Sciences Subject (BS11001)

1 The Essence of Basic Knowledge Textbook Sciences Subject (BS11001) Primary Level (Revised Edition B.E. 2554) Non-Formal Education Basic Curriculum of B.E. 2551 Office of the Non-Formal and Informal Education Office of the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Education Not for sale This textbook is published with a national budget allocated for the purpose of people’s lifelong learning. Copyright owned by the Office of the Non-Formal and Informal Education, Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education. Academic Document No.9/2554

2 The Essence of Basic Knowledge Textbook Sciences Subject (BS11001) Primary Level Revised Edition B.E. 2554 Copyright owned by the Office of the Non-Formal and Informal Education, Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education. Academic Document No.9/2554

3 Preface The Ministry of Education has proclaimed the use of Non-Formal Basic Education Curriculum of B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008) on the 18th September, 2008 with an aim to replace the former principles and practices of the Non-Formal Basic Education Curriculum of B.E 2544 (A.D.2001)which was developed in accordance with the philosophical principles and basic beliefs pertaining to the conduct of the out-of-school learning programs for adult target learners whose learning practices are to accumulate their knowledge and learning experiences continuously. In the 2001 fiscal year, the Ministry of Education had set a strategic plan for mobilizing the educational policy in order to raise the capability and potentiality of the people in terms of their competitiveness in job performances that enable them to earn an affluent living constantly, perform with discipline, to have good morality and ethical behavior, and to be aware of self-performance and responsibility as well as to assist others concerned. In order to respond to the above-mentioned policy of the Ministry of Education, the Office of the Non-Formal and Informal Education (ONIE) decided to reconsider the former Curriculum of B.E. 2551 in terms of its principles and aims, its standard and expected outcomes as well as particular substances of 5 groups of the learning essences to make them more compliant with and be responding to the new policies of the Ministry of Education. The reconsideration had contributed to the revision of non-formal education text books by adding an integration of more contents and essences of occupation, morality and virtue as well as integrating the issues concerning readiness and preparation for Thailand to join with the ASEAN community. In terms of development of the subject essences, the revision remains to keep the principle and procedures of the former text in which the learners are to do self-study, conduct learning activities, undertake tests to evaluate their own understanding, conduct group discussions to share knowledge and experiences among groups’ members and to acquire additional knowledge from local wisdom and from other sources of information.

4 The revision of this text book has received the generous support and collaboration from various experts and resource people as well as other concerned personnel who kindly provided useful information and data collection from various sources of knowledge to make the revision more meaningful. Their helpful information has made the new contents more relevant and appropriate to the learning standard and indicators of the expected outcomes of each subject essence. The Office of the Non-Formal and Informal Education (ONIE) wishes to express its sincere appreciation for their considerate concern and helpful cooperation. ONIE hopes that these new revised learning essences will be useful to the learners, the teachers or facilitators as well as other concerned staff personnel at all levels. The ONIE will be pleased to invite any advice and recommendations for the improvement of future issues. (Mr. Prasert Boonrueng) Secretary-General November 2011

Table of content 5 Preface Page Instruction on how to use the textbook Science Subject Course Outline (SS11001) 6 Lesson 1 Nature of science 7 Lesson 2 Science Project Lesson 3 Living Things 9 Lesson 4 Ecosystem 17 Lesson 5 Natural Ressources and the local environment 24 84 Lesson 6 Natural Phenomena 99 117 Lesson 7 Substances and their Properties 127 Lesson 8 Separation of Agents 135 Lesson 9 Substances in Everyday Life 146 Lesson 10 Force and its Movement 154 Lesson 11 Energy in Everyday Life and Energy Conservation 164 Lesson 12 Relationship between the Sun, the Earth and the Moon 183 Lesson 13 The Profession of an Electrician 204 246 Bibliography

6 Instruction on how to use the textbook This basic knowledge textbook in Science, primary level, course code BS11001, is a textbook established for non-formal education learners. To study the basic knowledge textbook in Science, learners should perform the following. 1. Study the course outline to understand the topics, main learning essence, expected learning outcome, and content scope of such course in detail. 2. Study the content of each lesson thoroughly and perform the activities assigned. If the answers are incorrectly, it is recommended that the learner goes back to study again and try to understand the content prior to study the next topics. 3. Perform the activity at the end of each topic to summarize knowledge and understanding of the content again. After having completed the activity for each content or each topic, the learner is able to check with the teacher and classmates of the same course and same level. 4. This textbook has 13 chapters. Lesson 1 Nature of Science Lesson 2 Science Project Lesson 3 Living Things Lesson 4 Ecosystem Lesson 5 Natural Resources and the Local Environment Lesson 6 Natural Phenomena Lesson 7 Substances and substance characteristics Lesson 8 Substance separation Lesson 9 Substances in our daily life Lesson 10 Force and movement of force Lesson 11 Energy in our daily life and energy conservation Lesson 12 Relationship between the Sun, the Earth and the Moon Lesson 13 The Profession of an Electrician

7 Science Course Outline (BS11001) Main essence of learning 1. Processes of science and technology include topics on the nature of science, scientific process, scientific method, science process skills, scientific attitudes, technology, and science project. 2. Living things and the environment consist of living things, ecosystems, natural resources and the environment and conservation of natural phenomena. 3. Substances for life, properties of substances, separation of substances, substances in daily life, how to purchase and use substances correctly and safely. 4. Force and energy for life include topics of force movement, work, and energy in daily life. 5. Astronomy for the relationship of the Sun, Earth, and Moon. Expected learning outcome 1. Able to appropriately apply the knowledge and scientific process in living. 2. Able to classify living things in the habitat, describe the relationship among groups of living things in the ecosystem, and the relationship of the environment and the livelihood of living things in the community and locality. 3. Able to describe the meaning and types of natural resources, the use and preservation of natural resources and the environment in the community and locality. 4. Able to explain about natural phenomena and weather forecast. 5. Able to describe the properties of substances, separation of substances, substances in the daily life and the use of substances correctly and safely. 6. Able to describe the types of force, the results of force, pressure, buoyancy, gravity, friction, and applications in daily life. 7. Able to describe about the energy in daily life 8. Able to explain the relationship of the Sun, Earth and Moon 9. Able to describe, design, plan, experiment, test, and perform electrical operations correctly and safely and to consider, analyse, compare advantages and disadvantages of electrical circuits in series, parallel, and hybrid as well as to apply and utilize the knowledge and electrician skills to manage and provide services in order to develop a science project.

8 Content Scope Lesson 1 Nature of Science Lesson 2 Science Project Lesson 3 Living Things Lesson 4 Ecosystem Lesson 5 Natural Resources and Environment in Communities Lesson 6 Natural Phenomena Lesson 7 Substances and cheracteristics of substances Lesson 8 Substance separation Lesson 9 Substances in our daily life Lesson 10 Force and force movement Lesson 11 Energy in our daily life and energy conservation Lesson 12 Relationship between the Sun, the Earth and the Moon Lesson 13 The profession of an electrician

9 Lesson 1 Nature of Science Main learning essence The content covers the meaning and importance of science and technology in human life, scientific process, science and technology process skills. It also covers the importance of technology to human life, today’s advancement of technology, applying technology to occupation and living, and using materials and scientific equipment correctly. Expected learning outcome 1. Be able to describe the meaning and importance of science and technology. 2. Describe scientific process, science and technology process skills. 3. Be able to use materials and scientific equipment correctly and appropriately. Content scope Topic 1 Scientific Process Topic 2 Technology Topic 3 Materials and Scientific Equipment

10 Topic 1 Scientific Process Meaning and Importance of Science Science is the study for knowledge regarding events or natural phenomena in a structured and systematic way using science process skills. Importance of Science Today, science plays a critical role in human life. Applying scientific knowledge has given rise to modern technology and a large number of facilities for mankind such as communication, transportation, medical technology, space technology, etc. Scientific process refers to a series of steps used for acquiring knowledge logically and systematically. We can summarize science process skills into five steps as follows: Identify problem Formulate hypothesis Collect data Analyse data Conclude results

11 1. Problem identification results from the observation of a problem in general and set it as the problem to be observed. By identifying a problem, it needs to be clear and not ambiguous. 2. Hypothesis formulation is an estimation of the answer to the problem by applying data and knowledge from former experiences. Good assumptions must be associated with the problem, and can be validated. 3. Data collection is collecting data by observing, exploring, or conducting an experiment to prove whether the hypothesis is correct. Experiment must be planned systematically by identifying materials, equipment, and substances to be used, and recording the experimental results in detail in every step. 4. Data analysis is interpreting data obtained from the observation or experiment to reach a conclusion. 5. Conclusion is the step of concluding the results from the experiment to ensure that learners gain the knowledge and have found a solution to the problem. Science process skills Science process skills are essential in learning science. They enables learners to think and solve problems by themselves. Therefore, learners should practice science process skills to ensure that they are well equipped with these skills. Science process skills are divided into 13 skills as follows: 1. Observing 2. Measuring 3. Classifying 4. Using numbers 5. Using space/space and space/time relationships 6. Manipulating and communicating data 7. Inferring 8. Predicting 9. Formulating hypothesis 10. Operational defining of variables 11. Identifying and controlling variables 12. Experimenting 13. Interpreting data and conclusion

12 Scientific Attitudes Scientific attitudes refer to the good attitudes to science, divided into 6 attributes as follows: - Rationality - Enthusiasm for knowledge discovery - Curiosity - Perseverance - Open-mindedness to listen to others’ opinions - Solving problems by using scientific method

13 Topic 2 Technology Technology is utilizing scientific knowledge to apply and facilitate the convenience of human beings such as spacecraft, phones, computers, etc. Today technology is a part of human life in facilitating our convenience such as with mobile phones that help to communicate faster, computers that help to store a large amount of data with accuracy. However, sometimes people use technology in the wrong way such as using atomic bombs in wars, or producing biological weapons to annihilate each other. Therefore, before we use any technology, all negative and positive impacts must be studied in order to choose the technology that maximizes the benefit and does not create long-term environmental impacts which are considered as ways to use technology properly and in a most worthwhile manner.

14 Topic 3 Materials and Scientific Equipment Measuring equipments Beaker Test tubes Conical flask Measuring cylinder Weighing equipment Cover to prevent wind plaPclaeteobtoject diNspumlaybewresigtoht Digital scales

Measuring equipments 15 Micrometer Vernier Caliper Other types of equipment A microscope is used for looking at small things

16 Activity Nature of Science and Technology 1. Science is …………………………………………………………………………….....…………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Scientific process is ……………………………………………………………….…………………………....... …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. How many steps are there in the scientific process? What are they? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. Technology is ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5. What are the equipments in the following pictures? How can they be used? Name ………………………………………… Name ………………………………………… How to use ………………………………….. How to use ………………………………….. …………………………………. ………………………………….

17 Lesson 2 Science Project Main learning essence The content covers the meaning, importance, and types of projects, how to plan a project, conducting a science project, applying the project’s results in everyday life, as well as applying a project process for further learning. Expected learning outcome - Be able to describe types of projects, selection of a project topic, steps to complete a project, and presenting a project. - Be able to apply the knowledge about scientific process and project in practice. - Establish group dynamics Content scope Topic Writing a Science Project

18 Topic Writing a Science Project 1. Types of science project 1. Experimental science project This project has characteristics in experimental design to study the effect of one variable by controlling other variables. Examples of this type of projects include making a mosquito repellent from local plants, using cow dung to prevent cows eating plant leaves, force-shaping a square watermelon. 2. Survey science project The project of this type does not define variables for collecting data. It can be exploring in the field or in nature, or studying something in the laboratory. Examples of this project type are exploring plants and seedlings in local schools, exploring various aspects of animal behavior. 3. Invention science project This type of project is inventing something, either a tool or equipment for any application. An invention may be newly created, enhanced from existing items, or a model built by applying scientific principles, utilizing scientific processes, defining variables to be studied, and testing the effectiveness of the invention. 4. Theoretical science project Theoretical science project is the project that the author must study and collect various data, knowledge, principles, facts, and concepts in depth before proposing a new principle, concept, rule, or theory.

19 2. Selection of a project topic A project topic often comes from the data sources as follows. 1. Printing media such as textbooks, newspapers, journals, publications, brochures, etc. 2. Radio and television media 3. Field trips such as study tours 4. Hobbies 5. Studying from the previous science projects of others 6. Consulting experts 7. Searching information from internet Science project steps Survey and make a decision on the project topic. Study the information related to the topic and sources of data. Plan for the experiment, materials and equipment to be used, and timeline. Write a science project scheme. Conduct the experiment, analyze data, and conclude the results. Write a science project report. Present deliverables from the science project.

20 3. Writing a project report A project report should be written with simple, compact, straightforward words. The report should not be too long as it would make the project less interesting. The topics to be covered in writing a science project report are as follows. 1. Project title 2. Author’s name 3. Advisor’s name 4. Abstract 5. Background and significance of project 6. Purpose of study 7. Hypothesis of study (if any) 8. Methodology 8.1 Materials and equipment 8.2 Experimental methods 9. Results 10. Conclusion and recommendation 11. Acknowledgement of assistance by the authorities or persons contributing to the project 12. References

21 4. Presenting a project After completing a science project, the project shall be presented. Project presentations may be done in several forms, such as presenting in a fair or an exhibition, or an oral presentation. Any form of presentation must cover the following components: 1. Project title, author’s name, advisor’s name 2. Description of the motivation in conducting the project and significance of the project 3. Project methodology: select only the prominent and important steps. 4. Demonstration or display of the results from the experiment 5. Results from the observation and data from the project In addition, other things for consideration include the following: 1. Strength and safety of exhibition stands 2. Appropriateness of the exhibition space 3. Explanations should be focused on the key highlights. Statements should be compact, clear, and easy to understand. 4. Use tables and pictures. 5. Presentation materials must be correct. No spelling errors or wrong explanation of principles. 6. For an invention project, the invention should work flawlessly. For oral presentations, the following matters shall be considered: 1. Understand the topic so as to be able to explain it well. 2. The language used must be simple, compact, and straightforward. 3. Present naturally, not by memorization. 4. Answer questions straightforwardly. 5. Finish the presentation within the allotted time. 6. Use media and tools to support the presentation to make it more complete.

22 Activity Science Project Instruction Learners shall be divided in groups of 3 students. Each group shall write a project scheme for a topic. 1. Project title .............................................................................................................................................. 2. Authors’ names 1 ................................................................................................................................................... 2 ................................................................................................................................................... 3 ................................................................................................................................................... 3. Advisor’s name ...................................................................................................................................... 4. Background and significance of the project .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. 5. Purpose of study .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. 6. Hypothesis of study .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................. 7. Methodology 7.1 Materials, equipment, and substances ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................

23 7.2 Experimental methods ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... 8. Results ............................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................... 9. Conclusion and recommendation ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... 10. References ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ..............................................................................................................................................................

24 Lesson 3 Living Things Main learning essence Human beings need to study and learn about the living things around us, both plants and animals, in order to live and coexist safely. This is because the living things around us have both benefit and harm. The knowledge about living things can help human beings adapt to, take advantage from, or avoid them. Expected learning outcome 1. Be able to describe the characteristics and classifications of living things. 2. Be able to describe types of plants, appearances, and functions of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits, of local plants that are suitable for their living. 3. Be able to describe factors that are vital to the survival of plants. 4. Be able to explain various methods of plant propagation. 5. Be able to classify local plants. 6. Be able to describe types, structures, and functions of local animals that are suitable for their living in different environments. 7. Be able to describe factors that are vital to the survival of animals and apply the knowledge in our daily life. 8. Be able to explain methods of animal breeding and apply the knowledge in our daily life. Content scope Topic 1 Characteristics and classification of living things Topic 2 Plants Topic 3 Plant propagation Topic 4 Animals

25 Topic 1 Characteristics and classification of living things Characteristics of living things For the things we commonly see, everyone may be able to distinguish what are living things, the remains of living things, or non-living things since living things have characteristics and processes of life as follows. 1. Food intake Living things need food to create energy and growth. Plants can synthesize food through photosynthesis which requires solar energy to change water and carbon dioxide into sugar. Animals cannot produce food on their own so they need to eat plants or other animals for food. Animals need to eat food to create energy in their bodies.

26 Plants synthesize food by photosynthesis. 2. Respiration The respiratory process of living things is the way they change food intake into energy for movement, growth, and repair of the body. Typical living things use oxygen in respiration. Food + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water Diagram of the respiration equation of living things 3. Movement As a plant grows, it slowly moves. For example, its roots move below the ground, the top of the tree moving up to be exposed to sunlight. An animal can move its whole body, not just a part of the body to find food or escape from predators. All living things that are alive have movements

27 4. Growth All living things can grow. Plants grow throughout their lives whereas animals stop growing when its growth has reached a certain level. Some living things have their shapes remain unchanged while they are growing whereas some have their shapes changed obviously. Caterpillar during molting period 3-4 days 7 days 3-4 days 2-4 days 2-3 days 3-4 days 10-12 days Pupa in cocoon 1-2 days 4-8 days Butterfly A silk worm grows through 4 stages of changes in appearance and shape, i.e., spawning stage, larva or caterpillar stage, pupa (in cocoon) stage, and adult stage. 5. Excretion Excretion is getting rid of waste living things no longer need. Plants excrete waste out of their stomata. Animals drive out waste in the form of sweat, urine, and mixed with breath. A dog sweats through its nose and tongue.

28 6. Sensitivity to stimuli Living things respond to the environment in order to survive such as plants turn their leaves towards the light and animals have sensory organs of various kinds. The leaf of Mimosa pudica is closed when touched. 7. Reproduction Reproduction is the process of increasing the population of the same type of living things to maintain their species. If living things do not reproduce, they will become extinct. Living things have reproduction to maintain their species. The body of a living thing can subsist by the collaboration of different organ systems. Organs are composed of groups of tissues that work together. Each type of tissues consists of the same types of cells that do the same function. cell tissue organ organ system

29 The human body is composed of different organs working collaboratively as a system Therefore, to study and understand various processes of living things requires a basic knowledge from the study of the characteristics, shapes, structures, elements, and functions of the cells of living things. Criteria commonly used to classify living things 1. Structure: This basis compares the outstanding structure, both external and internal based on the origin. The structures from the same origin (homologous structure) should be in the same group, even though they function differently. Likewise, the structures from different origins (analogous structure) should be in different groups, although they have the same functions. 2. Growth pattern: Living things with identical or similar growth patterns from larva to adulthood should be classified in the same group. For example, humans, birds, frogs, fish, even though they differ markedly when they are adult, but their embryos have gill slits and notochords. Therefore, they are classified in the same Phylum Chordata. 3. Evolutionary relationship: The study of fossil reveals which living things have common ancestors and should be in the same group. For example, the discovery of the fossil of Pteranodon, a flying reptile, and Archeopteryx, an ancient bird with long jaws, teeth, claws on the wings, show that they have similar characteristics to reptiles. Therefore, they should be placed in the groups that are closely related. 4. Biochemical and physiological processes: The similarity of chemical substances created by living things indicates a close relationship in genetics. For example, the study of various isozyme systems of living things can be used to classify them more specifically under the level of species since isozyme is controlled by the gene of living things. 5. Relationship behavior of living things and the environment, including geographical distribution of the population. This criterion helps to know the differences or similarities of living things so that they can be classified as well.

30 Actiovity Instruction: Answer the following questions by explaining briefly. 1. Name the parts of a plant. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. 2. What are the functions of a plant’s parts? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. 3. How many groups are vertebrates divided into? What are they? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. 4. Give 5 examples of the vertebrates’ groups. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………..

31 Topic 2 Plants Plants are living things that can synthesize for their own food by absorbing energy from the sun and nutrients from the environment (especially soil, water, and air) for photosynthesis to generate organic substances. Some of the organic substances are then dissolved during respiration and metabolism to extract energy for various activities. Some are retained and transmitted to animals. In addition, some are accumulated in seeds and reproductive organs for further propagation. Parts of Plants Plants are composed of organs that are essential for their living, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. Each organ of a plant serves a different function and is composed of different components, but works collarboratively with one another. Lack of any organ can cause a plant to malfunction or die. Also, there are some factors that are necessary to the growth of plants. flower leaf fruit stem root Parts of a plant Root A root is a plant’s part that has no chlorophyll, no nodes, internodes, buds, and leaves. Roots grow downwards, in the same direction of gravity, and have variable sizes and lengths. There are several types of plant’s roots as follows. 1. Tap root is the root that grows out of the seed. The base of the tap root is larger and then gradually tapered to the tip of the root.

32 2. Lateral root is the root that splits out of the tap root. It grows parallel to the ground and has continuous ramifications. 3. Fibrous root is the root with a consistent size and grow in bunches. 4. Hairy root is the substantial numbers of small hair lines around the roots absorbing water and minerals. Plant’s roots can be divided into 2 systems, i.e. tap root system and fibrous root system with details as follows: 1. Tap root system is the system having a taproot as the main root which grows faster, larger, and longer than other roots with lateral roots branching out of the tap root. There are hairy roots sprouting at the end of the lateral roots. Plants with the tap root system include morning glory, mango, etc. Tap root system 2. Fibrous root system is the root system with a large number of fibrous roots spreading around the base of a plant. No root is the main root. At the end of the fibrous root, there are hairy roots growing out. Plants with the fibrous root system include corn, grass, coconut, etc. Fibrous root system

33 1. Functions of a root are as follows. 1. Anchor the stem to the ground. 2. Absorb water and the nutrients dissolved in water in the soil, then transport them to various parts of the plant through stems or branches. In addition, several plant roots have special functions as follows. 1. Tuberous root is a root that serves as the food storage for the stem. Plants with tuberous roots include yam, carrot, cassava, and turnip, etc. turnip yam sweet potato cassava carrot Plants with tuberous roots for storing food 2. Buttress root is a root that helps to stabilize and support the stem. Plants with buttress roots include mangrove, corn, etc. Buttress roots of mangroves

34 3. Climbing root is a root that clings to a stem or a branch. Plants with climbing roots include devil's ivy (Epipremnum aureum), philodendron. Climbing roots of devil's ivy 4. Photosynthetic root. Some plants are green at the tips of the roots for producing food by photosynthesis such as orchid, banyan tree, etc. Photosynthetic roots of a banyan tree 5. Aerating root is a sharp root emerging above the ground and water, helping to absorb air. Plants with aerating roots include river mangrove (Aegiceras corniculatum), cork tree, etc. Aerating roots of river mangroves

35 Stem A stem is a plant’s organ connected with the root that typically grows above ground. Stems vary in size, shape, and appearance. Plants with stems above ground include papaya, mango, lemon, rose apple, etc. Plants with underground stems include ginger, galangal, turmeric, banana, Bermuda grass, Indian shot, etc. Underground stems Above-ground stems A stem consists of three major parts, i.e. node, internode, and bud. 1. Node is the part of a stem around the area that has a branch, leaf, or bud sprouting. Some stems have flowers growing out of the nodes instead of branches or have thorns growing out instead of branches or leaves. 2. Internode is the part of a stem located between nodes. 3. Bud is the key component of a stem that generates branches and flowers. The bud has convex or conical shape and consist of terminal buds and lateral buds. Components of a stem

36 Functions of a stem are as follows. 1. Be a core supporting other organs, including branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. The stem helps leaves to spread out for sunlight in order to produce food by photosynthesis. 2. Be a channel in transporting water and minerals that the roots absorb and forward them to the leaves and other parts of the plant. 3. Be a channel in transporting food that the leaves produce to the roots and other parts. The plant stems also serve other special functions as follows. 1. Food storage stem is a stem that serves as a storage of food, having underground stems such as ginger, galangal, turmeric, taro, potato, etc. Food storage stems of ginger and galangal 2. Photosynthetic stem: Some plants have green stems for producing food by photosynthesis, such as cactus, leafless medicinal tree, morning glory, etc. Photosynthetic stem of a cactus

37 3. Reproduction stem: Plants with reproduction stems include sweet basil, devil's ivy, garden croton, purslane, frangipani, etc. Reproduction stem of a frangipani 4. Tendril stem acts as a hand wrapping around the plant’s parts to help stabilize and support the stem. Plants with tendril stems include luffa gourd, ivy gourd, squash, etc. Tendril stem of luffa gourd

38 Leaf A leaf is a plant’s organ that develops from the node of stem and branch. Most leaves have a green substance called chlorophyll. Leaves vary in shape and size according to the types of plants. A leaf consists of a petiole (leaf stalk), lamina (leaf blade), a midrib, and vein. Heart-shaped Lobed Rounded Betel leaf lvy gourd leaf Lotus leaf Kidney-shaped Egg-shaped with pointed tip Egg-shaped with wedge tip Purple Bauhinia leaf Mango leaf Jackfruit leaf Leaf shapes A plant’s leaf also has other characteristics that are different as follows. 1. leaf edge (margin): Some plants have leaves with smooth edges. Some leaves have jagged edges. 2. leaf surface: Some plants have leaves with smooth and glossy surface, some have hardened and rough surface. 3. leaf color: Most plants have green leaves but some have leaves in other colors such as red, orange, yellow, etc. 4. leaf venation: The veins of plants are arranged in two patterns. 1. Reticulate venation: For example, mango, ivy gourd, butterfly pea, rose apple, etc. 2. Parallel venation: For example, banana, grass, sugarcane, coconut, rice, etc.

39 Types of leaves are as follows. 1. Simple leaf is the leaf that has a single blade on a petiole which is attached to a branch or a stem. Plants with simple leaves include mango, rose apple, banana, rice, pumpkin. A simple leaf of some plants may have its leaf margin deeply divided to look similar to a compound leaf, for example, papaya, breadfruit, cassava, etc. Simple leaves of a breadfruit tree 2. A compound leaf is the leaf composed of several leaflets. It can be divided into the following classification: 1) Palmately compound leaf is the compound leaf with several leaflets radiating from the single point at the base of the petiole. Some plants have two leaflets, e.g. Manila tamarind, or three leaflets, e.g. rubber, soybean, yard long bean. Some plants may have four leaflets, e.g. water clover, or more than four leaflets, e.g. kapok tree, octopus tree. Each leaflet may or may not have a petiole. Palmately compound leaf of a tamarind tree

40 2) Pinnately compound leaf is the compound leaf with each leaflet splitting from the main vein looking similar to a feather. The tip of the compound leaf may have a single leaflet, e.g. rose leaf or two leaflets e.g. tamarind leaf. Pinnately compound leaf of a rose Functions of leaves are as follows: 1. Produce food: The leaves of plants absorb carbon dioxide to produce food through the process called photosynthesis. 2. Transpiration: Plant transpiration occurs through the stomata. 3. Breathing: The leaves of plants absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide. Leaves can also be transformed to perform other functions as follows: 1. Food storage: For example, aloe vera leaves, cloves of garlic and onion, etc. 2. Propagation: For example, Air plant (Kalanchoe pinnata), Mother of thousands (Bryophyllum daigremontianum). Air plant’s leaf is the part for propagation

41 3. Anchor and stabilize the stem to be able to climb higher. Plants’ leaves with this function include ivy gourd, bitter gourd, green pea, etc. 4. Lure insects: For example, leaves of flamingo flower and bougainvillea. 5. Trap and catch insects for food: For example, leaves of Nepenthes (Monkey cup), Oyster plant, etc. Pots of Nepenthes for trapping and catching insects 6.Reduce leaf transpiration. For example, cactus leaves turn into spines.

42 Flowers A flower is the sexual reproductive organ of the plant growing from a flower bud located at the top of a branch or a stem, depending on the type of plant. A flower is composed of different parts. petal anther stigma stamen ovary ovul sepal A flower’s components A flower consists of four parts arranged in a whorl from the outermost to the innermost parts as follows: sepal, petal, stamen, and stigma. 1. Sepal is the outermost part of a flower forming a whorl called the calyx. Most sepals are green and transformed from a leaf. Sepals protect various dangers from the environment, insects, and other pests that can harm the flowers while they are young buds. Sepals also help in photosynthesis. The number of sepals for each flower type may not be equal. Some flowers have sepals wholly connected from the base of the petals to almost the top, looking like cups or straws, such as the sepals of shoe flowers, melons, Allamanda flowers, Vegetable Hummingbird Sesban Agasta. Some plants have separated sepals such as water lily, Indian shot. Some plants have sepals in other colors than green in order to lure insects for pollination in the same manner as petals. 2. Petal is the part of a flower next to the sepal. Petals are in a variety of beautiful colors such as red, yellow, pink, white. Petals are usually larger than sepals. Some petals are fragrant. Some have nectaries at the base of the petals to lure insects for pollination. 3. Stamen is the part of a flower next to the petal. It consists of a filament containing pollen grains which are a yellow powder. The stamen creates pollen grains which hold male gametes.

43 4. Pistil is the part of a flower in the innermost whorl. It consists of stigma, style, ovary, ovul, and egg cells. Types of flowers are as follows: A typical flower contains all four main parts, i.e. sepals, petals, stamen, and pistil. The flowers of some plants have less than 4 parts. Hence, flowers are classified into two categories based on their components as follows: 1. Complete flower is the flower containing all four parts, i.e. sepals, petals, stamen, and pistil, such as hibiscus flower, rose, butterfly pea flower, etc. A complete flower of Indian shot 2. Incomplete flower is the flower lacking one or more of the four parts such as flamingo flower, ivy gourd flower, pumpkin flower, papaya flower, etc. An incomplete flower of a pumpkin flower

44 Considering that pollens have a reproductive function as a criteria, flowers can be classified into two types as follows: 1. Perfect flower or Bisexual flower has both male stamens and female pistils in the same flower. For example, hibiscus flower, mango flower, Minnieroot flower, butterfly pea flower, eggplant flower, etc. 2. Imperfect flower or Unisexual flower has either male stamens or female pistils within it. The flower that has stamens only is called staminate flower and the flower with only female pistils is called pistillate flower. For example, pumpkin flower, luffa gourd flower, ivy gourd flower, papaya flower, etc. Flowers can be classified into two types based on the number of flowers from one peduncle as follows: 1. Solitary flower is a single flower growing on the peduncle such as white champaka flower, hibiscus flower. 2. Inflorescence flower is a group of flowers arranged on the peduncle, consisting of several florets, each of which has a pedicel on the peduncle. The flowers of this type include peacock flower, orchid, sunflower, wattle flower. Functions of flowers are as follows. 1. Lure insects for pollination. 2. Mating Essential factors for plant growth Plants are living things that can grow and live if they are in a suitable environment. Environmental conditions affecting plant growth include the following: 1. Soil is the primary factor. Soil that is suitable for plant growth must absorb water well, be incoherent, have plenty of organic substances. However, when soil is used in planting for a long period of time, it may deteriorate, e.g. minerals depleted. Therefore, it is necessary to improve soil fertility by plowing, adding fertilizer, crop rotation, etc. 2. Water is vital to plant growth. It helps dissolve minerals in the soil so that roots are able to absorb food to feed other parts of the stem. It also helps freshen up plants, and ensures that the soil has moisture and that the various processes of plants are operating normally. 3. Minerals or Fertilizer help plants to grow better. There are 16 minerals necessary for plant growth but the most required minerals and often insufficient in the soil include Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium. These minerals must be in the form of dissolved solution for plants to be able to utilize them. If the minerals are insufficient, plants should receive more minerals in the form of fertilizers.

45 4. Air. There are many kinds of gases in the air but the most needed are carbon dioxide and oxygen which are used in photosynthesis and respiration. These two types of gases are also contained in the soil. Hence, when planting, we should always make the soil airy and incoherent in order to ensure the air in the soil can flow. 5. Light or sunlight. Plants need sunlight to generate food. Without sunlight, plants are stunted, leaves turn to yellow or white and eventually die. Each type of plant needs a different amount of sunlight. Some plants need strong sunlight while some need dim sunlight. 6. Temperature. Temperature contributes to the germination and growth of plants as well. It can be seen that some plants like to grow in cool weather, but some like to grow in hot weather. When planting, plants should be selected as suitable to the changing temperature according to seasons within each local area. Let’s Try Activity. Place a wooden plank over grass for 2 weeks. Then pick the plank up, observe the grass that was under the plank and record your observation.

46 Plant propagation Plant propagation refers to the method to increase the population of plants in order to sustain different types of plant species from extinction. Typical methods used include the following: Air layering Approach Grafting Budding Grafting Cutting

47 Air layering Air layering is the process to make a branch or a stem of the plant develop roots while the stem is still attached to the parent plant. The new plant will have genetic characteristics identical to its parent. The air layering procedure is as follows: 1. Choose a branch that is not too young or too old and completely free of diseases and insects. 2. Girdle the branch, peel the bark off, then scrap out the meristem that has a mucilage. 3. Cut a coconut fiber ball (Shredded coconut fiber that has been soaked in water then squeezed out excess water, packed into a plastic bag and tightly tied) along its length and wrap the wound of the graft. Tie each end, at the top and bottom, of the wound with strings.

48 4. When the graft has a mass of roots developed through the material and gets mature by turning into a yellow or brown color with white tips, it can be cut. 5. Nurse the rooted branch in a pot, container, or plastic bag, waiting for planting.

49 Approach Grafting Approach Grafting is the process of combining two plants into one where the rootstock (lower portion) serves as the root system for food for the scion (top portion) which is the desired plant. The procedure is as follows: 1. Choose a branch that is not too young or too old and completely free of diseases and insects. 2. Slice the scion in a shield shape approximately 1-2 inches long. 3. Slice the rootstock in a shark’s mouth shape. 4. Splice the rootstock wound to the scion of desired plant. Wrap them together firmly with plastic and fasten them with a string or wire.

50 5. Around 6-7 weeks, the parts will be well united. When the graft has a mass of roots developed through the material and gets mature by turning into yellow or brown color with white tips, it can be cut. 6. Put the graft in a nursery bag together with a stake for stabilizing to prevent it from falling.