NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA, SLOVENIA

pocket-like carbonate brown soils on limestone, which are fresh and biological-ly highly active. The stands are composed of beech and, individually, sycamore,wych elm, silver fir and spruce. The basiphilous sessile oak forests (2%) thrive on steep, thermophilousand dry slopes, especially above the Kolpa River. Thermophilous tree species,such as hophornbeam, Turkey oak, manna ash, downy oak and Scotch andAustrian pines, prevail. Other forest associations comprise less than 1% share. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA Map: Forest associations in Bela krajina. Prepared by: ZGS OE NM 101

Development of forest resources In the last four decades, forest area has increased by 30% on the accountof overgrown farmland. At the same time, the average forest growing stock, in-crement and, in turn, allowable cut have also increased. The forest growing stockis currently estimated at 265 m3/ha, which means a total of about 11 million m3of wood.YEAR 1980 1990 2000 2010 Index of forestSurface area 100 117 128 130 resources developmentGrowing stock 100 98 129 155 in Bela krajina forestsIncrement 100 104 127 156 from 1980 onwards,Allowable cut 100 96 132 195 expressed in %.Alpine barrenwort is a common plant in Bela krajina’s forest undergrowth.Photo: Gregor Hutar, Archives of the Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature Conservation102

ReferencesAndrič, M. (2008). Pelod razkriva preteklost Bele krajine. Proteus 70, (9/10), 413-420.Miklavžič, J. s sod. (1965). Premena belokranjskih steljnikov v gozdove. Zbornik 4, 1-87.Ljubljana: Inštitut za gozdno in lesno gospodarstvo Slovenije.Dinaric forest with rich bear garlic undergrowth.Photo: Denis Žitnik NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 103

Lady Orchid (Orchis purpurea)Photo: Jernej Kavšek104

SOME INTERESTINGNATURAL SITESOF ORCHIDSIN BELA KRAJINAJernej KavšekUl. bratov Klemenc 3, 8340 Črnomelj Bela krajina (the territory embracing the Councils of Črnomelj, Metlikaand Semič) encompasses geologically, geomorphologically and pedologicallyextremely diverse areas. This results in equally diverse flora, which is reflectedparticularly in the number of orchid species. In general it can be said that Belakrajina is one of the orchid-richest areas in Slovenia, given that no less than be-tween forty and fifty orchid species flourish in this part of the world. Some of the areas are interesting owing to the great diversity of orchid spe-cies (Gače, Vinica with its environs, Belčji Vrh, Stari trg), others due to the rarityof species (Drašički steljniki/Drašiči litter stands, Nerajski lugi/Nerajec marshes),and some owing to the exceptional population density of certain species (Preloka).Vinica’s environs Around the village of Vinica, dry grasslands prevail, with even somewhatsub-Mediterranean character at some smaller sites. Such are also the plant spe-cies found in these grasslands. From early spring to autumn, up to twenty orchid species can be foundblossoming in the wider area of Vinica. The first pearl among them is theAdriatic Lizard Orchid (Himantoglossum adriaticum), found in this area for thefirst time at the end of the 1970s. In the ensuing decades, its site was almostforgotten, with its data referred to only in historical sense; after the species’ dis-covery in Haloze in the extreme NE part of Slovenia, the Bela krajina site sankinto complete oblivion. In 2011, the species was rediscovered in the vicinity ofSečje selo. As its abundance and distribution is generally unknown so to speak,it is impossible to estimate the threat status of this Natura 2000 species – un-fortunately, the site has not been included in the Natura 2000 network (as yet). At the almost the same site close to Sečje selo, the representative of themost interesting orchid genus  – Ophrys sp.  – can be found. The Bee Orchid NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 105

(Ophrys apifera) is a fairly late flowering species of this genus (end of June andearly July). The species is pollinated exclusively by males of certain wasp spe-cies; the latter are attracted by the orchid’s combination of pheromones and theshape of its lower petal lip. Males land on a blossom to mate, but when becomingaware of the deception, it’s too late, as pollinia are already stuck to their heads,which are carried on to the next flower. Most interesting in the vicinity of the village Hrast pri Vinici is thesite of the Violet Limodore. At several locations, its populations are extremelyabundant, with even more than twenty specimens per few square metres. Someexperts have classified the species as a partially parasitic plant, given that itdraws carbohydrates with its mycorrhizal fungi from the neighbouring plants(mainly oak trees – Quercus sp. – in Vinica’s environs) and thus meets part ofits needs for energy. This is also why the species has no true green leaves, theonly part of the plant in which photosynthesis takes place being the reddishinflorescence stem.Belčji Vrh – Lahinjski lugi (Lahinja Marshes) The very special feature of the grasslands immediately above the Lahinjalugi (marshes along the source of the Lahinja River) is the Transylvanian HeathSpotted Orchid (Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. transsilvanica). The species isvery common in the entire Lahinja catchment, its abundance comparable withthe species’ populations around Lake Cerknica. It acquired its name after the Romanian province of Transylvania, wheredescribed for the first time in 1853 by the German botanist Schur. In our coun-try, it had been found as early as in 1849 in the Kočevsko region by the Slovenianbotanist Valentin Plemel who, however, merely herbarised it. As no name wasgiven to it by him, the name of the botanist Schur  – who discovered it four Adriatic Lizard Orchid (Himantoglossum adriaticum) Photo: Jernej Kavšek106

The flower of theBug Orchid(Orchis coriophora).Photo: Jernej Kavšek years later – prevailed. With a little luck, the species could now bear the name »Slovenian Heath Spotted Orchid«. Regular mowing with no fertilization has retained the dry meadows around Belčji Vrh in excellent condition. In early spring, the following species thrive here: the Green-winged Orchid (Orchis morio), Early Spider Orchid (Ophrys sphegodes) and Three-toothed Orchid (Orchis tridentata). Special men- tion should be made to the Pyramidal Orchid (Anacamptis pyramidalis) and Bug Orchid (Orchis coriophora), which happen to be very common in this area; according to some botanists, the latter has in this area even one of the largestFigure: Some interesting orchid sites in Bela krajina. Transylvanian Heath Spotted Orchid(Source: www.geopedia.si) (Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. transsilvanica). Photo: Jernej Kavšek NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 107

Marsh Orchid (Epipactis palustris) Photo: Jernej Kavšekpopulations in Slovenia. In late autumn, the botanical value of dry meadows isfurther enriched by the Autumn Lady’s-tresses (Spiranthes spiralis). In the wet meadows spreading immediately along Lahinjski lugi, theLong-bracted Green Orchid (Coeloglossum viride) occurs quite surprisingly aswell, the species that usually thrives at higher altitudes (at Gače and Ponikve);Belčji Vrh is located at the altitude of only about 160 metres. A few hybrids ofthe Long-bracted Green Orchid have also been found here that differ from itby their size (they are some 60 cm high, while the Long-bracted Green Orchidreaches 25 cm at the most). In the marsh immediately below Belčji Vrh, some typical marsh orchidsare also thriving. The edge of the marsh is home to the flesh-coloured EarlyMarsh Orchid (Dactylorhiza incarnata) and Marsh Helleborine (Epipactispalustris).Nerajski lugi (Nerajec Marshes) A little down the Lahinja course below the village of Veliki Nerajecspreads one of the botanically most diverse marshes  – Nerajski lugi NatureReserve. Apart from the marshes in the vicinity of Golek village, this is the onlyknown site of Bog Orchid (Orchis palustris) in Bela krajina. Any encroachmentupon the sensitive ecosystem (particularly draining) can therefore destroy thehabitat of this kind. Fortunately, the area of Nerajski lugi is protected as a naturereserve within Lahinja Nature Park, which means that at least in short term thespecies is not endangered at all. A little earlier, another marsh orchid begins to bloom, the Early MarshOrchid (Dactylorhiza incarnata), which is much smaller and with condensedfluorescence and fleshy leaves without dark spots.108

Stari trg In certain parts around the village of Stari trg, a fairly strong sub-Med- iterranean influence is felt, a phenomenon that is clearly reflected in the local biodiversity. At a distance of only few hundred metres, a special climate feature can be noticed, when some species on the southern slopes above the Kolpa River are already in full bloom in early spring, while in the interior of the Poljanska Valley the same species are just beginning to grow. It is interesting that at the same site immediately below Stari trg, the earli- est and the latest flowering species of Bela krajina are thriving. The Pale Flowered Orchid (Orchis pallens) blossoms already in early April, whereas the Autumn Lady’s-tresses (Spiranthes spiralis) can be seen flowering as late as in October. Along dry meadows and inside them, some other species proliferate as well, to mention just the most interesting among them: Orchis mascula subsp. speciosa, Ophrys sphegodes, Orchis morio, Orchis tridentata and Orchis ustulata, Anacamptis pyramidalis, Epipactis atrorubens and Epipactis muelleri.Early Spider Orchid(Ophrys sphegodes)Photo: Jernej Kavšek NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 109

Preloka In the dry meadows around Preloka it is virtually impossible to over-look the exceptional abundance of the Green-winged Orchid. On some sites,their density is so great that in April and May this orchid is the dominant plantspecies in these meadows. Similar phenomena can be noticed in all extensivelyfarmed unfertilised dry meadows all the way to the village of Dolenjci and alongthe Kolpa River. Similarly abundant in the same meadows are the numerouspopulations of the Three-toothed Orchid which, however, blossom a little later.Owing to the exceptional orchid populations, the area between Marindol andAdlešiči has been proposed a new Natura 2000 site.The Vinomer litter stands In the wider area of Drašiči litter stands, somewhat fewer orchid spe-cies can be found in comparison with e.g. the environs of Vinica and Gače.Nevertheless, the area deserves to be mentioned owing to the site of one of themost attractive orchids  – the scarlet-red Lady Orchid (Orchis purpurea). Thespecies was found in 2009 during the flora and fauna inventarisation withinthe framework of the Revitalization of Bela krajina litter stands project. Thesestands are also home to the Green-winged Orchid, Three-toothed Orchid,White Helleborine, etc.Gače The area of the Gače ski slope is owing to its regular extensive farming andfairly great altitudinal difference between its lower and upper parts very rich withdifferent orchid species. On the ski slope and in the nearby forests, the greatestnumber of different orchid species in the entire Bela krajina can be found. Duringthe vegetation period, more than twenty different species blossom in these places. In the upper part of the ski slope, the population density of Fuchs’ HeathSpotted Orchid (Dactylorhiza maculata subsp. fuchsii) is quite exceptional,considering that in some places more than ten specimens par square metre canbe found. Normally, the population density of this species is significantly low-er. The consequence of this density is the great variability of individuals in thepopulation, and plants that could belong to some other (sub)species of HeathSpotted Orchid are also found among them. The Gače ski slope is also home to the subspecies of the Fragrant Orchid(Gymnadenia conopsea), i.e. Gymnadenia conopsea subsp. densiflora, which is sig-nificantly taller than the Fragrant Orchid and has a few times more flowers inits inflorescence, even a hundred and more. It blossoms somewhat later than theFragrant Orchid.110

Population of the On the top of Gače (at an altitude of about a thousand metres), the spe-Green-winged Orchid cies Traunsteinera globosa has also been found in the past.(Orchis morio).Photo: Jernej Kavšek The future of orchids Most of the orchids’ habitats in Bela krajina are highly dependent on hu- man activities, especially agriculture. Should the intensity of agriculture increase, which is unlikely, the meadow species that are more sensitive to fertilization will disappear. Through abandonment of agriculture, on the other hand, similar re- sult will follow. With overgrown meadows, the meadow orchid species will grad- ually dissipate and get replaced by forest species, which are fewer in numbers. Regular mowing without fertilization is thus the basic condition for the survival of biodiversity in our meadows. References Delforge, P. (2006). Orchids of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. London: A. & C. Black. 640 str. Geopedia. Available at: www.geopedia.si. Ivanovič, M. (2009). Revitalizacija belokranjskih steljnikov. Projekt Lieder – LAS Dolenjska in Bela krajina. Available at: www.natreg.eu/uploads/best-practice/rbs_mira_ivanovi.pdf. Orhideje Bele krajine. Available at: www.orhideje-bk.eu.pn/index.html Ravnik, V. (2002). Orhideje Slovenije. Ljubljana: Tehniška založba Slovenije. 192 str. Nigritella – Društvo za proučevanje in ohranjanje samoniklih orhidej Slovenije. Available at: www.nigritella.si/. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 111

Cave Woodlouse is generally distributed in Northern Dinaric caves.Photo: Slavko Polak.112

TERRESTRIAL FAUNAOF THE BELA KRAJINACAVESSlavko Polak, Notranjska Museum, PostojnaTone Novak, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics,University of Maribor Bela krajina is situated on the margin of the Dinaric Mts. Its raised fringeis a well hollowed-out limy terrain with characteristic karst relief and more thanfour hundred known caves, pitches and karst springs. Only a very few of thesecaves have been biologically researched. As soon as the hilly terrain overcomesinto the Bela krajina plain, the number of karst phenomena is reduced, withmost of them occurring in the isolated karst outcrops above the Kolpa Riverand on the initial slopes of the Gorjanci Mts near Metlika. With regard to thesubterranean fauna biodiversity, the Dinarides are the richest in the world, eventhough the Dinaric fringes, including those of Bela krajina, are species-poorer.The flat land delimits two subterranean faunas, the first of which is characteristicof Kočevski Rog with Poljanska gora, the second of the Gorjanci Mts. The majority of our caves are several million years old and continuallyfilled with utter darkness. Apart from the latter, some other special featuresare characteristic of underground habitats. Throughout the year, the temper-ature in these caves is virtually constant and corresponds to the mean annualtemperature of the place in which situated. The air is filled with moist, whilefood is predominantly scarce. During their evolution, animals adapted to theseconditions to a different extent. Some of them seem quite usual surface or-ganisms looking for shelter or food in the caves’ entrance parts, or can just optto merely spend the winter deeper in them or to retreat to caves from sum-mer drought and heat (trogloxenes). Other species can permanently inhabitthe underground, although they are not fully adapted to it as yet, but have,for example, partially vestigial eyes (troglophiles). True subterranean dwellers(troglobionts) have some very special common characteristics: they have noeyes and protective pigments, but have developed excellent sense of smell andtouch. They cannot survive out of the underground. To many researchers, theseunique creatures are of greatest interest. On top of it all, they are mostly distrib-uted in very small geographic areas owing to the karst systems’ isolation; we callthem endemits. The most famous endemit of Bela krajina is of course the Black NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 113

Proteus, while among terrestrial subterranean species none are known, for the Cavity Spider prefers wet sites close behindtime being, that would live here only. the entrance. Photo: Slavko Polak When lights of the first researchers thus appear deep in karst caves, anutterly new circumstance arises after several million years. Although under-ground inhabitants are not disturbed by dim light and may safely be observed,they become agitated when approached so close as to feel the heat. The sameas elsewhere in Slovenia, numerous trogloxenes and troglophiles are encoun-tered in the entrance parts of Bela krajina caves. Places immediately beyond theentrance are permanent homes of various species of House Spiders (Tegenaria)and Cavity Spider (Nesticus cellulanus), which are well known from our domes-tic damp and shady places. Other trogloxenes occur in caves only occasionally.Harvestmen such as Caver (Amilenus aurantiacus) as well as Green and BrownCave Crickets (Troglophilus neglectus and T. cavicola) spend the winter in caves inlarge crowded groups, causing severe congestion here and there. They share placewith certain moths, e.g. Tissue (Triphosa dubitata) and Herald Moth (Scolioteryxlibatrix), and numerous other cave-dwelling animals. Quite often, animals arealso found in these caves that have strayed into them or have fallen into pitch-es. Occasionally, a Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) spending the day sleeping on a rockshelf behind the cave entrance is flushed by silent trekkers. And, of course, let usnot forget the bats; as soon as the atmosphere gets colder, they hang themselvesupside down by their feet not far behind the entrance until the next night snack.Some bat species overwinter in caves, while others bring forth their young inmaternity roosts. Our karst would not have been so magical without the nightcommotion created by little families of Edible Dormouse (Glis glis), which is,114

Isopod crustacean according to Valvasor, our scientist and polymath,Androniscus stygius lovesto have its feet wet. »driven to forage by the devil himself«. DormicePhoto: Slavko Polak safely spend the winter deep in caves, their doors toBathyscioteskhevenhuelleri is the the underground being the small holes in the forestlargest superficialsubterranean troglobitic floor, called “polšne”, Dormouse holes.beetle in Bela krajina.Photo: Slavko Polak Somewhat deeper in the caves twilight sec- tions, a fairly large European Cave Spider (Meta me- nardi), our most characteristic troglophile spider, can be observed on its relatively small web with a hole in the middle. In wetter places, particularly on a wet rot- ting piece of wood, the isopod crustacean Androniscus stygius may be encountered, which otherwise inhabits the superficial subterranean habitats. These are habitats of interconnected little spaces in the midst of rubble, as well as crevices inaccessible to humans and tiny galleries in a bedrock immediately under the soil layer. From here, several subterranean beetles stray into caves as well, especially those from the groups of Trechinae and Leptodirinae. The first, e.g., cave carabids Typhlotrechus bilimeki and hairy, eyeless beetles Anophthalmus, are predators, whereas the species from the group of Leptodirinae feed on detritus only. Anophthalmus beetles are pre- dominantly distributed in the Alps, but reach deep into the Dinarides, too. In Bela krajina, they are very rare. It is interesting, however, that formation of new species is currently noted and monitored. Specifically, a true Kaufmann’s Anophthalmus (Anophthalmus kaufmannii kaufmannii), described from the Kočevje area, has been found in the Veliki zjot cave above Dobliče, while caves in the Gorjanci Mts are home to another subspecies, A. kaufmannii uskokensis. Cave beetles are more or NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 115

less arched, some of them even »puffed up« little bee- Cave Herald Snailtles; between the elytrae–the first, hard pair of wings– (Zospeum isselianum)and the abdomen hidden under them, there is still lives on rock walls withmuch airy space. This phenomenon is called false abdo- seeping water.men swelling (pseudophysogastria). Although nothing Photo: Slavko Polakis in fact known about its origin and role, it certainlycontributes to the survival of these tiny beetles, if inun- Cave Cricketdated in crevices by water. The best known cave beetle Troglophilus neglectusis the Eyeless Slender-neck Beetle (Leptodirus hochen- Photo: Tone Novakwartii), the very first underground invertebrate in theworld. When described in 1832 by Ferdinand Schmidt,a curator in the Natural History Museum in Ljubljanaat that time, he most certainly had no idea, in spite ofthe very special figure of this insect from Postojna Cave,that so much interest would be excited by it all over theworld. Since then, the knowledge of subterranean organisms has been accumulat-ing at an incredibly fast rate, and the Slovenian Karst soon became famous as thecradle of a new scientific discipline – biospeleology. The Eyeless Slender-neck Beetle is a fairly rare troglobiont; in Bela kraji-na, it can be found only in a few caves. Well adapted to the 2 to 10 metres deepsuperficial subterranean habitat are Bathysciotes khevenhuelleri and no morethan a good millimetre long Bathyscimorphus byssinus acuminatus. The tiny, only from a good millimetre to two and half millimetres largepigmentless Cave Herald snails (Zospeum) can be found deeper in the under-ground only with a careful examination of wet stalactites, flowstones and rockwalls. They have also been found in the crevices of rocky road cuts, e.g., nearAdlešiči. Bela krajina is inhabited by four species of this genus. Terrestrial arthropods include several crustaceans. All of them are aquatic,except terrestrial isopods, which live on land. Well, it is not quite so. The troglo-biontic Cave Woodlice (Titanethes albus), whichare quite common in the caves of Bela krajina, strollboth on land and in water, as »in memory« of theiraquatic ancestors. Mites include the Bat Tick (Eschatocephalusvespertilionis), which is the largest and easily recog-nizable cave mite. However, it can be found only incaves inhabited by bats. Bat Tick is a strange travel-ler. When living on bats, it is transported now to thesurface now into the underground, while femaleslay heaps of numerous eggs on cave walls as troglobi-onts. The hatched tick larvae seek new hosts. As far as troglobiotic spiders are concerned,the caves of Kočevsko and Suha krajina are inhab-ited by the species Stalita hadzii and Parastalita116

Brachydesmus incisus stygia, which probably live in the Bela krajina underworld as well. Undergroundfrom the Bečka jama habitats are also home to centipedes (Chilopoda) and millipeds (Diplopoda),cave. although they are mostly found in forest litter. Particularly characteristic amongPhoto: Slavko Polak them are Brachydesmus incisus with distinctive longitudinal indentation on the back and B. troglobius uskokensis from the Gorjanci Mts.Bat Tick sucks theblood of bats. While animals living in the deep subterranean environment – caves andPhoto: Slavko Polak pitches – are known at least to a certain extent to us, almost nothing is known about the superficial subterranean habitat inaccessible to man. In Bela krajina, new subterranean species are thus expected to be found. References Novak, T., Perc, M., Lipovšek, S., Janžekovič, F. (2012). Duality of terrestrial subterranean fauna. International Journal of Speleology 41 (2), 181−188. Polak, S. (2005). Importance of discovery of the first cave beetle Leptodirus hochenwartii Schmidt, 1832. Endins, 71−80. Available at: www.zin.ru/animalia/Coleoptera/pdf/polak_2005_ leptodirus.pdf. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 117

Cave mussel Mytilopsis kusceri and cave tube worms Marifugia.Photo: Helena Bilandžija, Archives of the Institute of the Republic of Sloveniafor Nature Conservation (IRSNC)118

THE AQUATICSUBTERRANEAN FAUNAOF BELA KRAJINABoris SketUniversity of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Biology Underground waters of Bela krajina are mainly of two types. Interstitialwaters fill tiny spaces between pebbles or grains of sand. Such an environmentis highly limited in this part of Slovenia and remains unresearched. Cave waters,on the other hand, are well developed and richly inhabited. These are waters ofspacious karst caverns or caves, as well as waters of large-scale systems of rockfissures, from which they trickle into caves. Underground animals, however, arealso found in karst springs, where they are competing with surface rivals. Animals have adapted to the underground with their thrifty structure andfew improvements. The thriftiness of their structure is demonstrated by reduc-tion of the unnecessary eyes and skin pigments. This is also linked to their verylow metabolism. The improvements, on the other hand, are the elongated limbsand multiplication of sensors for chemical and mechanical stimuli. Owing tothese characteristics, they cannot flourish on the surface, where they are quicklydisplaced by »normally« built relatives. The species restricted to undergroundhabitats are called troglobionts. The most splendid troglobiont of the Dinarides is of course the blindcave salamander (Proteus anguinus) which, however, has a black subspecies inBela krajina (P. a. parkelj). But as the latter is described elsewhere in this book,let us just say that the black cave salamander clearly shows the features of surfaceancestors of this cave animal, with normally developed eyes and different bodyproportions. Yet it is still a troglobiont, for it occurs on the surface only excep-tionally. The same as the white cave salamander. No less prominent cave-dwelling animal is the cave tube worm (Marifugiacavatica) with a millimetre wide calcareous tube and crown of gills. In fact, itbelongs to an utterly marine family of polychaetes or bristleworms. This speciesis distributed in Dinaric karst from the springs of Timavo River at Štivan/SanGiovanni in Italy to Trebinje in Herzegovina. In the quarry at Črnotiče aboveKoper/Capodistria, a few million years old fossilized tubes have been found.This animal develops in a similar manner as its marine relatives. It starts with the NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 119

Monolistra caeca Photo: Boris Sketmicroscopic larva, which initially crawls around, even goes for a swim here andthere, eventually attaches itself to a rock and during its growth starts secretingthe calcareous tube. The opalworm (Delaya bureschi) is an oligochaete worm,reminiscent of an earthworm. It is, however, an aquatic animal, which can befound, for example, in the cave Jelovička jama. Although its skin is not pigment-ed, it does appear in certain shades of opal (such as milky-iridescent). The cave mussel Mytilopsis kusceri (=Congeria kusceri) is the only troglo-biotic bivalve in the world. This centimetre or two long animal lives on a rock,attached to it with its byssus threads. Its shape reminds us of a sea mussel, al-though it is in no way related to it. Its sites are scattered through the entireDinaric karst from Bela krajina to southern Herzegovina. The cave mussel’s rel-atives live in non-European brackish waters, predominantly in the tropics. Theywere introduced to Europe; but in the ancient Miocene several related speciesinhabited the freshwater Dinaric lakes. The cave mussel was first recorded in Blind amphipod Niphargus Photo: Boris Sket120

Live Marifugia Dalmatia, while in Slovenia it has been found only in underground waters alongPhoto: Branko Jalžič,Archives of IRSNC the springs of Krupa River in Bela krajina. In springs and cave waters, shells of minute freshwater snails, some 2 mm in size, can regularly be found; much more seldom we encounter these snails alive. Let us underline that the Dinaric underground is inhabited by numerous snail species and that the share of this group within the extremely rich underground fauna is higher here than elsewhere in the world. The commonest among them are the narrowly egg-shaped belgrandiellas (species of the genus Belgrandiella). Iglicas (the genus Iglica) are slender tapered freshwater snails. Sadlerianas (Sadleriana schmidti) build wide conical shells, while hauffenias (Hauffenia) ex- hibit very wide tapered or fairly flattened shells. Hadziellas (Hadziella krkae), on the other hand, are completely flat shells, but are very rare in this area. Members of all these genera have been found conjointly in the Krupa springs, while indi- vidually or just few species combined have been recorded in the entire area of Bela krajina. Hauffenias are particularly common. If we take some sediments (of sand and clay) from a karst spring, wash out the clay and let the rest to dry, a fairly large collection of snail shells can be ferreted out with a little patience. The spring-dwelling amphipod Synurella ambulans is one of the few eu- troglophile species in Bela krajina. Eutroglophiles are species that indeed live on the surface, but have subterranean populations as well; these can be without pigment and eyes. Subterranean population of eutroglophiles are the most ap- propriate candidates for troglobionts. Synurella ambulans is usually less than 5 mm long vibrant amphipod which, however, does not shift laterally (like most amphipods) but upright. Quite a few troglobiotic species represent the genus NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 121

Monolistra bolei Photo: Boris SketNiphargus, but these are poorly studied. From the cave Stobe, a stocky andabout a centimetre long Niphargus steueri subtypicus has been described; it is amember of the species (N. steueri) that is distributed similarly as the blind cavesalamander or cave tube worm – from the Italian Carso/Kras to the south ofHercegovina. Members of the genus Monolistra are strongly vaulted isopod crustaceansthat crawl around very slowly and roll into a ball when disturbed. Some of themhave even spines on their backs. These are exclusively subterranean animals, dis-tributed from the Swiss-Italian border to Albania. In Bela krajina, four speciescan be found. Monolistra bolei is endemic to Bela krajina, whereas Monolistravelkovrhi is wider spread. The first species has long thorns on its back, whilethe latter is totally smooth. The type locality of both species is the cave Stobe.Monolistra conopyge has been found only in caves near Bojanci and Desinec,in both together with Monolistra caeca. The latter, which is distributed from Cave shrimp Troglocaris Photo: Mojmir Štangelj122

Shells of Belgrandiella, Dobrepolje to the Croatian-Bosnian border, has aSadleriana and IglicaPhoto: Boris Sket pair of appendages on its abdomen that look like bent little tails. The majority of other species are without these limbs. The tiny Proasellus parvulus, described from the cave Stobe, belongs to the same group of crustaceans. All these cave crustaceans are a good centimetre long, while the gentle Proasellus parvulus reaches only a couple of millimetres in length. The range of the cave shrimp Troglocaris anophthalmus stretches from Slovenia and the ex- treme eastern part of Italy to Hercegovina and Dalmacija. These very cute little animals are very common in our underground waters. The members of the race that inhabits Bela krajina still have some black pigment in the rudiments of their eyes, while all other races have only eye peduncles left, without any eye remains. Although the area of Jelševnik near Črnomelj, where the black cave sala- mander has been found, is of very special interest, its underground animals are brought to the surface only by springs, while the underground is inaccessible to man. Similarly prominent are the sources of the Krupa River with their cave mussels. Here, the largest number of cave snail species has also been found jointly. The most diverse underground aquatic fauna in Bela krajina can prob- ably be attributed to the cave Stobe. In a tiny stream, which in the dry season barely trickles along the cave, the blind cave salamander has been discovered. Quite regularly, cave shrimps, no less than two species of the genus Monolistra, Troglocaris anophthalmus, blind amphipod and a couple of freshwater snails can be found here. No less than four crustacean species have been described from this place, we claim Stobe to be their type locality. References Sket, B. (1972). Zaščita podzemeljske favne se ujema z življenskimi interesi prebivalstva = Protection of subterranean life consonant with human interests. In: Peterlin, S. (ed.), Zelena knjiga o ogroženosti okolja v Sloveniji = The Green Book on the threat to the environment in Slovenia (pp. 137-140, 164-165). Ljubljana: Prirodoslovno društvo Slovenije; Zavod za spomeniško varstvo SR Slovenije. Sket B. (1979). Življenje v kraškem podzemlju. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga (Pelikan). 33 pp. Sket, B. (1982). Biološke raziskave v dolenjskih podzemeljskih vodah = Biological research of underground waters in Dolenjska Area. Dolenjski kras, 1, 30-31. Sket, B. (1996). Podzemeljski habitati v Sloveniji ogroženost in varstvo = Hypogean habitats in Slovenia, their endangerment and conservation. In: Gregori, J. s sod. (ed.), Narava Slovenije, stanje in perspektive (pp. 19-28). Ljubljana: Društvo ekologov Slovenije. Sket, B. (2005). Določanje novih ramsarskih lokalitet: kaj so podzemeljska mokrišča in zakaj so vredna varstva = What are subterranean wetlands and why are they worth conserving. In: Novi izzivi za ohranjanje mokrišč v 21. Stoletju (pp. 19-25). Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor. Sket, B. (2008). Can we agree on an ecological classification of subterranean animals? Journal of Natural History 42 (21-22), 1549-1563. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 123

Common Harvestman (Phalangium opilio)Photo: Tomi Trilar124

HARVESTMENTone Novak, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics,University of MariborPeter Kozel, Karst Research Institute IZRK ZRC SAZU, Postojna In terms of species richness, harvestmen are the third largest group ofterrestrial arachnids, which embrace scorpions, spiders, mites, pseudoscorpionsas well as some other groups. Worldwide more than 6000 species have been de-scribed; in Europe nearly 450. In Bela krajina, a third of about 80 harvestmanspecies identified in Slovenia can be found. The commonest among them isCommon Harvestman (Phalangium opilio) from the group Eupnoi. Its tiny bodyseems like resting on long stilts, when swinging among thick grass stalks. An im-pression that they rather wamble than walk is misleading, for the truth is thatharvestmen are very skilled gymnasts. Specifically, their tiny legs are composed ofnumerous articles twisting like tendrils around grass stalks. On top of it all, theseseemingly clumsy animals effortlessly push their way through very narrow spacesin dense vegetation immediately above the ground. The representatives of a small-er group, Cyphophthalmi, differ from them a great deal, as their constitution is inno way characteristic of harvestmen: they resemble mites and have very short legs.Generally distributed species in Slovenia is Cyphophthalmus duricorius. Harvestmen live in a variety of environments: in forests, meadows, onrocky walls, in leaf-litter and caves. In our domestic environment they can bemost often seen on brick and wooden buildings, in gardens and orchards. Theyrarely stray into houses themselves. We can have a good look at them when rest-ing on walls. Their body is uniform, usually of oval outline: the first append-ages are pincer-shaped chelicerae, followed by pedipalps and four pairs of legs.Frequently, a harvestman misses a leg or two, for the fact is that almost all longlegged species can detach their legs (the phenomenon called autotomy). In thisway they quite often save their lives if grabbed by their leg, as the torn off legstill wriggles for some time and distracts the predator. This type of defence isalso known in lizards, e. g., Sand Lizard, which discards its tail. In nature, evenindividuals that have retained only three legs can survive without facing any sig-nificant consequence. Owing to its long legs, many people confuse the DadyLong-Legs Spider (Pholcus phalangioides) with harvestmen. The webs of this NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 125

spider are those that we have to sweep constantly in our flats. If Phase contrastwe disturb it slightly, like blowing into it, the spider shakes on microscope reveals theits web. And it is precisely the web that tells us that this long fine structure of thelegged creature is a spider and not a harvestman, as no cobweb is surface of a millimetreproduced by the latter. and a half long Cyphophtalmus sp. Harvestmen are predominantly predators, although their Photo: Tone Novakdiet is diverse. They grab and tear up their prey with cheliceraeand put piece by piece into their mouth. They hunt for small-er prey, such as insects, enchytraeids, small snails, but also eatfruit, occasionally even faeces and small carrion, soft and juicyremnants of food, etc. Hence, their menu is very much like thatof the ants, but as harvestmen are not even nearly as numerousas them, their role in nature is generally not particularly signif-icant. In certain habitats, some harvestmen are quite numerous.Common Havestman is an inhabitant of meadows, traditionalmeadow orchards and similar grass habitats. Nelima sempronii is occasionallyfound in great numbers along minor watercourses. Amilenus aurantiacus is char-acteristic of karst areas; these harvestmen overwinter in large groups within caves,where forming a true network with their intertwined legs. If one of them be-comes agitated suddenly, the wave of exciting spreads from individual to individ-ual, and soon the entire crowd undulatingly trembles with legs. Some species liveonly in a selected environment, which is the reason why they are considered in-dicators of specific habitat conditions. Common Snail Harvestman (Ischyropsalishellwigii hellwigii) is a cold-liking and not particularly fastidious species; as Bela Gyas titanus is one of our largest harvestmen. Photo: Tone Novak126

The bodies of spiderssuch as Dady Long-Legs Spider (Pholcusphalangioides) are»pinched« like in wasps,while harvestmen havetheir cephalothoraxand abdomen widelyconnected into aseemingly uniform body.Photo: Tone Novak krajina is too hot to its liking, it spends most of the year in deep crevices as well as in caves. Trogulus rostratus, too, is a cold-liking species; in Bela krajina it dwells in dolines and at higher altitudes, e. g., in Mt. Mirna gora. In Slovenia, till recently, it has been known only from this area, although it is presumably distributed in the wider area of the Alps. Indicators of good forest soil quality are the species of the genus Nemastoma; in Bela krajina, this is a subspecies of Nemastoma bi- dentatum. It is assumed that Bela krajina is also inhabited by some subterranean harvestman species, given that a few can be found in neighbouring Croatia. Reference Novak, T., Lipovšek Delakorda, S., Slana, L. (2006). A review of harvestmen (Arachnida: Opiliones) in Slovenia. Zootaxa 1325, 267−276. Available at: www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2006f/zt01325p276.pdf.Young CommonSnail Harvestman(Ischyropsalis hellwigiihellwigii) in the caveBečka jama.Photo: Slavko Polak NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 127

The genetic study carried out in 2005 indicated that the Kolpa Stone Crayfish is in fact aseparate and in the Kolpa Catchment endemic species, differing from the Stone Crayfishonly by some minor details, such as the explicit ridge in the middle of the rostrum.Photo: Martina Jaklič128

THE CRAYFISHOF BELA KRAJINAAl Vrezec, Slovenian Museum of Natural HistoryMartina Jaklič, National Institute of Biology The waters of Bela krajina flow into two catchments: the Kolpa catch-ment in the south and the Krka catchment in the north. In general, the area isfairly rich with mainly surface waters of the Kolpa catchment, which gatherswaters from the karstified hilly hinterland of Kočevsko and Gorjanci Mts. Inspite of it all, the crayfish are far from numerous in these waters; in fact, theyare limited only to a few watercourses. The latest research has shown that theKolpa River is in its Bela krajina course more or less without crayfish popula-tions. This, however, has not always been the case. The Slovenian Museum ofNatural History still holds a specimen of the Noble Crayfish (Astacus astacus)caught in 1893 in the Kolpa River near Vinica. This is probably one of thelast specimens of the Noble Crayfish from Kolpa prior to the outbreak of thecrayfish plague that has erradicated crayfish populations in Slovenian watersbetween 1880 and 1909. It is clear that Bela krajina, too, could not avoid thisepidemic, given that the first mass deaths of crayfish in the Kolpa near Metlikawere recorded as early as in 1880 and in the Lahinja in 1881. The devastationcaused by crayfish plague was fast and sweeping, and literally emptied therivers and streams. Today – after more than a century – the crayfish popula-tions recovered to a certain extent, although they still have not managed tocolonize all their former habitats, particularly in larger rivers. On the horizon,however, we can see a new crayfish plague epidemic, spread by nonindige-nous North American crayfish species. In Slovenian waters, they are currentlypresent only in the Mura and Drava Rivers. The Noble Crayfish has not dis-appeared from Bela krajina as yet. Some years ago, it was found in the LahinjaRiver and in the Podturnščica stream near Dragatuš, where it most probablyrepresents the last remains of once more widely distributed Bale krajina pop-ulation. The available data indicate that the Noble Crayfish also inhabited thelower course of the Kolpa in the distant past. The Noble Crayfish is one of ourlargest crayfish recognizable by the red coloured lower part of its claws, explic-itly pointed rostrum and by the two pairs of spines behind the eyes. It inhabits NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 129

mostly lowland streams and lakes, especially where able to dig burrows in themuddy banks. The Noble Crayfish has also been introduced to some streamsin montane areas. A century ago it was still hunted and even bred, and oftenpurposely introduced into ponds and rivers near castles and monasteries. In the extreme northwestern part of Bela krajina, at Semič, several creeksand brooks run into the Črmošnjica stream, which in turn drains into the KrkaRiver. This part of the Krka catchment is fairly numerously inhabited by theStone Crayfish (Austropotamobius torrentium). This is a species of Europeanconservation importance, as the European Habitat Directive lists it among pri-ority species. It is our smallest and slowest growing crayfish; its claws are light ontheir lower part, with trapezoid rostrum, and there is only a single pair of spinesbehind eyes. It prefers cold and oxygen-rich waters. It is normally found at high-er altitudes than the Noble Crayfish, while in places where the species coexist,the Noble Crayfish was probably introduced by people. The Stone Crayfish alsolives in the upper course of the Kolpa among stones and on ramps. In 2005, agenetic research was carried out, which showed that in the Kolpa catchmentthe Stone Crayfish is probably a species of its own, for example the Kolpa StoneCrayfish, which is genetically clearly separated from other Stone Crayfish inSlovenia. The species is probably endemic in the Kolpa catchment in Sloveniaand Croatia. The Kolpa Stone Crayfish mostly inhabits montane streams thatflow into the Kolpa River, while in the Kolpa itself it has been found only in itsupper course, but no further that down to the village of Radenci. Whether it islimited by higher water temperature or something else remains a mystery thatstill awaits for new discoveries in this part of Slovenia. The specimen of the Noble Crayfish (Astacus astacus), which was found in 1893 in the Kolpa River near Vinica and where this species can no longer be found today, is preserved in the collection of the Slovenian Museum of Natural History. Photo: Ciril Mlinar Cic130

The Stone Crayfish References(Austropotamobiustorrentium) is a priority Budihna, N. (1996). Potočni raki (Astacidae). V: Gregori, J. s sod. (ur.), Narava Slovenije, stanje inspecies of European perspektive (str. 228-233). Ljubljana: Društvo ekologov Slovenije.conservation concern, Govedič, M. (2006). Potočni raki Slovenije: razširjenost, ekologija, varstvo. Miklavž na Dravskemwhich inhabits only the polju: Center za kartografijo favne in flore. 26 str.extreme northwestern Govedič, M., Bedjanič M., Grobelnik V., Kapla A., Kus Veenvliet J., Šalamun A., Veenvliet P.,part of Bela krajina that Vrezec A. (2007). Dodatne raziskave kvalifikacijskih vrst Natura 2000 s predlogom spremljanjais reached by a branch stanja – raki. Miklavž na Dravskem polju: Center za kartografijo favne in flore. 127 f.of the Krka River Kušar, D., Vrezec A., Ocepek M., Jenčič V. (2013). Aphanomyces astaci in wild crayfishcatchment. populations in Slovenia: first report of persistent infection in a stone crayfish AustropotamobiusPhoto: Andrej Kapla torrentium population. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 103, 157-169. Šulgaj, A. (1937). Naš potočni rak. Ljubljana: Zveza ribarskih društev Dravske banovine. 87 str. Trontelj, P., Machino, Y., Sket, B. (2005). Phylogenetic and phylogeographic relationships in the crayfish genus Austropotamobius inferred from mitochondrial COI gene sequences. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution 34, 212-226. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 131

Dark Spreadwing female (Lestes macrostigma)Photo: Matjaž Bedjanič132

ABOUT THEDRAGONFLIESOF BELA KRAJINAAli ŠalamunCentre for the Cartography of Fauna and Flora Dragonflies constitute a very ancient order of insects, with their oldestfinds reaching back over 320 million years. As their larvae live in water, adultindividuals can most often be seen along different types of water as well. Thelarvae of all dragonfly species are distinguished by their »hunting mask«, themetamorphosed lower lip (labium) folded under the head, which they thrust for-ward with lightning speed to catch their prey. Dragonflies grow through severalmoults, with their development lasting from a few months to several years. Priorto the last moult, larva climbs from the water, often on some sort of riparianvegetation, and moults for the last time. On the bank its exuvia is left; the adultdragonfly dries itself and flies away from water. For a few days, dragonflies keepclose to shrubbery, hedgerows and forest edges where feeding intensely. Whensexually mature, they return to the waters, looking for partners. They mate ina very specific form known as mating wheel or copula: the male clasps the fe-male “by the scruff of the neck” with his pincers-like appendices at the end of theabdomen, while the female bends her abdomen to the beginning of the male’sabdomen. After mating, females lay eggs on or in water plants, some species laythem directly into water. Dragonflies living in Slovenia are divided into twogroups – the smaller Damselflies (Zygoptera) have a thin abdomen and two pairsof similar wings, and eyes well separated on each side of the head; the larger TrueDragonflies (Anisoptera) have their abdomen round or spindle-shaped, the backpair of wings is visibly larger than the front pair, the eyes are set closer together,touching each other on top of the head, or the gap between them is very small. Owing to the karst nature of Bela krajina, the dragonflies’ main habitatsare artificial standing waters, predominantly karst ponds as well as a few fishponds and other standing water bodies. They of course inhabited Bela krajina’sflowing waters as well: the Kolpa and Lahinja Rivers and their sparse tributaries. In Slovenia, 73 dragonfly species have been recorded so far, 50 of whichoccur, to our knowledge, in Bela krajina as well. The oldest data do not reachback even forty years, and even these were individual random observations of NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 133

Blue Emperor (Anax imperator) Photo: Ali Šalamungenerally distributed species. The first serious dragonfly survey was made as lateas in 1995, when the just founded Slovenian Odonatological Society organizeda youth research camp at Podzemelj. This was followed by two students’ camps,i.e. in 2001 at Semič and in 2008 at Stari trg ob Kolpi (2008). In this millennium,some other surveys have also been carried out, the last two in 2011. As already said, a total of 50 dragonfly species from all nine families livingin Slovenia have been observed in Bela krajina so far. Both representatives of thefamily Calopterygidae, the Beautiful Demoiselle (Calopteryx virgo) and BandedDemoiselle (C. splendens) are regular visitors of all flowing waters. Bela krajinais also the only part of Slovenia, where all eight species from the family Lestidaehave been recorded; they live along various standing waters, with some of themeven well adapted to occasional summer desiccations. Apart from the fairly rareand poorly known Eastern Willow Spreadwing (Chalcolestes parvidens), theonly till now known observation of the Dark Spreadwing (Lestes macrostigma)in Slovenia should be given special attention; both have been recorded only atGornji kal in the village of Hrast pri Vinici. The most often recorded speciesin Bela krajina, which can be seen at all types of waters, is the only Slovenianrepresentative of the family Platynemidae, the Blue Featherleg (Platycnemispennipes). The group of damselflies is concluded by the most abundant family134

Freshly metamorphosed Coenagrionidae, with ten of its species recorded in Bela krajina. Special mentionBlue Hawker should be made of the Small Red Damsel (Ceriagrion tenellum), a rare species in(Aeshna cyanea). Slovenia, with all its other localities in our country situated in Slovenian IstriaPhoto: Ali Šalamun and the Vipava Valley, while the Azure Bluet (Coenagrion puella) is common along all standing waters as well as at slow-flowing sections of streams. An overview of Anisoptera commences with the family Aeshnidae with its eight representatives in the fauna of Bela krajina. They all prefer standing wa- ters, the most abundant among them being the Blue Emperor (Anax imperator), which during its slow flight controls its pool, chasing away all larger intruders. Both Bela krajina representatives of the family Gomphidae, the Common Clubtail (Gomphus vulgatissimus) and Small Pincertail (Onychogomphus forcipatus), in- habit sunlit running waters and are fairly common along the Kolpa and Lahinja Rivers as well as on some minor watercourses. Both Slovenian Goldenrings (Cordulegastridae) are rare in Bela krajina; as they live in small forest streams in the hills, they can be observed only on Bela krajina’s northern margins. The Sombre Goldenring (Cordulegaster bidentata) has so far been found only on the Slovenian-Croatian border in the northern tributary of the Kolpa River, whereas the Balkan Goldenring (C. heros) has been observed, apart from streams east of Drašiči, northwest of Semič as well. Two of the four species from the family Cordulidae live along streams, two along standing wa- ters. The most intriguing so far has been the only record from Bela krajina of the Eurasian Baskettail (Epitheca bimaculata) at Gornji kal. The nearest known locali- ties of this species are located at Krško polje in the Posavje district in Slovenia and between Zagreb and Karlovac in the neighbouring Croatia. The most abun- dant in Bela krajina is the family Libellulidae with thirteen recorded species. The most numerous among them is the Broad-bodied Chaser (Libellula depres- sa), which can be seen on all typical standing waters. Fairly rare in comparison with the rest of Slovenia is the Keeled Skimmer (Orthetrum coerulescens), which is clearly unable to find suitable streams and canals. The striking Broad Scarlet (Crocothemis erythraea) is particularly fond of larger standing waters such as the quarry at Nerajec and the sink lake near Kanižarica; in karst ponds, however, it is fairly rare, the only ex- ception being Gornji kal. It is only the above three mentioned localities where the rare Southern Darter (Sympetrum meridionale) has also been noticed so far, while the Common Darter (S. striolatum) is one of the more common species, for adults, at least, can be seen along some slow-running waters as well. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 135

Copula of the Small Bluetail (Ischnura pumilio). Photo: Ali Šalamun Attentive readers have most certainly noticed that Gornji kal at Hrastpri Vinici was referred to a few times in the overview of species. This somewhatlarger village karst pond, at first sight too similar to a fish pond to attract trueodonatological curiosity, proved »highly successful« already during our firstserious visit in 1995 with till now the only record of Dark Spreadwing which,unfortunately, has not been confirmed during any subsequent visit made by us. Atotal of no less than thirty species have been recorded there, the most prominentamong them being the rare species with very few finding-places in Bela kraji-na. Ten species are endangered and included in the Red List, and three of themare also protected with the Decree on protected wild animal species: the DarkSpreadwing, Small Red Damsel and Southern Darter. Conservationally significant is also the sink lake area above Kanižaricamine, where a total of 31 species have been recorded – again ten endangered andthree protected once: the Robust and Small Spreadwing (Lestes dryas, L. virens)and Southern Darter. Considering the number of surveyed species and the endangered speciesfound, at least the environs of Nerajec with the lake in the abandoned quarryand the species-rich karst pond in its vicinity, as well as the entire Nerajski lugiwith Zjot pool and Prilozje Ponds should also be mentioned.136

Small Red Damsel Of the 50 species registered in Bela krajina, 20 are endangered and in-(Ceriagrion tenellum) cluded in the Red List; 3 species (Robust and Small Spreadwing, Small RedPhoto: Duša Vadnjal Damsel) are endangered (E), 2 species (Dark Spreadwing and Southern Darter) are rare (R), 14 are vulnerable (V), while one (Eastern Willow Spreadwing) is indeterminate (I). Seven species are also protected with the Decree on protect- ed wild animal species. Apart from the already listed endangered (E) and rare (R) species, two are vulnerable (V) – Ornate Bluet (Coenagrion ornatum) and Balkan Goldenring, which are protected by the EU Habitat Directive as well. All 50 species were surveyed in the 1995-2011 period, and even in this fairly short time a clear decline of species diversity was noted in some places ow- ing to the human impact (Kanižarica) and natural succession on the one hand, while on the other hand some new species were discovered during each new sur- vey. Although discoveries of new species are still possible, news on observations of endangered species would be even more pleasing. References Bedjanič, M. (1996). Lestes macrostigma (Eversmann, 1836), a new species for the dragonfly fauna of Slovenia and rediscovered in Croatia (Zygoptera: Lestidae). Exuviae 2 (1), 10–12. Govedič, M., Cipot, M., Lipovšek, G., Skaberne, B., Slapnik, R., Sopotnik, M., Šalamun, A., Trčak, B., Vamberger M., Valentinčič, J. (2011). Inventarizacija flore in favne vodnih virov na območju občin Črnomelj, Metlika in Semič: končno poročilo. Naročnik: Zavod Republike Slovenije za varstvo narave. Miklavž na Dravskem polju: Center za kartografijo favne in flore. 84 str. Kotarac, M., M. Bedjanič, A. Pirnat, Šalamun, A. (1996). Prispevek k poznavanju favne kačjih pastirjev (Odonata) v Beli krajini ( JV Slovenija). Exuviae 2 (1), 1–9. Pirnat, A. (2011). Poročilo inventarizacije kačjih pastirjev na reki Kolpi. Poročilo IV. faze v okviru pogodbe št. 10 1305 11 za projekt »Skupen pristop k ureditvi plovnega režima na reki Kolpi oz. Curs Colapis«. Naročnik: Oikos, sodelovanje za razvoj, d. o. o. Kamnik: Zverce, Raziskovanje hroščev in kačjih pastirjev, Aljoša Pirnat, s. p. 18 str. Vinko, D. (2008). Raziskovalni tabor študentov biologije - Stari trg ob Kolpi 2008. Erjavecia 23, 15–17. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 137

After nearly 100 years, the species Besdolus imhoffi was rediscovered.Photo: Ignac Sivec138

STONEFLIES OFBELA KRAJINAIgnac Sivec, Slovenian Museum of Natural HistoryAleksandar Popijač, OIKON Ltd., Institute of Applied Ecology, Zagreb, Croatia Bela krajina is predominantly a karst region and, as such, is not par-ticularly rich with surface flowing rivers. Essentially, we can speak only aboutthe catchment of the Kolpa River and a few of its larger or smaller tributaries.The Kolpa is no doubt one of our best preserved and purest rivers, and this isreflected in its rich aquatic insect fauna. This can be attributed to the modestpopulation of this area and the absence of major industry that could pollute theriver. Last, but not least, the Kolpa and Čabranka are the border rivers betweenSlovenia and Croatia, where the lack of major roads and intensive farming againcontributes to a lesser impact on the environment. As far as their numbers are concerned, stoneflies constitute a fairly smallgroup of aquatic insects. In Slovenia, about a hundred have been found so far,which is a relatively high number on the European scale. Although they inhabitprimarily clean and fast-flowing, cool watercourses, they can be found in habi-tats that are not typical of them as well, such as karst, where water insects haveadapted to life in such an environment in a very special way. The greater part oftheir life they spend as larvae in flowing waters. Their development lasts from afew weeks or months to several years (in the largest species). When they becomemature, they crawl onto the shore and metamorphose into adult insects. Smallerspecies feed on fungi and algae, whereas most larger and predatory species donot feed at all anymore. Their adult period lasts a very short time – generally justenough to mate and lay eggs. Because stoneflies are extremely sensitive to the encroachments upon na-ture, they are often used – together with mayflies and caddis flies – as indicatororganisms in the assessment of water quality. Although the Kolpa has no high elevation drop, it provides an excellentexample of the “River Continuum Model” in the distribution of individualstonefly species from its source to the lower stream. The upper streams of Kolpaand Čabranka present, together with their sources, a kind of Alpine shelter inthe area of the Dinaric karst. Here, numerous species characteristic of the Alps NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 139

and also limited to them are found, but this area also happens to be the easternboundary of the separate species’ distribution. The middle and the lower streamof the Kolpa in our country is an example of a typically lowland river with muchdifferent structure of aquatic insects. Most surprising, however, is the fact thatowing to the rather well preserved natural environment we have managed tofind here more of those particular species that are elsewhere in Europe extremelyendangered or have already become extinct in many places. The Lahinja, the largest tributary of the Kolpa in Bela krajina, is alreadyaffected to a much greater extent, primarily due to the human activities in thearea. As a watercourse type, it greatly differs from the Kolpa, and some speciesoccur there that cannot be found in the Kolpa. A special mention should bemade of the powerful karst springs, such as those of the Krupa and Nerajčica,which boast a specific stonefly fauna that cannot be found in the Kolpa River. In general, the faunistic composition of stoneflies is in fact modest asfar as the number of species is concerned. But in view of the karst character ofthe area this is quite understandable. The great temperature oscillations of theflowing waters year-round and occasional drying up of the watercourses are theconditions to which the associations of water insects managed to adapt in suchenvironments in a very special way. Stoneflies are fairly imperceptible insects, since some species are active even Isoperla sp.is newas early as at the beginning of January or towards the end of the year in November for science, so farand December. As they are also poor fliers, adult individuals can be found only on undescribed species.the banks of the running waters. And as their life span is so very short, they can be Photo: Ignac Sivec140

seen in certain places only on one or two days in the year. The largest species are not that small, given that their wing span can reach even five centimetres or more. With their characteristic slow staggering flight they cover short distances only, but are that faster when running on the ground to avoid potential predators. The history of research into this group of insects reaches back to the 18th century, when Scopoli (1763) described the first stonefly species in our country. However of the several species he proposed, only a single species name has been preserved, i.e. Chloroperla tripunctata, which can be found in Bela krajina as well. After years of neglect, it was only recently that we carried out a thorough study, also thanks to our Croatian colleagues, into the Kolpa stoneflies, and it is only now that we are beginning to realise how very interesting and rich is this part of Slovenia. Just like most of the aquatic insects, stoneflies, too, are one of the most endangered animal groups – disappearing literally in front of our eyes. Stoneflies can be badly affected not only by pollution but also by various mechanical encroachments and changes in stream channels. The formation of simple im- poundments, for example, produce changes in the habitat to such an extent that stoneflies simply disappear. Older people who live along streams may remember the extensive swarming, when countless adult individuals literally covered the watercourses’ channels and the vegetation on the banks with their bodies.Members of the family Owing to their way of life, stoneflies are true “weirdos” among insects. TheyTaeniopterygidae can be are active already in winter or early spring, when the majority of other insects havefound walking on snow already gone, or not yet appeared. As the high summer water temperatures are tooalong river banks. limiting for them, they can hardly be seen on the water banks in July and August.Photo: Ignac Sivec NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 141

On warm January days, the representatives of the early stoneflies(Taeniopterygidae), walking in snow on the banks of watercourses, can be ob-served. We might catch sight of Brachyptera monilicornis, which is quite commonin the Kolpa’s middle course, while in its upper reaches as well as in the ČabrankaRiver it is no longer found. Elsewhere in Europe, this species has completely dis-appeared, which is why it is categorized as an exceptionally rare and endangeredstonefly species. Brachyptera tristis is a Balkan endemic stonefly, characteristic ofmore powerful karst springs. Slovenia presents the western border of the species’distribution in Europe. The other two representatives of this stonefly family arevery interesting as well. Taeniopteryx schoenemundi is characteristic of the lowlandriver courses, which is the reason it is absent in the upper reaches of the KolpaRiver. In the lowland, Taeniopteryx nebulosa, yet another rare and endangeredstonefly species can also be found. The most interesting is the representative ofthis genus, Taeniopteryx sp., which inhabits primarily the upper courses of theKolpa and Čabranka Rivers and reaches as far as to Adlešiči. This species is stillundescribed and represents a new species for science. Among the earliest stone-flies, which can also be found on snow along the waters, we may catch sight ofCapnia bifrons from the family of winter stoneflies (Capniidae). The largest repre-sentatives of stoneflies are those from the family of common stoneflies (Perlidae).Perla pallida and Dinocras megacephala are species that may be found elsewhere inSlovenia as well, while Perla illiesi is a Balkan species that can be found at scatteredlocalities in southern Slovenia. It is interesting that it does not inhabit the KolpaRiver, but does occur in the Lahinja, where no other species of this genus can beseen. The most interesting is no doubt Perla carantana, which has been describedonly recently after specimens from Slovenia and Austria were discovered. As ithas already disappeared from other Slovenian sites, the Kolpa is the only place inour country where it can still be found in nature. Our most abundant stonefliesfrom the family Leuctridae are represented by several species in the Kolpa Riverand can be found both in early spring and late autumn. The largest among themis Leuctra major. The family Perlodidae is represented by several species. After al-most a century, the species Besdolus imhoffi, which also belongs to the group ofmost endangered stonefly species in Europe, has been rediscovered. At the mo-ment, the Kolpa is the only home of this species in our country. Particularly inter-esting are the representatives of the genus Isoperla. Our specialty of these mediumlarge and light brown-yellowish species is Isoperla illyrica, which was found anddescribed along the Pivka River near Postojna. In the Kolpa, the Balkan speciesIsoperla bosnica can also be found. Of special interest are the representatives of thisgenus in powerful karst springs. The species Isoperla inermis can be observed inthe source of the Krupa River near Semič. Our specimens slightly differ from thespecimens of this species in Herzegovina, Dalmatia or at Plitvice. More detailedgenetic research will clarify the status of the species and separate variants as wellas their relationship with the cognate Central European species. In some othersprings, such as the Nerajčica source, we can find a species of this genus, which isnew for science and remains to be described.142

There is still a whole series of more or less ordinary and common species, for no less than thirty-eight stonefly species have been found in Bela krajina so far, which represents more than one third of all species of this insect group in our country – the group that people in fact do not know at all. But as stoneflies are extremely sensitive to any changes in the natural environment, many species will most probably disappear even before thoroughly studied and described. References Sivec, I. (1979). Prispevek k poznavanju favne vrbnic (Plecoptera, Insecta) v Sloveniji. Biološki vestnik, 27 (1), 165-174. Sivec, I. (1996). Stanje poznavanja in ogroženost vrbnic (Plecoptera). V: Gregori J. s sod. (ur.), Narava Slovenije, stanje in perspektive (str. 285-289). Ljubljana: Društvo ekologov Slovenije. Sivec, I. (2003). Vrbnice Plecoptera. V: Sket, B. (ur.), Živalstvo Slovenije (str. 290-294). 1. natis. Ljubljana: Tehniška založba Slovenije.River Kolpa at Dolnear Stari trg ob KolpiPhoto: Ignac Sivec NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 143

In the fields and grasslands of Bela krajina, the large predatoryground beetle Dolichus halensis can still be found, which occurs intwo different colour morphs – reddish and black.Photo: Andrej Kapla144

ABOUT SPECIAL FEATURESOF THE BEETLES IN BELAKRAJINA AND THREATSFACED BY THEMAl Vrezec, Slovenian Museum of Natural HistoryŠpela Ambrožič, Andrej Kapla, National Institute of Biology As far as beetles are concerned, Bela krajina is a poorly known area inSlovenia, for not much research into these insects has been carried out here. Inspite of it all, about two hundred beetle species are currently known in the areawhich, however, is certainly just a minor part of the entire beetle fauna of Belakrajina. As beetles constitute the largest group of living species, it is not surpris-ing that an array of different survival strategies are inherent in them. The lowlandpart of Bela krajina is a mosaic of meadows, forests and gradually overgrownsurfaces. In the fields of Bela krajina, a very special creature among carabids, theRed-backed Ground Beetle (Dolichus halensis) has been found. In Slovenia, thespecies is considered rare; predominantly it inhabits only the eastern part of thecountry, specifically the belt stretching from Prekmurje to Bela krajina. Thisfairly large predator of caterpillars and plant lices is a beneficial animal at fieldswhich, however, can be strongly affected by the use of pesticides and insecticides.The Red-backed Ground Beetle’s presence here indicates that the biodiversityin Bela krajina’s fields and grasslands is still quite well preserved. In Japan, thisspecialized field and grassland predator has proven to be an efficient predatorof field pests. Through exploitation of this »ecosystem service of pest control«,some cheaper and environmentally sustainable farming can be developed inlarge field complexes as well, and possibilities for this kind approach no doubtexist in Bela krajina as well. The interesting beetle species of conservation importance inhabiting Belakrajina are closely associated with trees. Oak stands are home to the giant StagBeetle (Lucanus cervus). When an adult hatches from pupa in the autumn, itwaits in a safe shelter of the underground pupa chamber until warm days in June,when it crawls to the open air. Summer night temperature, however, must ex-ceed 16°C for the large males to set out on their spectacular flight devoted tothe search for females for mating. The latter lay eggs in dead or rotting wood,in which larvae then take to develop even up to four years. For many beetles ofconservation importance, the dead wood is of crucial importance. In managed NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 145

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The large antler-like forests, there is no place for them, which brought several wood-restricted speciesmandibles adorn to the brink of extinction. For this very reason, many of these beetles are definedmales of the heaviest in Europe as species of special conservation concern, for which the most preciousEuropean insect, the parts of European nature must be specified and incoroporated into the NaturaStag Beetle (Lucanus 2000 network. Such a species is also the Hermit Beetle (Osmoderma eremita s.cervus); from its lat.), which has been discovered in Bela krajina only recently. This is the largestunderground hiding European cetonid, which lives in the mould within the cavities of old trees. Here,places it is enticed only both larvae and beetles reside and leave their birth cavity very rarely indeed. Theby the warm June and recent genetic research into this species has shown that our country is inhabitedJuly evenings, when even by more Hermit Beetle species and that Bela krajina should be home to thethis huge insect is eastern species called Osmoderma barnabita. The forest stands of Bela krajina areseen flying particularly also home to the large non-flying Long-horned Beetle Morimus funereus, whicharound oak trees. is yet another species of European conservation concern. In places, however,Photo: Al Vrezec The fact that the Hermit Beetle (Osmoderma eremita s. lat.) is represented by several species has been proven only lately through genetic research. In Bela krajina, the Eastern Hermit Beetle (Osmoderma barnabita) species most probably occurs. Photo: Al Vrezec NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 147

where the borders of Bela krajina Councils reach from the lowlands into higher The higher elevated areas of the Belaand wooded slopes of Kočevski Rog and Gorjanci Mts, the magnificent Rosalia krajina Councils,Long-horn Beetle (Rosalia alpina) hides in old beech forests. specifically the slopes of Kočevski Rog and Beetle specialists can also be found even in waters, particularly in ponds, Gorjanci Mts, are home to Rosaliasprings and watering holes gradually overgrown by herbage, which are inhabited Longicorn (Rosaliaby some rare diving beetles. Among them are Dytiscus dimidiatus and Cybister alpina), yet anotherlateralimarginalis, which are large predatory water beetles. They prey especially among the species ofon water larvae of insects and snails, but may even plunge on a small fish or tad- European conservation concern.pole. In Slovenia, they are both rare, as most of the waters, although numerous in Photo: Al VrezecSlovenia, are not suitable for them. People have introduced various non-indig-enous fish species into them, such as the Pumpkinseed Sunfish (Lepomis gibbo-sus), and, furthermore, cleaned their banks of aquatic vegetation, which providesbeetles with important underwater shelters. Although many of these species stillmanage to find a suitable refuge in Bela krajina, they are gradually disappearinghere as well, as they are mercilessly persecuted by the reckless hand of profit-ori-entated modern man.148

The overgrown ponds, springs and watering holes in Bela krajina are also inhabitedby some rare and endangered diving beetles, such as Cybister lateralimarginalis. InSlovenia, this species is known as the Mitre Beetle – after the characteristic shape ofits elytra, looking like bishop’s miter.Photo: Al VrezecReferencesBrelih, S., Drovenik, B. & Pirnat, A., (2006). Gradivo za favno hroščev (Coleoptera) Slovenije. 2.prispevek: Polyphaga: Chrysomeloidea (= Phytophaga): Cerambycidae. Scopolia 58: 1-442.Brelih, S., Kajzer, A. & Pirnat, A., (2010). Gradivo za favno hroščev (Coleoptera) Slovenije. 4.prispevek: Polyphaga: Scarabaeoidea (=Lamellicornia). Scopolia 70: 1-386.Kapla, A. & A. Vrezec (2007). Morfološke značilnosti, razširjenost in opis habitata vrste Dolichushalensis v Sloveniji (Coleoptera: Carabidae): krešiči v agrarnih sistemih. Acta entomologicaslovenica 15 (1): 57-64.Vrezec, A., Pirnat, A., Kapla, A., Polak, S., Vernik, M., Brelih, S., Drovenik, B. (2011). Pregledstatusa in raziskanosti hroščev (Coleoptera) evropskega varstvenega pomena v Sloveniji spredlogom slovenskega poimenovanja. Acta entomologica slovenica 19 (2): 81-138. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 149

Painted LadyPhoto: Tomi Trilar150