NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA, SLOVENIA

white willows that have given so much wicker to the locals for the making of baskets and tying of vines, stands out. A special place among tree valuable nat- ural features in the immediate vicinity of Sinji Vrh belongs to the more than 100 years old Fortunova brajda, in which 49 self-sown vines (black isabella) still thrive. The preserved nature of Bela krajina is unique and unrepeatable, and can be preserved for our descendants only through a good knowledge of it and its suitable protection. Or, as the well known saying goes: »We have not received nature as a gift from our forefathers, but borrowed it from our grandchildren.« References Berginc, M., Kremesec-Jevšenak, J., Vidic, J. (2007). Sistem varstva narave v Sloveniji. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor. 128 str. Gostinčar, P. in Stepišnik, U. (2012). Geomorfološke značilnosti Kočevskega roga in Kočevske Male gore s poudarkom na fluviodenudacijskem površju. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. 97 str. Govedič, M., M. Cipot, G. Lipovšek, B. Skaberne, R. Slapnik, M. Sopotnik, A. Šalamun, B. Trčak, M. Vamberger in J. Valentinčič, (2011). Inventarizacija flore in favne vodnih virov na območju občin Črnomelj, Metlika in Semič: končno poročilo. Naročnik: Zavod Republike Slovenije za varstvo narave. Miklavž na Dravskem polju: Center za kartografijo favne in flore. 84 str. Ivanovič, M. in Hudoklin, A. (2000). Naravna dediščina v občini Črnomelj. Črnomelj: Občina. 19 str. Perko, D., Orožen Adamič, M. (ur.) (1999). Slovenija – pokrajine in ljudje. 2. izd. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. 735 str. Pravilnik o določitvi in varstvu naravnih vrednot. (2004). Uradni list RS, št. 111 s spr. in dop. Uredba o zvrsteh naravnih vrednot. (2002). Uradni list RS, št. 52 s spr. in dop. Zakon o ohranjanju narave. (1999). Uradni list RS, št. 56 s spr. in dop. Zakon o varstvu podzemnih jam – ZVPJ. (2004). Uradni list RS, št. 2.Linden in ZagozdacPhoto: Mira Ivanovič NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 51

The Krupa hides a number of special faunistic features.Photo: Andrej Hudoklin52

NATURA 2000IN BELA KRAJINAAndrej HudoklinInstitute of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature Conservation,Novo mesto Regional UnitAbout Natura 2000 The main objective of Natura 2000, the European network of specialprotection areas proclaimed in EU member states, is to conserve biodiversityfor our future generations, i.e. to retain animal and plant species as well as theirhabitats that are rare or endangered, at the European level, owing to various hu-man activities. Natura 2000 is one of the most effective international nature conser-vation systems primarily owing to its assessments of the acceptability of theplanned human encroachments upon nature, active management and monitor-ing. The areas are stipulated on the grounds of the Birds Directive (Council’sDirective 79/409/EGS dated April 2nd, 1979, on conservation of free-livingbirds) – SPA (Special Protection Areas), and the Habitats Directive (Council’sDirective 92/43/EGS dated May 21st, 1992, on conservation of natural habitatsand free-living animal and plant species) – SCI (Special Areas of Conservation). In Slovenia, Natura 2000 sites were stipulated with the Decree on specialareas of conservation prior to its entry into EU in 2004 (Official Gazette of theRepublic of Slovenia. 49/04). The proposed areas, stipulated by Slovenia on the ba-sis of the Habitats Directive, were confirmed by the European Commission in 2008.An important share to the Slovenian Natura 2000network is contributed by Bela krajina as well Bela krajina boasts several prominent nature conservation sites, suchas the Bela krajina karst plain, the catchment of the Lahinja with the Krupaand Dobličica, the border Kolpa River, and the margins of Gorjanci Mts andKočevski Rog with Poljanska gora. Their common characteristics are the highconservation degree and the high habitat and species diversity. Numerous rare NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 53

and endangered species have been recorded (particularly among animal species)and hence their habitats included in the European ecological network. In the area of the three Bela krajina Municipalities (Črnomelj, Metlika andSemič), 14 Natura sites have been stipulated, which include 62 animal types and 8habitat types. They cover 27,184 hectares, or almost 46% of Bela krajina’s surface area.At the national level, Natura embraces a good 35% of the territory, owing to which weare ranked among the countries with the highest share in the European community.A review of special protection areas – Natura 2000 sitesSCI Kolpa, fish diversity The Kolpa is the largest river in Bela krajina. At the same time, its river eco-system is one of the best preserved at the national level and as such home to severalrare and endangered species. Most precious from the aspect of Natura 2000 are itsfishes. Among the 26 indigenous species, the following have the status of qualify-ing species: the Danube Salmon, Danube Roach, Stone Gudgeon, Balkan Barbel,Streber and Bullhead, which favour the fast flowing sections with stony floor andgravel bars below dams, where their spawning grounds are situated. Reophilicsections with sandy floor meet the demands of the Golden Loach, while the qui-et sections behind dams are favoured by the Bitterling, which lives in symbiosiswith the thick shelled river mussel Unio crassus , into which it lays its eggs. Theabundance of fish is inextricably linked with their predator – the European Otter.As a Natura 2000 site, the Kolpa River embraces the floodplain from Stari trg toRakovec, where it crosses the border to Croatia, while the Kolpa’s upper course isincluded in SCI Kočevsko-Kolpa and SPA Kočevsko. The area widens in the low-er course between Krasinec and Podzemelj, where it incorporates the wetlands onthe karst plain owing to the European Pond Turtle living there. The Otter feels well in the upper course of the Kolpa River. Photo: Teo Oršanič, Archives of the Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature Conservation (IRSNC)54

Map: The areas of Natura 2000 in Bela krajina. Prepared by Matej Simčič 55 NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA

SCI Lahinja, abundance of species The Dobličica River hosts the Beaver. Into this area, the entire Lahinja River is included. The shallow river Photo: Andrej Hudoklinvalley creates with its meandering and smooth course the characteristic ecosys-tem of lowland karst rivers, which is pertinent for several fish species (GoldenLoach, Danube Roach, Bitterling, Danube Gudgeon, Bullhead, Balkan Barbel)and the river mussel Unio crassus, whereas the wetlands in the floodplains andalong the Podturniščica stream constitute a prominent habitat of the EuropeanPond Turtle. In its lower course at Krivoglavice, the Lahinja reaches Jama nearGorenje Dobravice; in this part, its subterranean course is home to the WhiteCave Salamander. Closely associated with the river is also the bat shelter in theattic of the Church of the Holy Spirit in Črnomelj. After its renovation, nurserycolonies of the Greater Horseshoe Bats and Geoffroy’s Bats still live here, whichcan be monitored with infrared camera’s aid. SCI Dobličica, Black Cave Salamander It is only the karst hinterland of the Dobličica River with its tributariesthat is inhabited by one of the greatest Slovenian faunistic curiosities – the BlackCave Salamander, the endemic subspecies of the Blind White Cave Salamander.It was discovered as late as in 1986 in the source of Dobličica, and eventually atJelševnik and two nearby minor sources as well. In comparison with the WhiteCave Salamander it has dark pigmented skin and fairly well developed eyes. Themore or less small area on the edge of the Bela krajina karst plain is threatened byintensive farming in the sources’ hinterland; badly felt are still the consequenc-es of the former foundry sand depository in the hinterland of Jelševnik owing56

Otovski breg, one of to the accumulation of heavy metals in the Blackthe key localities of Cave Salamander’s tissues. And it is only in the upperthe white subspecies course of Dobličica above Kanižarica, where the onlyof Cave Salamander habitat in Bela krajina of the European Beaver, whichin Bela krajina. settled here in 2002, has been discovered. Along thePhoto: Andrej Hudoklin river, observations of the European Pond Turtle have also been made, while at Jelševnik the Stone Crayfish, which is otherwise very rare on the karst plain, has been found. SCI Stobe – Breg, White Blind Cave Salamander This area embraces the subterranean course of the Pački potok stream between Dolnja Paka and Rožanec. In the karst plain’s relief, one can still see the channel of the former surface course which, however, disappeared underground owing to the karstification process. The two shorter sections of the subterranean course are disclosed in the water cave Stobe and in the collapse sinkhole Otovski breg, where the White Cave Salamanders can often be seen. Eight localities of this unique species have been found in Bela krajina so far. They are limited to the northwestern part of the karst plain and to the hinterland of the Lahinja’s left tributaries between Črnomelj and Primostek, while the southern edge between Jelševnik and the Dobličica River is in active contact with the population of the related Black Cave Salamander. The monitoring of water quality in separate sources has shown that due to the excessive fertilization a visible trend of in- creased pollution with phosphates and especially nitrates, which have inhibitory effects on amphibians’ development, has been noted. SCI Gradac, cave shellFirst specimens of live The area includes the Krupa River with the nearby karst plain covered bytroglobiotic mussels the characteristic Illyrian oak-hornbeam forests. This shortest river of Bela kraji-Congeria kusceri. na is marked by the lush karst spring, which reaches the surface from a deep cavePhoto: Andrej Hudoklin under the attractive rockwall, and the deeply cut river valley. Into the spring, underground waters from the widely branched out catchment area are flowing. The subterranean courses are habitat of numerous cave animals. Most salient apart from the Blind White Cave Salamander are the endemic water molluscs headed by our only cave shell, the troglobiotic mus- sel Congeria kusceri. In 2011, live specimens of this species were found for the first time in the newly dis- covered cave in the lower course of the Krupa River. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 57

The eventual molecular analyses indicated great affinity with mussels from notso distant Lika.SCI Bezgovka, cave fauna Bezgovka is a water cave in the karst plain near Desinec west of Črnomelj.This almost 100 metres long cave with a permanent flow just below the surface is di-rected towards the sources along the Lahinja River near Pavičiči. Just like in most Belakrajina caves, we are once again surprised by the diverse water fauna of lower crus-taceans and water snails, owing to which the cave was included in the Natura 2000network under the habitat type caves not open to the public. The prevailing forest coverabove the subterranean course has made sure that no polluters can be found here.SCI Gornji kal, European Pond Turtle Nursery colony of Geoffroy’s Bats in the attic The European Pond Turtle is most often recorded in Slovenia  – apart of Flajšman’s House infrom the Krka catchment and Ljubljansko barje  – in the area of Bela krajina. Metlika.Of key importance for this turtle are the wetlands in the vicinity of Prilozje, at Photo: Andrej HudoklinObrh in Metlika and in the upper reaches of the Lahinja River and Podturnščicastream. The three karst ponds at Hrast near Vinica – Gornji kal, Krivače andKršeljivec – are the most isolated localities in the Bela krajina karst plain. Thesurvey carried out in 2011 confirmed the presence of only few isolated pairs, thereason for it lying mostly in wetland drainage and abandonment of karst ponds(waterholes) in the near vicinity. Within the framework of the Wetman project,which is being implemented in this very moment, improvement of the now ex-isting conditions is planned, while the filled up Kršeljivec pond is to be restored.SCI Metlika,bat maternityroosts Bela krajina sup­ports a rich bat fauna.Attics are the bats’ mostimportant shelters aboveall in summer, whenfemales form nurserycolonies. In the attic ofFlajšman’s House in theold centre of Metlika,larger groups of female58

The White-backed Geoffroy’s and GreaterWoodpecker inhabits the Horseshoe Bats, whichKopa virgin forest. occasionally find refugePhoto: Andrej Hudoklin also in Metliška jama (cave) at Obrh, settled after the renovation of the nearby castle a dec- ade ago. The area also embraces the shelter of a larger nursery colony of the Greater Mouse- eared Bats, which inhabit the belfry of the pilgrim Three Parishes Church at Rosalnice. Apart from safety, the bats are particularly favoured by the suitable temperature, which enables up to a few hundred females of one or more species to raise their young there. SCI Petrišina jama, bat hibernaculum Several bat species have their hibernacula in caves that with their con- stant temperature (about 9 degrees Celsius), moisture and peace enable them a safe winter sleep, when there are no insects to be found in nature, on which they feed. Petrišina cave on the south margin of the Bela krajina karst plain between Preloka and Marindol is one of the rare winter shelters of the Mediterranean Horseshoe Bats in Bela krajina. In a smallish chamber, which opens with a deep entrance pitch, up to 55 overwintering individuals have been recorded. As some have been noted in summer as well, the role of this cave in the life of the species is not fully known as yet. The cave is also used by individual Greater and Lesser Horseshoe Bats, which in fact hibernate in greater numbers in larger caves on Poljanska gora, such as Kaščica and Čaganka. SCI Kočevsko and SPA Kočevsko – Kolpa, the neighbourhood of large carnivores The Municipalities of Semič and Črnomelj also embrace the southern part of Kočevski Rog with Poljanska gora, which together with Kočevsko for- ests constitute one of the greatest closed forests at the transition point between the Dinaric Mts and the Alps. The well preserved complex of Dinaric forests with virgin forest remains and forest reserves is one of the more many-sided Natura 2000 areas, which is protected by both Habitats (SCI) and Birds (SPA) Directives. In terms of the Habitats Directive it is recognizable as part of the NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 59

central area of large carnivores, while most prominent in terms of the BirdsDirective is the protection of several owl species with the Ural Owl at the fore-front and woodpeckers, such as the White-backed Woodpecker and Three-toedWoodpecker, which are restricted to forest virgin remains and reserves.SCI Gorjanci – Radoha, preserved forests The Semič Municipality also incorporates the southern fringes of woodyRadoha, which ends on the margins of Semenič and Smuk. The well preservedbeech forests play an important role especially as corridors for the passage oflarge carnivores, whereas the great share of dead wood provides for favourabledevelopment of beetles, such as Beech and Oak Longhorn Beetles. SCI Veliko bukovje, oak-hornbeam forests The greater part of the Bela krajina karst plain is overgrown with Illyrianoak-hornbeam forests. One of the larger preserved complexes stretches from thefoot of Veliko bukovje across Vinička gmajna to Vinica. As the name suggests,the prevailing trees are the Sessile Oak and Hornbeam, often accompanied byTurkey Oak, Common Oak and Sweet Chestnut. The margins of the multiformforest cover were once dominated by pastures and litter stands which, however,are now being increasingly overgrown with the characteristic birch stands, orhave been planted with the nonindigenous spruce, which rapidly changes theforest association’s character with its aggressive growth.SCI Bela krajina, dry meadows The Kopa virgin forest Photo: Andrej Hudoklin This area embraces cultural landscape on the southern margins of GorjanciMts in the triangle between the villages of Jugorje, Hrast and Brezova Reber. The60

Dry meadows are greatly sunward grassy slopes on carbonate substratum are of nature conservation impor-enriched by orchids. tance mainly owing to the great share of preserved semi-natural dry grasslandsPhoto: Mitja Kaligarič and shrubbery with orchid sites, which are being largely overgrown with herbage. Due to the insufficient inclusion of separate species, the Natura 2000 network is to be slightly widened on the European Commission’s request. The expert supplement proposal is bringing some novelties to Bela krajina as well. Apart from new species added to the existing areas, two new sites are also envisaged: SCI Marindol, 930 hectares of semi-natural dry meadows with orchid sites on the Bela krajina karst plain along the Kolpa River between Fučkovci and Miliči, which are significant as the Large Copper’s habitat as well; SCI Dolenji Suhor near Metlika, a small area in the vicinity of the vil- lage church, which is inhabited in the summer months by one of Bela krajina’s largest nursery colonies of the Great Mouse-eared Bats. References Kaj je NATURA 2000. www.arso.gov.si/narava/natura%202000/ Spoznajte Naturo 2000. www.natura2000.gov.si/ Naravovarstveni atlas. www.naravovarstveni-atlas.si/ISN2KJ/ NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 61

The idling Kolpa RiverPhoto: Tomislav Urh, Archives of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature Conservation62

THE PROTECTEDNATURAL AREAS INBELA KRAJINAMira IvanovičInstitute of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature Conservation,Novo mesto Regional Unit Geographic diversity, well preserved nature and rich cultural heritagecreate an opulent and very diverse landscape in Bela krajina. At almost everystep, seemingly insignificant natural and cultural heritage is revealed, the valueof which we are most often not even aware of. Even though these are merelyunassuming karst springs, village sinkhole ponds, solitary rocky hillocks, mightyold linden trees, litter stands, forests on the slopes of Bukovje and Poljanskagora, floodplain meadows along rivers, modest little churches, chapels, ethno-logically interesting buildings and viticulturally salient cultural landscape, theyare crucial and highly characteristic of this interesting piece of Slovenia. All theabove enumerated wealth, however, can be preserved only through deliberatespatial management. As we are faced with increasing tendency for further devel-opment at the expense of various encroachments upon nature, the latter can bepreserved only by balanced spatial planning and adoption of suitable protectivemeasures. One of these measures is protection of particularly valuable naturalareas through municipal or state regulations with clearly stipulated objectivesof protection and rules of conduct. For this very purpose, the areas of natureconservation concern along the Kolpa, Lahinja and Krupa Rivers are protected.In Bela krajina, no less than two nature parks (also called landscape parks inSlovenia) have been protected. A nature park is the least limiting conservationgroup within the framework of more widely protected natural areas, within thescope of which more attention is paid to the conservation of nature, landscapeand space, although nature park does not limit agricultural use, recreation andsustainable land use. It is the area of natural and cultural heritage closely inter-twined with exceptional cultural landscape, which has been created by manthrough traditional management. In the Črnomelj Municipality, Lahinja Nature Park has been protectedsince 1982 by a municipal decree. In 1988, Kolpa Nature Park was protectedwith a similar decree as well, except that due to the national importance of thearea along the Kolpa River, the Government of Slovenia decided to protect NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 63

Map: Protected natural areas of Bela krajina. Prepared by: Matej Simčič64

Kolpa Nature Park with a special act. In the Semič Municipality, the area alongthe Krupa River was protected as a nature monument in 1997. In Bela krajinawe thus have, apart from the two nature parks, twenty-four nature monumentsand three nature reserves protected with municipal decrees and the special act.Furthermore, all listed protected areas have been included in the EuropeanNatura 2000 network owing to their rare and endangered species of Europeanconcern and their habitats. Irrespective of all the regulations that provide for nature conservationwith their norms, it is essential that we finally become aware of cognition thatnature will not be protected by various acts, but by ourselves, if we are capableof appreciating, respecting and, above all, living with it. In Bela krajina, we arealready very near this cognition.Presentation of individual protected areasLahinja Nature Park Status: Lahinja Nature Park (Skupščinski dolenjski list, No. 3/88,and Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 73/98), Natura 2000:SCI Lahinja (part), Official Gazette of the RS (Official Gazette of the RS49/04, 110/04), valuable natural features (Rules on stipulation and pro-tection of valuable natural features, Official gazette of the RS Nos. 111/04,70/06, 58/09 and 93/10) Altitude: 145 to 200 metres Surface area: 200 hectares (2 square kilometres) Settlements: Mala Lahinja, Pusti Gradec Nearest local centre: Dragatuš Local community: Dragatuš Municipality: Črnomelj Rivers, streams: Lahinja, Nerajčica Nature monuments: 7 Nature reserves: 2 Cultural monuments: 8 Managed by: Development Information Centre Črnomelj The Park encloses about twenty hectares of the Lahinja River’s upperstream area. The greater part of the Park is covered by elaborately cultivated fields,while other parts are naturally preserved areas such as forests, marshes and wetmeadows. The best naturally preserved entities are the Lahinja’s source area andfloodplain meadows along the Nerajčica’s confluence with the Lahinja, whichare specially protected as nature reserves called Lahinja and Nerajčica lugi. Both NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 65

are the Park’s special features as the areas of fens. They are true botanical treasur- The Lahinja Riveries, given that some rare and endangered plant species thrive here: Lax-flowered at Pusti GradecMarsh Orchid (Orchis palustris), Marsh Gentian (Genitiana pneumonanthe), Photo: Mira IvanovičSaw-sedge (Cladium mariscus) and Southern Adderstongue (Ophioglossum vulg-atum). Closely associated with marsh meadows are the Fenton’s Wood White Lax-flowered(Leptidea morsei) and the Large Copper (Lycaena dispar), both endangered in Marsh OrchidEurope. This is also home to the European Pond Terrapin (Emys orbicularis). Photo: Mira IvanovičAmong the birds, passerines prevail. The claim that the Lahinja is a pure river isconfirmed by the presence of King Fisher, the bird depicted in the Park’s symbol. Among the characteristic karst phenomenalet us mention the water karst cave Zjot (Džjud).In front of its entrance, a small natural bridge isstanding. During high waters, a typical karst field(polje) with a spring and sinkhole in the meadowclose to the cave can be seen. In spite of the modestwater sources in Bela krajina, more than ten minorsprings will pleasantly surprise us here. The karstworld’s shallowness can be observed in the middleof fields in the Glušenka sinkhole (collapse dolina),which is always filled with water. The area of the Park was populated as earlyas in prehistory, as testified by the archaeologicalsites Okljuk and Draga pri Pustem Gradcu. In thevicinity of Veliki Nerajec, family-tribal Hallstattmounds can be seen, which speak of the formerlife and manner of burying the dead. The settlingremains have survived till this very day. Along thesite of the former mediaeval castle at Pusti Gradec,the Klepec Mill and Venetian Sawmill are still66

functioning. In the middle of the river meander, the small All Saints Church with the village cemetery is standing. The area of the Park is currently almost un- populated. Small densely packed villages are scattered on the slopes and terraces on the Park’s margins. Within the Park, seven nature monuments and two nature reserves have been specially protected. The Park became alive with people only after a decade of its protection, when a group of Veliki Nerajec locals decided to found a socie- ty named Krnica and to rebuild an old house for the needs of information centre. The Park, through which a circular trail is leading, is provided with explanatory signboards. It is managed by the Development Information Centre Črnomelj.The Kolpa River Kolpa Nature Parkat PrelesjePhoto: Andrej Hudoklin Location: extreme SE part of Slovenia along the boundary with Croatia Surface area: 4,331.51 hectares (43.31 square kilometres) Administrative status: Kolpa Nature Park is located entirely within Črnomelj Municipality Population: 1,135 inhabitants living within the Park Land use: almost a half of the Park is covered by forests, the rest par- ticularly by agricultural land as well as waters (3.2%). Conservation status: more widely protected area – nature park NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 67

5 Natura 2000 sites, The awakening 5 ecologically significant areas Kolpa River. 71 valuable natural features Photo: Tomislav Urh 16 specially protected nature monuments and 42 cultural monuments, aswell as 1 protected strict nature reserve IUCN category: V. Managed by: Public Institution Kolpa Nature Park The Park embraces a narrow strip of land along the Kolpa River inČrnomelj Municipality from Stari trg to Fučkovci. The Park’s main natural at-traction is the Kolpa, the central Bela krajina river, with its entire course runningalong the southern margin of Bela krajina. The river excels by its pure water andrich ichthyofauna, naturally preserved course, numerous rapids and gravel bars.One of the Park’s special features is the characteristic cultural landscape, shapedby litter stands and elaborately cultivated karst land with numerous sinkholesand terraces. Floristically and faunistically interesting are, apart from the Kolpaitself, the steep thermophilous slopes along the river under Velika and Malastena above Radenci, under Preloka and Pobrežje. Special protection has beenprovided for sixteen natural and forty-one cultural monuments. A large part ofthe Park has also been included in Natura 2000 network (SCI Kolpa and SPAKočevsko-Kolpa). The cultural-historic value is underlined by the numerous well preservedand architecturally interesting homesteads. Abandoned mills and sawmills area silent witness of the use of water energy in the past. Between Damelj and68

Spring along Fučkovci, several mansions built in the shape of courts have survived till this day.the Kolpa River In these very settlements, various traditional handicrafts have been preserved:Photo: Matej Simčič linen making, embroidery, decorating of traditional Easter eggs and plait- ing. Very interesting from the cultural-historical point of view is the area near Preloka, where descendants of the Uskoks can still be found, together with their culture and religion. Part of the Park had been populated as early as in prehis- tory, which is witnessed by the finds in the vicinity of Vinica, Zilje and Radenci. One can experience the Kolpa River and life with the river either by swimming, canoeing or cycling along trails that stretch all the way from Stari trg to Fučkovci. Nature monument – the Krupa River The river comes to surface from several springs underneath some thirty metres high steep rockwall in the middle of a low karst plain. Owing to its im- poundment, the main spring leaves impression of a lake with a tiny islet. Here and there, this two-and-a-half kilometres long river creates a canyon-like course, which flows into the Lahinja. As far as its water mass is concerned, the Krupa source is the largest source in Bela krajina, with its absolute minimum discharge at about four hundred litres per second and average minimum discharge at about a thousand litres per second (Plut 1988). This discharge rate is the result of the watery underground hinterland of Gorjanci and Kočevski Rog. The height differ- ence between the spring and the river’s outfall into the Lahinja is about six metres, which enables the watercourse to be exploited for energy purposes. Many decades NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 69

70

ago, four mills and two sawmills used to work along the river; today, only the for- mer castle mill is still functional. Part of the protected area additionally includes the archaeologically significant Palaeolithic station  – underground cave called the Jewish House, the prehistoric settlement Moverna vas, in which village carry- ing the same name now stands, and the site of ruins of the mediaeval Krupa castle. From the nature conservation point of view, the area of the Krupa River is truly exceptional, for zoological research has shown that the sediment in the Krupa spring and small caves along the river is the only known site of the cave shell Congeria kusceri in Slovenia. Other endemic species of cave gastropods, however, have also been found here: sp. Hauffenia media, Iglica gracilis and Sadleriana smidti, and the White Olm (Anguineus proteus). The Krupa area is ornithologically rich, too, as no less than forty species have been recorded here, nine of which can even be found on the Red List of endangered bird species of Slovenia. The area along the river is marked with explanatory boards, while the trail itself, which joins the Karst Educational Trail from Lebica to Krupa, is marked with several signposts. The trail and resting places are cared after by the Krupa Eco Society. References Govedič, M., Cipot, M., Lipovšek, G., Skaberne, B., Slapnik, R., Sopotnik, M., Šalamun, A., Trčak, B., Vamberger M., Valentinčič, J. (2011). Inventarizacija flore in favne vodnih virov na območju občin Črnomelj, Metlika in Semič: končno poročilo. Naročnik: Zavod Republike Slovenije za varstvo narave. Miklavž na Dravskem polju: Center za kartografijo favne in flore. 84 str. Ivanovič, M., Hudoklin, A. (2000). Naravna dediščina v občini Črnomelj. Črnomelj: Občina. 19 str. Ivanovič, M. (1989). Krupa, ZRSVN, OE Novo mesto. Ivanovič, M. (2005). Krajinski park Kolpa, ZRSVN, OE Novo mesto. Ivanovič, M. (2004). Krajinski park Lahinja, ZRSVN, OE Novo mesto. Plut, D. (1988). Belokranjske vode. Novo mesto: Dolenjski muzej (Poljudno-znanstvena knjižna zbirka). 199 str. Plut, D. (ur.) (2008). Bela krajina in Krajinski park Lahinja. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, Oddelek za geografijo. 160 str.The source ofthe Krupa RiverPhoto: Mira Ivanovič NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 71

Flowering meadow with Common Spotted-orchid (Dactylorhiza fuchsii).Photo: Jernej Kavšek72

THE FLORA ANDVEGETATION OFBELA KRAJINABranko Vreš, Jovan Hadži Institute of Biology, ZRC SAZUAndrej Seliškar Bela krajina, this southeasternmost province of Slovenia, is in terms ofits nature and geography well demarcated in the west and north from the restof Slovenia by the fringes of Kočevski Rog and Gorjanci Mts. As soon as weenter the province through the Gates of Bela krajina, a wonderful view opensup in front of us at the predominantly karst and mosaic-like wooded and grassylandscape of the Bela krajina plain, which is in the south and east bordered bythe Kolpa River, the course of which can be only indistinctly perceived at thefeet of Poljanska gora in the southwest, Veliko bukovje in the southeast and thehillocks of the neighbouring Croatia (Lipnik, Žumberak) in the east and north-east. The greater part of the landscape is wooded, and it is quite possible thatpart of the name Bela (=White) krajina stems from the characteristic whitenessof birch trunks in the gradually overgrown litter stands. Bela krajina belongs tothe margins of the Dinaric Alps, while in phytogeographical terms it is situatedin the pre-Dinaric phytogeographical region of Slovenia (as per divisioning byM. Wraber) and mostly belongs to the Bela krajina district of the pre-Dinaricsubsector of the Illyrian province of the Eurosyberian-North American floralregion (after Zupančič et al.). The first written data on the flora of Bela krajina can be found inFleischman’s Overview of the Carniolan Flora (1844) particularly for Črnomelj,Metlika, Sinji Vrh and, rarely, for Krupa. Some individual records were alsocontributed by Dežman (1858) and Plemel (1862), whereas in the vicinity ofMetlika a plant collection was compiled by the local pastor J. Šafer, as docu-mented by W. Voss (1885) in his Review of the History of the Carniolan Flora.In the first half of the twentieth century, much was contributed to the knowl-edge of the Bela krajina flora through individual finds by Rajko Justin (teacherin Črnomelj and its vicinity during 1886–1905) and Alfonz Paulin (individualspecimens in the collection Flora exsiccata Carniolica). After World War II, sep-arate studies of the Bela krajina flora were implemented by several researchers,including Viktor Petkovšek, Maks Wraber (phytocoenological studies), Andrej NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 73

The diversity of Bela krajina reflects the coexistence of man and nature. Photo: Tatjana ČelikMartinčič (who in the 1950s gathered extensive source and herbarium material Illyrian Gladiolusfrom the vicinity of Adlešiči, Vinica and elsewhere), Tone Wraber, Ernest Mayer, (Gladiolus illyricus),Darinka Trpin, Marko Accetto, Andrej Podobnik, Nejc Jogan, Branka Trčak, Slovenian vulnerableBrane Dolinar and, apart from the authors of this paper, the locals Mira Ivanovič, and protectedDušan Kordiš and Jernej Kavšek. In the last three decades, several individual in- species, thrived in wetvestigations have been carried out in certain districts of Bela krajina, particularly meadows along thein the Kolpa catchment (Accetto et al. 1994, Accetto 2001), as well as floris- Podturnščica stream.tic mapping within the framework of the Vinica Research Camp (Podobnik & Photo: Branko VrešWraber 1982), Semič (Škornik 1983, Trčak et al. 2001) and Podzemelj ( Jogan &Podobnik 1997), and asstudy of the graduallyovergrown litter stands(Čarni et al. 2007). Theresearch into the over-growing of open spacesas a result of the aban-donment of the agricul-tural land use in Belakrajina has shown somehuge changes in thelast 220 years, whichhappen to be muchfaster than elsewherein Slovenia (Paušič &Čarni 2012). In spiteof the numerous indi-vidual studies of theflora and vegetation inselected areas of Bela74

Orchids, protected plants in Slovenia, are still White Helleborine (Cephalanthera damasonium) oncommon in Bela krajina: Early Spider Orchid (Ophrys the forest edge near Tanča Gora.sphegodes) near Jakovini. Photo: Branko Vreš Photo: Tatjana Čelikkrajina, this part of Slovenia remains poorly researched, given that no integralstudy of its flora and vegetation has been carried out. At the national scale, the floristic diversity of Bela krajina is exceptional.According to the hitherto known and gathered data, Bela krajina (which coversonly 3% of Slovenian territory) is home to more than 1,150 different vascularplants, which is one third (33%) of all taxa known for Slovenia (Martinčič etal. 2007 state 3,452 of them). Among these, 130 are threatened species, while100 of the latter are from the Slovenian Red List and 70 protected. The primaryflora of Bela krajina has been represented by forest species with the exception ofthose inhabiting rock faces and grassy slopes above the Kolpa River, as well asthe rare oxbows and marshy areas along the Kolpa and Lahinja Rivers and theirtributaries the Krupa, Dobličica, Podturnščica, Obrh and Sušica. A special imprint has been given to the flora and vegetation of Bela kra-jina by its climatic-geographic characteristics and special features. With regardto the karst character of the area, which is mirrored in predominantly carbonate(limestone) geological substratum, as well as to the low altitude (with the Belakrajina plain situated at an altitude between 150 and 200 metres) and mostlytowards the south (east) inclined slopes, which is reflected in high mean annualtemperature of the area, it is not surprising that almost a third of all plant species NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 75

The North American Blue-eyed Grass (Sisyrinchium The thermophilic steep slopes above the Kolpabermudiana), which is among the more attractive River near Jakovini are the natural site of the uniquedomesticated nonindigenous plants, is very rare in association of perennial grass Cleistogenes serotina.Bela krajina. Photo: Andrej Seliškar Photo: Andrej Seliškarare represented by Mediterranean and southeastern European species togetherwith (SE-Alpine-)Illyrian (Balkan) species. The other two thirds of the speciesare of European (W-Asian), Eurosyberian and Eurasian (N-American) distribu-tion. Among the non-native species, which constitute 4% of all plant species,American species prevail (33). Amongst these, we cannot avoid invasive species,which have been in the last few decades increasingly conquering the vulnerableand endangered habitats and outcompeting the indigenous wild-growing plants;more and more common in damp areas are the Devil’s Beggartick (Bidens fron-dosa) and the Giant Goldenrod (Solidago gigantea). On the river banks (espe-cially of the Kolpa) they are joined by the Cutleaf Coneflower (Rudbeckia lacin-iata), while the Wild Cucumber (Echinocystis lobata) is climbing up the riparianshrubbery. Most successful amongst tree species in conquering the overgrownareas is the Black Locust (Robinia pseudaccacia), which has been in places plant-ed as a honey plant, with its wood used instead of oak in cooper’s trade and assupport poles in vineyards. Very rare amongst the Mediterranean plants, which can be found out-side the sub-Mediterranean phytogeographic region, is the perennial grassCleistogenes serotina. It proliferates at rare sites (turned towards the south andsoutheast) on the warm stony slopes above the Kolpa River, where it consti-tutes, together with the Yellow Bluestem (Bothriochloa ischaemum), a uniqueassociation (e.g. at Jakovini). At stony and rubbly sites it is joined by the WhiteCorydalis (Pseudofumaria alba), a montane plant distributed in SE Europe thatcan be in our country found largely on karst screes or on rocks in the sub-Med-iterranean and Dinaric phytogeographic region. Owing to the explicitly warm76

Southern Adderstongue Saffron Thistle (Carthamus lanatus) thrives in Bela(Ophioglossum krajina on the eastern limit of its range in Slovenia.vulgatum), a threatened Photo: Andrej Seliškar(vulnerable) meadowfern, which consists of a location, drought character and low altitude, the steep and rocky grassy-bushyspore-less oval leaf-bladeand a narrow pointed slopes of the Kolpa »gorge« between Damelj and Žuniči provide a suitablespore-bearing spike ona stalk, thrives on the shelter for many other Mediterranean plants known from the Karst, such asslopes above Semič. the Slender Sandwort (Arenaria leptoclados), Spurge Flax (Thymelaea passeri-Photo: Branko Vreš na) and Rough Clover (Trifolium scabrum). Among them, the Saffron Thistle (Carthamus lanatus), an up to 30 cm tall yellow-flowered coneflower has the only habitat outside the sub-Mediterranean region of Slovenia in dry grasslands and on steep slopes of the Kolpa River near Jakovini. In Bela krajina, few more Mediterranean plants have only one till now known habitat, such as the Little Robin (Geranium purpureum); in the last few years, it has been spreading sub- spontaneously along traffic routes (especially railway lines) in warmer parts of Slovenia, while its locality near Naklo seems natural. The Western European- Mediterranean Childing Pink (Petrorhagia prolifera) is a rare and scatteredly distributed species in Slovenia. Dry meadows are particularly colourful and diverse on warmer and droughty locations of the Bela krajina plain and on southern slopes of the Kolpa River. In the associations Onobrychido-Brometum erecti, Scabioso hladniki- anae-Caricetum humilis and Bromo-Danthonietum calycine the grasslands are giv- en their characteristic colours by some species distributed in the Mediterranean, Southeastern Europe or Eurasia, such as blue-flowered bellflowers Campanula bononiensis, Campanula glomerata and Campanula rapunculus, then Eryngium amethystinum, Linum bienne, Pseudolysimachion barrelieri subsp. nitens, which is an Eastern Alpine Illyrian plant; reddish- and pink-flowered are Centaurea fritschii, Teucrium chamaedrys, Globularia punctata, Satureja montana subsp. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 77

Butcher’s Broom (Ruscus aculeatus) as undergrowth in oak forest. Photo: Branko Vrešvariegata, Thymus longicaulis, Orchis tridentata, Ophrys sphegodes, and the en- Litter-raking standsdemic Scabiosa hladnikiana; yellow-flowered are Coronilla vaginalis, Ajuga with birch trees (Betulachamaepitys, Odontites luteus, Prunella laciniata, Medicago falcata and white pendula) and CommonFilipendula vulgaris, Peucedanum oreoselinum and Anthericum ramosum. Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum). The forests, which cover the greater part of Bela krajina, are particular- Photo: Tatjana Čelikly noticeable in the west, where they descend from Kočevski Rog and acrossPoljanska gora into the Kolpa River valley. They are home to a few Slovenianprotected plant species, most salient among them being orchids of the genusCephalanthera: C. rubra, C. longifolia and, somewhat rarer in Bela krajina, C.damasonium. In some places, the following species can be found in forest un-dergrowth: Ruscus hypoglossum and R. aculeatus, and Ilex aquifolium, whichis in some places cultivated. The greater part of Bela krajina is overgrown byoak-hornbeam forests (Querco-Carpinetum), the upper part of Veliko bukovjepredominantly by beech forests with Dwarf Masterwort (Hacquetio-Fagetum),78

Association of while Poljanska gora boasts extensive fir-beech forests (Omphalodo-Fagetum).Broad-leaved The special features of Bela krajina are its “steljniki”, litter-raking birchPondweed(Potametum stands which sprung up owing to the traditional farming in the past and arenatantis) in theKolpa River. rendering this landscape a very special appearance. Most characteristic of thesePhoto: Mira Ivanovič stands are the scattered birch trees with undergrowth consisting of Common Bracken and Common Heather, which form an independent association (Genisto-Callunetum). In the last few decades, however, birch stands have been increasingly transformed into forest, which means that their plant diversity is being increasingly reduced as well. In Bela krajina, the hygrophilous, marsh and aquatic plants are fairly rare; they are limited either to watercourses or narrow belts along them, or to springs and man-made water bodies such as fish ponds and karstic ponds. On the banks of the Kolpa and Lahinja Rivers and their tributaries, willow scrubs (Salicetum albae, Salicetum triandrae) and, in places, alder woods (Stellario nemorum– Alnetum glutinosae) are flourishing. These scrubs, however, are increasingly becoming the target of nonindigenous invasive species (there are more than ten in Bela krajina), the commonest among them being the Giant Goldenrod (Solidago gigantea) and Cutleaf Coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata), while in the last few years some other invaders have been spreading here as well, such as the Policeman’s Helmet (Impatiens glandulifera), Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia ja- ponica) and Wild Cucumber (Echinocystis lobata). In places with slow river flow, the association of Broad-leaved Pondweed (Potametum natantis) develops in quiet pools and branches, which is often joined by related species, such as to the Broad-leaved Pondweed very similar Longleaf Pondweed (Potamogeton nodosus) and under water growing Curly Leaf Pondweed (P. crispus) and Fennel Pondweed (P. pectinatus), together with Fan Leaved Water Crowfoot (Ranunculus circina- tus) and Eurasian Watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum). They are all Slovenian threatened (vulnerable) species. In shallower parts, communities with Common Bulrush (Typhaetum latifoliae), Common Spikerush (Eleocharitetum palustris) NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 79

In Bela krajina, Great Fen-sedge (Cladium mariscus) proliferates only in a fen at Nerajski lugi. Photo: Branko Vrešand stands of Bur Reed (Sparganium erectum) are thriving. Among most striking marshy districts in Bela krajina are the Lahinjskiand Nerajski lugi in the upper catchment of the Lahinja River with a complexof marshes, wet and dry meadows, high sedge, reed beds and forests. Fragmentsof fens at Lahinjski and Nerajski lugi are the only natural site in Bela krajina ofGreat Fen-sedge (Cladium mariscus), a threatened (vulnerable) species of theSlovenian flora, while damp grasslands nearby are the only natural site of FleaSedge (Carex pulicaris). At some water springs, puddles, fish ponds and karsticponds, which constitute important cultural and natural heritage of Bela krajina,some other marsh or aquatic species from the List of threatened Slovenian spe-cies can also be found. Among sedges, the Blister Sedge (Carex vesicaria) andCyperus Sedge (C. pseudocyperus) occur, while among pondweeds the alreadymentioned Broad-leaved and Longleaf Pondweed, whose leaves float on thewater, are found, as well as the Small Pondweed (P. berchtoldii), yet another of80

the underwater thin-leaved pondweeds, which proliferates at the Lahinja source,but is fairly rare elsewhere in Slovenia. Among the rarer representatives of the threatened marsh flora are also theGreater Spearwort (Ranunculus lingua) with two to four centimetres large yel-low flowers, which was recorded at Gornji kal near Vinica, and the thin-stemmedEleocharis carniolica, one of the protected rare and endangered plant species inEurope, found on the bank of the upper pond near the village of Prilozje. Let usalso mention the vulnerable Marsh Seedbox (Ludwigia palustris), known fromthe pond at Boginja vas and from the bank of the karstic pond (kal) at Hrastjenear Vinica, and Sea Club-rush (Bolboschoenus maritimus s. lat.), which onlytwo decades ago still thrived in a dry karstic pond near Grduni (Balkovci). In spite of the exceptionally rich botanical treasury in Bela krajina, someendangered plant species, such as the Bristle Club-rush (Isolepis setacea), Snake’sHead Fritillary (Fritillaria meleagris), Hungarian Clover (Trifolium pannoni-cum) and Bog Sage (Viola uliginosa), which were actually recorded in Bela kraji-na, will almost certainly not be found there again. Or is there still hope?ReferencesAccetto, M., Čarni, A., Čelik, T., Drovenik, B., Perušek, M., Seliškar, A., Slapnik, R., Tonkli, P.,Trpin, D., Vreš, B. (1994). Raziskave flore, vegetacije in favne na območju krajinskega in regijskegaparka ob reki Kolpi : fazno poročilo – 1. Ljubljana: Biološki inštitut ZRC SAZU. 41 str.Accetto, M. (2001). Nova spoznanja o rastlinstvu Kočevske in Bele krajine.Gozdarski vestnik 59 (5–6), 248–259.Čarni, A. (2007). Changes in structure, floristic composition and chemical soil properties in asuccession of birch forests. Periodicum biologorum 109, 13–20.Jogan, N., Podobnik, A. (1997). Prispevek k poznavanju flore Bele krajine III. V: Mladinskabiološka raziskovalna tabora Podzemelj '95 in Duplje '96 (str. 7–17). Ljubljana: ZOTKS. 89 str.Paušič, A., Čarni, A. (2012). Spremembe krajine na območju belokranjskega nizkega krasa vzadnjih 220 letih. Acta geographica Slovenica 52 (1), 35–60.Podobnik, A., Wraber, T. (1982). Prispevek k poznavanju flore Bele krajine.V: Mladinska raziskovalna tabora Vinica '79 in '80 (73 str.). Ljubljana: ZOTKS. 85, 2, 2 str.Škornik, M. (1983). Prispevek k poznavanju flore Bele krajine (okolica Semiča).V: Mladinska raziskovalna tabora Semič '81 in '82. Ljubljana: ZOTKS. 125 str.Trčak, B., Frajman, B., Rozman, B., Jogan, N. (2001). Poročilo o delu botanične skupine.V: Gergeli, A. (ur.), Raziskovalni tabor študentov biologije Semič 2001 (str. 11–18). Ljubljana:ZOTKS. 74 str. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 81

The litter-raking stands of Vinomer are still well maintained.Photo: Mira Ivanovič82

LITTER-RAKINGSTANDS INBELA KRAJINAMira IvanovičInstitute of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature Conservation,Novo mesto Regional Unit »Is this that piece of agricultural land, overgrown with individual trees,amongst which birch with the undergrowth of fernbrake, heather and briar pre-vails? Is this the treasury of numerous plant and animal species? Is this that pieceof fertile land, which is carried into the wide world in a fragment of memory andin the heart of each Bela krajina woman, of each Bela krajina man? Yes, all of this,and even more, is the Bela krajina . It is also a memory of the playful childhood, ofdreamy youth, of the time of callused hands, worries and small joys after the workis done. It is a fragment of the heart of the gentle Bela krajina soul, which detects,already in the distance, the birch’s autumn rustling and the smell of cut down litter.Gently it bends over it. Well, not bends but sways its branches over it. There are ferns,fernbrakes above the plain. What tranquillity, what grace! You simply feel it, feelhow it permeates you, how it penetrates into your soul, making it soft. Yes, me andyou. Birch and litter. Together forever …« (Mojca Črnič) Litter-raking stands are a very special landscape feature of Bela krajina.Litter-raking stand is a piece of agricultural land overgrown with individualtrees, mostly birches, and undergrowth consisting of fernbrake, heather and briar.Settling in Bela krajina in the past and fight for survival there dictated deforest-ation of lowland hornbeam and oak forests and restoration of arable farmland.Tree thinning, raking of leaves and fern mowing in this land created litter-rakingstands that had given Bela krajina a special image already in the past. This imagehas been attentively maintained by the people of Bela krajina through historyuntil this very day with litter gathering, mowing and grazing. Irrespective ofthe fact that in certain professional circles litter-raking stands are considereddegraded agricultural land, created with deforestation of natural forests, the lat-ter gave rise, through history, to a very special cultural landscape with a widerange of life diversity. With a special charm in their eyes, older people will tellyou how beautiful it was when birches prevailed on vast surfaces of land in thevicinity of their homesteads and ferns in the plain’s undergrowth, which waitedtill autumn for the gruelling but entertaining litter gathering. With litter-raking NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 83

stands, folk tradition and different customs and traditions are associated, whichare still nourished with care by the people of Bela krajina. The most attractiveand best preserved litter-raking stands can be found in the vicinity of Drašiči,Vinomer, Bojanci, Griblje, Adlešiči, Vinica and Semič. Litter-raking standsconstitute rounded complexes of different habitat types, such as forests, scrubs,litter-raking stands, juniper thickets, overgrown forests, meadows and pastures.Written sources tell us that Bela krajina (= White Country) acquired its namefrom white birches. Birch groves with fernbrake undergrowth undoubtedly create not onlya highly recognizable landscape picture, but hide in themselves a true treasuryof animal and plant species. A fairly systematic research carried out in 2009 and2010 into butterflies, birds, plants and wild fungi in certain litter areas showedthat they are home to approximately three hundred plant species, several spe-cies of butterflies and moths, thirty-eight bird species and more than a hundredspecies of fungi. Other species are, unfortunately, still waiting to be inventoriedand evaluated.Vegetation in litter-raking stands The litter-raking stands of Marindol On the basis of the flora survey carried out in selected litter-raking stands Photo: Mira Ivanovičwithin the project entitled Revitalisation of Bela krajina litter-raking stands, aboutthree hundred plant species were inventoried (Klenovšek 2010). In the area of lit-ter-raking stands, separate plant species sites are defined as specific habitat typesowing to the specific geological substratum, i.e. Euro-Siberian dry and semi-dry secondary grasslands oncarbonates, fernbrake stands, juniper as a phase of dryovergrowing grassland, and birch woodlands in thelowlands. Botanically most interesting are mown andmaintained litter-raking stands, while in litter-rakingstands, which are transforming into litter forests dueto overgrowing, the species diversity is poorer. Pioneertree and bush species prevail (birch, Scotch pine andhornbeam, and bush species in the undergrowth, suchas buckthorn, hazel, juniper, blackthorn, etc.). Therarely mown litter surfaces are a true botanical treas-ury. In spring, the pink winter heath, orchids, bellflow-ers as well as white pastures dressed in meadowsweetwill attract our attention among the green plains offernbrake. A special mention should go to several or-chid species: Green-winged Orchid (Orchis morio),Three-toothed Orchid (Orchis tridentata), EuropeanCommon Twayblade (Listera ovata), Lesser Butterfly-orchid (Platanthera bifolia), and White Helleborine84

Willow Gentian (Cephalanthera damasonium). All orchid species arePhoto: Dušan Klenovšek, protected in Slovenia. Since 2004, certain habitatsArchives of the Instituteof the Republic of of orchids that proliferate in dry meadows withinSlovenia for NatureConservation (IRSNC) Slovenian territory have also been protected with theCommon Heather Decree on special protection areas (Natura 2000 sites)Photo: Mira Ivanovič as priority habitat type (6210*) Central European mod- erately dry grasslands with Upright Brome. Owing to the presence of orchids in dry meadows within main- tained litter-raking stands, these could also be classified as priority protected habitats, but some more detailed analyses are still needed. As far as thermophilic meadow species and their habitats are concerned, it is essential that suitable land use is maintained, such as regular mowing that prevents overgrowing (once a year as late as possible) or cultivation without the use of fertilizers, as they increase the quantity of nitrogen in the ground, which reduces their competitiveness in comparison with other species. It is essential that spreading of invasive species is prevented and that the forest edge, the contact point between litter-raking stands and forests, is maintained. Let us also add that in the litter-raking stands of Vinomer the rare and vulnerable Lady Orchid (Orchis purpurea), which appears in the Red List of ferns and seed plants, has been found for the very first time in Bela krajina. The special features of litter-raking stands are the endemic Red Hellebore (Helleborus atrorubens) and the Green-flowered Hellebore (Helleborus dumetorum). In the autumn, immediately after being mown, litter-raking stands dress themselves in brown colours of mown ferns, which are coloured pink and variegated by the Common Heather (Calluna vulgaris). Wild fungi Wild fungi are all species of naturally grow- ing non-cultivated fungi, composed of mycelium and fruiting bodies. They are a very important group from the aspect of nature conservation. In the area of Bela krajina, however, they are insufficiently researched as well as poorly known. They are also an important in- dicator group, as they are highly sensitive to environ- mental changes and restricted to certain types of soil. Chemical composition of soil plays an important role in the species diversity of very specific fungi. Highly important is the pH value of soil and thus the symbio- sis of very specific trees associated with certain fungi. In our case, we are dealing with clayey and calcareous soil. As intensive overgrowing of litter-raking stands into litter forests is taking place, fungi sites are becoming highly endangered. Some years ago, the maintained NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 85

and regularly mown litter-raking stands were a true Octopus Stinkhorn Photo: Mira Ivanovičmushroom treasury. In spite of overgrowing, howev-er, it can be said that we are dealing with high speciesdiversity here. The survey of fungi in the 2009-2010period (Bela krajina Mycological Society) has shownhigh diversity and suitability of habitats for fungi. Thehundred inventoried species is a fairly high and en-couraging number. Four species, i.e. Beefsteak Fungus(Fistulina hepatica), Fir-cone Amanity (Amanita stro-biliformis), Devil’s Bolete (Boletus satanas) and CrownCoral (Artomyces pyxidatas) are on the Red List of endangered fungi, while threeof them (with the exception of Devil’s Bolete) are protected as well. In litter-rak-ing stands, rich sites of mushrooms belonging especially to the genera Boletus,Leccinum and Armillaria can be found. A special feature among mushrooms is themedicinal wood mushroom Birch Polypore (Piptoporus betulinus), which growson dying birches.Butterflies Jersey Tiger Moth Photo: Tomi Trilar In the last few years, butterflies have become one of the most importantindicators in the monitoring of environment quality. As they quickly respondto environment changes, their presence can help us to estimate the general stateof biodiversity and how well nature is preserved in the area under consideration.On the basis of the conservationist evaluation of but-terflies and moths in Bela krajina (Matjaž Jež 2010),it was ascertained that Bela krajina is a host of morethan three hundred different butterfly and mothspecies. Specifically, Bela krajina has relatively manysouthern as well as thermophilous and xerophilousspecies that are fewer in other parts of Slovenia, or donot exist at all. A comparison with the known data onendangered and protected butterfly species for entireBela krajina shows that certain species inhabit the areaof litter-raking stands as well. The so far inventoriedspecies are relatively generally distributed and com-mon. The traditional use of litter-raking stands withpreserved mosaic structure of habitats will retain theenvironment’s diversity with butterflies in the futureas well. Most often, the following species can be seenhere: Jersey Tiger Moth (Calimorpha quadripunctar-ia), European Peacock (Nymphalis io), Red Admiral(Vanessa atlanta), Painted Lady (Vanessa cardui), andSmall Tortoiseshell (Aglais urticae).86

Blue Tit BirdsPhoto: Mirko Perušek,Archives of IRSNC The Bela krajina litter-raking stands constitute a unique ecosystem from both landscape and ecological points of view. The 2009-2010 bird survey showed that the species restricted to forests in the making, young forests and forest edges predominate in these litter-raking stands. Thirty-nine bird species were invento- ried, quite some of which can be found on the lists of protected species, e.g. Red List, Habitat Directive, Appendix I, IUCN 2009 classification, species of European conservation concern (SPEC, 1994); after IUCN 2009 classification on a world scale. Most of these are passerines. The more common among them are: Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita), Robin (Erithacus rubecula), Blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla), Great Tit (Parus major), Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), Yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella), Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur), Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus mar- tius), Grey-headed Woodpecker (Picus canus) and Middle Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos medius). The majority of these birds are typical of overgrown areas as well. Of the dominant species, the Great Tit is the only typical sedentary bird; the rest are migrants or vagrants. The rich herb and shrub layer in the overgrown litter-raking stands provide favourable conditions for the above mentioned domi- nant bird species. The fact is that some birds have a preference for overgrown areas, old trees with holes, and shrub vegetation. The conser- vationally most important among cavity nesting birds are: Middle Spotted Woodpecker, Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, Grey-headed Woodpecker, Black Woodpecker, and Wryneck. It is quite surprising that the Ural Owl (Strix uralensis) has been observed in the litter-raking stands of Vinomer and Marindol. Its pres- ence there is significant in nature conservation sense, given that in Slovenia it reaches 2% of the European population (species from the Appendix I of the Bird Directive). The cleared and maintained litter-raking stands offer the Ural Owl rich vantage points for hunting and individual trees suit- able as breeding niches (larger nests, suitable tree holes). Conservation of litter-raking stands Due to the continual cessation of use of litter (as bedding material for live- stock) and to the modern modes of farming, litter-raking stands are being gradu- ally overgrown, owing to which the characteristic image of Bela krajina covered by litter-raking stands is changing gradually. The wonderful birch groves are being successively transformed into birch forests, into which other pioneer tree species are also penetrating, such as hornbeam, spruce, Scotch pine, black locust, cherry, poplar, oak, bitter oak and sessile oak. Apart from tree species, various bush species have begun to thrive in them as well, particularly buckthorn, hazel and blackberry. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 87

Litter-raking stands constitute an important habitat for endangered plantand animal species. With their adaptive use in suitable time periods, successfulbreeding for certain bird species and fledging of their young can be achieved, aswell as successful development of butterflies and seed production in orchids andother endangered plants. Due to the specific values of cultural landscape and habitats of certainplant and animal species, which are restricted to litter-raking stands (habitattypes like juniper thickets, Euro-Siberian dry and semi-dry secondary grasslands,fernbrake stands), and owing to the testimony and tradition of agricultural landuse, certain litter-raking stands have been put on the list of ecosystemic valuablenatural features and ecologically important areas on the basis of legal regulationsfrom the sphere of nature and culture conservation. The litter-raking stands ofMarindol, Vinomer and Žuniči were recognized as ecosystemic valuable naturalfeature (Regulations on stipulation and protection of valuable natural features,Official Gazette of the RS, No. 111/04 and 70/06). The Marindol litter-rakingstands in Kolpa Nature Park are protected even as natural and cultural monu-ment. The litter-raking stands near Maline have, until recently, held the statusof valuable natural feature, but have been erased from the register of valuablenatural features due to abandoned use and planting of spruce. In order to preserve the identity of Bela krajina and at least some of itscharacteristic litter-raking stands, their biotic and landscape diversity, as well asto revive the folk tradition associated with litter-raking stands and the almostforgotten knowledge of the medicinal value of certain plant species that arecharacteristic of litter-raking stands, all three Bela krajina municipalities decidedto take part in the Leader programme with the project entitled »Revitalizationof the Bela krajina litter-raking stands«. The project was successfully concludedin 2010, when more than thirty hectares of litter-raking stands were revitalized.At the same time, certain activities closely associated with litter-raking standsand their use in medicine, customs and handicraft were revived.References Scything in a litter-raking stand.Belokranjsko gobarsko društvo. (2010). Popis samoniklih gliv v belokranjskih steljnikih. Photo: Janez Božič,(Zaključno poročilo). Naročnik: Občina Metlika Archives of IRSNCČrnič, M., Ivanovič, M. (2010). Steljnik. Črnomelj : Občina.Ivanovič, M., Hudoklin, A. (2000). Naravna dediščina v občini Črnomelj. Črnomelj : Občina. 19 str.Jež, M. (2010). Inventarizacija in naravovarstvena valorizacija metuljev belokranjskih steljnikov.(Zaključno poročilo). Naročnik: Občina MetlikaKlenovšek, D. (2010). Inventarizacija z naravovarstveno valorizacijo rastlinskih vrst in habitatnihtipov izbranih belokranjskih steljnikov. (Zaključno poročilo). Naročnik: Občina MetlikaPerko, D., Orožen Adamič, M. (ur.) (1999). Slovenija – pokrajine in ljudje. 2. izd. Ljubljana:Mladinska knjiga. 735 str.Perušek, M. (2010). Inventarizacija z naravovarstveno valorizacijo ptic belokranjskih steljnikov.(Zaključno poročilo). Naročnik: Občina Metlika88

NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 89

The seemingly vital oak is clearly doomed to death, as the wonderful little capsof chicken mushroom Laetiporus sulphureus speak about its internal rottenness;it is only a question of time when the mighty oak will finally be overwhelmed.Photo: Franc Pohleven90

RICHNESSOF MUSHROOMSIN BELA KRAJINADr Franc PohlevenDepartment of Wood Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty,University of Ljubljana When descending from Jugorje and Vahta to Bela krajina, strewn withsoft hillocks, woodlands and grasslands, my heart leaps with joy and I am over-whelmed by the sense of comfort and familiarity. The undulating landscape isscattered with groves interrupted by vineyards, fields and meadows, which createa true paradise for nature lovers and especially mushroom pickers. The forests areeasily accessible and not overdemanding for ordinary strollers. Even if we are notfavoured by mushroom-picking luck, we’ll be highly satisfied already by a merewalk through the wonderful Bela krajina landscape. Its forests are rich with nu-merous mushroom species, which can also be found elsewhere in Slovenia. Well,Bela krajina might be home to more of those species, which live in harmony withdeciduous trees, particularly birch and the species fond of limestone substratum. The world of mushrooms is full of incredibly diverse fruiting bodies ofall possible colours and forms. Experts believe that the fungus kingdom encom-passes some 350,000 species, of which less than 100,000 have been described.The expression »mushroom« usually means the reproductive part of fungi – thefruiting body. With the naked eye or with a simple lens, less than 5,000 speciesof fruiting bodies are visible, for other fungi’s fruiting bodies are microscopicallysmall and visible under microscope only. Even though the great majority of spe-cies are microscopically tiny, fungi cannot be classified as microorganisms, giventhat their mycelia, which constitute the feeding part of fungi, are very extensiveindeed. The greater part of the mycelium is hidden from view, as it is growingthrough the soil or under fallen logs or decaying plant and animal remains. On the contrary, there are species among fungi that represent the largestorganisms in the world, as their mycelium, which is under the ground and cannotbe seen, can branch out to the extent of no less than few kilometres. The myceli-um is the vegetative part of fungi and is composed of fine threads (hyphae) thatgroup together to make a mycelium and at times thinly and then again thicklyovergrow the soil. Only when the mycelium branches out enough in soil and issupplied by nutrients, the primordial shoot out from the mycelium in favourable NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 91

weather conditions, from which the fruiting bodies Although the redeventually develop. It is mostly the macroscopic fungi toadstool (fly amanita) -that mushroom pickers are interested in, the won- Amanita muscaria isderful hymenia of which can be found in forests and poisonous, it is verymeadows. They occur in a diverse number of forms beneficial for treeand colours. The ubiquitous expression for the fruit- growth, and as it caning body, visible with the naked eye, is mushroom. be considered a forest adornment at the same Mushrooms can grow in different forest time, it should never bestands, although not all species in all places, as their destroyed and kickedhabitat adapts to the type of soil and particularly around.to the plants growing there. There are mushroom Photo: Franc Pohleventhat grow only in soil with small limestone content,and those that require a thick layer of soil for theirgrowth, while some have a preference for sandy soil.Generally, it can be said that many more mushroomsthrive in deciduous than in coniferous forests; on the other hand, a much greaternumber of the same mushroom species can be found in coniferous than decidu-ous forests. There are not many mushrooms growing in densely wooded forestswith dense undergrowth. Mushroom love particularly lighter parts of forests, In meadows and on forest edges we may get pleasantly surprised by parasol mushrooms - Macrolepiota procera. Photo: Franc Pohleven92

The sprouting fruiting even clearings and forest margins, but can also bebodies of the parasitic found along paths or even in the middle of them. Thehoney mushrooms - majority of mushrooms have a liking for rich humusArmillaria mellea soil with rotten leaves or fallen off needles, or growherald the cherry's on mosses. On the forest margins and in clearings,imminent ruin. mushrooms can be also found in grass, even in thePhoto: Franc Pohleven midst of ferns, whereas some species, such as field mushrooms, parasol mushrooms and ink cap mush- rooms, are explicitly meadow mushrooms. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms. They sup- ply themselves with nutrients like parasites and cause severe damages on people, animals (mycoses) and plants. Best known among plant fungal diseases are downy mildew on vine and phytophthora on potato and tomato. The commonest parasitic fungi on trees are root rot and honey mushroom. Decay fungi or saprophytes thrive on dead organisms or dead organic matter. From rotting tree trunks, they often menacing- ly glow into the night. On decomposing leaves, wonderful earth stars appear; on fallen trees and branches they grow like oysters, or like hoof-shaped orange-yellowIn Bela krajina, birchpolypore - Piptoporusbetulinus, which isa young edible andmainly medicinalmushroom, can beseen on decayingstanding and felledbirches.Photo: Franc Pohleven NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 93

chicken mushrooms on solitary rotting oaks along paths. On weakened birches of In early autumn,Bela krajina, birch mushrooms often appear. This group also includes house-rot fruiting bodies of thefungi, which cause much damage on wooden products and buildings. earth star - Geastrum mirabile »burst into Symbiotic fungi, on the other hand, live in symbiosis with plants; they bloom« on the rootingare known as mycorrhizal fungi. With the roots of certain plant species they leaves.exchange nutrients and jointly create a community called mycorrhiza. For some Photo: Franc Pohlevenmushroom species it is well known with which trees they like to be in mycor-rhiza most. This is why they often occur in the vicinity of these trees, which is ofcourse an important piece of information for mushroom pickers. Larch bolete,for example, thus grows under larches, birch bolete in the vicinity of birches, andhornbeam bolete under hornbeams. Mushroom growth is significantly influenced by the mineral structure ofsoil which, on the other hand, is influenced by litter utilisation. Through litter re-moval, the dead plant material and part of undergrowth is removed from forests,as well as saprophytic fungi that live at the expense of decomposing litter anddead undergrowth. This reduces the mineralisation and, consequently, impover-ishes the mineral structure of soil. And it is in fact this impaired mineralisationthat forces the tree roots to establish symbiosis with fungi, as the supply of my-celium with minerals is a few times more effective through hyphae than throughroot hairs. This means that saprophytic fungi are impoverished through litterutilisation. At the same time, the quantity and species composition of mycor-rhizal fungi, which are of particular interest to mushroom pickers, are increased. The best known mycorrhizal mushrooms are boletes, russulas and numer-ous other mycorrhizal fungi. In Bela krajina, the precious truffles most probably94

The greatest trophy is grow as well. Symbiotic fungi also include the poi-still a vigorous bolete, sonous toadstools, which can be lethal (red toadstool,such as this penny bun - fly amanita, fly agaric) for inexperienced mushroomBoletus edulis. pickers. Therefore, it is very important to pick onlyPhoto: Franc Pohleven such mushrooms that are reliably recognized as edible. Mushrooms that are unknown to us, as well as those which are recognized as poisonous must never be stepped on or kicked around! Every mushroom serves as food to a series of organisms. Many poisonous mushrooms, too, are highly significant for the growth and development of plants, with which they are inter- connected through the root system. And this is why destruction of mushrooms is of course intolerable from the aspect of nature conservation. Irrespective of their toxicity, all mushrooms enliven forests with their diverse colours and are of exceptional importance for the preservation of the forest association’s vitality. Forests containing many saprophytic and mycorrhizal mushrooms are high quality and healthy forests. In the last few decades, unfortu- nately, we have witnessed the dying of mycelia of several mushroom species, quite often due to the unfavourable environmental impacts, such as severe drought and pollution, or because the forest association changed owing to vast cuts and the mineral structure of soil changed due to the abandonment of litter utilisation. During mushroom picking, people are advised to take care from the aspect of their protection. In Slovenia, mushroom picking was limited with a decree adopted in 1994, while seventy protected mushrooms were prohibited to be picked altogether. Any mushroom picking is also prohibited in the central areas of national and regional parks and forest reserves. In unprotected areas, an individual is allowed to pick max. two kilograms of mushrooms per day, with the exception of honey mushrooms, which can be picked to the amount of max. five kilograms per day. The decree also stipulates guidelines for mushroom pick- ing, buying, exporting and importing. References Anko, B. (ur.) (1990). Izkoriščanje in varstvo gozdne mikoflore. Ljubljana: Biotehniška fakulteta, VTOZD za gozdarstvo. 145 str. Pace, G. (1977). Vse o gobah (priredil in dopolnil Dušan Vrščaj). - Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga; Zagreb: Prosvjeta, 1977. - 355 str. Poler, A. (ur.) (1998). Seznam gliv Slovenije. 2. dopolnjena in posodobljena izd. Ljubljana: Zveza gobarskih društev Slovenije. 120 str. Belokranjsko gobarsko društvo. (2010). Popis samoniklih gliv v belokranjskih steljnikih. (Zaključno poročilo). Metlika: Občina. Uredba o varstvu samoniklih gliv. (1994). Uradni list RS, št. 57/1998, št. 2689, str. 4246. Available at: www.uradni-list.si/1/content?id=7610 NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 95

Litter stand with bracken fern undergrowth.Photo: Uroš Strugar96

THE FORESTSOF BELA KRAJINAMarjan GrahSlovenia Forest Service, Regional unit Novo mestoStocking degree Bela krajina is characterized by its attractive, undulating landscape withwhite birch trees, litter stands, fields and meadows strewn between the remains oflowland oak and hophornbeam forests and densely packed beech forests of KočevskiRog and Poljanska gora. This landscape diversity is a result of the prolonged humanimpact. Various archaeological sites testify that Bela krajina was inhabited as early asin the Neolithic (Late Stone Age), when people made their living out of agricultureand livestock as well as clearing forests to a great extent. According to data from the1965 land Cadastre, only 27% of land was marked as forest. At the turn of the 19th century, extensive overgrowing of the abandonedagricultural land began to take place, when the Bela krajina population opted fora mass migration to the States owing to the great economic crisis. In wine-grow-ing areas, the crisis was further aggravated by the outburst of wine louse, whicheventually destroyed their vineyards, whereas the abandoned vineyard districtswere gradually overgrown by forest. The declining population trend continuedafter World War II, when particularly young people decided to leave for industri-ally developed areas at home and abroad. In the last thirty years, emigration hasindeed been reduced due to the greater possibilities of getting jobs near home,except that the population now shifted from agriculture to industry. The stock-ing degree increase is indicated by the data of various forest management plans.In 1970, it was 46%, in 1980 51%, in 1990 60%, in 2000 66%, and in 2010 68%. Given that the agricultural land use was abandoned in the first half of the20th century, forest stands are thriving today, while in the areas abandoned inthe last few decades pioneer stands and plantations of conifers can now be found. Overgrowing, however, is not taking place equally in all parts of Bela kra-jina. The largest plots of land have become overgrown in Bela krajina’s southernpart, where the demographic conditions are the worst. Fairly strong overgrow-ing has also been noted in the lowland parts around Semič. In the environs of NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA 97

Črnomelj, overgrowing has stopped, with clearing in the last decade even greaterthan overgrowing. The surface area of forests in the district of Kočevski Rog hasnot changed at all.Tree structure In Bela krajina, deciduous forests prevail. More mixed and coniferousforests can be found in the part of Kočevski Rog with predominantly fir-beechforests and in the lowland part around Črnomelj and Gradec, where sprucespreads naturally on acidic sites. At the same time, larger plantations of coniferswere introduced in the 1960s and 1970s, mainly spruce and eastern white pine,with the aim of turning Bela krajina litter stands into managed forests. Map: Tree structure with regard to the ratio between conifers / deciduous trees. Prepared by: ZGS OE NM98

Forest tree structure in Bela krajina is highly diverse. Among deciduoustrees prevail, especially in higher parts of the area, beech with 27% of the totalBela krajina’s forest growing stock, sessile oak in lower parts with 22% and horn-beam with 11%, and chestnut on warm slopes above vineyards with 5%. Thecommonest among conifers are spruce (15%) in the lowlands and silver fir (4%)in higher parts of Kočevski Rog. The tree diversity is supplemented by several other species, representedby smaller shares: sycamore (4%), Turkey oak (3%), Scotch pine (3 %), birch(2 %), hophornbeam (2%), aspen (2%), robinia (1%), linden and littleleaflinden (1%), eastern white pine (1%), cherry, common and manna ash, com-mon alder, pedunculate oak, Austrian pine, northern red oak, larch, wych elm,poplar, and others. NATURAL HERITAGE OF BELA KRAJINA Map: Tree structure with regard to the prevailing tree species. Prepared by: ZGS OE NM 99

Description of the more important forestassociations The pre-Dinaric and Dinaric sessile oak-hornbeam forests (45% of allBela krajina’s forest areas) cover the greater part of undulating Bela krajina Plain,were they alternate with farmland and villages at altitudes between 150 and 220metres, but also reach warmer slopes at up to 500 metres a.s.l. The associationprospers mainly on alluvial deposits of clay and deep brown soils on limestones.This is in fact a two-layer forest with sessile oak in the upper layer and hornbeamin the lower layer with individual admixture of maple, cherry, pedunculate oak,sycamore and beech. In warmer parts close to villages and vineyards, the stagewith sweet chestnut occurs as well. The pre-Dinaric and Dinaric submontane beech forests (19%) cover thefringes of Poljanska gora and Kočevski Rog at altitudes between 300 and 600metres on medium steep to steep slopes and wide ridges. The soil, which is freshand biologically very active, is medium deep, exceptionally also deep or shal-low carbonate brown soil on limestone or dolomite. The stands are composedof beech and sessile oak, while in litter-utilised and open stands the competitivestrength and share of hornbeam, Turkey oak, aspen and birch is greatly increased. The submontane sessile oak-beech forests on leached soils (11%) coverpredominantly gentle southern slopes of the Gorjanci Mts and Poljanska goraas well as higher parts of Veliko bukovje between 200 and 600 metres a.s.l. Thesubstratum is composed of limestones with a series of characteristic karst phe-nomena. On them, deep to medium deep brown carbonate soils were formed, inwhich slight acid base reactions may occur and are biologically medium active.The main tree species are beech and sessile oak with a minor admixture of syca-more as well as sweet chestnut in warmer places. The acidophilic sessile oak-hornbeam forests (9%) thrive on carbonatesubstratum, here and there also on deposits of Pleistocene clay, at altitudes be-tween 150 and 280 metres especially in the vicinity of Črnomelj. The relief ispredominantly full of depressions and sinkholes, the terrain from smooth to un-dulating. Highly prevalent among tree species is spruce, followed by sessile oakand (with somewhat smaller share) hornbeam. Here and there, silver fir occurswith a greater share as well. The Dinaric fir-beech forests (8%) can be found at altitudes between 400and 1,030 metres a.s.l. on moderately steep slopes of Kočevski Rog, which arewetter than the slopes of Gorjanci Mts due to their exposure to the moisture-lad-en south-westerly winds. They grow on medium deep, exceptionally also deepbrown carbonate soils on limestone, which are fresh and biologically very active.The stands are composed of beech and silver fir, often spruce and, individually,of sycamore in places. The pre-Dinaric mountain beech forests (6 %) occur at altitudes be-tween 300 and 1,070 metres a.s.l. on medium steep to steep slopes, in wet ditch-es and on slightly undulating plateaux. They inhabit medium deep to deep or100