Bodysystems

B​ ody Systems Flip BookHong Nguyen

Table of contentsIntegumentary systems: Key terms: System Research: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Health Careers Associated:Musculoskeletal Systems: Key Term: Systems Research: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Health Careers Associated:Nervous System: Key Terms: Vocabulary: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Health Careers Associated:Special Senses: Key terms: Vocabulary: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Health Careers Associated: Key terms: atri/o: atrium Vocabulary: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Health Careers Associated:Respiratory system: Key terms: Vocabulary: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Health Careers Associated:Digestive system: Key terms: Vocabulary: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Table of contents

Health Careers Associated:Urinary system: Key terms: Vocabulary: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Health Careers Associated:Reproductive system: Key term: Vocabulary: Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: Health Careers Associated: Table of contents

Integumentary systemsC​ onsists of the skin, hair, nails, glands, and nerves. Its main function is to act as abarrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids,protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature.Key terms: ● pil/o:​ hair ● lip/o:​ fat ● rhytid/o:​ wrinkle ● albin/o:​ white ● Derm/o, Dermat/o:​ skin ● Kerat/o:​ cornea ● Xer/o: d​ ry ● Xanth/o: y​ ellow ● Erythr/o: r​ ed ● pedicu/o:​ louse ● onych/o:​ nail ● myc/o: m​ uscle Table of contents

System Research: ● ​Cicatrix - S​ car left by a healed wound ● Comedo -​ Common blackhead caused by a buildup of sebum and keratin in a skin pore ● Cyst -​ Small sac or pouch containing fluid or semisolid fluid ● A​ lopecia -​ Hair loss; can result from the normal aging process or be drug- or illness-induced ● Bulla -​ Large vesicle or blister ● Ecchymosis - P​ urplish macular bruise, hemorrhaging into the skin ● Fissure -​ Groove or crack-like sore ● Keloid - ​Abnormally raised, thickened scar ● Pacule -​ A discolored lesion that lies flush with the skin (freckles, tattoo marks, and moles) ● Papule -​ Solid elevation of the skinDiseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● Skin Cancer: ○ Basal cell carcinoma - Over 2 million cases in the USA can either skin color or has a slight pearl color. Rarely spread to other parts of the body. This can be problematic if not treated can destroy skin tissue and bone. ○ Squamous cell carcinoma - This is a rough-surfaced skin-colored lesion. Squamous cell skin cancer causes death in about 10 percent of affected patients. ○ Melanoma - Most serious skin looks like a dark, changing, bleeding skin spot. ● Warts: ​Rough bumps caused by a viral infection. They commonly occur on the hands and feet. Sometimes, tiny black dots will be visible in a wart. ● Eczema: A​ lso known as Dermatitis, eczema looks like red, itchy, flaky skin. It can occur anywhere. Sometimes, it happens by itself, and other times, it is caused by outside factors such as poison ivy. Table of contents

● Moles: I​ f a mole start changing — Moles are normal parts of the skin If a mole start changing in size, color or shape, or if it bleeds it need to be evaluated by a doctor.​ Health Careers Associated: ● Dermatologists:​ Physicians who have acquired a Dermatology degree from a medical institution and specializes in the diagnosis and cure of skin disorders. Dermatologists also study the functions of the skin, and the correlation between skin pathologies and disorders of other organs in the body. ● Plastic surgeons:​ Plastic surgeons perform operations that change the appearance or look of a part of a patient's body. They do not just perform cosmetic surgeries such as a nose jobs and face lifts, they also perform reconstructive surgeries of patients that have injuries in a severe accident or who have birth defects. Table of contents

Musculoskeletal Systems:P​ rovides form, support, stability, and movement to the body. It is made up of the bonesof the skeleton, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connectivetissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together. Key Term: ● Ischi/o:​ ischium ● kinesi/o, kinet/o: m​ ovement ● kyph/o:​ humpback ● lei/o:​ smooth ● disk/o:​ a round ● fasci/o:​ fascia ● femor/o:​ femur ● fibul/o: ​fibula ● humer/o:​ humorous ● ili/o:​ ilium ​ Systems Research: ● circumduction -​ moving in a circular manner ● Inversion -​ turning inward ● Eversion -​ turning outward ● Dorsiflexion - b​ ending foot upward ● Plantar flexion -​ bending foot downward ● Abduction -​ moving away from the midline ● Adduction - m​ oving toward the midline ● Extension -​ motion that increases the joint angle ● Flexion -​ motion that decreases the joint angle ● Pronation -​ turning downward (palm of hand or sole of foot) Table of contents

​ Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● Arthritis:​ As​ people age joint tissues become less resilient to wear and tear and start to degenerate manifesting as swelling, pain, and oftentimes, loss of mobility of joints ● Osteoporosis:​ W​ hen too much calcium is dissolved from bones or not enough replaced, bones lose density and are easily fractured. Estrogen, the female sex hormone, helps maintain proper calcium levels in bones. Once the ovaries stop producing the hormone, women are at higher risk of developing osteoporosis. ● Osteomalacia:​ ​ If not enough calcium is deposited during early childhood development, the bones do not become rock-hard, but rubbery. Both adequate calcium in the diet and vitamin D, primarily, from normal sunlight exposure or supplementation, are necessary for normal bone development. ● Tendonitis:​ Repeated strain on a tendon, attachment of a muscle to bone, can inflame the tendon resulting in pain and difficulty with movement involving the muscle. Tendons have a poor blood supply; therefore, they typically take a long time to heal on the order of six weeks or more.​ Health Careers Associated: ● Chiropractors -​ Treat patients with health problems of the musculoskeletal system, which is made up of the bones, muscles, ligaments, and tendons. Use spinal manipulation and other techniques to treat patients’ ailments, such as back or neck pain. ● Physical Therapist-​ Help people who have injuries or illnesses improve their movement and manage their pain. Often an important part of rehabilitation and treatment of patients with chronic conditions or injuries. Promotes balance and posture, along with proper muscle function. Table of contents

Perform many therapies (like range of motion exercises) to ensure full muscle movement Nervous System:​The network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of thebody.​Key Terms: ● dys/o: b​ ad, painful, difficult ● hyper/o: ​excessive ● inter/o: b​ etween ● intra/o: w​ ithin ● para/o: ​two ● peri/o: ​surrounding ● poly/o: m​ any; much ● post/o: ​after, behind ● pre/o: ​before, in front of ● quadri/o: ​four Table of contents

Vocabulary: ● Cerebrum: ​The largest part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory. ● Cranial nerves: 1​ 2 pairs of nerves that carry messages to and from the brain with regard to the head and neck (except the vagus nerve). ● Ganglion: C​ ollection of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. ● Hypothalamus: P​ ortion of the brain beneath the thalamus. Controls sleep, appetite, body temperature, and secretions from the pituitary gland. ● Medulla oblongata: A​ part of the brain, just above the spinal cord, controls breathing, heartbeat, and the size of blood vessels; nerve fibers cross over here. ● Meninges: ​3 protective membranes which surround the brain and spinal cord. ● Myelin Sheath: T​ he covering of white, fatty tissue that surrounds and insulates the axons of a nerve cell. Myelin speeds impulse conduction along axons. ● Neuron: ​Nerve cell that carries impulses throughout the body. ● Neurotransmitter: ​Chemical messengers released at the end of a nerve. ● Parasympathetic nerves: I​ nvoluntary, autonomic nerves, that regular normal body functions, such as, heart rate, breathing, and muscles of the gastrointestinal tract. Table of contents

Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● M​ ultiple Sclerosis –​ Literally, “many hardenings,” MS is a disease of unknown cause that manifests as multiple hard plaques of degeneration of the insulating layer of nerve fibers in the central nervous system. The loss of insulation allows “short circuiting” of nerve impulses. Depending upon where the degeneration occurs, patients may suffer paralysis, sensory disturbances or blindness. ● Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)​ – the fancy name for a “stroke”. A blood vessel in the brain may burst causing internal bleeding. Or, a clot may arise in a brain blood vessel (a thrombus), or arise elsewhere (embolus) and travel to get stuck in a brain vessel which then deprives brain tissue of oxygen. Depending upon the area of the brain involved, the patient may suffer paralysis, loss of speech or loss of vision. ● Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)​ – “Ischemia” was introduced previously in the circulatory diseases module referring to the heart. It literally means “not quite enough blood”. A short period of insufficient blood supply to the brain can have the same signs and symptoms as a stroke such as weakness in an arm, a partial loss of vision, but the problem lasts less than 24 hours. People who get UTI's are at increased risk of having a stroke in the future. ● Epilepsy​ – a Greek word for “seizure.” Convulsions is another term used. Seizures may have many causes and not all seizures are epilepsy. High fevers in young children may trigger seizures which are short in duration, easily controlled and, typically, have no permanent aftereffects. Epilepsy is a specific condition which may occur at any age, seizures are more intense, longer lasting in duration, and recur with some frequency. The condition may be controlled with medication, or if unresponsive to drugs, may require surgery.Health Careers Associated:● Neuroscientist General term for someone who studies the nervous system. ● Psychiatrist M.D. who diagnoses and treats mental disorders.● Neuroscience Nurse who cares for patients with neurological disorders and assists other neuroscience-related health care Nurse professionals Table of contents

Special Senses:​In medicine and anatomy, the s​ pecial senses​ are the s​ enses​ that have specializedorgans devoted to them: vision (the eye) hearing and balance (the ear, which includesthe auditory system and vestibular system) smell (the nose) taste (the tongue)Key terms: ● ambly/o​: dull, dim ● blephar/o:​ eyelid ● choroid/o: choroid ● core/o orpupil/o:​ pupil ● conjunctiv/o:​ conjunctiva ● corne/o:​ cornea Table of contents

● cycl/o:​ ciliary body of eye ● dacry/o orlacrinm/o:​ tear; lacrimal apparatus ● dacryocyst/o: ​lacrimal sac ● glauc/o:​ grayVocabulary​: ● achromatopsia:​ severe congenital deficiency in color perception; complete color blindness. ● chalazion:​ small, hard tumor developing on the eyelid. ● conjunctivitis:​ inflammation of the conjunctiva. ● convergence:​ medial movement of the two eyeballs so that they are both directed at the object being viewed. ● diopter:​ measurement of refractive error. ● ectropion:​ eversion, or outward turning of the edge of the lower eyelid. ● epiphora:​ abnormal overflow of tears. ● exophthalmos:​ protrusion of one or both eyeballs. ● hordeolum:​ localized, circumscribed, inflammatory swelling of one of the several sebaceous glands of the eyelid; sty. ● metamorphopsia:​ visual distortion of objects nyctalopia.Diseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● Bell palsy: ​abrupt paralysis of the muscles on one side of the face due to dysfunction of the seventh cranial nerve, the facial nerve. The disorder is named for the Scottish surgeon Sir Charles Bell, who first described the function of the facial nerve in 1829. The facial nerve supplies the muscles of movement and expression of the face. It also has sensory components that supply taste to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and sensation in a small area around the ear. In addition, a small nerve extends to a muscle attached to one of the bones of the middle ear, and autonomic fibres extend to salivary and tear glands. A person with Bell palsy may notice pain around the ear, alterations in taste, sensitivity to sound, and inability to use the facial muscles. There is trouble in closing the eye, wrinkling the forehead, and pulling up the corners of the mouth. Food tends to Table of contents

accumulate in the affected side of the mouth. The face has an ironed-out appearance.● Cataract:​ opacity of the crystalline lens of the eye. Cataracts occur in 50 percent of people between the ages of 65 and 74 and in 70 percent of people over the age of 75. Typical age-related cataracts can cause cloudy vision, glare, colour vision problems, changes in eyeglass prescription, and, rarely, double vision (only in the affected eye). Usually, these types of cataracts are bilateral, although one eye may be more affected than the other.● Astigmatism:​ nonuniform curvature of the cornea (the transparent, dome-shaped tissue located in front of the iris and pupil) that causes the eye to focus images at different distances, depending on the orientation of light as it strikes the cornea. The effect of astigmatism can also be produced by abnormalities or misalignment of the crystalline lens (sometimes called lenticular astigmatism), although this is rare. The portions of the image that are not focused on the retina (the light-sensitive tissue lining the inside of the eyeball) appear blurred. Astigmatism occurs independent of the existence of nearsightedness or farsightedness. This condition usually can be corrected through a precisely designed lens (eyeglasses or some forms of contact lenses) that counteracts the underlying corneal asymmetry. Refractive surgery is also capable of correcting limited amounts of astigmatism in some situations.● Tinnitus:​ ringing or buzzing in the ears. An estimated one-third of adults experience tinnitus at some point in their lives, and some 10 to 15 percent of individuals are afflicted by chronic tinnitus. There are two types of tinnitus: subjective, which is the most common form, and objective, which is relatively rare. In subjective tinnitus, only the person with the condition can hear the noise. In objective tinnitus, a physician can detect the ringing, buzzing, or clicking sound. Health Careers Associated:● Audiologist​ is a health-care professional specializing in identifying, diagnosing, treating and monitoring disorders of the auditory and vestibular system portions of the ear.● Optometry​ is a healthcare profession which involves examining the eyes and applicable visual systems for defects or abnormalities as well as the medical diagnosis and management of eye disease. Table of contents

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Cardiovascular system:( circulatory system) T​ he system that circulates blood and lymph through the body,consisting of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, and the lymphatic vessels andglandsKey terms: ● atri/o: ​atrium ● cardi/o: ​heart ● coron/o: c​ ircle or crown ● my/o: m​ uscle ● pector/o, steth/o: c​ hest ● sphygm/o: ​pulse ● thromb/o: c​ lot ● ven/o, phleb/o: v​ ein ● varic/o: ​swollen, twisted vein ● ventricul/o: v​ entricle (belly or pouch)Vocabulary: ● Arteries: v​ essels that carry blood from the heart to the arterioles ● Aorta: ​large artery that is the main trunk of the arterial system branching from the left ventricle ● Arterioles: ​small vessels that receive blood from the arteries ● Capillaries: t​ iny vessels that join arterioles and venules ● Venules: s​ mall vessels that gather blood from the capillaries into the veins Table of contents

● Veins: v​ essels that carry blood back to the heart from the venules ● Normotension: n​ ormal blood pressure ● Hypotension: ​low blood pressure ● hypertension (HTN): h​ igh blood pressure ● Thrombus: a​ stationary blood clotDiseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● Heart Valve Disease​ Your valves sit at the exit of each of your four heart chambers. They maintain one-way blood flow through your heart. ● Coronary Artery Disease:​You may hear this called CAD. It’s hardening of the arteries that give the heart vital oxygen and nutrients. That hardening can also be referred to as atherosclerosis. ● Angina pectoris– ​Literally, “pain in the chest.” But, this is a special kind of pain associated with the heart and is distinctive as “crushing, vise-like”, and often accompanied by shortness of breath, fatigue and nausea. Anginal pain indicates not enough blood is getting to the heart muscle, and the heart is protesting and begging for more. People with a history of angina often take nitroglycerine tablets to relieve the pain by increasing blood flow to the heart muscle. ● Arrhythmia/dysrhythmia– Abnormal heart rates and rhythms all have special names like ventricular tachycardia, fibrillation, but generically are termed arrhythmias or dysrhythmia, meaning “no rhythm” and “abnormal rhythm.” There are fine distinctions between the two, but they are often used interchangeably. Table of contents

Health Careers Associated: ● Cardiologists: ​Cardiologists play a leading role in combating diseases and conditions of the cardiovascular system. They monitor, diagnose and treat heart conditions through a variety of non-surgical means, including medications and management of lifestyle factors. Some cardiologists also perform non-invasive procedures such as angioplasties and stent insertion, using tiny instruments inserted through a catheter into the patient's blood vessels and then threaded through the body to the trouble area. ● Imaging Professionals: C​ ardiologists and cardiac surgeons often rely on the work of imaging technologists to provide them with diagnostic insights. Magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound technology can both provide useful images of the heart in operation, and ultrasound can help diagnose blockages in the veins and arteries by gauging blood flow. Radiologists review these images and advise their fellow physicians on their diagnostic importance. Table of contents

Respiratory system​:The human ​respiratory system​ is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygenand expelling carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the r​ espiratory system are​ lungs,which carry out this exchange of gases as we breatheKey terms: ● -pnea: b​ reathing ● Phon/o: ​voice ● Rhin/o: ​Nose ● lob/o: l​ obe of the lung ● alveol/o: ​alveoli ● pneum/o: a​ ir, lung ● pulmon/o: ​lung ● cyan/o: b​ lue ● ox/i: ​oxygen ● phon/o: ​sound, voiceVocabulary: ● Laryngectomy: ​the surgical removal of the larynx ● Laryngitis: a​ n inflammation of the larynx ● Eupnea: e​ asy or normal breathing ● Exhalation: t​ he act of breathing out ● Pharyngitis: a​ n inflammation of the pharynx ● Pharyngoplasty: t​ he surgical repair of the pharynx ● Pharyngotomy: a​ surgical incision of the pharynx ● Sinusitis: a​ n inflammation of the sinuses Table of contents

● lung cancer: ​a condition in which cancer cells form in the tissues of the lung ● Lungs: t​ he organs of respirationDiseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● Pneumoconiosis –​ literally, “an abnormal condition of dust in the lungs.” A generic name for conditions where toxic particles become trapped in the lungs and cause symptoms and disability such a “black lung” or “miner’s lung” disease. Terms specific to the particulate matter may be given such as asbestosis. ● Epistaxis​ – Basically is “nosebleed” ● Cystic fibrosis –​ an inheritable disease that affects not only the lungs but other systems producing mucous such as the digestive system. Patients suffer frequent lung infections that are hard to treat because mucous is thick and sluggish and result in increased scarring (fibrosis) of the lungs. They also take multiple enzyme pills because of digestive abnormalities related to abnormal mucous production. ● Emphysema (COPD)​ – Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, of which emphysema is one of, results in progressive destruction of the air sacs in the lungs and loss of respiratory membrane for oxygen exchange. The bane of long term smokers.Health Careers Associated: ● Pulmonologist i​ s a person who is specialized in diagnosing and treating patients with lung problems and diseases. These problems and diseases include asthma, emphysema, lung cancer, lung transplant, tuberculosis, COPD, sleep disorders, and pulmonary vascular disease. They can work in emergency rooms, medical offices, and cardiothoracic surgery. ● O​ ncologist​ is a doctor who treats people with cancer. The three main oncologists are surgical, medical, and radiation. All three of these oncologists work together to help treat a patient with cancer. They explain the diagnosis, treatment, and stage of the cancer to the patient. They manage the patient's Table of contents

pain, symptoms, and treatment side effects like constipation, nausea, and fatigue with the best care they can provide. Digestive system:The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energyand basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside thebody known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). Table of contents

Key terms: ● amyl/o​: starch ● an/o:​ anus ● append/o:​ appendix ● appendic/o:​ appendix ● phag/o​: eat or swallow ● intestin/o​: intestines ● gastr/o: s​ tomach ● dys- :​ bad, difficult, painful ● hyper-:​ excessive, above normal ● peri-: ​surrounding, aroundVocabulary: ● Bile​: substance produced by the liver; emulsifies fat ● Bilirubin:​ one of two pigments that determines the color of bile; reddish in color ● Bolus​: rounded mass; food prepared by mouth for swallowing ● Cecum:​ pouch at the proximal end of the large intestine ● Deciduous​: temporary teeth (baby teeth) usually lost by 6 years old ● Digestion:​ the complex process of breaking down food to be utilized by the body ● Flatulence​: the presence of excessive gas in the digestive tract ● Gingiva:​ gums ● Glycogen​: polysaccharide formed and stored largely in the liver ● Mastication​: process of chewingDiseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● Jaundice​ – Literally means “yellow” in French. Yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes from a backup of bile metabolic by-products from the blood into body tissues. May result from blockage of the ducts draining bile from the liver into the Table of contents

intestines or excessive breakdown of red blood cells. Hemoglobin from destroyed RBCs is broken down, and in part, ends up in bile secretions. ● Diverticulosis/diverticulitis​ – Small pouches may form along the walls of the large intestine called diverticula which if symptomatic, causing discomfort to the patient, is called diverticulosis. These abnormal outpocketings may collect and not be able to empty fecal material which can lead to inflammation, diverticulitis. ● Cirrhosis​ – Literally, “orange-yellow” in Greek. A degenerative disease of the liver that often develops in chronic alcoholics, but can have other causes. The name refers to the gross appearance of the organ. ● Portal hypertension​ – A potential complication of chronic alcoholism resulting in liver damage and obstruction of venous blood flow through the liver. The rising blood pressure in the veins between the gastrointestinal tract and liver causes engorgement of veins around the umbilicus (navel). The characteristic radiating pattern of veins is called a “caput medusae” (head of Medusa). Medusa was the “snake-haired lady” in Greek mythology.Health Careers Associated: ● Gastroenterology Gastroenterology is the medical specialty most broadly concerned with diseases and conditions of the digestive system. Gastroenterologists treat diseases occurring throughout the entire system, from the esophagus to the rectum. These include common complaints such as recurrent heartburn or ulcers, and longer-term chronic illnesses such as Crohn's or celiac disease. Gastroenterologists first qualify in internal medicine, then spend three further years in a gastrointestinal fellowship. Liver, Pancreas and Biliary Specialists ● Surgeons Aside from cancers, the digestive system is subject to a number of conditions that lend themselves to surgical correction, from anal fissures to diverticulitis and obstructions of the bowel. These are typically treated by general surgeons or colorectal surgeons, though surgeons from other specialties such as oncology or otolaryngology might also be consulted or invited to participate as needed. Table of contents

Urinary system:The Urinary System is a group of organs in the body concerned with filtering out excessfluid and other substances from the bloodstream. The substances are filtered out fromthe body in the form of urine. Urine is a liquid produced by the kidneys, collected in thebladder and excreted through the urethra.Key terms: ● cyst/o, vesic/o​ bladder, sac ● glomerul/o​ glomerulus ● meat/o​ meatus (opening) ● nephr/o, ren/o​ kidney ● pyel/o​ renal pelvis ● ureter/o ​ureter ● urethr/o​ urethra ● albumin/o a​ lbumin ● azot/o​ urea, nitrogen ● blast/o​ developing cell, germ cell Table of contents

Vocabulary: ● Kidneys​ two bean-shaped organs located on each side of the vertebral column on the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity behind the parietal peritoneum. Their function is to remove waste products from the blood and to aid in maintaining water and electrolyte balances ● Nephron​ urine producing microscopic structure. Approximately 1 million of these are located in each kidney ● Glomerulus​ cluster of capillaries at the entrance of the nephron. The process of filtering the blood, thereby forming urine, begins here ● Renal pelvis ​funnel-shaped reservoir that collects the urine and passes it to the ureter ● Hilum​ indentation on the medial side of the kidney where the ureter leaves the kidney ● Ureters​ two slender tubes, approximately 10 to 13 inches long, that receive the urine from the kidneys and carry it to the posterior portion of the bladder ● Urinary bladder​ muscular, hollow organ that temporarily holds the urine. As it fills, the thick muscular wall becomes thinner, and the organ increases in size ● Urethra​ lowest part of the urinary tract, through which the urine passes from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. This narrow tube varies in length by sex. ● Urinary meatus​ opening through which the urine passes to the outside ● Epispadias​ congenital defect in which the urinary meatus is located on the upper surface of the penisDiseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● Kidney stones The term kidney stone refers to a solid deposit that occurs in the urinary system. It forms inside the kidney, out of substances found in urine. It may remain in the kidney or move through the urinary tract. If it is a small stone, it may pass out of the body without causing a great deal of pain. However, if it is larger in size, it can get lodged in the ureter, bladder or urethra. In these cases, it can be very painful and also block the flow of urine. Treatment depends on the type of kidney stone. Medication and diet changes are often used to prevent kidney stones.​ ● Bladder cancer Table of contents

● which is a cancer that occurs in the lining of the bladder. This is actually a very common type of cancer in the U.S., and treatment options include surgery and chemotherapy. ● Proteinuria Proteinuria occurs when there are abnormal amounts of protein in the urine. Proteinuria indicates that kidneys are not functioning properly and can be a sign of chronic kidney disease. If your doctor suspects that you have kidney disease, he or she may check your blood pressure, use a blood test to determine your glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and/or do an ultrasound of your kidneys. Kidney failure When your kidneys are no longer able to remove waste material from your blood or maintain the necessary balance of water and chemicals in your body, kidney (renal) failure can occur. When it happens suddenly, it is known as acute renal failure (ARF), and is usually reversible. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) may worsen over time and can result in end stage renal disease (ESRD), which is a permanent loss of kidney function.Health Careers Associated: ● Gynecologists Gynecologists specialize in care for female health problems. Since the female reproductive tract and the urinary tract system are physically co-located, gynecologists often care for women who have urinary problems such as urinary tract infections. They may also perform surgery that involves the bladder and urethra. A gynecologist spends a minimum of four years in residency training and may go on for a fellowship. In addition to gynecology, most doctors in this specialty also practice obstetrics ● Nephrologists Nephrologists begin their careers in internal medicine. After medical school, an internist must spend three years in an internal medicine residency and take the internal medicine board exam before she studies nephrology for an additional two to three years. Nephrologists provide medical management to patients with kidney disease. They also provide care to kidney transplant patients and people with kidney failure, treating the latter with dialysis. Some nephrologists specialize in kidney failure or high blood pressure; pediatric nephrology is another subspecialty. Table of contents

Reproductive system:​The reproductive system or genital system is a system of sex organs within anorganism which work together for the purpose of sexual reproduction. Many non-livingsubstances such as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are also important accessoriesto the reproductive system.Key term: ● cervic/o: ​neck; uterine cervix ● colp/o: v​ agina ● vagin/o: v​ agina ● genit/o: o​ rgan of reproduction ● hyster/o, uter/o: ​uterus ● metr/o: ​measure, uterine tissue ● oophor/o, ovari/o: o​ vary Table of contents

● perine/o: p​ erineum ● salping/o: ​fallopian tube ● vulv/o: ​vulvaVocabulary:​ ● Scrotum: f​ at skin and muscle pouch to protect and control temperature of testicles ● Testis: ​testicles ● Epididymis: ​pouch like structure on top of testis ● Ductus Deferens: ​contracts to push sperm along to accessory glands ● Seminal vesicles: A​ ccessory glands that add another component to make semen ● Prostate Gland: G​ land that produces a clear slightly alkaline fluid that makes up 10-30% of semen ● Corpus Cavernosum: s​ ponge like regions that are found in both the penis and clitoris ● Corpus Spongiosum: t​ he mass of spongy tissue surrounding the male urethra within the penis ● Glans Penis: ​The tip of the penis covered by foreskin ● Urethral Orifice: ​The hole at which the urethra meets the outside worldDiseases/Abnormal Conditions: ● Prolapsed uterus​ – the uterus is almost directly above the vagina. In fact, the cervix, the neck region, of the uterus extends into the upper vagina. Ligaments hold the uterus in proper position so that it does not prolapse or herniate into the vagina. Severe prolapse can result in the uterine cervix protruding from the vaginal opening. Surgical repair is typically required to restore the uterus to its proper anatomical position. ● Table of contents

● Hydrocele – a​ fluid filled sac partially surrounding the testis. Manifests itself as a swelling on the side of the scrotum. May cause discomfort. Can be surgically corrected. And, who would most likely be doing the surgery? A urologist! ● Varicocele –​ dilated and twisted veins of the testis, sort of “hemorrhoids” of the scrotum! Manifests itself as a swelling on the side of the scrotum which may look and feel like a “bag of worms.” May be surgically corrected if causing discomfort. This condition may also cause reduced sperm count and male sterility due to sluggish blood flow elevated testicular temperature. ● Cryptorchidism –​ A condition of lack of descent of one or both testes into the scrotum. If not corrected, usually by surgery, before puberty, can lead to sterility and increased risk of testicular cancer.Health Careers Associated: ● Andrologists:​ A​ ndrology is the medical profession dealing with the health of the male reproductive system. It is the counterpart to gynecology and literally means the study of men. They perform the surgical procedures of a vasectomy and a vasovasostomy which is the reversal process of a vasectomy. They also handle any genital infections or infertility in males and often check for prostate cancer ● Obstetricians:​ O​ bstetrics is the study of caring for women before, during, and after pregnancy. There are different types of people in this profession including obstetricians, midwives, and nurse wives. Obstetricians see patients in a hospital setting and deliver and care for babies and their mothers in a hospital room. Table of contents

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