disturbs the ovulation process from the ovaries. As a result, there is less chance of conception. Therefore, longer the lactation period, lesser the chance of conception. Similarly, lesser the lactation period, higher the chance of conception. e) Basal body temperature method (BBT method) During the period of ovulation, the body temperature raises slightly in females due to the metabolic activities induced by the hormonal changes in body. This is either felt or measured by a thermometer for confirmation. This period is regarded as unsafe, and conception is prevented by avoiding sexual intercourse during this period. When there is no rise in temperature, it is regarded as safe period. Artificial Contraceptive Devices It means the use of artificial tools, or devices, to stop the fusing (meeting) of the ovum and sperm. Both male and female can get the artificial devices in the market. But these devices work only for a certain period, which are described below: a) Temporary contraceptive device for males Condom It is single usable device. It is made of a transparent type of rubber in cylinder shape. This device is worn on the erected penis of the male during sexual intercourse. It prevents the sperm from entering the cervix and prevents to fuse with ovum. It also prevents the spread of STDs. It is a male contraceptive device which is marketed as 'Dhal', 'Panther', 'Jodi', No. 1' etc. in the market of Nepal. Advantages • Easy to use and inexpensive • About 95% effective • Prevents one from STDs • Easily available and personally used. 54 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Disadvantages • It is a use-and-throw (used only once) device • Some people have allergy • Sometimes chances of leakage or tear. • Difficult to dispose b) Temporary contraceptive devices for females i. Pills Pills are female oral tablets for the prevention of conception. It contains 28 tablets in a pack. Among them, 21 tablets are white and 7 are in gray color. It is a hormonal method. Twenty one tablets are contraceptive hormonal tablets and seven are iron tablets. If taken regularly once a day, it prevents conception. It is marketed as 'Nilocon', 'Gulab' and other various trade names in the market of Nepal. Advantages • Easy to use and inexpensive • About 99% effective • Helps to regulate the menstruation • No disturbance in sexual satisfaction Disadvantages • Does not work if taken irregularly. • Some women get dizzy and a headache. • Should consult the doctor before using. • Not suitable for breastfeeding women • Not suitable for women having heart, liver, kidney and cancer diseases. • Does not prevent from STDs. ii. IUD IUD is also known as IUCD (Intrauterine contraceptive device). It is made up of plastic wrapped by copper. It is kept inside the uterus by trained medical personnel with the help of a special instrument. It is one of the mechanical methods of contraception. Health, Population and Environment - 10 55

IUCDs are available in the forms of 'Loop', 'Spiral', and 'Copper-T' in the markets of Nepal. An IUD does not let the sperm enter the uterus. It causes aseptic inflammation of the endometrium (lining of the uterus) and disturb the intra-uterine environment for conception. An IUD works for 10 years. If a baby or conception is needed, it can be taken out at any time with medical assistance. Advantages • About 99% effective • No disturbance in sexual satisfaction • It works for 10 years • It can be removed when baby is needed. Disadvantage • Some women may have irregular menstruation. • Does not prevent STDs • It may cause lower abdominal pain in the beginning. • It can come out sometimes. • Needs trained medical personnel or doctor to use it iii. Foam tablet It is one of the chemical methods of contraception. Foam tablets are used by females inside their vagina 5 to 10 minutes before sexual intercourse with the help of fingers. The tablet meets melted inside the vagina and converts into a foamy viscous fluid due to the warmth and moisture at the bottom of vagina. It destroys the sperms and makes fertilization impossible. It is marketed as 'Kamal Tablet' in Nepal. Advantages • Easy and inexpensive • An effective device (about 74%) • No remarkable side effect • Useful for those who have vaginal dryness Disadvantage • Inserting the tablet may be troublesome. • Foamy fluid may ooze out from the vagina after intercourse. • Should wait 10 to 15 minutes after inserting. This may not always be practical. 56 Health, Population and Environment - 10

iv. Norplant It is one of the hormonal methods of contraception. It is a set of 6 small capsules about the size of a small match stick. It is inserted below the layer of the upper-arm skin within 7 days of menstruation. Its function is to suppress the ovulation. Advantage • It works for five years. • 99.5% effective device. • Can be removed immediately when baby is needed. • No disturbance in sexual satisfaction. Disadvantage • Sometimes menstruation may be irregular. • Needs frequent medical checkup • Not suitable for the patients of liver and cancer diseases and women over 35 years of age. v. Depo-Provera This is an injection to be administered in every three months. It is used as an intramuscular injection within 7 days of menstruation. It works for three months. It suppresses the ovulation cycle in women's body. It is sold as 'Sangini' in the markets of Nepal. Advantages • About 99% effective • Works for three months • Easy to use and inexpensive • Patients of blood pressure and diabetes can also use. Disadvantage • Gain body weight. • Irregular menstruation may occur. • Some women may feel abdominal pain and headache. Health, Population and Environment - 10 57

vi. Femidom It is a female condom made up of flexible and transparent rubber, which is 17 cm long and 7.8 cm wide. It is inserted inside the vagina just before sexual intercourse. It receives the sperm of the male and prevents it from entering the uterus. As a result, sperm and ovum cannot meet each other. In this way, it prevents conception. Advantages • Helps to prevent STDs. • No side-effect and no allergy. • Useful for all age groups. • Suitable even in dryness of vagina. Disadvantages • Used only once. • Expensive and not easily available. • Should not be used with male condom. Emergency contraception It is used for averting an unwanted pregnancy when sexual intercourse takes place without using contraceptive devices. Unwanted pregnancy creates various health hazards in the case of an unsafe abortion. Sometimes, it leads to a woman's death if the abortion is unscientific and hazardous. Besides, there are several social and psychological problems in her life. Emergency contraception is used to prevent such circumstances. But it should be used only in an emergency case. Emergency contraception should not be used for general contraception. It may cause infertility or other health hazards. Emergency contraceptives are used in the following conditions: • Sexual contact without any contraceptives. • In the failure of contraceptives like tearing of condom, slipping of diaphragm etc. • Unwanted expulsion of IUD itself. • Rape and coercion. • Missed pills intake for more than two days. 58 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Precautions while using emergency contraceptive devices: • Pregnant women should not use it. • Women should have a health check up before use. • If women have swelling, stroke, breast cancer, etc. she should not use it. Methods of Emergency Contraception a) Hormonal use i. Combined Oral Contraceptives (COC) Contraceptive hormonal pills are used in this method. These pills contain estrogen and progesterone hormones. Females take four tablets of pills as a single dose within 72 hours of unsafe sexual intercourse. Again, the next dose of four pills should be taken after 12 hours of the first dose. Due to the effects of unnaturally increased hormonal level in her body, the intra- uterine environment becomes unfavorable for conception. Some side effects of COC About 50% females feel nausea for 24 hours after intake. Some women may vomit. If she vomits within 2 hours, she should take the next dose. Anti- vomiting medicine should be taken before the next dose to prevent undue loss of hormonal pills. ii. Progestin Pills These pills contain the progestin hormone, so these tablets are called progestin pills. These types of pills are available in FPAN clinics and other health service centres. A progestin pill should be taken within 72 hours of unsafe sexual intercourse, and the second pill should be taken after 12 hours of the first pill. It is 98% effective. A few women feel nausea and vomiting as its side effects. b) Use of IUD If there is unsafe sexual intercourse and the woman does not want to become pregnant, she should take IUD within 5 days of unsafe sex. As it is kept inside the womb, it disturbs the environment of conception, and the fertilized egg dies. It can be removed after the first menstruation if it is used for emergency contraceptive. This is available in family planning clinics. It is 99 % effective. It should be noted that emergency contraceptive methods should be used after proper physical check-up by a certified medical personnel. Health, Population and Environment - 10 59

Permanent Methods of Contraception. These are also called surgical methods. A couple who do not want any more children follow this method because there will be no chance of pregnancy after adopting this method. That's why, it is called permanent method. The permanent methods for females are minilap and laparoscopy, and for males vasectomy is available. a) Permanent Contraception for Males: Vasectomy It is a permanent family planning method for males. It is a simple surgery done by a doctor or trained medical personnel. In this method, a small incision (opening) is made on the upper part of the scrotum to pull out vas deferens. Then the vas deferens is cut and tied at both the ends so that sperm cannot pass through it. After this surgery, the males ejaculation discharges semen with no sperms at all. In the absence of sperms, fertilization does not take place, and conception does not occur. Advantages • This is a permanent method, about 99.9% effective • It does not affect sexual satisfaction. • No tension of other contraceptives. • Can be performed by simple surgery. Disadvantages • Needs the use of condom for the first one month after vasectomy. There is possibility of sperm ejaculation during the first month after this. • Requires surgical process, and involves a small incision on the skin. • It does not prevent sexually transmitted diseases. • Sometimes, it is found to be unsuccessful. b) Permanent Contraception for Females: Minilap and Laparoscopy i. Minilap It is a kind of surgical method for permanent contraceptions for females. In 60 Health, Population and Environment - 10

this method, small incision is made above the pubic region or in lower abdomen. Both the fallopian tubes are pulled out and cut. The ends of cut tubes are tied. This surgical process should be performed after 45 days of delivery or within 7 days of menstruation. ii. Laparoscopy It is another permanent family planning method of the female involving a surgical process. In this method too, a small incision is made above the pubic region or lower abdomen. Then the fallopian tubes are taken out and tightly tied with plastic wire on both sides of the fallopian tube. In this method, the fallopian tubes are tied only they are not cut. Advantages and disadvantages of Minilap and laparoscopy: Advantages • It is a permanent method, about 95.5% effective • No tension of other contraceptives • No fear of pregnancy. • No adverse effects on health and sexual pleasure. Disadvantages • Requires surgical process and involves small incision on the lower abdomen. • It does not prevent sexually transmitted diseases. • Sometimes it is found to be unsuccessful. General consideration after permanent family planning process • One should take complete rest up to 15 days of surgery. • Male must use condom for one month, if there is to be sexual intercourse. • The wound should be taken care of properly according to the medical guidelines and instructions. • Some difficult activities like climbing trees, riding a horse, playing outdoor games, etc. should be avoided for up to two months. • Special attention should be given to nutritious food. Health, Population and Environment - 10 61

Notes • John Graunt of Great Britain is called the ‘Father of Demography’ because he studied population data for the first time in the world. • The word ‘demography’ is composed of two Greek terms: ‘demos’ and ‘graphien’. ‘Demos’ means people and ‘graphien’ means scientific study. • Demography is defined as the scientific and statistical study of human populations mainly about their distribution, size, composition as well as the causes and consequences of changes in these characteristics. • Birth, death and migration which are responsible for population change are called demographic components. • The processes of fertility, mortality and migration that bring changes in the demographic components and population composition are called demographic processes. • Demographic measures are the tools which determine the effect of demographic components and processes in the changes of population characteristics. • Mid-year population is the average population of a year. • Crude Birth Rate is the total number of live births per thousand midyear population of a certain place in a given year. • General Fertility Rate is the total number of live births per thousand mid- year population of women in the child bearing age group (15-49 years) at a certain place in a given year. • Age Specific Fertility Rate is the total number of live births given by women in a certain age group per 1000 mid-year population of the women in the same age group in a year. • Total Fertility Rate is the estimated number of children born throughout the fertile life span from an ideal woman, who represents the average fertility behavior of all women in a place. • Crude Death Rate is the total number of deaths per 1000 mid-year population in a year within a certain place. • Age Specific Death Rate is the total number of deaths in a certain age group per 1000 mid-year population of the same age group in that year in a certain place. • Infant Mortality Rate is the total number of deaths of infants (i.e., children below one year of age) per thousand live births at a certain place in a year. • Child Mortality Rate is the total number of deaths of children (i.e. children 62 Health, Population and Environment - 10

below five year of age) in a year per 1000 mid-year population of children in the same year in a certain place. • Maternal Mortality Rate is the total number of deaths of pregnant and neonatal mothers (i.e. within 42 days after delivery) in a year per 100000 live births in the same year in a certain place. • In-Migration Rate is the total number of in-migrants (also called immigrants) within a given year per thousand mid-year population. • Out Migration Rate is the total number of out-migrants (also called ‘emigrants’) per thousand mid-year population in a year at a certain place. • Net Migration Rate can be defined as the difference between the total number of immigrants and emigrants per 1,000 mid-year population of a certain place at a given time period. • Gross Migration Rate can be defined as the sum of immigrants and emigrants per one thousand mid-year population of a certain place in a given year. • Rate of Natural Increase can be defined as the total number of increased population due to natural processes (i.e., fertility and mortality) per hundred mid-year population of a certain place in a given year. • Population Growth Rate is the total increment of population per hundred people in a given year at a given place. • Population Doubling Time is defined as the time taken by population to be double if growth rate remains constant. • Sex Ratio can be defined as total number of males per hundred females in a certain area in a given year. • Rapid population growth generally refers to the condition when Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Population Growth Rate (PGR) exceed 2.1 per woman and 2.1 percent per annum respectively. • Rapid population growth puts its adverse impacts on socio-economic and environmental aspects. • We can manage population through population control followed by several natural and artificial methods of contraceptions. • Emergency contraception should not be used for general and regular method for contraception. • Permanent methods of contraceptions are adopted when a couple does not require any children. Health, Population and Environment - 10 63

Exercise A. Give very short answers to the following questions. 1. What is demography? 2. Define demographic processes. 3. Write the formula that is used to calculate the mid-year-population of a place for a given year. 4. What is the potential reproductive performance of living things called? 5. Define fertility rate. 6. What was the Total Fertility Rate of Nepal in 2011? 7. What is the difference between emigrants and immigrants? 8. Write down the formula used to calculate the Net Migration Rate. 9. Define population doubling time. 10. How do you calculate the Gross Migration Rate? 11. What was the total number of government hospitals in Nepal in 2011? 12. How many secondary level schools were there in Nepal in 2010? 13. Write one adverse effect of rapid growth of population on status of minerals. 14. When can a boy marry legally without permission from his parents? 15. When does ovulation take place in females if the menstruation cycle is normal and regular? 16. Write the full form of IUCD. 17. What is the main difference between minilap and laparoscopy? B. Give short answers to the following questions. 1. What is fecundity? How does it differ from fertility? Explain with an example. 2. Define Crude Birth Rate. What are its advantages and disadvantages? 3. What do you mean by Rate of Natural Increase? How is it different from the general population growth rate? 4. Define Age Specific Fertility Rate. What information about demography does it provide to us? 5. Write a short paragraph describing the trend of fertility rates of Nepal over the last 40 years? What is its impact on the demographic situation of Nepal? 64 Health, Population and Environment - 10

6. Explain the socio-economic effects of rapid population growth in the context of Nepal. C. Give long answers to the following questions. 1. How are educational and housing sectors affected by crowded population? Explain with examples. 2. Explain environmental effects of rapid population growth on different aspects of human life. 3. What is population management? How do birth spacing and proper age at marriage help in controlling rapid population growth? 4. Draw a chart showing different types of contraceptive methods. Describe each of them briefly. 5. Write short notes on: a. Cervical mucus method. b. Breastfeeding method. c. Foam tablet 6. Draw a diagram illustrating a. vasectomy b. minilap D. Numerical Problems 1. The population of a town on January 1st and December 31st of a year was 4, 00, 000 and 6,00, 000 respectively. Find the mid-year population. 2. In a country, mid-year population was noted to be 25,000,000. Find the Crude Birth Rate of the country for that year, if 700,000 live births were noted in the same year. 3. The total population of fertile women in a city in 2006 was 70,000. What was the General Fertility Rate of the city if 1400 babies were born during that year? 4. The population of a certain village was 2000 in 2008, and altogether 50 people during that year. Find out Crude Death Rate. 5 The population of a certain district of Nepal was 150,000in 2068. Within that year, 1000 people died, 2000 people in-migrated and 1200 people out- migrated. Now, find out CDR and GMR. 6. In a town in 2065 BS, 2000 death was observed from the age group of 0-4 years, and the mid year population of that age group in the town was 40,000. Find ASDR. 7. According to census 2058, the population of Nepal was found to be 23151423 and growth rate was 2.24. Find out PDT. Health, Population and Environment - 10 65

8. If a place has 31 CBR, 9 CDR and 2 NMR, find out population growth rate and population doubling time. 9. In a district in 2058 B.S. of age group women 15-49 were 50,000 and in that year 1000 live birth of babies took place. Find GFR 10. In a village, the population was 7500 and the number of live births in the year was 300. What was CBR of that village? 11. What would be the sex ratio of Nepal if male population of a year was 9220974 and female population was 9270123? 12. The population of town A was 20 million and that of town B was 30 million. If 10,000 people of town A migrated to town B, and our equal number of people from town B migrated to town A, find the following demographic measures for both the towns separately. (a) In-Migration Rates. (b) Out-Migration Rates. (c) Net-Migration rates. (d) Gross Migration Rates. 13. From the given information, calculate the population growth rate and population doubling time. CBR = 25, CDR = 12, NMR = 5. 14. In 2001, there were 354,077 children of 0-14 years, 107,375 of 60 years plus above and 987,656 of 15-59 years. On the basis of the above information, find out the following: (a) Child Dependency Ratio. (b) Old Dependency Ratio. (c) Total Dependency Ratio. 15 In the beginning of 2001, the population of Pokhara was 60,000. It reached up to 85,000 at the end of the same year. In the same year 1,200 deaths took place and 300 people left the city for USA on diversity visa (DV). Similarly, 500 people came there so as the population growth rate (PGR) was found to be 2% per annum. Now find out the total live births in that city of that year. Calculate total live births. 16. If the Rate of Natural Increase and CDR of Nepal in 2058 BS were 2.3% and 9.6% respectively, calculate Crude Birth Rate (CBR). 66 Health, Population and Environment - 10

17. In a certain town of Terai, 750 people were in-migrants in 2060 BS. In the same year 350 people migrated to Kathmandu from that town. If the mid-year population of that town the same year was 45,000, find out the emigration rate and Gross Migration Rate. Answers to the numerical problems 1. MYP = 5,00,000 2. CBR = 28 per thousand 3. GFR = 20 per thousand 4. CDR= 25 per thousand 5. CDR = 6.6, GMR = 21.3 6. ASDR = 0.05 7. PDT = 31.25 years. 8. PGR = 2.4 % pa, PDT = 29.16 years 9. GFR = 20 10. CBR = 40 11. Sex Ratio SR= 99.46 12. a) IMR-A = 0.5 per thousand IMR-B = 0.33 per thousand b) OMR-A = 0.5 per thousand OMR-B = 0.33 per thousand c) NMR-A = 0 per thousand NMR-B = 0 per thousand d) GMR-A = 1 per thousand GMR-B = 0.67 per thousand 13. PGR = 1.8 % p.a. PDT = 38.89 years 14. a) Child Dependency Ratio = 0.36 b) Old Dependency Ratio = 0.11 c) Total Dependency Ratio = 0.47 15 Total live births = 2,450 (Hint: MYP = 72,500) 16. CBR = 119 per thousand 17. Emigration rate = 7.78 per thousand GMR = 24.45 per thousand Health, Population and Environment - 10 67

P o p u lat i o n , 3 environment and D e v el o pmen t Fig: Concept of Sustainable Development Contents 3.1 Activities Related to Population, Environment and Development 3.1.1 Population Programs of Nepal 3.2 Regional Balance in Development 3.2.1. Need for Balanced Regional Development in Nepal 3.3 Sustainable Development 3.3.1 Concept of Sustainable Development 3.3.2 Principles of Sustainable Development 3.3.3 Importance of Sustainable Development 3.3.4 Application of Sustainable Development 68 Health, Population and Environment - 10

3.1 Activities Related to Population, Environment and Development Environment Agriculture Industries Employment Health Education Population Residence Environment and Environment Security Development Communication Culture Technology Human Resource Entertainment Environment Fig. Population, Environment and Development Activities Population, environment and development are interdependent. Development activities are influenced by the environment. There are various types of development activities. The following diagram demonstrates the interrelationship among population, environment and development. The general activities related to population, environment and development are agriculture, industry, health, social security, housing, education, communication, human resources, employment and culture. These activities influence and determine the population and developmental status of a country. Some of such activities are described below: a) Agriculture Nepal is called an 'agricultural country'. It is because there is fertile land, and most of the people are engaged in farming for their livelihood. More than one third of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) depends upon this sector in Health, Population and Environment - 10 69

Nepal. Traditional system of land ownership, unscientific farming methods and lack of land utilization policies are some in the common hindrances of agricultural sector. There should be scientific land distribution system and optimum utilization of agricultural land. Farmers should be provided with subsidies and training related to scientific agricultural skills. Land utilization policies should meet the needs of the people with environment- friendly methods and procedures. Wise use of agricultural potentiality can result in the development of other sectors concerned with public life. b) Industry Industry plays a vital role in the development of a country. Industries produce processed goods for use. Consumers can utilize the industrial products to improve their quality of life. The environment is the source of raw materials required for industries. Developmental activities deteriorate the state of the environment. Industrial development contributes to population growth because it provides employment opportunities, services and facilities. c) Health Health activities refer to the process of providing health services and making them accessible for the people. Health is regarded as one of the fundamental components of human rights. It is a primary responsibility of the government towards its citizen. Healthy manpower can contribute for the development of nation. Developmental activities are essential to manage health services for the people. Hospitals, health posts, health clubs, management of drinking water, drainage, etc. are the components of development activities. They are essential for the promotion of public health. Environmental components like fresh air, safe drinking water and sanitation are the basic requirements for better health. d) Social security Social security is the provision of equity on the basis of social justice. It includes provision of opportunities and dignity for people of all categories 70 Health, Population and Environment - 10

suppressed, marginalized, women, elderly people, indigenous people and so on. Social security assures minimum requirement of survival. Thus, it protects undue encroachment of the natural resources and environmental degradation. Social security helps in alleviation of poverty. It contributes positively in maintaining a proper balance among the population, environment and development. e) Housing Housing generally refers to a kind of social concern that ensures shelter for the people. It is, in other words, a process of developing residential areas for the people. While developing residential areas for the people, there should be proper planning. If the planning is for an urban area, it is called town planning. Proper town planning helps to protect the environment from pollution. Planning includes schemes for managing solid wastes and drainage. Developmental activities can improve peoples quality of life when there is a proper plan for developing residential areas. Well-facilitated and well-planned residential areas attract people and cause population growth. In this way, housing, urbanization and town planning affect the population, environment and development. f) Education Education is an essential factor required for the development of a country. It produces competent human resource required for planning environment conservation and development works. Establishment of schools, colleges, training centres, etc. are examples of developmental works. Thus, education and development are interrelated with each other. Educated manpower can play effective role in the conservation of the environment. Scientific environmental planning requires adequate Health, Population and Environment - 10 71

knowledge of the environment. Similarly, result-oriented population management requires population studies and the knowledge of population dynamics. These are possible through the process of education. g) Communication Communication is the process of exchanging information between two or more people. It is the age of information and technology (IT). Communication is one of the prime goals of the IT sector. The world has changed into a global village due to rapid development of communication sector. We can have live talks even across distances spanning thousands of kilometres with the help of the communication technology. The world has become a small village with the use of different means of communication like radio, television, newspaper, magazine, telephone, cellphone, etc. Wise use of communication technology can play a significant role in development and environmental conservation. Proper communication is essential for designing and executing population management plans as well. h) Human resources Human resource refers to the manpower capable of doing work. It can be categorized into skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled according to the competency level of the workers. Human resource is the basic foundation of development of a nation. Competent human resource is required for environmental conservation as well. A remarkable number of competent human resources leave Nepal in search of better jobs and opportunities. We have to generate employment 72 Health, Population and Environment - 10

opportunities through developmental works and proper use of natural resources within the country itself. i) Employment Employment is the condition of having a paid job. The employees draw remuneration in exchange of work. It develops financial independence to the employees. Besides, it has deep-rooted relations with the population, development and environment. Employment opportunities prevent loss of manpower in a country. The government should plan for wise utilization on environmental and natural resources with plans for employment. A place can be developed with the involvement of people in the jobs of various sectors. Development is not possible without work and employment. In Nepal, there is a trend of looking for jobs in foreign countries. On the one hand, there has been an increase in remittance inflow; on the other hand, it is creating loss of innumerable competent manpower that could be utilized for the development of country. We have large barren lands, unproductive forest areas, mines and huge amounts of water resources. It would be better if we could employ our citizens in such fields for the development of our own nation. Self-employment opportunities can be developed with training and education. j) Culture Culture is a way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time. In other words, culture is the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. Therefore each and every activity of the people is guided by the contemporary culture that exists and influences them. The cultural resources are valuable heritages of a nation. Heritages like temples, monasteries, dance, languages, dress-up etc. attract tourists and researchers. We can generate income from such resources. Cultural environment is made up of the components of a culture. It is an indispensable part of the environment. Conservation of the cultural environment increases income resources and helps in the development of a country. Thus, cultural aspect is closely related to the environment, development and population. Health, Population and Environment - 10 73

3.1.1 Population Programs of Nepal Over the past decades, there has been some progress in the areas of population management in Nepal. Population issues have been emphasized ever since the first national periodic plan of the country. Population related policies are being spelled out through periodic plans of the country, which have become more and more comprehensive. Initially, concern was more with population distribution. Concern with population shifted to population growth and its control from the Third Plan period. Since then, reduction in fertility has become a common denominator of all population-related polices in Nepal's periodic plans. The National Population Strategy, 1983, developed during the Sixth Plan period, is considered a milestone in the development of population policies in Nepal. This strategy had considered population growth into a long-term perspective and set quantitative targets with respect to fertility reduction and population growth rates. It also took note of the importance of integrating population concerns into the development activities. The strategies on population set during the Sixth Plan were adopted in the Seventh Plan to a greater extent. However, the strategies as stated could not be implemented in the absence of substantive programs. 3.2 Regional Balance in Development Nepal is a country with wide natural and geographical diversity. Developmental activities are difficult in the hilly and mountain regions due to the adverse geographical conditions. This may be the main cause of unbalanced development between different regions. In Nepal, where different regions are inhabited by distinct socio-cultural groups, it is necessary to reconcile the economic and social aims within the framework of national development. There is increasing disparity among the development regions and their sub regional components. This is due both to the region’s intrinsic location-factor and a development approach that favors accessible ones. Balanced regional development has been one of the agendas of the Government of Nepal since the Fourth Plan, covering the fiscal years 1970–1975. Government efforts at regional development have not been effective mainly due to an inadequate policy framework to implement the concept. There is no integrated and coherent policy framework for regional development based on a thorough assessment of the regional conditions, and policies and programs are still fragmentary and unfocused. A lack of 74 Health, Population and Environment - 10

clear demarcation of functional responsibilities of the local bodies and the central government for regional development has added more confusion since the government initiated the decentralization program. Attempts must be made to examine the potential of enhancing spatial development through the promotion of regional cooperation with neighbouring countries. Nepal has got a new constitution after a long political exercise. The constitution has restructured Nepal into a federal republic country. It has divided the nation into seven federal provinces. Each province will have a separate state government under the central government. Decentralization of power and authority is believed to contribute to concentrated development of each of the states. It will further assure a balance in regional development. Proper utilization of available natural, financial and human resources to an optimum level is required for the rapid development of a place. The new concept of federalism and decentralization of power will create a convenient atmosphere for proper utilization of resources. Developmental plans have to encompass the totality of national space. Since regions differ both in natural and human resources, the approach should address their inter relationship into a coherent spatial framework for growth and equity. Economic activity is determined by the type of land resources available in the region. Therefore, land use planning should constitute an essential part of national planning to optimize exploitation of regional resources. Another Health, Population and Environment - 10 75

important aspect of spatial framework that determines the future pattern of development relates to road infrastructure. Roads increase accessibility of tourists, marketers, merchants, transporters, planners and other different categories of people to carry out their activities at different places. Means of transportation should be developed in all the regions for the balanced development of the nation. Balanced development can provide an appropriate platform for local and foreign investment in different sectors. It ultimately uplifts the quality of life of the people. Human development indices of the Nepalese people in different places of Nepal reflect the condition of imbalanced development and unequal access of people to resources. Human Development Indices at Different Regions in Nepal, 2011 Regions HDI Eastern and Mid Himalayan Region 0.475 Eastern and Mid Hills (Except Kathmandu Valley) 0.490 Eastern and Mid Terai 0.463 Kathmandu Valley 0.622 Western Hilly Region 0.511 Western Terai Region 0.480 Western, Mid-Western and Far-Western Hilly Regions 0.398 Mid-Western and Far-Western Hilly Regions 0.423 Mid-Western and Far-Western Terai 0.472 Nepal 0.490 Source: Human Development Report, 2011 3.2.1 Need for Balanced Regional Development in Nepal Balanced regional development is necessary for many reasons as described below: i. To develop the economy smoothly Smooth development of the economy calls for the removal of regional disparity, because the low level of economic development in backward enclaves would only retard the development of more advanced areas. ii. For faster economic growth Balanced regional development is needed for our economy because the advancement of the entire economy hinges on the development of all regions keeping in pace with their factor endowments. In the long run, the progress of the national economy will be the result of the growth 76 Health, Population and Environment - 10

realised by the different regions. iii. To minimize the adverse effects of urban development in the rural areas The regional disparities in the developing countries have been caused by adverse effects of urban development in the rural areas. It may create excessive drainage of human resources and economic resources from the peripheral areas to the urban areas. So, a country like Nepal should try to minimize such effects through deliberate state intervention for balanced regional development. iv. To develop and conserve resources The aim of regional development should be to conserve available resources through sustainable development of agriculture and industries. v. To maintain political stability Increasing regional disparity is a source of political tension and instability in Nepal. And without political stability, economic advancement is not possible. vi. To overcome social evils Balanced regional development in Nepal is needed for the removal of social evils like caste bias, communal bigotry, corruption, etc. Only balanced development can ensure enlightenment of the people. vii. To promote employment opportunities Regional imbalances lead to low income, unemployment and low output among a vast section of population. In order to remove these evils, all- round development is necessary in Nepal. viii. To make the country strong and united A striking disparity in the levels of development of a country like Nepal is not a healthy trend for the safety and security of the nation. Unbalanced development increases the risk of groups of people becoming disenchanted and falling prey to the ploys of anti-national elements. 3.3 Sustainable Development 3.3.1 Concept of Sustainable Development There were few development works in the past, and those were regarded as having advantages only for human beings. People did not think about its severe effects on the environment. When population started to increase Health, Population and Environment - 10 77

rapidly, development activities also increased in geometric ratio all over the earth. It started rapid destruction of forests, over-consumption of non- renewable natural resources, like petroleum and minerals, release of green- house gases in abundance and even remarkable depletion of the ozone layer. When all those effects became known to people, they started thinking about conservation of nature, natural resources and the environment for the future generation. Fig: Concept of Sustainable Development The General Assembly of the United Nations Organization (UNO) formed a commission under the presidentship of the then Norwegian prime minister Grow Harlem Brundtland in 1983 AD. This commission is known as the Brundtland’s Commission. The commission published a report ‘COMMON FUTURE’ in 1987 with a clear concept and focus on sustainable development. The commission has defined sustainable development as “a process in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investment and the orientation of technological development and institutional change meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” Sustainable means that which lasts, continues, or will continue for a long period of time. A development work with a conscious plan of nature- friendly utilization of natural resources and environmental conservation is sustainable development. Such development works help in conserving the natural resources and ecological processes. The commission has given some principles of sustainable development, which are listed below: 78 Health, Population and Environment - 10

3.3.2 Principles of Sustainable Development According to Brundtland’s Commission, the major principles of sustainable development are as follows: i. Sustainable development of society A society is made up of many families and people. Each society needs health, education, drinking water, sanitation, roads, public places, etc. Utilization of natural components to manage and maintain such aspects in the society must be so wise that the natural resources become available for future generations, too. With such practice, society can obtain resources for a long time. ii. Conservation of ecosystem Sustainable development is carried out with a conservation program of nature. Natural conservation process mainly includes conservation of the ecosystem. It implies the conservation of natural resources including biotic factors like animals, birds, plants, etc. and abiotic factors like soil, water, air, etc. Main focus of sustainable development is to utilize the components of nature without its overexploitation and with activities to conserve the ecosystem. iii. Conservation of biodiversity The vividness of living creatures should be conserved for sustainable development. All living things are integral parts. The decline of any species leaves remarkable effects Activity Find out any one developmental activity in your community. Make a list of positive and negative impacts of the developmental activity on: i. Environment of your community. ii. People living in your community. ***** Write a paragraph with your conclusion and show it to your subject teacher. Health, Population and Environment - 10 79

on the whole ecosystem. Such decline is harmful for the environment. Sustainable development pays keen attention to the conservation of biodiversity as its main principle. iv. Control of population growth Development over a long period is not possible without a controlled population. Overpopulation increases the total number of consumers and achievements of development works are over utilized. It affects the positive features of development adversely. So the concept of sustainable development integrates with population control to make it long lasting. Population growth control is one of the major principles of sustainable development. v. Human resource development Sustainable development is possible with the involvement of capable human resource. Skilled and educated manpower is needed for it. They should be trained for proper application and implementation of the principles of sustainable development. vi. Increase in public participation Public participation is also an important principle of sustainable development. Unless there is dedicated participation of local people in any sort of development work, it cannot achieve its objectives to the desired extent. For the development of a certain place, people living there should be motivated to participate in development activities. vii. Conservation of cultural heritages Cultural traits and norms occupy a distinctly remarkable space in the lifestyle and general behavior of the people. Development activities should coincide with these cultural traits. Sustainable development provides focus for adjustment of development works with the cultural environment of the society and people. Collection of raw materials and management of resources should be done in such a way that the cultural heritage does not experience any sort of harms or adverse effect. viii. Limit of carrying capacity Carrying capacity is the total capacity of accommodating the natural resources on earth. Limited natural resources are available in a certain 80 Health, Population and Environment - 10

area of land, and the processes of regeneration of resources are also limited. Development activities should be limited within the availability of the resources and carrying capacity of the related area. 3.3.3 Importance of Sustainable Development Importance of sustainable development can be understood from the principles of sustainable development mentioned above. Sustainable development is important for all living and non living components of the environment for it adopts the principles which contribute to environmental conservation. Environment and nature are the common property of all the living creatures. The importance of sustainable development is described below: i. Proper use of resources Sustainable development adopts the principle of conservation of the ecosystem and biodiversity. In this process, over exploitation of resources is restricted, and utilization of resources is done in such a way that they remain in nature for their regeneration and for the fulfillment of the needs of future generations, too. ii. Accountability The components of the environment and natural resources are evaluated regularly in sustainable development. It is easy to find out the status of natural resources which are being utilized for development. Sustainable development does not allow overuse of natural resources. People involved in development works should be accountable for the degradation of resources, if any. Consumers of resources must be accountable and responsible for the decline of resources, too. In this way, it makes people aware and controlled to carry out nature-friendly development. iii. Development of basic aspects The concept of sustainable development gives first priority to the fulfillment of the basic needs. Therefore, developmental sectors like agriculture, health, education, security, etc. get priority in sustainable development. iv. Public participation Participation of local people is an important aspect of sustainable development. Increase in public participation is one of its principles. On one hand, it increases the source of income and different skills of the local people. On the other hand, it increases the feeling of closeness of development works among the people. Health, Population and Environment - 10 81

v. Limit of development Sustainable development has a principle of considering the carrying capacity of the earth. Development works are done on the basis of availability of resources. Excess development works are stopped to save the environment and natural resources. vi. Long-term vision Sustainable development has a long-term vision of considering the future generation. Brundtland’s Commission mentioned clearly in its report ‘Common Future’ that sustainable development does not compromise with the ability of the future generation to meet their needs. Natural resources are preserved for future generations, too. vii. Conservation of the ecosystem Sustainable development gives priority to the balance between the existence of living and non-living things, their interdependence and inter- influences. It advocates against destruction of natural resources and other environmental components. In this way, sustainable development helps in the conservation of the ecosystem. 3.3.4 Application of Sustainable Development Sustainable development is a wise concept developed by Brundtland’s Commission. If this concept is kept confined only within theory and the texts, we cannot save the environment from being degraded. Sustainable development can be applied and adopted in the following ways: i. We should use natural resources as minimum as possible. ii. Urbanization should be done in a planned way. iii. Haphazard developmental works should be discouraged. There is a need of proper study of probable environmental degradation caused by developmental works in the long term. iv. Organic farming should be promoted widely. v. Overgrowth of population should be controlled. 82 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Notes • People carry out various activities related to population, environment and development. • Balanced regional development has been one of the agendas of the Government of Nepal since the Fourth Plan, covering the fiscal years 1970–1975 A.D. • Decentralization of power and authority assures a balance in regional development. • ”Sustainable development is a process in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investment and the orientation of technological development and institutional change meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” -Brundtland Commission. • Brundtland Commission was formed in 1983 AD. It published its report “COMMON FUTURE” in 1987 AD. The president of commission was the then Norwegian Prime Minister, Grow Harlem Brundtland. • Sustainable development adopts the principle of conservation of the ecosystem and biodiversity. • Sustainable development does not allow overuse of natural resources. • People involved in development works should be accountable for the degradation of resources. Exercise A. Give very short answers to the following questions. 1. Write one aspect representing the relationship among population, environment and development. 2. Which plan took the first important effort to develop a population policy in Nepal? 3. What is the full form of INGOs? Health, Population and Environment - 10 83

4. When was Sagarmatha National Park enlisted in the World Heritage List? 5. When was the Water Conservation Act enacted in Nepal? 6. Define sustainable development. 7. What do you mean by the limit of the carrying capacity of the earth? 8. In which year was the report 'Common Future' published? 9. Write one importance of sustainable development. B. Give short answers to the following questions. 1. Write a paragraph describing the status of population programs of Nepal. 2. How are national, international and non-governmental organizations contributing to environmental conservation programs in Nepal? 3. Briefly describe the concept of regional balance in development in the context of Nepal. 4. Explain any five principles of sustainable development. 5. What is the relationship between sustainable development and public participation? 6. What do you mean by regional balance in development? 7. Describe any three advantages of sustainable development in short. C. Give long answers to the following questions. 1. How does sustainable development help in the conservation of the ecosystem and long-term vision for a common future? 2. Explain the present situation of regional balance in development in Nepal with examples. 3. Why is it important to apply the concept of sustainable development practically for the conservation of the environment? How can we apply it in reality? 84 Health, Population and Environment - 10

4 Contents 4.1. Population Distribution of Nepal according to Geographical Regions 4.1.1. Population Distribution by Ecological or Geographic Region 4.2 Ecosystem of Nepal according to Geographical Regions 4.2.1 Ecosystem of Mountain Region 4.2.2 Ecosystem of Hilly Region 4.2.3 Ecosystem of Terai Region 4.3 Effects of Population Distribution on Ecosystem of Nepal according to Geographical Regions 4.4 Environmental Conservation and Management 4.1. Population Distribution of Nepal according to Geographical Regions Nepal has three ecological regions: Mountain region, Hill region and Terai region. There is unequal distribution of population in the different regions. People want to live in those areas where they can find more facilities Health, Population and Environment - 10 85

and services. In some places, life is very difficult due to lack of food, transportation, fertile soil, natural resources and a suitable environment to live. Population distribution can be defined as the arrangement of population on the basis of geographical, ecological , developmental or any other form of land division at a given time. Population density is affected and determined by the structure and features of the land area. Plain, fertile, pollution-free and environmentally sound land has high population distribution whereas steep, infertile, polluted and difficult land has less population distribution. Some of the reasons behind unequal population distribution are: • Availability of services and facilities • Security • Climate • Topographical structure • Job opportunities • Fertility of land 4.1.1. Population Distribution by Ecological or Geographic Region There is no equal distribution of population in the mountain, hill and Terai regions in Nepal. Population in the Terai region has very high population density in comparison to the hill and mountain regions. Though 35 percent of the land is in the mountain region, it has only 6.73 percent of the population. The figure given shows the situation of population distribution in three ecological regions of Nepal with percentage of land and population. Population is not equal in the different regions because of topography of land, environmental status and natural resources like fertile soil, water resources, available vegetations and cultivable crops. It is also affected by availability of various services and facilities Information of population distribution is very important for the policy makers who make policies and plans related to various forms of development works like road construction, establishment of schools and hospitals, and other public welfare. 86 Health, Population and Environment - 10

Figure: Population distribution by ecological regions, CBS, 2011 AD The table given below shows the situation of population of Nepal in different geographical regions. The mountain region, which has 35 percent of total land, has only 6.73 percent population whereas the Terai region which has only 23 percent of the total land has 50.27 percent population of Nepal. It indicates a remarkable imbalanced distribution of population in Nepal. Table -4: Population Distribution According to Ecological Region Area Population and Percentage Ecological region Sq. km. % 2001 AD 2011 AD Mountain Region 51,817 35 1,687,859 (7.3%) 1,781,792 (6.73%) Hill Region 61,345 42 10,251,111 (44.3%) 11,394,007 (43%) Terai Region 34,019 1,47,181 23 11,212,453 (48.8%) 13,318,705 Total (50.27%) 100 23,151,423 (100%) 26,494,504 (100%) Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal 2001AD, 2011 AD. Population growth rate depends upon the desire of the people to produce children, prevalence of diseases and natural calamities leading to deaths of Health, Population and Environment - 10 87

people, as well as migratory behavior of the people. Because of availability of various services and facilities in Terai region, many people migrate towards this region from hill region and mountain region every year. Such migratory behavior of people has contributed to make the population growth rate of Terai region very high. If such growth continues for many years to come, the limited land of the Terai region will not be able to meet the needs of the large population. It shows imbalanced population distribution in the three regions as population share in the mountain and hill region is decreasing. 4.2 Ecosystem of Nepal according to Geographical Regions Nepal is situated between India and China. Nepal is a geographically diverse nation. Nepal is small country covering only 0.3 percent of south Asia and 0.03 percent of the world. It is a landlocked country with an area of 1,47,181 sq. km. Nepal is divided into three geographical regions. Geographical regions are categorized on the basis of land structure and its topography. It is rich in geographical diversity. It consists of mountains, hills, and the Terai. The ecology of a place directly depends upon the geography or physical features and structure of land and its environment there is similar division of ecological regions, too. Ecosystem is the delicate, self-sustaining and dynamic relationship between the biotic and abiotic components of the environment. Environmental status differs in different geographical or ecological regions due to the differences in the physical, biological, and socio-economic aspects of these regions. These aspects affect and have remarkable influence on the ecosystems of each ecological region. The physical aspect of an environment includes the factors like altitude, temperature, climate, land division, land topography, nature of soil, humidity, area and such other physical components constituting the environment. The biological aspect of an environment includes the factors like flora and fauna, ecosystem, habit and habitat of living things, biodiversity, food chain and such other factors related to the biotic components pertaining to the environment. The socio-economic aspect of an environment includes the factors like social norms and values, traditions, customs, religions, beliefs, trades and business, income generating activities and such other social and economic 88 Health, Population and Environment - 10

characteristics of the people. The above-mentioned environmental aspects of the three geographical regions are elaborated below: 4.2.1 Ecosystem of Mountain Region a) Physical aspects of mountain region i. It lies in the northern part of the country. ii. It includes about 35% of the total land of the country. iii. Its altitude ranges from 4,877 - 8,848 meters from the sea level. iv. It has the highest mountain Mt. Everest, in Solukhumbu district, and many other mountains, including Kanchanjangha, Makalu, Kumbhakarna, Mahalangur, Ganesh, Annapurna, Dhaulagiri, Api, Nampa, Sayapal, etc. v. It has many mountains covered with snow in its northern part. The snow line is at an altitude of 4,000 meters in the west and 5,000 meters in the east. vi. It has a very steep and rocky land structure that causes problems in transportation. vii. The temperature is very cold. viii. It includes 16 districts including Solukhumbu, Taplejung, Mustang, Dolpa, Dolakha and Darchula. Other districts situated in this region are Rasuwa, Humla, Manang, Mugu, Sankhuwasabha, Sindhupalchok, Jumla, Kalikot, Bajura and Bajhang. ix. The land structure contains comparatively more rocks. x. The mountain region is divided into three sub regions: Inner Himalayan, main Himalayan, and outer Himalayan regions. Health, Population and Environment - 10 89

xi. This region contains a number of deep and narrow gorges, plains and valleys that are slightly less cold. b) Biological aspects of mountain region i. The diversity of vegetation and animals is comparatively less due to the cold temperature. ii. There is a presence of more living things in the lower region. iii. This region is not favourable for agriculture due to the cold climate, less fertility, and frequent climatic hazards like snowfall, dew, cold waves, etc. Agricultural production is less in this region. Only two percent of its total land is suitable for agriculture. iv. Fertility of soil is less in this region. Less biodiversity is found. v. Main crops cultivated in this region are barley, buckwheat, wheat, maize, uwa, potato and others which grow in a cold climate. vi. There are alpine forests with coniferous trees, which grow and adapt well in cold temperature. vii. Main vegetations in the forests include: Fir (Thigursalla), Spruce (Jhusle Salla), Gobresalla, Dhupi, Deodar, Bhojpatra, etc. viii. Upper region contains several grasslands with small shrubs and herbs. ix. Some rare species of medicinal plants like Cordyceps (Yarchagumba) are also found in this region. These plants are listed as a rare vegetation of Nepal. x. Apples, oranges, peach, etc. are the main fruits cultivated in this region. xi. Main wildlife in this region include: Himalayan black bear (Himali Kalo Valu),snowleopard(HimChituwa),bluesheep(Jharal),Pheasants(Danphe), Crimson-horned pheasants (Munal), Black pheasants (Kaliz), musk deer (Kasturi), etc. xii. There are some narrow and deep gorges and plains with temperate 90 Health, Population and Environment - 10

climate in this region, with comparatively high biodiversity and presence of some temperate-zone vegetations and agricultural crops like rice. c) Socio-economic aspects of mountain region i. This region is not suitable for agriculture, and the main occupation of people in this region is animal husbandry or livestock farming. ii. Tourism has been gradually occupying a place among the main professions in this region as worldwide famous mountains and mountain ranges lie in this region. iii. It includes 6.73% share of the total population of Nepal according to the census of 2068 BS. It shows a low density of 34.64 per sq. km. These data were 7.3% and 33 per sq. km. respectively in 2058 BS. Chharkabhot of Humla district is the village located at highest altitude in Nepal. iv. Main domestic animals raised in this region include sheep, goat, yak, etc. v. Cottage industries based on animal products like wool, milk, leather, etc. are found in this region. vi. Majority of the people are Buddhists. Main castes include Sherpa, Thakali, Lhomi, Mugali, Ghale, Manangi, etc. vii. There is a remarkable influence of northern culture, which comes from Khasa, Lhasa, Vote and other southern marginal territory of China. Major border crossing places between Nepal and China are Olangchungola, Kodari, Rasuwagadhi, Korala, Hilsa, etc. across which many trade- commodities are imported and exported. viii. There are less sources of livelihood. Transportation, education, communication, electricity and other life-supporting facilities are not adequate in this region. ix. People are found to live up to an altitude of 4572 meters from the sea level. They have a tradition of temporary migration towards the southern region every year during the winter season from some places where the temperature falls very low. They again migrate back after the winter is over. Health, Population and Environment - 10 91

x. Dress includes especial items made of wool and leather (Docha , Bakhkhu , etc.) designed to protect from the cold. xi. The houses are constructed with stones and wood with flat roofs and very small doors and windows to keep warm. People keep animals on the ground floor, and they live on the first or upper floor. xii. Some remarkable religious and cultural places like Pathivara, Chandannath, Dudhkunda, Gosaikunda, Se Monastry, Tangboche Monastry and Muktichhetra lie in this region. 4.2.2 Ecosystem of Hilly Region a) Physical aspects of hilly region i. It lies in the middle between the northern and southern parts of country. ii. It includes 41.7% of the total land of the country. It occupies the maximum land area among the geographical regions of Nepal. iii. Its altitude ranges from 610-4,877 meters from the sea level. iv. It has a number of beautiful hills, hillocks, valleys, terraced land, small valleys, gorges and meadows. The capital city Kathmandu and beautiful Pokhara are situated in this region. Wide tars like Tumlintrar, Kalleritar, Gwaltal, Battar, Salyantar, Chaurjaharitar are located in this region. v. There are abundant rivers flowing from the northern part to the southern part towards the Terai region. vi. It has moderate to very steep land structure with hills and hillocks. vii. The hilly region has moderate temperature. viii. It includes 39 districts including Ilam, Panchthar, Gorkha, Pyuthan, Achham, Salyan and Khotang. 92 Health, Population and Environment - 10

ix. The land structure contains moderately fertile soil with more uneven distribution of rocks. x. The hill region is divided into three sub regions: Mahabharat range, Mid- hill range, and Churia or Siwalik range. b) Biological aspects of hilly region i. Biodiversity in this region is high due to more area and diversity in climate and ecosystems. The region above 4,500 meters is not suitable for living things. ii. This region has average fertility, with more agricultural diversity. iii. Only 10 percent of its total land is cultivable. iv. Main crops cultivated in this region are rice, maize, wheat, millet, barley, buckwheat, potato, oilseeds, soybeans, sugarcane and others which grow in a moderate climate. v. Some rare vegetations like Serpentina (vern: sarpagandha, Panch Aule, Spike Nard (vern: Jatamasi), Himalayan Yew (vern: Lauth Salla) and golden michelia (vern: chaanp), which are listed as rare plants of Nepal, are also found in this region. vi. There are thick deciduous and evergreen forests, with small and big trees and numerous shrubs. It also includes a few alpine and sub-tropical forests. vii. Main vegetations in the forests includes the Sal, Sissau, Katus, Chilaune, Lapsi, Bamboo, Simal, Khayar, Deodar, Rhododendron, etc. viii. Main wild animals in this region include the leopard, bear, deer, monkey, hare, etc. ix. Main wild birds include black pheasant, crow, sparrow, cuckoo, dove, etc. x. It has many rivers, which provide a habitat for numerous species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and a wide range of aquatic plants and animals. xi. The forests of the hilly region in Nepal are regarded as a storehouse of medicinal herbs. xii. Ecosystem diversity is wider in this region. It includes pond ecosystems, land ecosystems, forest ecosystems, grassland ecosystems, etc. Health, Population and Environment - 10 93

c) Socio-economic aspects of hilly region i. The main occupation of the people in this region is agriculture and livestock farming. Most of the people depend upon agriculture for their livelihood. The tendency to shift to business is increasing in the recent days. ii. This region is more suitable than the mountain region for agriculture, including cereal crops cultivation, horticulture (i.e., growing flowers, fruits and vegetables), and cultivation of other crops because of the presence of fertile soil. iii. It includes 43 % share of the total population of Nepal, according to the census of 2068 BS. It shows a population density of 186 per sq. km. These data were 44.3% and 167 per sq. km in 2068 BS. iv. Main domestic animals raised in this region include cows, buffalo, goat, etc. v. Cottage industries based on local agricultural products like tea, milk, cotton and fibers are found here. vi. Majority of people are Hindus. Main castes include Bramhin, Chhetri, Rai, Tamang, Magar, Thakali, Kami, Damai, Sarki etc. vii. This region includes more and more indigenous cultures of Nepal, which developed in Nepalese society from ancient times. viii. The sources of the livelihood are less in some remote areas. Transportation, education, communication, electricity and other life-supporting facilities are adequate in some developed cities like Kathmandu and Pokhara, but most of the places are remote and lack such facilities. 94 Health, Population and Environment - 10

ix. Some people have land in the hill as well as in the Terai. They have a tradition of temporary migration towards the Terai region during winter season. They return to the hills after collecting their agricultural production. Major roads in this region are Araniko highway, BP highway, Prithvi highway, Madan Bhandari Highway, Bhupi Sherchan Marga, Ratnamarga, Pasang Lhamu Marga etc. x. Dress up includes Nepali typical dresses like Daura-Suruwal, Sari-Cholo, blouse, Dhaka Topi, Waist coat, etc. xi. The houses are constructed with stones, mud and wood. People keep animals on the ground floor, and they live on the first or upper floor. xii. Some remarkable religious and cultural places like Halesi Mahadevsthan (Khotang), Pashupatinath, Guheswari, Changunarayan, Swayambhunath, Boudaha (Kathmandu), Taal Barahi (Pokhara), Dupcheswar Mahadev, Sworgadwari, Ugratara, Deutibajai, Shaileshwari, Baglung Kalikasthan, Palanchowk Bhagawati, Manakamana temple etc. lie in the region. 4.2.3 Ecosystem of Terai Region The Terai region extends from Mechi in the east to Mahakali in the west. It has very fertile soil. This region can be divided into two sub regions: inner Terai and main Terai. There are 20 districts in this region. It is rich in biodiversity. Many national parks and conservation areas are situated in this region with a variety of rare plants and animals. The tropical and sub tropical forests are rich in flora and fauna. Major plants include Sal, Sishau, Khayar, Banyan, Pipal, bamboo and fruits like mango, guava etc. Tiger, rhinoceros, bear, elephants, jackals, monkeys, hawk, common kite, sparrow, vulture, cockoo, dove, etc. are found in the forest. There are fish and other aquatic animals in the rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, etc. Soil is fertile and cultivable. So, the Terai region is the main agricultural region of Nepal. The vegetation, animals, birds and other living organisms differ with respect to the sub region. Besides, it consists of main industrial areas of Nepal. Many cottage industries to large-scale industries are established in this region. Along with agriculture, people are engaged in trade, industries, service, etc. Health, Population and Environment - 10 95

There are dense populated residential areas in urban places. Rajbanshi, Tharu, Dhimal, Satar are main ethnic groups. There are more physical facilities in comparison to the hill and mountain. This region has the maximum population density. Encroachment of natural resources and environmental components, production of harmful pollutants, rapid conversion of agricultural land into the concrete residential areas, and rapid destruction of forest areas have become serious problems to the ecosystem in this region. Physical, Biological and Socio-economic aspects of the Terai ecosystem are given below: a) Physical aspects of Terai region i. It lies in the southern part of Nepal. ii. It occupies 23% of total land of the country. iii. This region extends from east to west of Nepal with varying breadth of 25-30 kilometres. iv. Its altitude ranges up to 610 meters from the sea level. v. Small rivers and rivulets in hill region meet in this region and make wide and big rivers like Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali, Mahakali, etc. vi. It has plain land structure with soft soil and minimum rocks. vii. This region has hot or tropical climate. viii. This region has high atmospheric humidity. ix. Underground water resource is easily accessible in this region. The source of underground water is found at a depth of about 30 feet below the land surface. x. It includes 20 districts altogether including Jhapa, Sunsari, Morang, Bara, Parsa, etc. xi. Terai region is divided into two sub regions: Inner Terai and Main Terai. b) Biological aspects of Terai region i. Diversity of vegetation and animals is very high due to high temperature, fertile land, and abundant availability of water. ii. This region is favorable for agriculture due to the warm climate, high fertility of soil with humus, inorganic and organic substances. Agricultural production is high in this region. 96 Health, Population and Environment - 10

iii. Main crops cultivated in this region are rice, wheat, maize, oilseeds like mustard and sunflower, and others which grow in a hot climate. iv. It has the thick Charkose forest, which extends from Mechi to Mahakali. v. Main vegetations in the forests includes the Sal, Sissau, Khayar, Pipal, etc. vi. Some rare species of medicinal plants, which are listed in rare vegetations of Nepal, (for example: Serpentina, vern: Sarpagandha) are also found in this region. vii. Main wild animals in this region include: tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, crocodile, deer, etc. viii. There are many birds that make their permanent residence in this region, and some of them fly all the way from Siberia in the winter season. The Spiny Babbler (Kade Vyakkur) is found only in Nepal. The Terai region provides a comfortable habitual for many other birds like the king vulture, finch, cuckoo, hawk, dove cane, peacock, giant-pied hornbill, etc. ix. This region has important watershed areas with presence of rare vegetations and animals. Some of the listed watershed areas in Terai region include the areas with Nanda Bhauju Taal and Bishajari Taal of Chitwan, Jagdishpur lake of Kapilvastu and Ghodaghodi lake of Kailali. x. Many national parks and wildlife reserves have been established in this region for the conservation of the ecosystem along with the rare animals and plants. c) Socio-economic aspects of Terai region i. This region is most suitable for agriculture, and the main occupation of the people in this region includes agriculture, animal husbandry, or Health, Population and Environment - 10 97

livestock farming, business and trade, industry, etc. ii. The main castes that live here are the Bramhin, Chhetri, Tharu, Teli, Satar, Rajput, Rajbansi, etc. iii. It has 50.27% share of the total population of Nepal according to the census of 2068 BS. It shows a high density of 392 per sq. km. These data were 48.4% and 330 per sq. km in 2058 BS. iv. Main domestic animals raised in this region include cows, buffaleos, pigs, poultry, fish, ducks and others. v. This region is comparatively developed and has many big industries, too. Many people are employed in these industries. A big share of the population is employed in business, education, transportation, entertainment and so on. vi. Majority of the people are Hindus. Apart from Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Jains and followers of other religions are also found in this region. Religious diversity is distinctly seen in this region. vii. There is a remarkable influence of the southern culture which comes from Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Darjeeling and other northern marginal places of India. viii. Transportation, education, communication, electricity and other life- supporting facilities are comparatively adequate in this region. ix. Dress includes clothing modified according to the hot climate. These include Dhoti, Kurta, shirt, pants, sari, etc. x. The houses are constructed either with concrete or with bamboo and straw. xi. Most of the town areas lie in the Terai region. Some main towns are Biratnagar, Rajbiraj, Dharan, Itahari, Kakadvitta, Birtamod, Janakpur, Birganj, Siddharthanagar, Nepalgunj, Tikapur, etc. 98 Health, Population and Environment - 10

xii. Some remarkable religious and cultural places like Lumbini, Janakpurdham – Dhanusha, Barahakshetra, Pindeswor, Lumbini, etc. lie in this region. 4.3 Effects of Population Distribution on Ecosystem of Nepal according to Geographical Regions An ecosystem is common for all the living and non-living things in an environment. There are many components in every ecosystem. Some of them are living components like plants, animals and microorganisms. Some are non-living components like soil, water, air, atmosphere, environment, etc. If any component in an ecosystem is imbalanced, the total system experiences adverse effects. A human being also stands as a member in an ecosystem. Therefore, it has to face new challenges due to disturbances in the ecosystem. The factors disturbing an ecosystem include human beings as a distinctly active component. Encroachment of natural resources, exploitation of environment, destruction of other habitats, manufacture of CFC-like compounds which destroy the ozone layer, production of pollutants and even poison are few examples of misconduct of human beings towards the environment and nature. There are various adverse effects on the ecosystems in all the three regions. Major effects include destruction of forest and forest resources, depletion of pastureland, loss of soil fertility, and over-exploitation of other natural resources. Most of the mitigating measures are similar for all the three regions which are designed according to the specific land structure and ecosystem in these regions. Some of the common effects on ecosystems and their mitigating measures to correct them in the mountain, hill and Terai regions are given below: a) Environmental Pollution Environmental pollution is one of the hazards responsible for the degradation of the ecosystem. Solid, liquid and gaseous pollutions results due to human activities. Pollutants may bring changes in the habit, habitat, food chain, and genetic diversity of living things. They may cause severe depletion and extinction of the components of an ecosystem. Mitigating measures against environmental pollution * Common measures for all ecological region i. Awareness programs regarding solid waste management and its use should be launched frequently. Health, Population and Environment - 10 99

ii. Appropriate landfill sites should be managed for the disposal of huge amounts of everyday waste produced in highly populated areas. iii. Use of pollutants like insecticides, pesticides, herbicides and other harmful chemicals should be discouraged. iv. Laws, rules and regulations against pollution should be enforced and implemented strictly. Various organizations have been established with the principal objective of controlling environmental pollution. Such organizations should be supported. v. Open defecation around the water resources is still a major environmental problem in Nepal. People should be motivated to use latrines. Declaration of open-defecation-free zones and such other programs should be launched widely. * Specific measures for mountain region • The mountain region is a touristic region. Many tourists visit this region and throw plastics, glass-bottles and other non-degradable wastes haphazardly. Such activities should be discouraged. * Specific measures for Terai region • The Terai region is mainly polluted due to industrial waste. The pollutants produced by the industries should be treated safely and managed properly. • Pollutants produced in excessively populated areas occupy a remarkable share in the Terai region. Such effect can be minimized through the process of population management. b) Overexploitation of forest People living in all regions are destroying forests rapidly. They exploit the forest for obtaining firewood, furniture, fodder, etc. Livestock farming is very common among the Nepali people in all the ecological regions. Drought, aridity, drying up of water resources, disappearance of springs, drinking water scarcity, extinction of wild species, change in seasons, global warming and several other ecological hazards are witnessed due to overexploitation of forests. In order to prevent these effects, the following mitigating measures should be adopted: Mitigating measures against overexploitation of forests * Common measures for all ecological regions 100 Health, Population and Environment - 10