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Cross-Cultural Communication Strategies between Tour Guides and Foreign Tourists: A case Study in Luangnamtha district and Province Researcher: Mr. Onnith SITTILARTH 1

Contents Chapter I............................................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 5 I. Background and rationale ...................................................................................................... 5 1.1. Statement of the research problem ..................................................................................... 8 1.2. Significance of the research ............................................................................................... 9 1.3. Research objective ............................................................................................................. 9 Chapter II ......................................................................................................................................... 11 Literature review .......................................................................................................................... 11 2.1. Current Tourism Situation in Laos........................................................................................ 11 2.2. Lao government policy on tourism ....................................................................................... 11 2.4. Dimension of culture in Laos................................................................................................ 14 2.5. Cross cultural communication strategies .............................................................................. 16 2.6. Speech act ............................................................................................................................. 21 2.6. Related research .................................................................................................................... 24 Chapter III ........................................................................................................................................ 32 Research Methodology ................................................................................................................ 32 3.1. Research design................................................................................................................ 32 3.2. Population and Sample..................................................................................................... 32 3.2.1. Lao tour guides............................................................................................................. 32 Table 1 Sample group of tour guides ............................................................................................... 32 3.2.2. Foreign tourists............................................................................................................. 33 Table 2 Sample group of foreign tourists..................................................................................... 33 Table 3 Total of sample group English native speaker and nonnative speaker ............................... 34 3.3. Data collection Instruments.............................................................................................. 34 Observation .............................................................................................................................. 34 Video-Recording and Transcription......................................................................................... 35 3.4. Procedure of collecting the data ................................................................................... 35 3.5. Data analysis ................................................................................................................ 35 Chapter IV........................................................................................................................................ 37 Result ........................................................................................................................................... 37 4.1. The Cross-cultural communication strategies patterns in tourism situations between tour guides and foreign tourists................................................................................................ 37 Table 4 Cross-cultural communication strategies performed by tour guides in tourism situation.. 38 2

Table 5 speech act performed by tour guides in tourism situation................................................... 40 4.2. The Detail of cross-cultural communication strategies used by Lao tour guides in tourism situation....................................................................................................................... 41 4.3. The Detail of cross-cultural communication strategies used by foreign tourists in tourism situation....................................................................................................................... 48 The Detail of speech act used by foreign tourist in tourism situation ...................................... 56 The Detail of the interviewing tour guides and foreign tourists............................................... 58 Table 6 interviewees’ responses..................................................................................................... 59 Tour guides .............................................................................................................................. 61 Summary of Cross-Cultural Communication Strategies and speech act were used................... 62 Chapter V ......................................................................................................................................... 63 Summary, discussion and recommendation ................................................................................. 63 5.1. Summary .......................................................................................................................... 63 5.3. Recommendation ............................................................................................................. 66 BIBLOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................. 67 APPENDIX...................................................................................................................................... 73 APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................................. 74 APPENDIX B .............................................................................................................................. 75 APPENDIX C .............................................................................................................................. 76 APPENDIX D .............................................................................................................................. 77 3

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the use of cross-cultural communication strategies between tour guides and foreign tourists and speech act in tourism situations, the qualitative and quantitative were employed in the study used observation form, interview and recording audio also used, participants were 41 people, 9 tour guides and 32 tourists The result of the study found five main cross-cultural communication strategies , fifteen subcategories used by tour guides and foreign tourists were identified topic avoidance, message avoidance, pausing, eliciting, miming, circumlocution, backchannel cues, confirmation check, foreign zing, self-repair, language switching, comprehension check , approximation, clarification request and extending strategies as well as four speech act categories locutionary act, illocutuionary act performative and indirect speech act also used. The study suggest that tour guides and foreign tourists were able to use various communcaition strategies and speech act. keyword: Cross-cultural communication strategy, communication strategy, speech act 4

Chapter I Introduction I. Background and rationale Today tourism is one of the most significant industrial sectors that are expanding and growing in many countries around the world rapidly and widely. The industry is an integrated sector that covers a wide range of sectors and provides some more employment opportunities to local people. The world trends to develop and sustains ecotourism lead the tourism sector grows faster. Lao government has been enthusiastic and realized in promoting tourism by utilizing the culture, historical heritages and nature Hirotsune. K & Sangbouaboulom, S. (2010:1). With those tourism benefit that is inevitable to link with globalization phenomenon, it has been seen in most aspects of our lives the tremendous economic integration witnessed worldwide, the revolution of technology, the extensive usage of means of communication and transportation, the increasing opportunities for communities and nations across the borders to interact with each other and many other aspects are now transforming our world into a small village where cultural differences are eroding Mustafa. M.H.(2010). In Laos the foreign tourist increased of each year, Minster (2011) reported that from 1993-2011 the number of tourist arrivals to Laos had increased constantly with an average growth rate of 20,36% though from 2010 to 2011 the increasing average only 8%. In 2011 the number of arrivals reached over 2,700,000, generated huge revenue to urban and rural area where there were tourism sites 406 million US dollars in total this income encouraged the government to focus on tourism industry development as well as many countries in the world have paid special attention to the development and promotion of tourism, as it is a key sector for socio-economic development in Laos. Tourism in Luang Namtha province covers an area of 9,325 square kilometers it shares border with two countries, People’s Republic of China and Myanmar can be linked to Thailand easily, in this case it brings more tourists to Luang Namtha Province and luangnamtha itself also be famous in tourism in Laos, today tourism agencies expand rapidly in contrast with the last few years, in addition the tourists is increasing sharply, in 2013 tourists visited luangnamtha 370,620 people (Department of Information, Culture and Tourism of Lungnamtha, 2014). Certainly the communication those of them to tour 5

guides is cross cultural communication, because they are from different cultural background, it is unknown which cultural dimension they are in accordance with Hofstede model (2010) provided five cultural dimensions: Power Distance:, Individualism, Uncertainty Avoidance, Long-Term Orientation and Masculinity. Those cultural dimension will affect their communication then they will meet with various problems. In this case the tour guides take important role to face the foreigners in communicating with people who are from different countries around the world. The guide will meet either English native speakers or non- native speakers who use English as lingua franca, those are from different societies. They speak differently these differences in ways of speaking are profound and systematic, they reflect different cultural values, or at least different hierarchies of values, different ways of speaking, different communicative styles, can be explained and made sense of in terms of independently established different cultural values and cultural priorities Prykarpatska ( 2008 ), in addition culture also include its system of values, beliefs, and material products. Firstly, the systems of believes that involve stories, or myths, the interpretation of which can give people insight into how they should feel, think, and behave. Secondly, the value systems of culture. Values are created by how we learned to believe things should be or how people ought to behave, particularly in terms of qualities such as honesty, integrity, and openness. Thirdly, culture is also defined by material products such as food, clothing, and music Where there is conversation occurs, the communicators might include either cultural component. The communication is to succeed understanding, however people have their own identities from their own culture since they were born, therefore the tour guides and tourists are basically influence by either their own culture or others’ from the environment they live when they encounter each other, the communication competency is required to achieve understanding of both side, we can’t avoid misunderstanding arises from differing expectations in language use, Whereas people are from the same community and same culture they will be successful in communication even though they will use both verbal and nonverbal communication or high context message, it is understandable because the language is often used within the community, people are already familiar with the language. In contrast when the people come from different community or different country and have distinct cultural background when they have conversation, they are definitely 6

cross culture communication. This event will happen when increasing tourism, international student studying abroad. These people they may spend a short time or long time abroad there might be motivation as comparison between short and long this will create cross cultural adaptation happen through the communicative interaction KhaKhirova. A. (2010, p 85), However the tour guides are able to explain and describe about the tourism site well but the tourist may face challenging much more because they are in situation of distinct environment, these communications have happened more and more as tourists coming to visit Luangnamtha better. The tourism site environment is distinct from the environment visitors used to face, the guides they have experienced and learnt about the environment they live, The knowledge to explain target language and culture is difficult, ‘Language is inseparable from culture. Thus, when learners learn a language, they learn about culture; and as they learn to use a new language, they learn to communicate with other individuals from a different culture’ Jie. F(2010) sometimes it may lead either the guides or tourists lack of cross-cultural communication awareness or culture shock because they have learnt the language in one particular cultural environment, but they communicate with other individuals from a different culture and Those people play various social roles in various interacting contexts and gain multiple social identities, however, cross-cultural communicative competence need to make every effort to understand other perspectives, but cross-cultural communication is to accept and share his/her view in the whole context, which might lead you to deny and assimilate to other perspectives. These days in real world tourism the guides and the tourists are expected to understand in communicating, what are the guides explaining and what are the tourists visiting in order to fulfill the satisfactions of tourists. The guides need to give clear explanation and understandable, interesting to bring more tourists and the tourists require to understand what they are interesting and seeing. However skilled cross-cultural communicator does not necessarily know all the rules of the other culture. But successful communication depends on getting to know people as individuals, asking questions, and seeking to understand their perspective before drawing conclusions about their attitudes and intentions. Diversity Tip Sheet Cross-Cultural Communication Translating Nonverbal Cues. (2008, p 5) As mentioned in the earlier, the increasing of number of tourists is occurring in Laos particularly in Luangnamtha these increasing lead local guides and tourists’ 7

communication meet cross cultural communication, the study of Ochieng E.G. (2009) investigated the cultural factors that dominated communication and survey how the effective communications are able to be made in multicultural project environments. The result of research revealed that communications within multicultural project environments can be effective when project managers demonstrate an awareness of cultural variation. The study underscores an urgent need for future research to investigate effective guidelines or strategies for effective collectivism and communication in multicultural project teams as Yaolung James Hsieh. (2011) did the research about East and west the study found that Confucianism and the theory of manners of different orders have strong influences on cross cultural communication strategies and performance. This provides evidence to support the arguments that the theory of manners of different orders may play an even more significant role than the individualism–collectivism paradigm in explaining the causes of better communicational performance in Taiwan and possibly mainland China as well as Kharova. A. (2010) conducted the research on cross cultural communication between Taiwanese and Russians at Medical Workplace the study investigated cross cultural communication experience between Russians expatriates and Taiwanese employees in Taiwan the research revealed that ‘positive and genuine relationship/friendship between Russian expatriates and the host contribute to their positive and rewarding life experience overseas’ those researches were done in overseas countries, the participants of study were non Lao and there is no any researcher conduct research on cross cultural communication strategies between tour guide and tourist in Luangnamtha, the research require to seek the problem and communication strategies in order to provide significant information for tour guide and will be source for further generation and curriculum applying. 1.1.Statement of the research problem Today Luangnmtha tourism site is one of the most attractive tourism sites bring more tourists in contrast with the nationwide tourism sites, cross culture communication problem has occurred on tourism communication, it is main problem between tour guides and foreign tourists, many researchers has found out successfully in cross cultural communication in the world for instance Robbins, S.P. and Judge, T.M (2007), Kim, Y.Y and Kim, Y.S. (2004) and Scanlan, L. (2005) and so on. Luangnamtha province enrich with its natural recourses and minorities, it is a destination of tourist who enjoy seeing 8

minorities and forest there are different kinds of foreign tuorists, the differentiation can be defined in age, education , countries, culture, English proficiency and tourism experiences, those people are from around the world that are available any places of Luangnamtha for example at the night market, minority villages, water fall and forest trekking with who encounter English usage with Lao tour guides. The tour guides is defined as Lao people whose jobs as tour guides these people have different English proficiency and different work experiences, some of the tour guides had no chance to attend English classes and others learnt from the real situation with the tourists, but some of them had graduated English diploma. When those interact each other cross-cultural communication strategies happened, for misunderstanding when using English and lack of communication strategies. However cross cultural communication issue has never been conducted in Laos particularly Luangnamtha province, the knowledge of cross cultural communication strategies is likely to be significant knowledge to whose jobs as a tour guide within the region the rationale bring researcher to select the topic cross cultural communication strategies between Lao tour guides and foreign tourists. 1.2.Significance of the research The research provided cross culture communication strategies knowledge and resolve the communication strategies, it will be used as the source for the next generation researchers because the research conduction is done at the first time in the Luangnamtha province, it will help tour guides to decrease intercultural communication problem, in addition the problem finding will provide the tour guides to get through cross-cultural communication issue. And offer the need to develop and assist professional tour guides. 1.3.Research objective The objective of the research is to examine cross-cultural communication strategies between tour guides and foreign tourists in Luangnamtha 1.4.Research question What are cross-cultural communication strategies used by tour guides and foreign tourists in tourism situation in Lungnamtha province? 1.5.Scope of study 9

The study was took place in Luangnamtha district and province in eco-tour service unit in Luangnamtha district in the particular trekking routs and minority villages in order to study cross-cultural communication strategies between tour guides and foreign tourists while trekking and minorities visiting. The scope of tour guides focused on tour guides in Luangnamtha districts in eco tour-service and limitation of foreign tourists were unexpected numbers based on reservation at the eco-tour service unit. 1.6.Definition of Terms Cross-cultural Communication is communications between people who are from distinct cultural perceptions and symbol systems are able to alter the communication event. “Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds endeavour to communicate” (LeBaron, Michelle. 2003 : Unpaged cited in Chunlan.L 2008: 6). The thesis focused on the cross-cultural communication strategies in trekking and minorities visiting between tour guide and foreign in Luangnamtha district and province, Laos Tour guides are Lao citizen whose job as a guide and responsible for taking foreign people for trekking in the forest and minorities villages. And give explanation to foreign tourists in English about what is being visiting Foreign tourists are group of people from different countries who speak English as native language or nonnative language use the service at eco-tour in Luangnamtha district. Eco-tour service unit is tourism agency provides tour program on environment and culture that are sustainable the nature and culture or at least minimize damage to it, often involving travel to areas of natural interest 10

Chapter II Literature review 2.1. Current Tourism Situation in Laos Since Laos country has opened to link with ASEAN countries in Mekong sub- region countries, with the charming of the country itself and the awareness and effort of the government need to release the country from underdevelopment country by 2020, those inspirations have pushed the development of tourism in Laos, nowadays tourists are able to visit Laos easier, those who take the trip to the country have the option to see and do from the northern to southern part of Laos such as cultures, historical heritages and nature, the tourists can get to those site either by airplane or bus and accommodations, restaurants are available within the area. According to Touropai (2013) there are top ten tourism sites: Luang Prabang world heritage city, Mekhong River, Vang Vieng, Si phan Don(four thousands of islands), Plain of jar, Wat Xieng thong, That Luang, Wat phu, Pak Ou caves and Vieng Xai. These famous tourism sites and some out of 364 in total will bring 3,419,418 tourists to Laos in 2014 create revenue 516,893,421 US $ Estimated by Tourism Development Department( 2011). 2.2. Lao government policy on tourism The importance of tourism in Laos was raised by Lao government in the 4th party congress in 1986. The promotion of cultural, natural and historical tourism were identified and declared to foster the growth in tourism. The government has dedicated its efforts to construct infrastructures to link northern to central and southern parts for supporting those development grow gradually. 45 years ago, the government has been attempting to build up border checkpoints from the northern to the southern part and reform the exist checkpoint in order to link with many different countries, within the country many related section also improved to facilitate the tourists for instance visa exemption for some member countries have been granted, and airport facilities also have been upgraded. Since the government has promoted and improved the tourism sector the tourists are increasing each year and expected to continue growing and has been ranked as the number as one of exports. The expecting number of tourists 3 million will visit Laos in 2020 with expected revenue of 250-350 million US Dollars per year. (Lao PDR Tourism Strategy 2006-2020, p 4-5). 11

The government and the party provided some goal to develop cultural, natural and historical tourism sites, the Natural Tourism Authority has cooperated with sectors and plan together in order to prioritize the important point which focus on developing, protecting and investing in these sites. Up to present of about 985 sites have been surveyed and identified. 257 sites out of the total have been identified as cultural sites, 570 as natural sites, and 162 as historical sites. So far, 364 sites have already been in service (list of all sites have also been attached). These days Laos has many dominant and charming sites that are nationally and internationally well - known such as Hoprakeo (Emeral Budha) temple, Thatluang Stupa, and Watsisaket in Vientiane Capital. Besides that there are two world heritage towns; Luangprabang and the Watphou, Laos also has archeological objects found and stored such as ancient town of Sethapura, Standing Stone in Huophanh, Plain of jar in Xiengkouang province being designated as the third world heritage sites. In addition to cultures, Lao PDR also poses traditional customs and festivals and rituals such as: new year festivals of Hmong, and Khmu ethnic groups, boat racing, fire rocket festival; Baci; Wedding ceremony and other charming rituals. (Lao PDR Tourism Strategy 2006- 2020, p. 6) In accordance with the proper locations, natural abundance, cultural aspects and historical, and with the special character of the country attracts more tourists in rural remote areas, particularly those living nearby protected forest, ethnic villages, cave and river. For example Namha protected area in Luangnamtha province, it’s proved that eco- tourism is one of the successful eco-tourism. projects.about. approximately 2000 tourists come to the area in each year. The project has campaigned to reduces slash and burn practice and conserve the natures. In 2001, the project has been awarded by (UNDP) New York as a model project to contribute to the reduction of poverty, and in 2002, the British Airway has also awarded to this project. At present, the lesson from the model project in luangnamtha has already been applied by other 8 province of Vientiane, luangprabang, phongsaly, xiengkhuang, Bolikhamxay, , Savannakhet, Khammouane and Champassack. The project drew a lot of attraction by tourists and more important than that is the International Agencies continue to support such efforts (Lao PDR Tourism Strategy 2006- 2020, p. 6) participant will be misunderstood. The tourism industry in the Lao PDR is in its infancy when compared to regional and international competitors. It is only recently that the country has placed priority on the 12

development of the sector as complementary to existing areas of economic activity. Development activity, both nationally and internationally sourced, has also focused on priorities that relate to the wellbeing (health, education, security) of Lao citizens and investment in sectors such as tourism have not been accorded priority within this context. The tourism sector, in Laos, is also fragmented and dominated, in organizational terms, by small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). These businessesin Laos as worldwide are seen to under-perform in their capacity and capability to operate effective business systems, including those related to training and development. Therefore, it is not surprising to find that human resource development (HRD) activities, both within enterprises and within the education and training system, are recent in their institution and immature in their extent and organization. This immaturity is a real challenge in the context of a tourism sector in Laos that is projected to grow significantly over the coming decades. The HRD challenge is further driven by the pressure of this impending growth within the sector. From 1.7 million overseas visitors in 2008 employing a core workforce of 17,000 people with a further indirect employment effect of up to 167,000 people, the industry is currently working towards targets of 3.4 million overseas visitors in 2015 and 4 million by 2020. By 2020 it is estimated that direct employment in tourism will reach 40,000 with indirect and induced employment providing a further 250,000 jobs. 2.3. Cultural Dimension Hofstede’s model of Cultural Dimension The Hofstede model (Hofstede 2001; Hofstede & Hofstede 2005) defined the differences of cultures based on five dimensions: power distance, individualism/ collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-/short-term orientation. The power distance dimension can be defined the power is distributed unequally in society. In large power distance cultures, everyone has his or her rightful place in a social hierarchy. The rightful place concept is important for understanding the role of global brands. In large power distance cultures, one’s social status must be clear so that others can show proper respect. Global brands serve that purpose. Luxury articles, some alcoholic beverages and fashion items typically appeal to social status needs. The contrast individualism/collectivism can be defined as ‘people looking after themselves and their immediate family only, versus people belonging to in-groups that look after them in exchange for loyalty’. In individualistic cultures, one’s identity is in the 13

person. People are ‘I’-conscious and self-actualisation is important. Individualistic cultures are universalistic, assuming their values are valid for the whole world. They also are low- context communication cultures with explicit verbal communication. In collectivistic cultures, people are ‘we’-conscious. Their identity is based on the social system to which they belong, and avoiding loss of face is important. Collectivistic cultures are high-context communication cultures, with an indirect style of communication. The masculinity/femininity dimension can be explained as follows: ‘The dominant values in a masculine society are achievement and success; the dominant values in a feminine society are caring for others and quality of life.’ In masculine societies, performance and achievement are important; and achievement must be demonstrated, so status brands or products such as jewellery are important to show one’s success. An important aspect of this dimension is role differentiation: small in feminine societies, large in masculine societies. In masculine cultures, household work is less shared between husband and wife than in feminine cultures. Men also do more household shopping in the feminine cultures. Uncertainty avoidance can be defined as ‘the extent to which people feel threatened by uncertainty and ambiguity and try to avoid these situations’. In cultures of strong uncertainty avoidance, there is a need for rules and formality to structure life. This translates into the search for truth and a belief in experts. People of high uncertainty avoidance are less open to change and innovation than people of low uncertainty avoidance cultures. Whereas high uncertainty avoidance cultures have a passive attitude to health by focusing on purity in food and drink and using more medication, low uncertainty avoidance cultures have a more active attitude to health by focusing on fitness and sports 2.4. Dimension of culture in Laos Dorner, D.G. & Gorman, G.E. (2011). Surveyed four Lao schools and interviewed fourteen teachers at these schools. The schools visited were a rural secondary school, an urban secondary school, an urban vocational school, and an urban primary school. The study were found the major cultural differences between Laos and the two developed countries New Zealand and Canada. Lao context was analyzed based on four cultural dimension from data collection. 14

Power distance indicator In the educational setting power distance affects, for example, teacher-student relationships and teacher-teacher relationships. In culture of Laos with high power distance scores which estimated at 67, children are expected to show great respect for their elders and their elders' points of view. Individualism score for Laos was 20 The teacher of secretarial subjects at the vocational school commented that students not only enjoyed working in small groups, but they also liked competitive group activities; that is, when their group can compete against other groups in their class. A number of teachers also discussed how they provided all students in a group with the same mark for their group assignment. The responses from these teachers indicate a society with low individualism. On the masculinity dimension, the estimated score for Laos was 37, the masculinity scores nonetheless indicate the Laos education system is situated in a more feminine. Male teachers almost exclusively teach in universities, whereas in feminine societies, men as well as women teach at the primary level as well as at the higher levels. In masculine countries, males have better analytical abilities such as those required for mathematics and the sciences, whereas females have better social and linguistic skills. In contrast, in feminine countries there is less difference between the sexes. In our small sample of fourteen teachers we see little difference between the types of subjects being taught by men and women, again suggesting that Lao society, at least in education, is more feminine than masculine. As mentioned earlier, the uncertainy avoidance scores for the three countries in Chart 2 are almost identical, but the estimated score for Laos (47) is based on averaging the highly divergent scores from two neighbouring countries. Therefore, we must use our estimated score for Laos with caution. Our data actually suggest that Laos is different from both Canada (48) and New Zealand (49) with respect to uncertainty avoidance and appears to be closer to Thailand than to Vietnam in this regard. Also as mentioned earlier, in a high uncertainy avoidance country people prefer structure, predictability and rules. In the interviews with the teachers they received responses to two questions that suggested high levels of uncertainy avoidance. When asked, 'What do teachers expect good students to be?', the teachers focused more often on 15

student behaviour and following rules rather than on student abilities. The teachers expect good students to behave properly, politely, and to follow instructions, punctual, they need to be well behaved, in class and outside. Another indicator of a culture with high uncertainy avoidance is when teachers are expected by their students to know all the answers and to be so erudite that what they say is incomprehensible (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005: 179). Ketkaew(2011 p7-8 The high-low context as a cross-cultural communication dimension was introduced by Hall (1976). Hall explained that high context culture refers to any group of people that possess a kind of indirect communication norms. The high context culture communicators normally include their nonverbal language or codes, dress codes and other surrounding contexts into their conversation, which allows them not to speak straight to the point. Instead, people of this culture speak little and expect their interlocutor to understand their point by their overall signs accompanying their verbal choices. When two interlocutors of a high context culture communicate, it is likely that they can understand each other without any significant problems. In contrast, people of low context culture express their thoughts directly as they communicate verbally. Thus, when communicators from different cultures interact, misunderstanding could occur. The countries with high context culture include China, Japan, North and South Korea and Thailand while England, France, and the United States are the examples of low context culture countries. 2.5. Cross cultural communication strategies Pym. A. (2003) provided the theory of cross-cultural communication theory begins with the assumptions of cultural variations. These differences act as barriers to communication. Knowing the differences exist and recognizing the potential effects on communication, the communicator will be more sensitive to the fact and accommodate such differences. This means that for communicators to understand each other, they should have something in common in their back grounds that will enable them to perceive the stimuli similarly. Communication is intricately woven into the culture. Culture fosters or promotes communication process. There is strong correlation between culture and language. Yael Zofi (2012) suggested five cross-cultural communication strategies 16

Strategy1: Listen Active listening is the most useful way to overcome communication barriers. Communicating across cultures adds another layer to the “noise” that is present, which makes it critical to add that extra step of checking back. Ask questions often to ensure that you accurately understand the message being conveyed and paraphrase back to the speaker to clarify understanding. Strategy 2: Effectively Communicate Virtual teams rely heavily on written email communication or phone calls, so they need to compensate for the lack of visual cues. Based on my research, trust did not always require face-to-face communication as long as there was regular contact. 3 The aim is to keep communication lines open and transparent so that when conflicts arise — and they will — a resolution is found quickly. Here is a four-step technique to keep communication lines open: 1. When you sense difficulty, respond with appropriate words that will not inflame a situation. 2. Deliver balanced feedback. 3. Build on an idea. 4. Give credit/positive reinforcement Strategy 3: Avoid Ambiguity The ability to avoid ambiguity is directly tied to active listening. Tolerating ambiguity doesn’t necessarily mean you deliberately avoid these situations. Rather, it means you approach new, different and potentially unpredictable situations without the uneasiness that can frustrate you and hinder your ability to communicate. Strategy 4: Respect Differences Just as you want to be respected for different characteristics that you bring to a group, others do as well. Following these guidelines should lead to positive results: - Make it your business to learn at least one fact about every team member’s culture. - Acknowledge cultural differences and remind teammates to respect them. - Be punctual when meeting someone new from an unfamiliar culture. - Do not overgeneralize or attribute characteristics of a given culture to individuals; refrain from stereotyping even when others around you do it. - Demonstrate flexibility and openness to discussing other options. If you and your colleague want different things, try to find a middle ground and compromise. - Learn to use the phrases “please” and “thank you” in the individual’s native tongue. 17

Strategy 5: No Judgment Respecting others means suspending judgment. Try this simple three-part evaluation approach: 1. Describe – Describe a situation that causes concern: e.g., a team member consistently joins a regular Monday morning conference call late. 2. Interpret – Before rushing to judgment — “Joe joins the calls late because he doesn’t care about his this project” — consider several possible reasons for Joe’s behavior: - Familial obligations - A start-of-week meeting with his boss always runs late - Lack of commitment to the job Now you can interpret his behavior: “Joe’s tardiness could result from something out of his control.” 3. Evaluate – By taking a more objective approach, such as “I’ll talk to Joe and find out why he’s always late on the call,” you will arrive at the truth and turn the situation around. There are two approaches to investigating communication strategies: the interactionalview and the psycholinguistic view. The interactional view of communication strategies is based on the interaction process between language learners and their interlocutors and the negotiation of meaning (Tarone, 1980). Communication strategies were defined as “tools used in negotiation of meaning where both interlocutors are attempting to agree as to a communicative goal and a shared enterprise in which both the speaker and the hearer are involved rather than being only the responsibility of the speaker” (Tarone, 1980, 140). The psycholinguistic view sees communication strategies as the speaker’s cognitive process with a focus on comprehension and production (Nakatani, 2005). Faerch and Kasper (1983) define communication strategies in terms of the individual’s mental response to a problem rather than a joint response by two people. Therefore, the psycholinguistic view of communication strategies has been associated mainly with strategies for overcoming limitations in lexical knowledge. From the perspective of the interactional view, Tarone (1977) identified several communication strategies: approximation, word coinage, circumlocution, literal translation, language switch, appeal for assistance, mime, and avoidance. From a psycholinguistic view, Faerch and Kasper (1983) adopted the criteria of process or plan, conscious or unconscious, problem-oriented or problem-free. They proposed two possible strategies for solving a 18

communication problem: avoidance and achievement strategies. While avoidance strategies include formal reduction strategies—using reduced systems to avoid producing non-fluent or incorrect utterances—and reduction strategies—avoiding a specific topic or giving up sending a message—achievement strategies consist of compensatory strategies and retrieval strategies. The former consist of code switching, transfer, inter-language based strategies, cooperative strategies, and nonlinguistic strategies in which learners find an alternative solution for reaching the original goal by means of whatever sources are available. The latter are used when learners have difficulties retrieving specific items. Also, Dörnyei (1995) classified communication strategies into two groups: reduction and achievement strategies. In addition, he offered stalling or time-gaining strategies that help a speaker gain time to keep the communication channel open if they face a problem. In this study, we adopted the interactional view since we plan to integrate speaking and listening skills that require the interaction process between interlocutors to negotiate for meaning. Oweis T.(2013) Potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents as a problem in reaching particular communicative goal. This definition is all encompassing in that it does not only refer to the learner or the non native speaker, but to a native speaker as well. CSs are located in the individual language user, who is the person to experience the problem and to decide on a strategic plan for its solution. (p.23) Nayar (1988:63) proposed five criteria to identify CSs : 1. Noticeable deviance from native speaker norm in the IL syntax or word choice or discourse pattern. 2. Apparent, obvious desire on the part of the speaker to communicate \"meaning\" to listeners as indicated by overt and cover discourse clues. 3. Evident and sometimes repetitive attempts to seek alternative ways, including repairs and appeals, to communicate and negotiate meaning. 4. Overt pausological , hesitational and other temporal features in the speaker's Communicative behavior. 5. Presence of paralinguistic and kinesthetic features both in lieu of and in support of linguistic inadequacy. Tarone. 1981 Bialystok. 1990 cited in Li (2008), taxonomy of Communication Strategies was developed. 19

1. L2-based Communication Strategies 1.1. Approximation : A use of a L2 word which shares the essential feature of the target word e.g. “old objects” for “antique” 1.2.Circumlocution : A use of an L2 phrase to describe the property, function, characteristics, duty, its purpose or an example of it, e.g. “Something you put your food in to make it cold” (refrigerator) 1.3.Appeal : An appeal for assistance either implicit or explicit, e.g. “What do you call this in English?” “It’s ah ah ah…” 2. L1-based Communication Strategies 2.1.Language switching : A use of a word or phrase from the first language 2.2.Foreign zing : A use of a word or phrase from L1 with L2 pronunciation 3. Avoidance of Communication Strategies 3.1.Topic avoidance : A refusal to enter into or continue a discourse because of a feeling of linguistic inadequacy 3.2. Message avoidance : The learner tries to talk about a particular topic but gives up because it is too difficult 4. Modification devices : Communication devices employed in order to keep the conversation going smoothly divided into meaning focus and function focus 4.1.Comprehension check : A use of expressions such as “Right? Okay? Do you understand?” to check a partner’s understanding 4.2.Clarification request : A request made for repetition or ex- planation, such as saying “What do you mean? Again, please, Pardon? You’re leaving this Saturday?” 4.3.Backchannel cues : A use of short utterances such as “uh-huh, yeah, right” to show participation or understanding 4.4.Self-repair : The learner corrects any mistakes he makes by himself e.g. “I met Peter yesterday. She no he went to Japan.” 4.5.Confirmation check : A repetition of the partner’s statement in order to check understanding 4.6.Pausing : A use of pauses or pause-fillers, such as “uh…er…” for taking time to think 4.7.Elicitation : The attempt to draw relevant information or correct linguistic from an audience, including implicit indications that an utterance is problematic 20

Repair and Recasting : The reformulation of all part of speakers’’ utterances, which remains the focus on meaning, which might interrupt the ongoing conversation, such as having a native speaker repair the non- native speakers’ errors in pronunciation. 4.8.Informing : Explicit provision of correct forms，target-like alternatives, or relevant information 4.9.Evaluating : The evaluation of the learners’ performances, content responses, including their language use. Five types were submitted: praising, accepting, denying, ignoring and querying 4.10. Extending : Relate to speakers’’ own experiences to keep on the development of further communication. 5. Paralinguistic Communication Strategies 5.1.Gesture: A use of facial expression or head shaking if the learner does not understand 5.2.Mime: The learner uses gestures as well as verbal output to convey meaning (e.g. clapping hands to indicate ‘applause’) From variety of cross-cultural communication strategies theories those were applied to investigate in tourism situation as Tarone (1981) and Bailystok (1990) cited in Chunlan (2008:17-19) five communication strategies as well as Zofi (2012) suggested five cross-cultural communication strategies active listening, positive reinforcement, avoid ambiguity, respect difference and no judgment respecting or suspending judgment and Nayar (1988:63 cited in Owies (2013) revealed five criteria to identified communication strategies noticeable, Apparent, evident, overt and presence of paralinguistic. 2.6. Speech act Locution is “the content of propositional sentences or of nominalized propositional sentences (Habermas 122). To put it more clearly then locution is the act of uttering a grammatical form of words which is associated with some propositional content. Locutionary utterances are adherent to truth conditions and locution needs sense and reference in order to be understandable. Reference depends on the knowledge of the speaker at the time of utterance (Austin 1962:143). Locution is simply saying something (1962:108); we convey information, we talk inanely, we question, etc. Jerrold Sadock calls locutionary acts “acts that are performed in order to communicate” (1974:8) while 21

Habermas claims that locution is the act of expressing states of affairs (1998:122). But regardless of what view one has on the matter locution is the starting point for any utterance of any kind since ‘to say something’ is to perform a locutionary act. Illocutionary utterances are utterances in which a speaker performs an act in virtue of having said something (Habermas 122). Illocution is what is accomplished by communicating the intent to accomplish something; “I pronounce the defendant guilty” (Sadock 9) when uttered by a judge is the act of sentencing. “I pronounce...” can neither be said to be true or false if uttered under the right conditions; as the utterance is not describing anything, rather it is proclaiming a state of event that will occur if the utterance is made sincerely and meant in the appropriate circumstances. Therefore illocution is not descriptive and is not subject to truth conditions; it is the “performance of an act in saying something” (Austin 1962:99). By using the test word ‘hereby’ one can, under normal conditions, find the point, or force, of a given utterance by noting ‘I hereby x that p’ where x makes explicit whether the utterance is a request, command, promise, etc. (Habermas 122). It is worth noting that regardless of a hearer's response to an act such as an order, for instance, the fact is that if the act it uttered with the proper intentions then “I have ordered you [...] even if my words do not have the desired effect on you” (Davis 15) Perlocutionary utterances are utterances that are supposed to have an effect on the hearer. Jokes, warnings, persuading, sarcasm etc. are examples of perlocution as they are generally meant to elicit a response from the hearer. Austin classified such things as achieving to inform, convince, warn, persuade, mislead, etc. as perlocutionary acts (Austin 1962: 108). Perlocutionary effects are often the unsaid by-products of linguistic communication and their effects may be intentional or unintentional (Sadock 8-9) as it is the hearer who acts upon an effect produced by the speech act (Habermas 122). To understand why the direction of fit is important to Searle in his revision of speech act theory one must look at how he clarified and transformed Austin's categories of illocutionary points. Searle did this by making it explicit what the force of an act is regardless of what utterance or propositional act is issued without regard to the utterance being locutionary, illocutionary, or perlocutionary. Searle stated that “there are five and only five different types of illocutionary points” (1999:148). 1. Assertive force: These are acts that commit a hearer to a proposition; “it is to present the proposition as representing a state of affairs in the world” (1999:148) and thereby they have a ‘word to world’ fit. Assertive speech acts are definitions, descriptions, 22

assertions, statements, and so on; and because of their fit to the world they can be true or false. Despite truth conditions Assertive speech acts do not depend on the sincerity of the speaker as it is the belief of the hearer that is the marker of whether the act is taken as true or false regardless of actual truth. 2. Directive force: “The illocutionary point of directives is to try to get the hearer to behave in such a way as to make his behavior match the propositional content of the directive” (1999:148-9). This category houses such things as orders, demands, instructions, and so forth. Directives have a ‘world to word’ fit as directives are issued with the desire that the hearer should do what is proposed; should change the world according to the uttered propositional content. “Directives such as orders and requests cannot be true or false, but they can be obeyed, disobeyed, complied with, granted, denied, and so on” (1999:149). 3. Commissive force: A performative has a commissive force when a speaker's utterance commits the speaker to undertake a course of action proposed in the utterances propositional content. Promises, vows, pledges, verbal contracts, and the like are good examples of the kinds of utterances which have a commissive force. The direction of fit with commissives is a world to world fit since the act commits one to act as the utterance suggests. Any commissive utterance is essentially “an expression of an intention to do something” (1999:149). Like directives a commissive is not subject to truth conditions; since a commitment is neither true nor false, rather it is kept, broken, or carried out. 4. Expressive force: These are utterances whose point is to “express the sincerity condition of the speech act” (1999:149). Expressive speech acts are things like condoling, thanking, apologizing, congratulating, and do in; acts that can only be performed through expressing ones inner feelings. When uttering an expressive “the propositional content typically has the null direction of fit, because the truth of the propositional content is simply taken for granted […] [as we] assume or presuppose a match between propositional content and reality” (1999:149). Therefore an apology hinges on the speaker being sorry, condoling hinges on the speaker empathizing with the hearer, and so on; as a result expressive are subject to abuse if uttered insincerely, though conditions of sincerity vary depending on the expressive expressed. 5. Declarations: The illocutionary point, or force, of a declaration is “to bring about a change in the world by representing it as having been changed” (1999:150). This 23

means that in virtue of having successfully declared something, then one has created a state of affairs by simply declaring that one has created said state of affairs. Declarations have the unique position of having a dual direction of fit between the world and the words used because “we change the world and thus achieve a world-to- word direction of fit by representing it as having been changed, and thus achieve a word-to-world direction of fit” (1999:150). In essence, a declaration uttered under all proper conditions creates a state of affairs in the world that did not exist before and thus it is the declarative aspect of illocutionary utterances that allow for such things as a marriage to be a formal declaration of wedlock. Khalid Wahaab Jabber and Zhang Jinquan ( 2013) According to Searle, there are two kinds of speech acts: direct and indirect. In order indirect speech acts to be understood, and how it is potential for the hearer to arrive to the exact meaning of the utterance, by other means the intended meaning that the speaker wants to convey. Searle viewed that we combine our knowledge of three elements to support a spectrum of inference, these elements are: the felicity conditions of direct speech acts, the context of the utterance, and principle of conversational cooperation, such as Grice’s maxims .The following example clarifies how these elements are used in the spectrum of reasoning: Can you pass the salt? According to the situation, the context will tell the hearer that the speaker already knows that he can pass the salt, as a result he recognizes that the question violates the felicity conditions for a question, The results of the cooperative principle leads the hearer to search for some other points of the utterance, this is basically the search for indirect speech act, this means the hearer will ask himself what is the aim of this utterance? The hearer knows that a condition of requests is that the hearer can carry out the desired act A and to say yes is to confirm that a preparatory condition for doing A has been met. As a part of general knowledge, the hearer knows that passing salt around a table is a usual part of meals. According to background of knowledge the hearer infers that what the speaker says is request not a question 2.6. Related research Suttinee Chuanchaisit1 Kanchana Prapphal2 (2009 p 116-117) In this study, the high-ability students preferred risk-taking strategies, such as social-affective, fluency- oriented, helpseeking, and circumlocution strategies, whereas the low-ability students tended to employ more risk-avoidance strategies like time-gaining strategies. The reason 24

for this finding may be that high-ability students employ most of the risk-taking strategies because of their proficiency in English. Additionally, with their higher degree of cognitive flexibility, they were likely to apply social-affective strategies to manage their feelings during communication. In contrast, the lower English proficiency of low-ability students may lead them to utilize risk-avoidance strategies, e.g., timegaining strategies. This supports Yoshida- Morise’s (1998) finding that less competent language learners rely more on their world knowledge than on linguistic knowledge. The types of CSs employed by the high ability students made them more successful in oral communication. Their use of risk taking strategies was more effective in conveying their meaning or concepts since all necessary and appropriate information was provided in a clear and direct way. Gotti.M (2007) intercultural differences are bound to influence the comprehension of events in people belonging to different cultures, the non-native, when communicating in English, is confronted with a psycho-cognitive situation where his/her native linguistic and cultural schemata conflict with the English schemata dominant in international professional communities, and is thus forced to negotiate and redefine his/her cultural identity in order to successfully communicate in international and intercultural settings. Furthermore, anthropological and sociological accounts of cultural interaction in international communities and organizations (Hofstede 1991) suggest the possibility of hybrid communicative schemata in which a new set of cultural values and identities – functional to communication in the wider community – is created in response to the need to communicate Ataollah Maleki (2010) Second language learners encounter communication problems when they attempt to use the target language. One way to overcome the problems is using effective strategies. Thus, L2 learners can benefit from teaching communication strategies to use them effectively. However, teaching and teachability of CS is a controversial issue. In this paper, it is discussed that teaching CS is useful and feasible and that techniques can be introduced to teach them. It is claimed that the Bottom-Up Approach is the framework within which such techniques can be put to use and create an atmosphere of easy communication and learning. 25

Prykarpatska.I.(2008) analyzed strategies used by North American vs. Ukrainian respondents has shown that Ukrainian friends apply the whole rank of complaint strategies from the least offensive to the most severe. Native speakers of American English use the most indirect and conventionally indirect strategies. The lexico-syntactic analysis of the complaint strategies found in both repertoires proved that Ukrainians prefer elliptic “to make sure” general questions, elliptic exclamatives and different types of special questions about the particulars of the event, whereas Americans tend to use the full versions of the general “to make sure”-questions, complex clauses with personal/impersonal subjective embedding and what-questions about the event in general. As far as use of internal and external modification markers is concerned, Ukrainians are the ones who tend to aggravate their complaints with different kinds of intensifying particles and slang words, and make their complaints in a single move without any supportive reasons. Raymond.E.M. (2008) suggested volunteer tourism that was an increasingly popular activity in which individuals combine travel with voluntary work. It represents a more reciprocal form of tourism and facilitates the development of cross-cultural understanding among participants. However, more recently, it has been argued that if volunteer tourism programs (VTPs) are not carefully managed, they may lead to cross- cultural misunderstanding and the reinforcement of cultural stereotypes. Through conducting an Appreciative Inquiry into a number of volunteer programs, this research sought to explore these ideas further and in particular, identify the role that volunteer tourism sending organizations can play in order to ensure that cross-cultural understanding develops through volunteer tourism. The result from this research suggest that the development of cross-cultural understanding should be perceived as a goal of volunteer tourism rather than a natural result of sending volunteers overseas. Ochieng E.G. & Price A.D.F. (2009) explored the ability of project managers in Kenya and the UK in communicating effectively on multicultural projects. The study examines the cultural factors that influence communication and explores how communication can be made effective in multicultural project environments. Using data from 20 interviews in Kenya (10) and UK (10), the results show that communications within multicultural project environments can be effective when project managers demonstrate an awareness of cultural variation. Participants further highlighted that, one of the critical components of building multicultural project teams is the creation and 26

development of effective cross cultural collectivism, trust, communication and empathy in leadership. The study underscores an urgent need for future research to investigate effective guidelines or strategies for effective collectivism and communication in multicultural project teams. Jie. F. (2010) says that strategies people resort to in their cross-cultural communication can also be categorized into active strategy and passive strategy. Active strategy is the remedy actively adopted to solve communicative difficulties, including cooperative strategy, stalling strategy and parelanguage strategy. Using various sources verbal or nonverbal to get speakers’ meaning across can enhance communication effectiveness, whereas appeal for help is a basic social interaction strategy. This strategy involves asking someone, especially a native speaker in an interactive encounter, for clarification, verification or correction. To satisfy mutual needs, communicators must be cooperative and friendly. All the active strategies enable interaction to continue, not to break down because of communicators limitation in linguistic and social knowledge Khakhirova. A. (2010) explore the experiences of communication of Russian expatriates in Taiwan the main of the study focused on the significance of cross cultural communication in the medical workplace, the study examined the cross cultural communication between Taiwan and Russian expatriates. The study found that the relationship between the Russian and Taiwan ant the host nationals provide their positive and rewarding the experience living overseas. Hsieh, Y.J. (2011) study showed that westerners tend to communicate with Taiwanese people in an outspoken and brusque way and to make few changes during the communication process. On the contrary, easterners are inclined to communicate with a gentler approach and make adjustments for the local culture. We also find that Confucianism and the theory of manners of different orders have strong influences on cross cultural communication strategies and performance. This chapter provides evidence to support the arguments that the theory of manners of different orders may play an even more significant role than the individualism–collectivism paradigm in explaining the causes of better communicational performance in Taiwan and possibly mainland China. Guang.T & Trotter.D (2012) revealed key elements of cross-cultural issues in international business communication and provides a framework for creating competitive 27

advantage for firms engaged in international business. Culture affects many aspects of international business communication. It impacts free trade policies, localization and standardization strategy decisions, advertising, brand effectiveness, business relationships, international business management, international marketing, international negotiation, and consumer behavior. Seven themes are suggested as guidelines for further research: Cultural impacts of markets, international versus domestic business communication, standardization versus adaptation in cross-cultural communication; cross-cultural dimensions of business communication research, cross-cultural aspects of the business communication mix (advertising, promotion, sales, public relations, trade shows, and commercials), cross- cultural aspects of business communication in the service sector, cross-cultural communication implications of the aftermarket and cross-cultural business communication education and professional training. The paper concludes with a suggestion that business anthropology should be adapted as a tool for the understanding of the effect of cultural differences on international business. Okoro, E.(2013) indicate that effective cross-cultural management, communication, and negotiations should be emphasized by high-growth multinational corporations competing for global expansion. Corporations that have embraced appropriate acculturation strategies, employed effective cultural awareness model, and avoided ethnocentric management style in their expansion and growth efforts have been successful. Other studies identified the major causes of the demise of global business ventures, citing their managers’ lack of intercultural skills, failure to engage in cross-cultural exchange, inability to communicate effectively in the global marketplace, unacceptable practice of business ethics and etiquette, and absence of compromise agreement. Global managers should establish cross-cultural training in their facilities in order to increase effectiveness across cultures, become efficient cross-cultural negotiators, and sensitize to the values of counterparts. This study provides an analytical framework and recommendations for adaptation of multinational management strategies for sustainable business competitiveness in the current wake of global Yaman, Ş, Irgın. P & Kavasoğlu. M(2013) Identified Communication strategies of oral communication is an interactive process in which an individual alternately takes the roles of speaker and listener. Thus, rather than focusing on each skill separately, these skills should be considered integratedly. In order for students to overcome the burdens in 28

listening and speaking skills, they need to develop communicative competence, especially strategic competence. With reference to speaking, strategic competence points out the ability to know how to keep a conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdowns and comprehension problems (Shumin, 1994). Therefore, the aim of this quantitative study is to investigate both speaking and listening strategies (so called “communication strategies”) used by EFL students to cope with problems during communication so they can be integrated into language teaching in order to develop students’ strategic competence. Two hundred ninety-one Turkish EFL university students participated in this study. Researchers used the “Communication Strategy Inventory”, a 5 point Likert-type scale developed by Yaman, Irgin and Kavasoglu (2011). The findings of this study revealed that EFL students used negotiation for meaning, compensatory, and getting the gist strategies in communication. It also found that female students used communication strategies more than males and advanced level students. VIRGINIA DAVID (2011) the analyzing how nonnative speakers of English useed communication strategies when searching for words. Language learners employ many communication strategies when searching for words, including language switch, appeals for assistance, gestures and circumlocution. In particular, the phenomena of language switch and circumlocution, as they occur in naturally occurring talk in combination with other communication strategies, are analyzed in depth in this thesis. The participants of this study were 9 graduate international students from a local university who speak Romance languages as their native language and 2 native speakers of English. Approximately 10 hours of naturally occurring talk were audio and video-recorded during informal get- togethers with the participants, in groups of two or three. The phenomenon of circumlocution was observed to occur together with other communication strategies, such as language switch and word coinage. Furthermore, it was used in collaboration among the participants in order to elicit the word being searched for. Similarly, language switch was also used together with other communication strategies, such as gestures. The issue of language expertise between the more and less proficient speakers of English and how the former collaborates with the latter when they share the same or similar native languages will also be discussed. This thesis concludes with a discussion of the implications for research and language learning and teaching. 29

Oweis (2013 p 261) most of these studies focused on the types and identification of CSs used by learners of a second or a foreign language. It also shed light on the link between these strategies and learner's proficiency levels. The results of such studies may provide additional insight into the nature of leaner's ability and the construct of language proficiency itself. CSs were defined by many researchers in the reviewed studies, they generally consider them as devices used to solve problems in communication or to fill gaps in the speakers' second language proficiency .However; there is still no universally accepted definition of CSs. Perhaps because of the problems of the definition, there is no generally agreed upon typology of CSs. The review of the literature showed that there were many kinds of CS taxonomies, most of which were rather similar such as the taxonomies that have been proposed by Tarone ,1980; Faerch and Kasper ,1984; and Bialystok, 1990). Ketkaew, o. (2011)The purposes of this study were: 1) to investigate cross-cultural communication challenges experienced by American missionaries working in Thailand 2) to explore their cross-cultural communication challenges during their visits to the United States and 3) to identify the approaches they used to dealing with the problems. Twenty American missionaries participated in this survey study. They were recruited by purposive sampling. The data were collected through the use of questionnaires and interviews. Hall's (1976) cultural models and cross-cultural communication dimensions were used to analyze the data qualitatively and descriptively. The findings showed that the informants experienced sociolinguistic challenges which involved verbal and non-verbal language. Major sociocultural challenges were found to occur in the realms of communication patterns, time orientation, power distance, culture shock and reverse culture shock. The missionaries dealt with the challenges by praying, consulting with family and their Thai friends and discussing with their other American friends. Li Chunlan (2008: 73-74) revealed that there are five main CCC strategies applied by exchange program teachers which are identified (Recasting & Repairing, Elicitation, Informing, Evaluation, and Extending) , except for Elicitation strategies; also another four kinds of CCC strategies are (Self-repair, Non-verbal Behaviour ,Language switching, and Self- selection of turn taking) which also appeared in the EFL classroom applied by students. Accordingly, in Chinese EFL classrooms, the three categories of strategies applied by teachers were Eicitation, Recasting, and Informing and by students were Eicitation, Self-selection of turn taking and Language- switching; then, the three types of 30

strategies in Thai EFL classroom applied by teachers were Evaluation, Extending, and Repair or recasting and by students were elicitation, non-verbal behaviours and self repair. The major finding is that the teachers’ decision-making on whether to provide feedback might be affected by the focus of teacher-learner exchanges, and that teachers’ provision of and learners’ responses to CCC strategies varied according to different interactional contexts. These findings have led to the conclusion that both the extent to which a certain type of CCC strategies is effective and the extent to which turn taking performs its scaffolding function in interlingua development are considerably context-dependent. In the current study, a teacher’s turn provided more talking opportunities for students than previous studies would have led us to expect. A teacher’s turn also demonstrated that applying CCC strategies could be utilized in various ways and did perform significant affection in facilitating EFL teacher-student effective com- munication. Therefore, the student’s responses of applying CCC strategies should follow teachers’ choices. 31

Chapter III Research Methodology The study used qualitative and quantitative research method to collect and analyze data, this chapter is included research design, population and samples, definition of the population as well as procedures for developing the research instruments to be validity and reliability and then there are detail of description of sample group and collection procedure and data analysis. 3.1.Research design The study was employed qualitative method to investigate the data, interview question is served to interview the tour guides and the tourists and the observation form was used as nonparticipant observer in order to collect the primary data in the real tourism situation. Quantitative research was employed to count the frequency of communication strategies and speech act which performed by both tour guides and foreign tourists during conversation making. 3.2.Population and Sample 3.2.1. Lao tour guides Table 1 Sample group of tour guides Frequency Percentage Lao tour guides 5 55.56 3 33.33 No Work Experiences (year) 1 11.11 1 1-5 9 100 2 6-10 3 >10 Total The population of the study is Lao tour guides in Luangnamtha province.The tour guides are from only private tour companies within the province, there is no official tour guides available. The number of tourism agency five districts, Luangnammtha, Sing, 32

Phouka, Long and Nalae district is 139 totatly and 90 tourism sites and 35 tour guides. There are three tour company, one tour agency and 9 eco-tours service units in Luangnamtha district, however Luangnamtha district is considered as the research study area because it is residential place of researcher it is convenient to collect the data, 9 eco- tours service units was selected as the unit of collecting the data. the sample group of tour guides are from those eco-tours service units a tour guide from each one, researcher participated four trekking and five minority villages. Lao tour guides can be described in three different work experience of being tour guide from one year – five years five people, six years to ten years three people and upper than ten years one person. The frequency and percentage of work experience of tour guide can be described base on the table 1. There are five tour guides experienced from one year – five years rated in 55.56 % which considered the most number of sample group, the second group is three people have work experience between 6-10 years rated in 33.33 % and the other group is one person with work experience more 10 years rated in 11.11%. 3.2.2. Foreign tourists Table 2 Sample group of foreign tourists Foreign tourists No Nationalities of foreign tourists Frequency Percentage 37.50 1 Israeli 12 31.25 9.37 2 French 10 6.25 6.25 3 Russian 3 6.25 3.12 4 Japanese 2 100 5 English 2 6 American 2 7 Chinese 1 Total 32 The number of population and sample group of foreign tourists is based on real situation who has booked the service. Nine times of participating observation with 32 foreign tourists from seven countries. There were 12 Israeli have the most frequency rated 33

in 37.50 %, 10 French 31.25% , three Russian9.37% , two Japanese, two English and two American have the same frequency 6.25% , one Chinese 3.12%. Table 3 Total of sample group English native speaker and nonnative speaker Tour guides and foreign tourists No Languages Male Female Total Percentage 1 English native speakers 2 2 4 9.75 2 None English native 17 20 37 90.24 speakers Total 19 22 41 The number of total sample group include both tour guides and foreign tourists is 41 people 13 female, there are four English native speakers rated in 9.75% and 28 nonnative speakers 90.24%. this people used English to interact each other while taking a tour. 3.3.Data collection Instruments Observation The observation form used to explore the data as nonparticipating observer to take note the way the tour guides communicate with foreign tourists in any tourism site in the real situation, what are the communication strategies, gesture and mime and paralinguistic.as well as audio and video recording to capture the context of communication of tour guides and foreign tourists throughout the travelling. The interview questions Interview question were asked the tour guides and foreign tourists incidentally, before interviewing the interview question was learnt by heart in order to ask the foreign tourists naturally while asking questions audio recording were recorded then described , The interview form was included two parts as bellows: 1. Biography data served to collect personal information about nationalities, English proficiency. 34

2. The about communication and speech act of both tour guides and foreign tourists - The opinion of sample group toward partners. - The participating observation consist of two part as follows: - Cross-cultural communication shown from both tour guide and tourist during conversation making. - Speech act used by participation Video-Recording and Transcription The interaction between tour guides and foreign tourists were recorded in order to answer the current research, while observation depend on the situation to record video because foreign tourists and tour guides always moved so tour guides were asked to carried the audio recorder all the time while he had conversation with foreign tourists, however the researcher recorded video- to capture everything that was going on. All these arrangements helped to capture all the verbal and nonverbal communication while they were talking about something. After observation and video-recording, the digital images were used to describe the data. 3.4.Procedure of collecting the data The researcher had written request letter to ask for permission to collect the data to department of information, culture and tourism of luangnamtha province, then send the inform letter to the director of each eco-tour service unit and as well as the tour guide within Luangnamtha district and asked for permission whether they are allowed or not, after that followed the schedule of eco-your service unit booked by the foreign tourists. After that the researcher kept contact with travel agencies to participate observation based on the activities that had been booked by foreign tourists 3.5.Data analysis After the data were collected it would be analyzed in three steps gathering communication patterns of cross-cultural communication base on the theme categorized five communication strategies L1 based communication strategies, L2 based communication strategies, avoidance of communication strategies, paralinguistic communication strategies and modification devices and well as four speech act act taxonomy of Autin(1980) locutioany act, illocutionary act, performative act and indirect speech act. Then count the frequency of communication strategies and speech act of both 35

tour guides and foreign tourists and calculate in percentage as well as interview data also described according to real information that they have faced while trekking and visiting the villages and their opinion of foreign tourists and tour guides toward each other. after that recycling, describe of interpreting according to thematic analysis and analyzing communication patterns using in each theme based on cross-cultural communication strategies and speech act taxonomy mentioned, finally, summarizing and reporting research. 36

Chapter IV Result The transcription of recording from observation at tourism situations, the noting from observation form and the interview between tour guides and foreign tourists will be categorized in theme and analyzed based on the previous theories to find the answer of the current research. The finding will be compiled, identified and labeled on the transcripts; each theme found in the research is performed based on the context and discourse. 4.1.The Cross-cultural communication strategies patterns in tourism situations between tour guides and foreign tourists The previous chapter has been categorized the pattern of cross-cultural communication strategies and clustered in order to describe the speech act of foreign tourists and tour guides happened during visiting minority villages and trekking routs based on five taxonomy of communication strategies of Taron(1983). communication strategies and five speech act taxonomy of Austin(1962). The result of the study found five main cross-cultural communication strategies were identified in 15 sub strategies in total, Tour guides employed more communication strategies than foreign tourists while interacting, 14 sub strategies used by tour guides, however foreign tourists performed only eight subcategories of communication strategies. In this communication case, tour guides were the leader of conversation initiation whereas foreign tourists were as audiences partners, the tour guides nominated the tourists all the times in order to explain about culture, believable and tour guides were familiar with the environment that is the home of tour them along with the experiences of being guides used English to communicate, those factor impact on communication strategies of tour guides. It seemed like the tour guides told the stories and foreign tourists as listeners. The communications between two groups applied communication strategies are demonstrated and interpreted, in face-to-face conversation people and adapted what they were saying to the listener’s reaction, and in some situations, one participant may show a more directive role than the others as taking the role to explain at any places while they were on tour. The role of interaction ‘leader’ falls to the tour guides, Therefore the people who usually initiate the interaction were tour guides, whereas the foreign tourists responded mover by questioning, confirmation check. Sometimes the tour guides are able 37

use avoidance communication strategies to quit what he didn’t know or didn’t want to say, but foreign extending the conversation when they are interested in the topic. The following sections describe how each pattern applied cross-cultural communication strategies in the tourism situations. Tour guides applied cross-cultural communication strategies and foreign tourists also respond by applying communication strategies had been identified. Based on data collected from transcriptions of five villages visiting and four trekking routs, five main types of CCC strategies were applied by tour guides and foreign tourists. Table 4 Cross-cultural communication strategies performed by tour guides in tourism situation Tour guides (N=9) Foreign tourists (N=32) No Communication Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage strategies (%) (%) 1 Pausing 40 35.71 10 12.50 2 Language switching 12 10.71 5 6.25 3 Miming 10 8.92 4 Circumlocution 7 6.25 5 Topic avoidance 6 5.35 6 Comprehension check 6 5.35 7 Message avoidance 5 4.46 3 3.75 8 Eliciting 5 4.46 9 Backchannel cues 5 4.46 6 7.50 10 Foreignizing 4 3.57 11 Extending 4 3.57 4 5.00 12 Confirmation check 3 2.67 35 43.75 13 Self-repair 3 2.67 2 2.50 14 Approximation 2 1.78 15 Clarification request 15 18.75 Total 112 80 Table 1 showed the frequency and percentage of communication strategies performed by both tour guides and foreign torists. According to five communication 38

strategies taxonomy of Tarone (1981) were found in tourism situations 15 sub-strategies of communication; topic avoidance, message avoidance, pausing, eliciting, miming, circumlocution, backchannel cues, confirmation check, foreignizing, self-repair, language switching, comprehension check , approximation, extending and clarification request strategies. 14 sub-strategies were used by tour guides and 8 sub-strategies used by foreign tourists, however the tour guides who initiated the conversation were likely to performed more communication strategies than foreign tourists as shown in the table. The tour guides used pausing strategies 35.71 % the most strategies used by tour guides, but foreign tourists used only 12.50 %, the other more popular strategies language switching 10.71 % performed by tour guides and 6.25% by foreign tourists, the other sub strategies used such as miming 8.92 %, circumlocution 6.25 % , topic avoidance 5.35 % and comprehension check 5.35 %, whereas those sub-strategies were not used by foreign tourists. Message avoidance 4.46 % were also used by tour guides and 3.75 % employed by foreign tourists, tour guide used eliciting strategies 4.46 % , but foreign tourists didn’t used it, tour guides used backchannel cues strategies 4.46 % , but foreign tourists used more 7.50 %, foreign tourists didn’t used foreignizing strategies by tour guides used 3.57 %, both groups used extending strategies 3.57 5 by tour guides and 5.00 % by foreign tourists, confirmation check were the most popular communication strategies of foreign tourists 43.75 % whereas tour guides used only 2.67 % which nearly the least strategies used, self-repair 2.67 % used by tour guides and 2.50 % by foreign tourists, approximation strategies 1.78 % by tour guides and clarification request 18.75 % used by foreign tourists. However the most significant strategies is pausing with 35.71%, the pausing strategies seems to have trouble in English proficiency of tour guides, the use of pausing strategies such as uh, hmn, er, ah and so on need more time to think. Whereas the fewest strategies used by tour guide felt on approximation it was only 1.78% and the others strategies which were used few times were confirmation check and self-repair. On the other hand the strategies of communication applied by the tourists according the main categories from the previous study five main communication strategies were use while foreign tourists interacting with Lao tour guides with eight sub categories fewer than tour guides in compare, the foreign tourists communication strategies fall as listeners, the listener interacted by confirmation check to make sure the utterance he/she has heard were correct or not. As the table showed the significant of communication 39

strategies used by foreign tourists is confirmation check with highest frequency 43.75%, as mentioned foreign tourists’ role as the audience, the audience needed to listen to the speaker therefore confirmation check was used times in order to check whether the utterances they heard were correct or not. Table 5 speech act performed by tour guides in tourism situation No Speech act (How to Tour guides (N=9) Foreign tourists (N=32) do thing with words) Frequency Percentage(%) Frequency Percentage(%) 1 Locution act 61 47.28 61 68.53 2 Illocution act 44 34.10 16 17.97 3 Per formative 18 13.95 8 8.98 4 Indirect speech act 6 4.65 4 4.49 129 100 89 100 Total Table 2 revealed the speech act in tourism situations used by tour guides and foreign tourists, the first table showed the communication strategies of both tour guides and foreign tourists, all together each strategies of communication buried the speech act, based on the Austin (year) theory of speech act were transformed to examine the speech act of tour guides and tourists as the figure showed the table four out of five speech act taxonomy were used, locutionary act, illocutionary act, performative act and indirect speech act. The highest frequency felt on locutionary act with frequency 61 estimated 47.28% , ‘locutionary utterances are adherent to truth conditions and locution needs sense and reference and it is simply saying something we convey information, we talk inanely and we question’ (Austin 1962 cited in James Whelpton.M 2011 p 9), followed by illocutionary act with frequency 44 times and 34.10%, whereas indirect speech act found only 4,65% which considered the fewest speech act performed, moreover the perlocutionary act was not found in tourism speech act . When we compared speech act in tourism situation used by foreign tourists and tour guides, in this episode the role of interaction of tour guides initiated conversation and then response by the tourists, the responses here means interact by asking question about the interesting topics, therefore the finding on table 2 displayed the locutionary act in the same frequency as shown in the 40

table with frequency 61 and 68.53 % , the other is illocutionary act with frequency 16 and 17.97%, according to (Austin 1962 cited James Whelpton. M 2011) which was transformed by Searle stated that there are five illocutionary act such as assertive force, directive force, commission force, expressive force and declarative force. In addition there are two speech act performed fewer per formative act and indirect speech act. 4.2.The Detail of cross-cultural communication strategies used by Lao tour guides in tourism situation Excerpt 1 Illustration of Miming and Message avoidance Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 36. T: so are they Buddhist or not ? 37. G: No 38. T : No they are not 39. G: spirit 40. T: spirit ok ok 41. G: only the Lao and Tailue they have the temple and monks↓ (Miming) using 42. two fingers to indicates two tribes 43. T: Ok so here there are two tribes? G: yeah (.), they have only animals the chicken (.) the pig (.) the cow 44. maybe buffalos they don’t have(.) cat and goat T: ok See Transcription 1 p 87 Excerpt 1 shows Miming and message avoidance strategies as in turn 41 tour guide talked about two tribes he used miming strategy he said “only the Lao and Tailue they have the temple and monks↓ (Miming) using two fingers to indicates two tribes” two tribes with two fingers, and then foreign tourists are interested in his conversation as his partners interacting him by using confirmation check in turn 42 , however, the tour guide kept on his talking forward but he didn’t extend the answer , he changed his message and talked about animals we found that he didn’t know about Lao and Tailue or not, or he didn’t want 41

to talk about irrelevant information in the village, however he applied communication strategies by using message avoidance “ yeah (.), they have only animals the chicken (.) the pig (.) the cow maybe buffalos they don’t have(.) cat and goat”. Excerpt 2 Illustration of Pausing Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 110 G: Primary school? uh (…) five years(.) but two years for kindergarten, five years in the village 111 T: Do they have to go to school after primary school? 112 G: they have to go, but may be uh (……..) may be 113 T: Maybe don’t See Transcription 1 p 91 The excerpt 2 shows the strategy of pausing, the tour guide needed more time to think about the answer as in turn 110 and 112 he used “uh (…….) five” years and “may be uh(……) may be” and then paused for a while then “may be” again we see that he still didn’t get the answer, but his partner help him may don’t. for this point pausing mean the techniques of thinking about something or didn’t know about what to say. The tour guide hesitated about the information or he lacked of English vocabulary to support the ideas. Excerpt 3 Illustration of Pausing and language switching Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 18. T: really? Every family makes the paper? 19. G: er ……..er not sure , but I think every family makes it (look around think) 20. T: ok , so how do they make paper? 21. G: traditional name is Sa paper, first soaked bamboo shoots for a few months then mashed them and dry them on piece cloth dry in sunshine, it is very good for writing, and stay last. See Transcription 5 p 112 42

The excerpt 3 at turn 23 showed pausing strategies to think about information, then hesitated because the word hesitate mean not sure, tour guides said “er ……..er not sure , but I think every family makes it” after that another question was asked the tour guides, at 25 the tour guide used language switching to explain about paper he said that “traditional name is Sa paper, first soaked bamboo shoots for a few months then mashed them and dry them on piece cloth in sun, it is very good for writing, and stay last”. “Sa” is Lao language a use of first language vocabulary with second language is language switching. Excerpt 4 Illustration of Elicitation (transcript 1) Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 33 G: ok now we stop here(.) everyone we arrive the village (look around at every one two hand move) it’s Lentan village(.) but they believe the spirit, you know the spirit? What do you believe in? Elicitation ( look at the foreign who he is having conversation with) 34 T: sorry 35 G: spirit, like they don’t have the temple, they don’t have the monks, they believe the spirit of the house 36 T: So are they Buddhist or not ? See Transcription 1 p 87 Excerpt 4 displayed the elicitation strategies. In this episode, the tour guides elicit the foreign tourists at turn 33 whether they know about the spirit or not at this point he wanted to stimulate the foreign tourists to listen him as well as the eliciting were paraphrase later, because of connection of conversation he was talking about the village and then jump to the spirit the interaction keep on because his partner used clarification request to ask to repeat what he had said, however he knew that his partner didn’t understand him so he explained again by saying spirit, “ they don’t have the temple they don’t have the monks, they believe the spirit of the house” Excerpt 5 Illustration of Miming and confirmation check (transcript 2) 43

Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 51 G: The roof for the houses(.) the bamboo house (.)that I explained For you in the Lenten village They take like this for the young ones maybe somebody saw in the market (point at young bamboo) (…)this is ser (.) very long about thirty or fifty meters ( look up to the top of bamboo) (.) and then they can collect for make the basket or some handicraft, make chair from the rattan the bed also the bed from the rattan from this ne the bed (point at the rattan ) The bamboo also this ones the bamboo like have a big the bamboo can use every things also 52 T: yeah 53 G: for the houses for the bamboo shoots in June or July when the raining start, they have bamboo shoots like this ( point at dried bamboo shoot) they grow up very quickly for expel this one for about four or five months(touch the young bamboo shoot, raised hand up) 54 T: oh grow very fast (Miming) 55 G: yeah, first they gow like this then this take of, this one be careful very very itch, some body they don’t know they sit See Transcription 2 p 95 As shown in Excerpt 5 the tour guide used verbal with gesture to explain about bamboo, it seemed like he enriched the information about the forest because as we can see that he had very long sentences with a slight and short pause, used hand moving to point at the bamboo accompanied with his verbal words as well as eye contact to his partner to the things he was demonstrating for example while he was explaining the growth of bamboo shoot he said they grew up very quickly for expel this one for about four or five months accompany raising his hand up to indicate that the bamboo shoot grow very fast. In this case the tour guide led the conversation like telling a story and dominated the partners by keep on talking, however his partners also showed interaction by using confirmation check a repeating the utterance of tour guide example at turn 55 “oh grow very fast”. 44

Excerpt 6 Illustration of circumlocution and backchannel cues (transcript 1) Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 62 T: hey I’m coming 63 G: here’s bamboo house, some families they have money they have the good house, some family they don’t have money bamboo house like this 64 T: Ok 65 G: when the rain come in side they get wet in Side Circumlocution 66 T: uh yeah See Transcription 1 p 89 From the excerpt 6 the tour guide applied circumlocution strategy to explain about the house circumlocution means that the characteristic and property, this episode the house was old and its roof was made of the rattan leaves, the rattan could be get rod when the rain come the roof would leak and inside the house would get wet, however the guide didn’t use words leak . he used his circumlocution strategy by saying “ when the rain come in side they get wet in side” but his partner understand him by using backchannel cues uh yeah. Excerpt 7 Illustration of foreignizing and clirificatio request (transcript 1) Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 31 G: but the fruit dropped from another tree like Val Val tree Foreignizing 32 T: from the what? 33 G: Val Val tree not tree like this 34 T: So but it’s that you can eat? See Transcription 2 p 94 In the excerpt 7 the tour guide mixed his first language Lao word with English accent it is called Foreingzing strategy at turn 31 the use of first language with second language “Val tree Val” is a kind of tree in Laos that grow in the forest, tree is an English 45

word, this foreignizing made the partner confused as shown at turn 32 the tourist didn’t understand. She asked “from the what?” clarification request. Excerpt 8 Illustration of Self-repair (transcript 2) Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 75 G: what’s her name? 76 T: Ann Anna ? 77 G: Ann anna anna Ann, coming please, come on 78 T: mouth bristle (wis wis wis) See Transcription p 96 As shown in the excerpt 8 both foreign tourists and tour guides repeated the name of their friend to correct pronunciation “ Ann Anna ?” and “G:Ann anna anna Ann, coming please, come on” and check his mistake as found in turn 77 first the guide said coming please and then come on come on, self- repair means interlocutor correct his mistake and make the correct ones. Excerpt 9 Illustration of Language switching (transcript 2) Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 79 G; wok wok wok wok may be the monkey man steal her hr hr hr hr (laugh)language switch ok excuse me ( place banana leave in the middle to make lunch table) 80 T: uh (long sound) 33 Ts: uh 34 T: vow! 35 G: every body the beautiful ones 36 Ts: Israeli 37 G: Ok, perfect Leo ) language switch See Transcription 2 p 96 From the excerpt 9 the tour guide applied his first language to call the foreigner wok wok wok wok and the other his first language was Leo as well as lot of Israeli was spoken at the same time. When used language witching it may confuse the interlocutor 46

because they didn’t know the meaning, Leo was used with perfect, Leo means something was done completely, however Israeli was used in many utterances. Excerpt 10 Illustration of Extending Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 6 T: we’ve been to four thousand islands 7 G: Four thousand islands and then 8 T: Thakhek 9 G: Takhek and then 10 T: Vangvieng 11 G: Vangvieng and then Luangprabang 12 T: Luangprabang 13 G: and then luangnamtha? 14 T : yeab See Transcription 1 p 86 At turn 41 from the excerpt 10 showed that the tour guide extended the conversation by predicting the answer before his partner express “G;we’ve been to four thousand islands) and tour guide (G: Four thousand islands and then), (T:Vangvieng) (G:Vangvieng and then Luangprabang?)”, then keep the conversation going on and extend conversation. Excerpt 11 Illustration of comprehension check Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 43 G A little bit hot 44 T yeah 45 G some body knows this or , this is a er uh rattan (…) pausing 46 T hmn Israeli 47 G rattan tree and then the leaves, the leaves they make the roof you know the roof? Understand? ( look at the partners) Comprehension check 47

See Transcription 2 p 94 As found in excerpt 11 he was demonstrating the leaves of the rattan that “they took them for making the roof of the house” during the explaining the he used the question you know the roof? Understand? to check the understanding of the partners. The use of comprehension check are using the words, phrase or question sentence to check the partner they understand what you are talking or not for example right? Ok? do you understand? All right? 4.3.The Detail of cross-cultural communication strategies used by foreign tourists in tourism situation Excerpt 12 Illustration of Clarification request and Self-repair( transcript 1) Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 129 T: how many village in the park 130 G three 131 T: sorry, 132 G three 133 T: no but I meant the total village in the park 134 G many. 135 T many? Confirmation check 136 G; Approximately forty village 137 T: is it any tribal special? Or different tribe See Transcription 2 p 98 This excerpt 12 revealed the clarification request and self-repair at turn 130 foreign tourists didn’t understand the pronunciation or didn’t hear she used “sorry” and the other utterance at turn 170, repeating an utterance of partner “many?” is confirmation check Excerpt 13 Illustration of Self-repair and message avoidance Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 8. T: Do you know how big is the family? 9. G: some family have a few people , but big family have many many 48

about more ten people More than ten ? 10. T; yeah big 11. G: very big, or expanding family 12. T : Do they have temple what do they do for believe ? 13. T1: See Transcription p 118 The excerpt 13 both foreign tourist and tour guides had the equivalent in interaction many strategies were found in the excerpt clarification request the foreign tourist wanted him to repeat the word again he said sorry, the use of clarification request when interlocutor is not sure what he/she just heard, request the partner to repeat for example; sorry?, pardon? What did you say? in order to get the interlocutor repeat or paraphrase the utterance again. the other phrase turn was self- repair tribal special? She wasn’t sure her partner understand or not so changed different phrase (different tribes) self-repair when the first utterance said were not understood or sometimes when the speakers made a mistake on his/ her utterance repair them to make the correct one. Excerpt 14 Illustration of Evaluation (transcript 2) Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 117 T: why do you like this (fisted the sticky rice tiedly) point at guide 118 G: hamburger sticky rice 119 T: No reason not good Every body do this evaluation 130 G you don’t do this 131 Ts: no See Transcription 2 p 98 From the excerpt at turn 116 foreign tourists wanted to know why the tour guide fisted the sticky rice firmly by his hand, tour guide immediately answered “ hamburger sticky rice” it was not satisfying answer to foreign tourists, so foreign tourists replied 49

“No reason not good Everybody do this”. Evaluation communication strategies used for praising, judging thing are good or bad when communicating with someone. Excerpt 15 Illustration of confirmation check Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 29. G: when the rain come in side they get wet in side 30. T: uh yeab 31. G: just the roof this one they take from rattan leaves, just two years then they take off and make the new one, but now I don’t know why they they don’t take off the roof, but yearly rainy just in June and july a lot of rain may be they get wet in side 32. T: so every two years they remove the roof 33. T1: every where See Transcription 5 p 113 The excerpt 15 at turn 32 foreign tourist used confirmation check , the tour guide give explanation about the roof they have to rebuild the roof every two year a time so the foreign tourist confirmation check by saying so every two years they remove the roof. Excerpt 16 Illustration of confirmation check (transcript 8) Turn Speaker Transcribed interacting exchange 75. G: they do many things they don’t have main jobs half farmer and gardener uh (…) some people have rice field some people don’t have. They plant corn (..) oil there for sale to China. Some people are government official 76. T: government official? interesting 77. G: they go work in the official then the evening in the garden many many jobs 78. T: Many job right? 79. G: yeah 50