FAA-H-8083-3B Airplane Flying Handbook, 2016

BasicChapter3 Flight Maneuvers Introduction Airplanes operate in an environment that is unlike an automobile. Drivers tend to drive with a fairly narrow field of view and focus primarily on forward motion. Beginning pilots tend to practice the same. Flight instructors face the challenge of teaching beginning pilots about attitude awareness, which requires understanding the motions of flight. An airplane rotates in bank, pitch, and yaw while also moving horizontally, vertically, and laterally. The four fundamentals (straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents) are the principle maneuvers that control the airplane through the six motions of flight. 3-1

The Four Fundamentals Effect and Use of the Flight Controls To master any subject, one must first master the fundamentals. The airplane flies in an environment that allows it to travel An attempt to move on to advanced maneuvers prior to up and down as well as left and right. That up or down can mastering the four fundamentals hinders the learning process. be relative to the flight conditions. If the airplane is right To be a competent pilot first requires that the pilot is skilled in side up relative to the horizon, forward control stick or wheel the basics of fundamental airmanship. This requires mastery of (elevator control) movement will result in a loss of altitude. the four basic flight maneuvers upon which all flying tasks are If the same airplane is upside down relative to the horizon based: straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents. that same forward control movement will result in a gain of altitude. In any regard, that forward movement of the Consider the following: a takeoff is a combination of straight- elevator control will always move the airplane in the same and-level and a climb, turning on course to the first navigation direction relative to the pilot’s perspective. Therefore, the fix after departure is a climb and a turn, and the landing at airplane controls always function the same relative to the the destination is a combination of airplane ground handling, pilot. Depending on the airplane’s orientation to the Earth, acceleration, pitch and a climb. the same control actions may result in different movements of the airplane. [Figure 3-1] The pilot is always considered The flight instructor must impart competent knowledge of the referenced center of effect as the flight controls are used. these basic flight maneuvers so that the beginning pilot is able [Figure 3-2] The following is always true, regardless of the to combine them at a performance level that at least meets airplane’s attitude in relation to the Earth’s horizon. the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Practical Test Standards (PTS) or Airman Certification Standards (ACS), With the pilot’s hand: as appropriate. The importance of this phase of flight training cannot be overstated. As the beginning pilot progresses to • When pulling the elevator pitch control toward the more complex flight maneuvers, any deficiencies in the pilot, which is an aft movement of the aileron and mastery of the four fundamentals are likely to become barriers elevator controls, control stick, or side stick controller to effective and efficient learning. Many beginning pilot (referred to as adding back pressure), the airplane’s difficulties in advanced maneuvers are likely caused by a lack nose will rotate backwards relative to the pilot around of understanding, training, or practice in the four fundamentals. the pitch (lateral) axis of the airplane. Think of this movement from the pilot’s feet to the pilot’s head. Aileron bank Propeller Throttle Mixture Elevator pitch Trim Rudder Yaw Push in/out Figure 3-1. Basic flight controls and instrument panel. 3-2

ELleavteartoarl—axPiistch Rudder—Yaw relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from the Vertical axis pilot’s right shoulder to the pilot’s left shoulder. LoAngileitruodni—naRloallxis While in flight, the flight controls have a resistance to a pilot’s movement due to the airflow over the airplane’s control Primary control surface Airplane movement Axes of rotation surfaces, and the control surfaces remain in a fixed position Aileron Roll Longitudinal as long as all forces acting upon them remain balanced. The Pitch Lateral amount of force that the passing airflow exerts on a control Elevator/stabilator Yaw Vertical surface is governed by the airspeed and the degree that Rudder the surface is moved out of its streamlined position. This resistance increases as airspeed increases and decreases as Figure 3-2. The pilot is always considered the referenced center of airspeed decreases. While the airflow over the control surfaces effect as the flight controls are used. changes during various flight maneuvers, it is not the amount of control surface movement that is important. What is • When pushing the elevator pitch control toward the important, is that the pilot maneuvers the airplane by applying instrument panel, which is the forward movement of the sufficient flight control pressures to obtain the desired result. aileron and elevator controls, control stick, or side stick controller (referred to as increasing forward pressure), The pitch and roll flight controls (aileron and elevator the airplane rotates the nose forward relative to the controls, stick, or side-stick control) should be held lightly pilot around the pitch axis of the airplane. Think of this with the fingers and not grabbed or squeezed by the hand. movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s feet. When flight control pressure is applied to change a control surface position, pressure should only be exerted on the • When right pressure is applied to the aileron control, aileron and elevator controls with the fingers. This is an which is a clockwise rotation of aileron and elevator important concept and habit to learn which benefits the pilot controls or the right deflection of the control stick or as they progress to greater challenges such as instrument side stick controller, the airplane’s right wing banks flying. A common error with beginning pilots is that they (rolls) lower in relation to the pilot. Think of this grab the aileron and elevator controls with a closed palm movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s right hip. with such force that the sensitive feeling is lost. This must be avoided as it prevents the development of “feel,” which • When left pressure is applied to the aileron control, is an important aspect of airplane control. which is a counterclockwise rotation of aileron and elevator controls or the left deflection of the control The pilot’s feet should rest comfortably against the rudder stick or side stick controller, the airplane’s left wing pedals. Both heels should support the weight of the feet banks (rolls) lower in relation to the pilot. Think of this on the cockpit floor with the ball of each foot touching the movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s left hip. individual rudder pedals. The legs and feet should be relaxed. When using the rudder pedals, pressure should be applied With the pilot’s feet: smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ball of one foot. Since the rudder pedals are interconnected through springs • When forward pressure is applied to the right rudder or a direct mechanical linkage and act in opposite directions, pedal, the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the right when pressure is applied to one rudder pedal, foot pressure in relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from on the opposite rudder pedal must be relaxed proportionately. the pilot’s left shoulder to the pilot’s right shoulder. Remember, the ball of each foot must rest comfortably on the rudder pedals so that even slight pressure changes can be felt. • When forward pressure is applied to the left rudder pedal, the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the left in In summary, during flight, it is pressure the pilot exerts on the aileron and elevator controls and rudder pedals that causes the airplane to move about the roll (longitudinal), pitch (lateral), and yaw (vertical) axes. When a control surface is moved out of its streamlined position (even slightly), the air flowing across the surface exerts a force against that surface and it tries to return it to its streamlined position. It is this force that the pilot feels as resistance on the aileron and elevator controls and the rudder pedals. 3-3

Feel of the Airplane • In a banked turn, the pilot is forced downward into The ability to sense a flight condition, such as straight- the seat due to the resultant load factor. The increased and-level flight or a dive, without relying on cockpit G force of a turn feels the same as the pull up from instrumentation is often called “feeling the airplane.” a dive, and the decreased G force from leveling out Examples of this “feel” may be sounds of the airflow across feels the same as lowering the nose out of a climb. the airframe, vibrations felt through the controls, engine and propeller sounds and vibrations at various flight attitudes, and Sources of actual “feel” are very important to the pilot. This the sensations felt by the pilot through physical accelerations. actual feel is the result of acceleration, which is simply how fast velocity is changing. Acceleration describes the rate of Humans sense “feel” through kinesthesis (the ability to sense change in both the magnitude and the direction of velocity. movement through the body) and proprioception (unconscious These accelerations impart forces on the airplane and its perception of movement and spatial orientation). These occupants during flight. The pilot can sense these forces stimuli are detected by nerves and by the semicircular canals through pressures into or out of the seat; or shift the pilot from of the inner ear. When properly developed, kinesthesis can side to side in their seat as the airplane slips or skids. These provide the pilot with critical information about changes in forces need not be strong, only perceptible by the pilot to be the airplane’s direction and speed of motion; however, there useful. An accomplished pilot who has excellent “feel” for are limits in kinesthetic sense and when relied upon solely the airplane is able to detect even the smallest accelerations. without visual information, as when flying in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), ultimately leads to A flight instructor should direct the beginner pilot to be aware disorientation and loss of aircraft control. of these senses and teach an awareness of their meaning and their relationship to the various conditions of flight. To do Developing this “feel” takes time and exposure in a particular this effectively, the flight instructor must fully understand airplane and only comes with dedicated practice at the various the difference between perceiving and reacting to sound, flight conditions so that a pilot’s senses are trained by the vibrations, and forces versus merely noticing them. A pilot sounds, vibrations, and forces produced by the airplane. The who develops a “feel” for the airplane early in flight training is following are some important examples: likely to have less difficulty advancing in their flight training. • Rushing air past a cockpit creates a distinctive noise Attitude Flying pattern and as the level of sound increases, it likely indicates that the airplane’s airspeed is increasing An airplane’s attitude is determined by the angular difference and that the pitch attitude is decreasing. As the between a specific airplane’s axis and the natural horizon. A noise decreases, the airplane’s pitch attitude is likely false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured increasing and its airspeed decreasing. or not readily apparent. This is an important concept because it requires the pilot to develop a pictorial sense of this natural • The sound of the engine in cruise flight is different horizon. Pitch attitude is the angle formed between the from that in a climb and different again when in a airplane’s longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose dive. In fixed-pitch propeller airplanes, when the to the tail of the airplane, and the natural horizon. Bank airplane’s pitch attitude increases, the engine sound attitude is the angle formed by the airplane’s lateral axis, decreases and as pitch attitude decreases, the engine which extends from wingtip to wingtip, and the natural noise increases. horizon. [Figures 3-3A and 3-3B] Angular difference about A Pitch B Roll Angle Angle Figure 3-3. (A) Pitch attitude is the angle formed between the airplane’s longitudinal axis. (B) Bank attitude is the angle formed by the airplane’s lateral axis. 3-4

the airplane’s vertical axis (yaw) is an attitude relative to the • Power control—in most general aviation (GA) airplane’s direction of flight but not relative to the natural airplanes is controlled by the throttle and is used when horizon. the flight situation requires a specific thrust setting or Controlling an airplane requires one of two methods to for a change in thrust to meet a specific objective. determine the airplane’s attitude in reference to the horizon. When flying “visually” in visual meteorological conditions • Trim control—used to relieve the control pressures (VMC), a pilot uses their eyes and visually references the held by the pilot on the flight controls after a desired airplane’s wings and cowling to establish the airplane’s attitude has been attained. attitude to the natural horizon (a visible horizon). If no visible horizon can be seen due to whiteouts, haze over the ocean, Note: Yaw control is used to cancel out the effects of yaw night over a dark ocean, etc., it is IMC for practical and induced changes, such as adverse yaw and effects of the safety purposes. [Figure 3-4] When flying in IMC or when propeller. cross-checking the visual references, the airplane’s attitude is controlled by the pilot referencing the airplane’s mechanical Integrated Flight Instruction or electronically generated instruments to determine the airplane’s attitude in relationship to the natural horizon. When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning Airplane attitude control is composed of four components: pilot, it is recommended that the “Integrated” or “Composite” pitch control, bank (roll) control, power control, and trim. method of flight instruction be used. This means the use of outside references and flight instruments to establish and • Pitch control—controlling of the airplane’s pitch maintain desired flight attitudes and airplane performance. attitude about the lateral axis by using the elevator [Figure 3-5] When beginning pilots use this technique, they to raise and lower the nose in relation to the natural achieve a more precise and competent overall piloting ability. horizon or to the airplane’s flight instrumentation. Although this method of airplane control may become second nature with experience, the beginning pilot must make a • Bank control—controlling of the airplane about the determined effort to master the technique. airplane’s longitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desired bank angle in relation to the natural As the beginner pilot develops a competent skill in visual horizon or to the airplane’s instrumentation. reference flying, the flight instructor should further develop the beginner pilot’s effectiveness through the use of Pitch control integrated flight instruction; however, it is important that the beginner pilot’s visual skills be sufficiently developed for Bank control long-term, safe, and effective aircraft control. [Figure 3-5] Figure 3-4. Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the The basic elements of integrated flight instruction are as nose and wings on the natural horizon. follows: • The pilot visually controls the airplane’s attitude in reference outside to the natural horizon. At least 90 percent of the pilot’s attention should be devoted to outside visual references and scanning for airborne traffic. The process of visually evaluating pitch and bank attitude is nearly an imperceptible continuous stream of attitude information. If the attitude is found to be other than desired, the pilot should make precise, smooth, and accurate flight control corrections to return the airplane to the desired attitude. Continuous visual checks of the outside references and immediate corrections made by the pilot minimize the chance for the airplane to deviate from the desired heading, altitude, and flightpath. • The airplane’s attitude is validated by referring to flight instruments and confirming performance. If the flight instruments display that the airplane’s performance is in need of correction, the required correction must be determined and then precisely, 3-5

NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 NAV2 108.00 110.60 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 123.800 118.000 COM2 130 33030000 2 120 3200 1110 100 270° 3100 1 60 9 1 90 43000000 2 80 20 70 2900 TAS 100KT 2800 2300 A212IHDG UP VOR 1 10% D195I D212I XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34 MSG 90% 10 NM ADF/DME 24 W 30 33 N 3 6 E 12 GSS 2115 NAV OBS 33 N 3 90 percent of the time, the pilot’s attention should be outside the flight deck. 24 W 30 6 E 12 No more than 10 percent of the pilot’s attention should be inside the flight deck. Figure 3-5. Integrated flight instruction teaches pilots to use both external and cockpit attitude references. OBS S 21 15 33 N 3 30 smoothly, and accurately applied with reference of instruction, flight instructors may choose to use flight to the natural horizon. The airplane’s attitude and instrument covers to develop a beginning pilot’s skill or to performance are then rechecked by referring to flight correct a pilot’s poor habit of fixating on instruments by forcing instruments. The pilot then maintains the corrected them to use outside visual references for aircraft control. attitude by reference to the natural horizon. The use of integrated flight instruction does not, and is not • The pilot should monitor the airplane’s performance intended to prepare pilots for flight in instrument weather by making quick snap-shots of the flight instruments. conditions. The most common error made by the beginning No more than 10 percent of the pilot’s attention should student is to make pitch or bank corrections while still be inside the cockpit. The pilot must develop the skill looking inside the cockpit. Control pressure is applied, but to quickly focus on the appropriate flight instruments the beginning pilot, not being familiar with the intricacies and then immediately return to the visual outside of flight by references to instruments, including such things references to control the airplane’s attitude. as instrument lag and gyroscopic precession, will invariably make excessive attitude corrections and end up “chasing the The pilot should become familiar with the relationship instruments.” Airplane attitude by reference to the natural between outside visual references to the natural horizon and horizon, however, is immediate in its indications, accurate, the corresponding flight instrument indications. For example, and presented many times larger than any instrument could a pitch attitude adjustment may require a movement of the be. Also, the beginning pilot must be made aware that pilot’s reference point of several inches in relation to the anytime, for whatever reason, airplane attitude by reference to natural horizon but correspond to a seemingly insignificant the natural horizon cannot be established and/or maintained, movement of the reference bar on the airplane’s attitude the situation should be considered a bona fide emergency. indicator. Similarly, a deviation from a desired bank angle, which is obvious when referencing the airplane’s wingtips or Straight-and-Level Flight cowling relative to the natural horizon, may be imperceptible on the airplane’s attitude indicator to the beginner pilot. Straight-and-level flight is flight in which heading and altitude are constantly maintained. The four fundamentals are in The most common error made by the beginner pilot is to essence a derivation of straight-and-level flight. As such, the make pitch or bank corrections while still looking inside the need to form proper and effective skills in flying straight and cockpit. It is also common for beginner pilots to fixate on the level should not be understated. Precise mastery of straight- flight instruments—a conscious effort is required by them to and-level flight is the result of repetition and effective practice. return to outside visual references. For the first several hours Perfection in straight-and-level flight comes only as a result of 3-6

the pilot understanding the effect and use of the flight controls, configurations. The horizon reference point is always being properly using the visual outside references, and the utilization the same, no matter what altitude, since the point is always on of snap-shots from the flight instruments in a continuous loop the horizon, although the distance to the horizon will be further of information gathering. A pilot must make effective, timely, as altitude increases. There are multiple horizontal reference and proportional corrections for deviations in the airplane’s lines due to the pitch attitude requirements of the maneuver; direction and altitude from unintentional slight turns, descents, however, these teaching aids are generally needed for only and climbs to master straight-and-level flight. a short period of time until the beginning pilot understands where and when to look during the various maneuvers. Straight-and-level flight is a matter of consciously fixing the relationship of a reference point on the airplane in relation Straight Flight to the natural horizon. [Figure 3-6] The establishment of Maintaining a constant direction or heading is accomplished reference points should be initiated on the ground as the by visually checking the lateral level relationship of the reference points depends on the pilot’s seating position, airplane’s wingtips to the natural horizon. Depending on height, and manner of sitting. It is important that the pilot sit whether the airplane is a high wing or low wing, both wingtips in a normal manner with the seat position adjusted, which should be level and equally above or below the natural horizon. allows for the pilot to see adequately over the instrument Any necessary bank corrections are made with the pilot’s panel while being able to fully depress the rudder pedals to coordinated use of ailerons and rudder. [Figure 3-7] The their maximum forward position without straining or reaching. pilot should understand that anytime the wings are banked, the airplane turns. The objective of straight flight is to detect With beginner pilots, a flight instructor will likely use a dry small deviations as soon as they occur, thereby necessitating erase marker or removable tape to make reference lines on only minor flight control corrections. The bank attitude the windshield or cowling to help the beginner pilot establish information can also be obtained from a quick scan of the visual reference points. Vertical reference lines are best attitude indicator (which shows the position of the airplane’s established on the ground, such as when the airplane is placed wings relative to the horizon) and the heading indicator (which on a marked centerline, with the beginner pilot seated in proper indicates whether flight control pressure is necessary to change position. Horizontal reference lines are best established with the bank attitude to return to straight flight). the airplane in flight, such as during slow flight and cruise Straight-and-level flight Straight-and-level flight Fixed Fixed 33 N 3 NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 GS NAV2 108.00 110.60 123.800 118.000 COM2 NAVW 30 6 E 12 130 44030000 2 OBS 4200 120 33 N 324 4100 1 1110 60 S 21 15 100 1 44000000 2 9 270° 20 90 VOR 1 3900 80 3800 70TAS 106KT 4300 OAT 7°C 3600 24 W 30 6 E 12 3500 3400 OBS S 21 15 3300 10:12:34 3X2P0D0R 5537 IDNT LCL ALERTS 3100 33 N 3 Natural horizon reference point 24 W 30 6 E 12 Natural horizon reference point HDG 15 S 21 NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 NAV2 108.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360C° OM1122343..080000 33 N 3 110.60 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 123.800 118.000NAV1 108.00 118.000 COM1 GS NAV2 108.00 118.000 COM2 113.00 NAV 110.60 OBS 24 W 30 6 E 12 130 130 44030000 44030000 2 33 N 3 120 4200 1110 120 2 100 15 1110 4200 4100 1 S 21 9 100 60 90 9 1 1 80 90 4100 44000000 2 70 20 4400080 60 270° 3900 TAS 100KT 000 70TAS 106KT 3800 A212IHDG UP OAT 7°C 20 4300 W 30 6 E 12 3900 3600 VOR11 3500 270° 3800 3400 24 VOR 1 2 3300 3X2P0D0R 5537 IDNT LCL OBS S 21 15 2300 10:12:34 ALERTS 3100 33 N 3 Figure 3-6. Nose reference for straight-and-level flight. 3-7

Left wingtip Right wingtip NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 NAV2 108.00 110.60 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 123.800 118.000 COM2 130 33030000 2 120 3200 1110 100 270° 3100 1 60 9 1 90 43000000 2 80 20 70 2900 TAS 100KT 2800 2300 A212IHDG UP VOR 1 D195I D212I XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34 MSG 10 NM ADF/DME Figure 3-7. Wingtip reference for straight-and-level flight. It is possible to maintain straight flight by simply exerting the Level Flight necessary pressure with the ailerons or rudder independently In learning to control the airplane in level flight, it is in the desired direction of correction. However, the practice important that the pilot be taught to maintain a light touch of using the ailerons and rudder independently is not correct on the flight controls using fingers rather than the common and makes precise control of the airplane difficult. The correct problem of a tight-fisted palm wrapped around the flight bank flight control movement requires the coordinated use of controls. The pilot should exert only enough pressure on the ailerons and rudder. Straight-and-level flight requires almost flight controls to produce the desired result. The pilot should no application of flight control pressures if the airplane is learn to associate the apparent movement of the references properly trimmed and the air is smooth. For that reason, with the control pressures which produce attitude movement. the pilot must not form the habit of unnecessarily moving As a result, the pilot can develop the ability to adjust the the flight controls. The pilot must learn to recognize when change desired in the airplane’s attitude by the amount and corrections are necessary and then to make a measured flight direction of pressures applied to the flight controls without the control response precisely, smoothly, and accurately. pilot excessively referring to instrument or outside references for each minor correction. Pilots may tend to look out to one side continually, generally to the left due to the pilot’s left seat position and consequently The pitch attitude for level flight is first obtained by the pilot focus attention in that direction. This not only gives a restricted being properly seated, selecting a point toward the airplane’s angle from which the pilot is to observe but also causes the nose as a reference, and then keeping that reference point in a pilot to exert unconscious pressure on the flight controls in fixed position relative to the natural horizon. [Figure 3-8] The that direction. It is also important that the pilot not fixate in principles of attitude flying require that the reference point any one direction and continually scan outside the airplane, to the natural horizon position should be cross-checked not only to ensure that the airplane’s attitude is correct, but against the flight instruments to determine if the pitch attitude also to ensure that the pilot is considering other factors for safe is correct. If not, such as trending away from the desired flight. Continually observing both wingtips has advantages altitude, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in relation other than being the only positive check for leveling the wings. to the natural horizon and then the flight instruments cross- This includes looking for aircraft traffic, terrain and weather checked to determine if altitude is now being corrected or influences, and maintaining overall situational awareness. maintained. In level flight maneuvers, the terms “increase 3-8

Nose high Natural horizon reference point the back pressure” or “increase pitch attitude” implies raising Fixed the airplane’s nose in relation to the natural horizon and the terms “decreasing the pitch attitude” or “decrease pitch attitude” means lowering the nose in relation to the natural horizon. The pilot’s primary reference is the natural horizon. For all practical purposes, the airplane’s airspeed remains constant in straight-and-level flight if the power setting is 24 W 30 33 N also constant. Intentional airspeed changes, by increasing or decreasing the engine power, provide proficiency in NAV maintaining straight-and-level flight as the airplane’s OBS S 21 W 30 airspeed is changing. Pitching moments may also be 33 N generated by extension and retraction of flaps, landing gear,S 21 S 21 24 S 21 and other drag producing devices, such as spoilers. Exposure OBS to the effect of the various configurations should be coveredS 21 S 21 33 N in any specific airplane checkout.S 21 W 30 24 A common error of a beginner pilot is attempting to hold the wings level by only observing the airplane’s nose. Using Nose level Natural horizon reference point HDG this method, the nose’s short horizontal reference line can cause slight deviations to go unnoticed; however, deviations Fixed 33 N from level flight are easily recognizable when the pilot references the wingtips and, as a result, the wingtips should NAV24 W 30be the pilot’s primary reference for maintaining level bank OBS attitude. This technique also helps eliminate the potential for flying the airplane with one wing low and correcting heading errors with the pilot holding opposite rudder. A pilot with a bad habit of dragging one wing low and compensating with opposite rudder pressure will have difficulty in mastering other flight maneuvers. W 30 33 N Common errors in the performance of straight-and-level flight are: 24 • Attempting to use improper pitch and bank reference points on the airplane to establish attitude. Nose low Natural horizon reference point W 30OBS 33 N • Forgetting the location of preselected reference points 24 on subsequent flights. HDG • Attempting to establish or correct airplane attitude using flight instruments rather than the natural horizon. Fixed • “Chasing” the flight instruments rather than adhering to the principles of attitude flying. • Mechanically pushing or pulling on the flight controls rather than exerting accurate and smooth pressure to affect change. 33 N • Not scanning outside the cockpit to look for other24 W 30 aircraft traffic, weather and terrain influences, and W 30 NAV not maintaining situational awareness. Figure 3-8. Nose reference for level flight. OBS • A tight palm grip on the flight controls resulting in 33 N a desensitized feeling of the hand and fingers, which results in overcontrolling the airplane. 3-9

• Habitually flying with one wing low or maintaining directional control using only the rudder control. • Failure to make timely and measured control inputs when deviations from straight-and-level flight are detected. • Inadequate attention to sensory inputs in developing feel for the airplane. Trim Control Elevator trim wheel Proper trim technique is an important and often overlooked Elevator trim indicator basic flying skill. An improperly trimmed airplane requires constant flight control pressures from the pilot, produces Figure 3-9. Elevator trim is used in airplanes to null the pressure tension and fatigue, distracts the pilot from outside visual exerted by the pilot on the pitch flight control. scanning, and contributes to abrupt and erratic airplane attitude control inputs. A properly trimmed airplane is an indication of good piloting skills. Any control forces that the pilot feels should be a Trim control surfaces are required to offset any constant flight result of deliberate flight control pressure inputs during a control pressure inputs provided by the pilot. For example, planned change in airplane attitude, not a result of forces elevator trim is a typical trim in light GA airplanes and is used being applied by the airplane. A common trim control error to null the pressure exerted by the pilot on the pitch flight is the tendency for the pilot to overcontrol the airplane with control, which is being held to produce the tail down force trim adjustments. Attempting to fly the airplane with the required for a specific angle of attack (AOA). [Figure 3-9] trim is a common fault in basic flying technique even among This relieves the pilot from holding a constant pressure on experienced pilots. The airplane attitude must be established the flight controls to maintain a particular pitch attitude first and held with the appropriate flight control pressures, and provides an opportunity for the pilot to divert attention and then the flight control pressures trimmed out so that to other tasks, such as evaluating the airplane’s attitude in the airplane maintains the desired attitude without the pilot relation to the natural horizon, scanning for aircraft traffic, exerting flight control pressure. and maintaining situational awareness. Level Turns Because of their relatively low power, speed, and cost constraints, not all light airplanes have a complete set A turn is initiated by banking the wings in the desired (elevator, rudder, and aileron) trim controls that are adjustable direction of the turn through the pilot’s use of the aileron from inside the cockpit. Nearly all light airplanes are equipped flight controls. Left aileron flight control pressure causes the with at least a cockpit adjustable elevator trim. As airplanes left wing to lower in relation to the pilot. Right aileron flight increase in power, weight, and complexity, cockpit adjustable control pressure causes the right wing to lower in relation to trim systems for the rudder and aileron may be available. the pilot. In other words, to turn left, lower left wing with In airplanes where multiple trim axes are available, the rudder should be trimmed first. Rudder, elevator and then aileron should be trimmed next in sequence; however, if the airspeed is varying, continuous attempts to trim the rudder and aileron produces unnecessary pilot workload and distraction. Attempts to trim the rudder at varying airspeeds are impractical in many propeller airplanes because of the built-in compensation for the effect of a propeller’s left turning tendencies. The correct procedure is when the pilot has established a constant airspeed and pitch attitude, the pilot should then hold the wings level with aileron flight control pressure while rudder control pressure is trimmed out. Finally, aileron trim should then be adjusted to relieve any aileron flight control pressure. 3-10

aileron by left stick. To turn right, lower right wing with right straight ahead. The vertical fin’s purpose is to keep stick. Depending on bank angle and airplane engineering, at the aft end of the airplane behind the front end. many bank angles, the airplane will continue to turn with ailerons neutralized. So the sequence should be like the • The throttle provides thrust which may be used for following: (1) bank airplane, adding either enough power or airspeed to tighten the turn. pitching up to compensate for the loss of lift (change in vector angle of lift); (2) neutralize controls as necessary to stop bank • The pilot uses the rudder to offset any adverse yaw from increasing and hold desired bank angle; (3) use the developed by wing’s differential lift and the engine/ opposite stick (aileron) to return airplane to level; (4) then take propeller. The rudder does not turn the airplane. The that control out to again neutralize the ailerons (along with rudder is used to maintain coordinated flight. either power or pitch reduction) for level flight. [Figure 3-10] For purposes of this discussion, turns are divided into three A turn is the result of the following: classes: shallow, medium, and steep. • The ailerons bank the wings and so determine the rate • Shallow turns—bank angle is approximately 20° or of turn for a given airspeed. Lift is divided into both less. This shallow bank is such that the inherent lateral vertical and horizontal lift components as a result of stability of the airplane slowly levels the wings unless the bank. The horizontal component of lift moves the aileron pressure in the desired direction of bank is held airplane toward the banked direction. by the pilot to maintain the bank angle. • The elevator pitches the nose of the airplane up or • Medium turns—result from a degree of bank between down in relation to the pilot and perpendicular to approximately 20° to 45°. At medium bank angles, the the wings. If the pilot does not add power, and there airplane’s inherent lateral stability does not return the is sufficient airspeed margin, the pilot must slightly wings to level flight. As a result, the airplane tends increase the pitch to increase wing lift enough to to remain at a constant bank angle without any flight replace the wing lift being diverted into turning force control pressure held by the pilot. The pilot neutralizes so as to maintain the current altitude. the aileron flight control pressure to maintain the bank. • The vertical fin on an airplane does not produce lift. • Steep turns—result from a degree of bank of Rather the vertical fin on an airplane is a stabilizing approximately 45° or more. The airplane continues surface and produces no lift if the airplane is flying in the direction of the bank even with neutral flight controls unless the pilot provides opposite flight control aileron pressure to prevent the airplane from overbanking. The amount of opposite flight control pressures is dependent on various factors, such as bank angle and airspeed. In general, a noticeable level of opposite aileron flight control pressure is required by the pilot to prevent overbanking. When an airplane is flying straight and level, the total lift is acting perpendicular to the wings and to the Earth. As the airplane is banked into a turn, total lift is the resultant of two components: vertical and horizontal. [Figure 3-11] The vertical lift component continues to act perpendicular to the Earth and opposes gravity. The horizontal lift component W 30 33 N acts parallel to the Earth’s surface opposing centrifugal force. 24 NAV These two lift components act at right angles to each other, OBS S 21 24 W 30 33 NS 21 S 21 causing the resultant total lifting force to act perpendicular NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 OBS to the banked wing of the airplane. It is the horizontal lift NAV2 108.00 110.60 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 123.800 118.000 COM2 33 NW 30 component that begins to turn the airplane and not the rudder. 130 33030000 24HDG 2 120 3200 1110 3100 1 100 60 1 9 43000000 90 20 2900 80 270° 2800 2 In constant altitude, constant airspeed turns, it is necessary 70 2300 TAS 100KT A212IHDG UP VOR 1 to increase the AOA of the wing when rolling into the D195I D212I XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34 turn by increasing back pressure on the elevator, as well MSG 10 NM ADF/DME as the addition of power to counter the loss of speed due to increased drag. This is required because total lift has Figure 3-10. Level turn to the left. 3-11

Level flight Steeply banked turn Lift Weight Vcoemrtipcoanl entTotal lift Centrifugal force Horizontal component Resultant load Weight Figure 3-11. When the airplane is banked into a turn, total lift is the resultant of two components: vertical and horizontal. divided into vertical and horizontal components of lift. In the airplane. Situations can develop when a pilot is flying order to maintain altitude, the total lift (since total lift acts in uncoordinated flight and depending on the flight control perpendicular to the wing) must be increased to meet the deflections, may support pro-spin flight control inputs. This is vertical component of lift requirements (to balance weight especially hazardous when operating at low altitudes, such as and load factor) for level flight. when operating in the airport traffic pattern. Pilots must learn to fly with coordinated control inputs to prevent unintentional The purpose of the rudder in a turn is to coordinate the turn. loss of control when maneuvering in certain situations. As lift increases, so does drag. When the pilot deflects the ailerons to bank the airplane, both lift and drag are increased During uncoordinated flight, the pilot may feel that they are on the rising wing and, simultaneously, lift and drag are being pushed sideways toward the outside or inside of the decreased on the lowering wing. [Figure 3-12] This increased turn. [Figure 3-13] A skid is when the pilot may feel that drag on the rising wing and decreased drag on the lowering they are being pressed toward the outside of the turn and wing results in the airplane yawing opposite to the direction toward the inside of the turn during a slip. The ability to of turn. To counteract this adverse yaw, rudder pressure is sense a skid or slip is developed over time and as the “feel” applied simultaneously with aileron in the desired direction of flying develops, a pilot should become highly sensitive to a of turn. This action is required to produce a coordinated turn. slip or skid without undue reliance on the flight instruments. Coordinated flight is important to maintaining control of Turn Radius More lift To understand the relationship between airspeed, bank, and radius of turn, it should be noted that the rate of turn at any Adverse yaw Additional induc given true airspeed depends on the horizontal lift component. Reduced lift The horizontal lift component varies in proportion to the amount of bank. Therefore, the rate of turn at a given airspeed Rudder oposes adverse yaw ed drag increases as the angle of bank is increased. On the other hand, to coordinate the turn when a turn is made at a higher airspeed at a given bank angle, the inertia is greater and the horizontal lift component required for the turn is greater, causing the turning rate to become slower. [Figure 3-14] Therefore, at a given angle of bank, a higher airspeed makes the radius of turn larger because the airplane turns at a slower rate. Figure 3-12. The rudder opposes adverse yaw to help coordinate As the radius of the turn becomes smaller, a significant the turn. difference develops between the airspeed of the inside wing and the airspeed of the outside wing. The wing on the outside of the turn travels a longer path than the inside wing, yet both complete their respective paths in the same unit of time. 3-12

Skid Coordinated Turn Slip D.C. D.C. D.C. ELEC. ELEC. ELEC. TURN COORDINATOR TURN COORDINATOR TURN COORDINATOR L 2 MIN. R L 2 MIN. R L R NO PITCH NO PITCH 2 MIN. INFORMATION INFORMATION NO PITCH INFORMATION Ball to outside of turn Ball centered Ball to inside of turn Pilot feels sideways force Pilot feels force straight Pilot feels sideways to outside of turn down into seat force to inside of turn Figure 3-13. Indications of a slip and skid. Therefore, the outside wing travels at a faster airspeed than Establishing a Turn the inside wing and, as a result, it develops more lift. This On most light single-engine airplanes, the top surface of the engine cowling is fairly flat, and its horizontal surface creates an overbanking tendency that must be controlled to the natural horizon provides a reasonable indication for initially setting the degree of bank angle. [Figure 3-16] The by the use of opposite aileron when the desired bank angle pilot should then cross-check the flight instruments to verify that the correct bank angle has been achieved. Information is reached. [Figure 3-15] Because the outboard wing is developing more lift, it also produces more drag. The drag causes a slight slip during steep turns that must be corrected by use of the rudder. 36 36 Constant angle of bank Constant airspeed 10° angle of bank 100 kts 20° angle of bank 90 kts 30° angle of bank 80 kts When airspeed is When angle of bank is held constant, a held constant, a slower larger angle of bank airspeed will result in a will result in a smaller smaller turn radius and turn radius and a a greater turn rate. greater turn rate. Figure 3-14. Angle of bank and airspeed regulate rate and radius of turn. 3-13

Overbanking Tendency Beginning pilots should not use large aileron and rudder Outer wing travels greater distance control inputs. This is because large control inputs produce rapid roll rates and allows little time for the pilot to evaluate • Higher speed and make corrections. Smaller flight control inputs result • More lift in slower roll rates and provide for more time to accurately complete the necessary pitch and bank corrections. Inner wing travels shorter distance Some additional considerations for initiating turns are the • Lower speed following: • Less lift • If the airplane’s nose starts to move before the bank Figure 3-15. Overbanking tendency. starts, the rudder is being applied too soon. • If the bank starts before the nose starts turning or the nose moves in the opposite direction, the rudder is being applied too late. • If the nose moves up or down when entering a bank, excessive or insufficient elevator back pressure is being applied. obtained from the attitude indicator shows the angle of the After the bank has been established, all flight control pressures wing in relation to the horizon. applied to the ailerons and rudder may be relaxed or adjusted, depending on the established bank angle, to compensate for The pilot’s seating position in the airplane is important as the airplane’s inherent stability or overbanking tendencies. it affects the interpretation of outside visual references. A The airplane should remain at the desired bank angle with the common problem is that a pilot may lean away from the turn proper application of aileron pressures. If the desired bank in an attempt to remain in an upright position in relation to angle is shallow, the pilot needs to maintain a small amount the horizon. This should be corrected immediately if the pilot of aileron pressure into the direction of bank including rudder is to properly learn to use visual references. [Figure 3-17] to compensate for yaw effects. For medium bank angles, the ailerons and rudder should be neutralized. Steep bank Because most airplanes have side-by-side seating, a pilot angles require opposite aileron and rudder to prevent the does not sit on the airplane’s longitudinal axis, which is bank from steepening. where the airplane rotates in roll. The pilot sits slightly off to one side, typically the left, of the longitudinal axis. Due to Back pressure on the elevator should not be relaxed as the parallax error, this makes the nose of the airplane appear to vertical component of lift must be maintained if altitude is to be rise when making a left turn (due to pilot lowering in relation maintained. Throughout the turn, the pilot should reference the to the longitudinal axis) and the nose of the airplane appear natural horizon, scan for aircraft traffic, and occasionally cross- to descend when making right turns (due to pilot elevating check the flight instruments to verify performance. A reduction in relation to the longitudinal axis). [Figure 3-18] in airspeed is the result of increased drag but is generally not significant for shallow bank angles. In steeper turns, additional Reference angle Reference angle 33 N 3 NAV1 111177..6900 111177..9600 GS NAV2 6 E 12 W 30 NAV _ _ _° TRK 360° 113243..080000 111188..000000 COM1 27.3 OBS MAP COM2 33 N 3 111130..0600 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ N._AVNIMGATDITOKN MAP - 110088..0000 33030000 24 NAV1 2 15 NAV2 2090 S 21 130 3200 120 1101 3100 1 1009 60 90 43000000 80 20 2900 1 2800 2 2300 E 12 270° W 30 6 70TAS 100KT A212IHDG UP VOR 1 24 15 S 21 OBS XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34 MSG D195I D212I 10 NM ADF/DME N 3 33 W 30 6E Figure 3-16. Visual reference for angle of bank. 3-14

Correct posture Incorrect posture Figure 3-17. Correct and incorrect posture while seated in the airplane. power may be required to maintain airspeed. If altitude is not performance can be improved by an appropriate application being maintained during the turn, the pitch attitude should be of power to overcome the increase in drag and trimming corrected in relation to the natural horizon and cross-checked additional elevator back pressure as the bank angle goes with the flight instruments to verify performance. beyond 30°. This tends to reduce the demands for large control inputs from the pilot during the turn. Steep turns require accurate, smooth, and timely flight control inputs. Minor corrections for pitch attitude are accomplished Since the airplane continues turning as long as there is any with proportional elevator back pressure while the bank angle bank, the rollout from the turn must be started before reaching is held constant with the ailerons. However, during steep the desired heading. The amount of lead required to rollout turns, it is not uncommon for a pilot to allow the nose to get on the desired heading depends on the degree of bank used excessively low resulting in a significant loss in altitude in in the turn. A rule of thumb is to lead by one-half the angle a very short period of time. The recovery sequence requires of bank. For example, if the bank is 30°, lead the rollout by that the pilot first reduce the angle of bank with coordinated 15°. The rollout from a turn is similar to the roll-in except the use of opposite aileron and rudder and then increase the pitch flight controls are applied in the opposite direction. Aileron attitude by increasing elevator back pressure. If recovery from and rudder are applied in the direction of the rollout or toward an excessively nose-low, steep bank condition is attempted the high wing. As the angle of bank decreases, the elevator by use of the elevator only, it only causes a steepening of pressure should be relaxed as necessary to maintain altitude. the bank and unnecessary stress on the airplane. Steep turn As the wings become level, the flight control pressures should Pilot moves lower relative to roll axis Pilot moves higher relative to roll axis Natural horizon reference Natural horizon reference NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 NAV2 108.00 110.60 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 123.800 118.000 COM2 130 13530000 2 120 3200 110 1043 HDG 270° 270° CRS 270° 3100 1 33 N 3 Right turn 90 T4 60 200 GS 80 X3 70 3400004200 1 Roll axisNAV TAS 100KT 2900 2 OBS A212IHDG UP 2800 33 N 3 E 12 6 2300 VOR 1 W 30 NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 NAV2 108.00 110.60 123.800 118.000 COM2 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP axis33 N 3 GS 24 15 S 21 130 13530000 NAV W 30 120 3200 OBS D195I D212I 12.4NM 110 2 6 E 12 PD2 1043 33 N 3 10 NM XPDR 1200 ALT LCL23:00:34 90 NAV2 ADVISORY 80 OBS 70 ADF/DME TAS 100KT 3100 1 60 A212IHDG UP -450 24Roll 3400004200 1 15 S 21 15 S 21 2900 W 30 6 E 12 HDG 270° 270° CRS 270° 2800 2 H3 2300 Left turn X8 24 15 VOR 1 W 30 OBS S 21 6 E 12 D195I D212I 12.3NM XPDR 1200 ALT LCL23:00:34 24 PD2 ADVISORY 10 NM NAV2 N 3 ADF/DME 33 W 30 6E Figure 3-18. Parallax view. 3-15

be smoothly relaxed so that the controls are neutralized as the • Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced by the airplane returns to straight-and-level flight. If trim was used, inability to detect slips or skids without reference to such as during a steep turn, forward elevator pressure may flight instruments. be required until the trim can be adjusted. As the rollout is being completed, attention should be given to outside visual • Attempting to maintain a constant bank angle by references, as well as the flight instruments to determine that referencing only the airplane’s nose. the wings are being leveled and the turn stopped. • Making skidding flat turns to avoid banking the For outside references, select the horizon and another point airplane. ahead. If those two points stay in alignment, the airplane is tracking to that point as long as there is not a crosswind • Holding excessive rudder in the direction of turn. requiring a crab angle. It would also be a good idea to include VFR references for heading as well and pitch. A pilot holds • Gaining proficiency in turns in only one direction. course in VFR by tracking to a point in front of the compass, with only glances at the compass to ensure he or she is still • Failure to coordinate the controls. on course. This reliance on a surface point does not work when flying over water or flat snow covered surfaces. In Climbs and Climbing Turns these conditions, the pilot must rely on the compass or gyro- heading indicator. When an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flightpath from level flight to a climb attitude. In a climb, weight no longer Because the elevator and ailerons are on one control, practice acts in a direction solely perpendicular to the flightpath. When is required to ensure that only the intended pressure is applied an airplane enters a climb, excess lift must be developed to to the intended flight control. For example, a beginner pilot overcome the weight or gravity. This requirement to develop is likely to unintentionally add pressure to the pitch control more lift results in more induced drag, which either results when the only bank was intended. This cross-coupling may be in decreased airspeed and/or an increased power setting to diminished or enhanced by the design of the flight controls; maintain a minimum airspeed in the climb. An airplane can however, practice is the appropriate measure for smooth, only sustain a climb when there is sufficient thrust to offset precise, and accurate flight control inputs. For example, increased drag; therefore, climb rate is limited by the excess diving when turning right and climbing when turning left in thrust available. airplanes is common with stick controls, because the arm tends to rotate from the elbow joint, which induces a secondary arc The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural control motion if the pilot is not extremely careful. Likewise, horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that lowering the nose is likely to induce a right turn, and raising produce the following types of climb: the nose to climb tends to induce a left turn. These actions would apply for a pilot using the right hand to move the stick. Normal climb—performed at an airspeed recommended by Airplanes with a control wheel may be less prone to these the airplane manufacturer. Normal climb speed is generally inadvertent actions, depending on control positions and pilot higher than the airplane’s best rate of climb. The additional seating. In any case, the pilot must retain the proper sight airspeed provides for better engine cooling, greater control picture of the nose following the horizon, whether up, down, authority, and better visibility over the nose of the airplane. left or right and isolate undesired motion. It is essential that Normal climb is sometimes referred to as cruise climb. flight control coordination be developed because it is the very basis of all fundamental flight maneuvers. Best rate of climb (VY)—produces the most altitude gained over a given amount of time. This airspeed is typically used Common errors in level turns are: when initially departing a runway without obstructions until it is safe to transition to a normal or cruise climb configuration. • Failure to adequately clear in the direction of turn for Best angle of climb (VX)—performed at an airspeed that aircraft traffic. produces the most altitude gain over a given horizontal distance. The best angle of climb results in a steeper climb, • Gaining or losing altitude during the turn. although the airplane takes more time to reach the same altitude than it would at best rate of climb airspeed. The best • Not holding the desired bank angle constant. angle of climb is used to clear obstacles, such as a strand of trees, after takeoff. [Figure 3-19] • Attempting to execute the turn solely by instrument reference. It should be noted that as altitude increases, the airspeed for best angle of climb increases and the airspeed for best • Leaning away from the direction of the turn while rate of climb decreases. Performance charts contained in seated. the Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook 3-16

Best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX) gives the greatest altitude gain in the shortest horizontal distance. Best rate-of-climb airspeed (VY) gives the greatest altitude gain in the shortest time. Figure 3-19. Best angle of climb verses best rate of climb. (AFM/POH) must be consulted to ensure that the correct The power should be advanced to the recommended climb airspeed is used for the desired climb profile at the given power. On airplanes equipped with an independently environmental conditions. There is a point at which the best controllable-pitch propeller, this requires advancing the angle of climb airspeed and the best rate of climb airspeed propeller control prior to increasing engine power. Some intersect. This occurs at the absolute ceiling at which the airplanes may be equipped with cowl flaps to facilitate airplane is incapable of climbing any higher. [Figure 3-20] effective engine cooling. The position of the cowl flaps should be set to ensure cylinder head temperatures remain Establishing a Climb within the manufacturer’s specifications. A straight climb is entered by gently increasing back pressure on the elevator flight control to the pitch attitude Engines that are normally aspirated experience a reduction referencing the airplane’s nose to the natural horizon while of power as altitude is gained. As altitude increases, air simultaneously increasing engine power to the climb power density decreases, which results in a reduction of power. setting. The wingtips should be referenced in maintaining the The indications show a reduction in revolutions per minute climb attitude while cross-checking the flight instruments to (rpm) for airplanes with fixed pitch propellers; airplanes verify performance. In many airplanes, as power is increased, that are equipped with controllable propellers show a an increase in slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer causes decrease in manifold pressure. The pilot should reference the airplane’s pitch attitude to increase greater than desired. the engine instruments to ensure that climb power is being The pilot should be prepared for slipstream effects but also for the effect of changing airspeed and changes in lift. The 22,000 Absolute ceiling pilot should be prepared to use the required flight control 20,000 Service ceiling pressures to achieve the desired pitch attitude. 18,000 Standard altitude (feet) 16,000 Best rate of climb(VY) If a climb is started from cruise flight, the airspeed gradually Best angle of climb(VX)14,000 decreases as the airplane enters a stabilized climb attitude. 12,000 The thrust required to maintain straight-and-level flight at a 10,000 90 100 110 120 given airspeed is not sufficient to maintain the same airspeed Indicated airspeed (knots) in a climb. Increase drag in a climb stems from increased lift 8,000 demands made upon the wing to increase altitude. Climbing 6,000 requires an excess of lift over that necessary to maintain level 4,000 flight. Increased lift will generate more induced drag. That 2,000 increase in induced drag is why more power is needed and why a sustained climb requires an excess of thrust. S.L. 80 For practical purposes gravity or weight is a constant. Even using a vector diagram to show where more lift is Figure 3-20. Absolute ceiling. necessary because the lift vector from the wings is no longer perpendicular to the wings, therefore more lift is needed from the wings which requires more thrust from the powerplant. 3-17

33 N 3 NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 NAV2 108.00 110.60 123.800 118.000 COM2 GS W 30 NAV 6 E 12 130 44030000 2 OBS 4200 +500 120 24 33 N 3 4100 1 1110 60 OBS 15 S 21 100 HDG 270° 270° CRS 270° 1 15 S 21 H3 12.3NM 44000000 2 9 X8 PD2 20 90 NAV2 3900 80 3800 70TAS 106KT 4300 OAT 7°C 3600 W 30 6 E 12 VOR 1 3500 3400 24 3300 10:12:34 3X2P0D0R 5537 IDNT LCL ALERTS 3100 Figure 3-21. Climb indications. maintained and that pressures and temperatures are within altitude. Level-off should begin at approximately 10 percent the manufacturer’s limits. As power decreases in the climb, of the rate of climb. For example, if the airplane is climbing the pilot must continually advance the throttle or power lever at 500 feet per minute (fpm), leveling off should begin 50 feet to maintain specified climb settings. prior to reaching the desired altitude. The pitch attitude must be decreased smoothly and slowly to allow for the airspeed The propeller effects during a climb and high power settings to increase; otherwise, a loss of altitude results if the pitch must be understood by the pilot. The propeller in most attitude is changed too rapidly without allowing the airspeed airplanes rotates clockwise when seen from the pilot’s to increase proportionately. position. As pitch attitude is increased, the center of thrust from the propeller moves to the right and becomes asymmetrical. After the airplane is established in level flight at a constant This asymmetric condition is often called “P-factor.” This is altitude, climb power should be retained temporarily so the result of the increased AOA of the descending propeller that the airplane accelerates to the cruise airspeed. When blade, which is the right side of the propeller disc when seen the airspeed reaches the desired cruise airspeed, the throttle from the cockpit. As the center of propeller thrust moves to setting and the propeller control, if equipped, should be set the right, a left turning yawing moment moves the nose of the to the cruise power setting and the airplane re-trimmed. airplane to the left. This is compensated by the pilot through right rudder pressure. In addition, torque that acts opposite to Climbing Turns the direction of propeller rotation causes the airplane to roll In the performance of climbing turns, the following factors to the left. Under these conditions, torque and P-factor cause should be considered. the airplane to roll and yaw to the left. To counteract this, right rudder and aileron flight control pressures must be used. • With a constant power setting, the same pitch attitude During the initial practice of climbs, this may initially seem and airspeed cannot be maintained in a bank as awkward; however, after some experience the correction for in a straight climb due to the increase in the total propeller effects becomes instinctive. lift required. As the airspeed decreases during the climb’s establishment, • The degree of bank should not be too steep. A steep the airplane’s pitch attitude tends to lower unless the pilot bank significantly decreases the rate of climb. The increases the elevator flight control pressure. Nose-up elevator bank should always remain constant. trim should be used so that the pitch attitude can be maintained without the pilot holding back elevator pressure. Throughout • It is necessary to maintain a constant airspeed and the climb, since the power should be fixed at the climb power constant rate of turn in both right and left turns. The setting, airspeed is controlled by the use of elevator pressure. coordination of all flight controls is a primary factor. The pitch attitude to the natural horizon determines if the pitch attitude is correct and should be cross-checked to the • At a constant power setting, the airplane climbs at a flight instruments to verify climb performance. [Figure 3-21] slightly shallower climb angle because some of the lift is being used to turn the airplane. To return to straight-and-level flight from a climb, it is necessary to begin leveling-off prior to reaching the desired All the factors that affect the airplane during level constant altitude turns affect the airplane during climbing turns. Compensation for the inherent stability of the airplane, overbanking tendencies, 3-18

adverse yaw, propeller effects, reduction of the vertical • Improper coordination resulting in a slip that component of lift, and increased drag must be managed by the counteracts the rate of climb, resulting in little or no pilot through the manipulation of the flight controls. altitude gain. Climbing turns may be established by entering the climb • Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constant first and then banking into the turn or climbing and turning during climbing turns. simultaneously. During climbing turns, as in any turn, the loss of vertical lift must be compensated by an increase in pitch • Attempting to exceed the airplane’s climb capability. attitude. When a turn is coupled with a climb, the additional drag and reduction in the vertical component of lift must be further • Applying forward elevator pressure too aggressively compensated for by an additional increase in elevator back during level-off resulting in a loss of altitude or pressure. When turns are simultaneous with a climb, it is most G-force substantially less than one G. effective to limit the turns to shallow bank angles. This provides for an efficient rate of climb. If a medium or steep banked turn Descents and Descending Turns is used, climb performance is degraded or possibly non-existent. When an airplane enters a descent, it changes its flightpath Common errors in the performance of climbs and climbing from level flight to a descent attitude. [Figure 3-22] In a turns are: descent, weight no longer acts solely perpendicular to the flightpath. Since induced drag is decreased as lift is reduced in • Attempting to establish climb pitch attitude by order to descend, excess thrust will provide higher airspeeds. primarily referencing the airspeed indicator resulting The weight/gravity force is about the same. This causes an in the pilot chasing the airspeed. increase in total thrust and a power reduction is required to balance the forces if airspeed is to be maintained. • Applying elevator pressure too aggressively resulting in an excessive climb angle. The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that • Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure during produce the following types of descents: climbing turns. Partial power descent—the normal method of losing altitude • Allowing the airplane to yaw during climbs usually is to descend with partial power. This is often termed due to inadequate right rudder pressure. cruise or en route descent. The airspeed and power setting recommended by the AFM/POH for prolonged descent • Fixation on the airplane’s nose during straight climbs, should be used. The target descent rate should be 500 fpm. resulting in climbing with one wing low. The desired airspeed, pitch attitude, and power combination should be preselected and kept constant. • Failure to properly initiate a climbing turn with a coordinated use of the flight controls, resulting in no Descent at minimum safe airspeed—a nose-high, power- turn but rather a climb with one wing low. assisted descent condition principally used for clearing 33 N 3 NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 NAV2 108.00 110.60 123.800 118.000 COM2 GS NAVW 30 6 E 12 130 44030000 2 OBS 4200 120 33 N 324 4100 1 1110 60 1 OBS 15 S 21 100 15 S 21 44000000 9 20 90 3900 80 HDG 270° 270° CRS 270° 3800 -500 H3 12.3NM 4300 2 70TAS 106KT X8 PD2 NAV2 3600 OAT 7°C W 30 6 E 12 VOR 1 3500 3400 24 3300 10:12:34 3X2P0D0R 5537 IDNT LCL ALERTS 3100 Figure 3-22. Descent indications. 3-19

obstacles during a landing approach to a short runway. The airspeed results in a proportional change in the distance flown. airspeed used for this descent condition is recommended by [Figure 3-24] As the glide airspeed is increased or decreased the AFM/POH and is normally no greater than 1.3 VSO. Some from the best glide airspeed, the glide ratio is lessened. characteristics of the minimum safe airspeed descent are a steeper-than-normal descent angle, and the excessive power Variations in weight do not affect the glide angle provided that may be required to produce acceleration at low airspeed the pilot uses the proper airspeed. Since it is the L/D ratio that should “mushing” and/or an excessive rate of descent be determines the distance the airplane can glide, weight does allowed to develop. not affect the distance flown; however, a heavier airplane must fly at a higher airspeed to obtain the same glide ratio. Emergency descent—some airplanes have a specific For example, if two airplanes having the same L/D ratio but procedure for rapidly losing altitude. The AFM/POH specifies different weights start a glide from the same altitude, the the procedure. In general, emergency descent procedures are heavier airplane gliding at a higher airspeed arrives at the high drag, high airspeed procedures requiring a specific same touchdown point in a shorter time. Both airplanes cover airplane configuration (such as power to idle, propellers the same distance, only the lighter airplane takes a longer time. forward, landing gear extended, and flaps retracted) and a specific emergency descent airspeed. Emergency descent Since the highest glide ratio occurs at maximum L/D, certain maneuvers often include turns. considerations must be given for drag producing components of the airplane, such as flaps, landing gear, and cowl flaps. Glides When drag increases, a corresponding decrease in pitch attitude is required to maintain airspeed. As the pitch is A glide is a basic maneuver in which the airplane loses lowered, the glide path steepens and reduces the distance altitude in a controlled descent with little or no engine power; traveled. To maximize the distance traveled during a glide, forward motion is maintained by gravity pulling the airplane all drag producing components must be eliminated if possible. along an inclined path and the descent rate is controlled by the pilot balancing the forces of gravity and lift. To level off Wind affects the gliding distance. With a tailwind, the from a partial power descent using a 1,000 feet per minute airplane glides farther because of the higher groundspeed. descent rate, use 10 percent (100 feet) as the lead point to Conversely, with a headwind, the airplane does not glide as begin raising the nose to stop descent and increasing power far because of the slower groundspeed. This is important for to maintain airspeed. a pilot to understand and manage when dealing with engine- related emergencies and any subsequent forced landing. Although glides are directly related to the practice of power- off accuracy landings, they have a specific operational purpose Certain considerations must be given to gliding flight. These in normal landing approaches, and forced landings after engine considerations are caused by the absence of the propeller failure. Therefore, it is necessary that they be performed slipstream, compensation for p-factor in the airplane’s more subconsciously than other maneuvers because most of design, and the effectiveness of airplane control surfaces the time during their execution, the pilot will be giving full attention to details other than the mechanics of performing the L/DMAX maneuver. Since glides are usually performed relatively close to the ground, accuracy of their execution and the formation of proper technique and habits are of special importance. The glide ratio of an airplane is the distance the airplane Increasing Lift-to-drag ratio travels in relation to the altitude it loses. For example, if an airplane travels 10,000 feet forward while descending 1,000 feet, its glide ratio is 10 to 1. The best glide airspeed is used to maximize the distance Increasing angle of attack flown. This airspeed is important when a pilot is attempting Figure 3-23. L/DMAX. to fly during an engine failure. The best airspeed for gliding is one at which the airplane travels the greatest forward distance for a given loss of altitude in still air. This best glide airspeed occurs at the highest lift-to-drag ratio (L/D). [Figure 3-23] When gliding at airspeed above or below the best glide airspeed, drag increases. Any change in the gliding 3-20

Best glide speed14 and airspeed. Speed should be allowed to dissipate before the Too fastToo slow pitch attitude is decreased. This point is particularly important for fast airplanes as they do not readily lose their airspeed— Figure 3-24. Best glide speed provides the greatest forward distance any slight deviation of the airplane’s nose downwards results for a given loss of altitude. in an immediate increase in airspeed. Once the airspeed has dissipated to best glide speed, the pitch attitude should be set at slow speeds. With the absent propeller effects and the to maintain that airspeed. This should be done with reference subsequent compensation for these effects, which is designed to the natural horizon and with a quick reference to the flight into many airplanes, it is likely that, during glides, slight left instruments. When the airspeed has stabilized, the airplane rudder pressure is required to maintain coordinated flight. should be trimmed to eliminate any flight control pressures In addition, the deflection of the flight controls to effect held by the pilot. Precision is required in maintaining the best change is greater due to the relatively slow airflow over the glide airspeed if the benefits are to be realized. control surfaces. A stabilized, power-off descent at the best glide speed is Minimum sink speed is used to maximize the time that the often referred to as normal glide. The beginning pilot should airplane remains in flight. It results in the airplane losing memorize the airplane’s attitude and speed with reference altitude at the lowest rate. Minimum sink speed occurs at an to the natural horizon and noting the sounds made by the airspeed less than the best glide speed. It is important that air passing over the airplane’s structure, forces on the flight pilots realize that flight at the minimum sink airspeed results controls, and the feel of the airplane. Initially, the beginner in less distance traveled. Minimum sink speed is useful in pilot may be unable to recognize slight variations in airspeed flight situations where time in flight is more important than and angle of bank by vision or by the pressure required on distance flown. An example is ditching an airplane at sea. the flight controls. The instructor should point out that an Minimum sink speed is not an often published airspeed but increase in sound levels denotes increasing speed, while a generally is a few knots less than best glide speed. decrease in sound levels indicates decreasing speed. When a sound level change is perceived, a beginning pilot should In an emergency, such as an engine failure, attempting to cross-check the visual and pressure references. The beginning apply elevator back pressure to stretch a glide back to the pilot must use all three airspeed references (sound, visual, runway is likely to lead the airplane landing short and may and pressure) consciously until experience is gained, and then even lead to loss of control if the airplane stalls. This leads must remain alert to any variation in attitude, feel, or sound. to a cardinal rule of airplane flying that a student pilot must understand and appreciate: The pilot must never attempt to After a solid comprehension of the normal glide is attained, “stretch” a glide by applying back-elevator pressure and the beginning pilot should be instructed in the differences reducing the airspeed below the airplane’s recommended best between normal and abnormal glides. Abnormal glides are glide speed. The purpose of pitch control during the glide is those glides conducted at speeds other than the best glide to maintain the maximum L/D, which may require fore or speed. Glide airspeeds that are too slow or too fast may result aft flight control pressure to maintain best glide airspeed. in the airplane not being able to make the intended landing spot, flat approaches, hard touchdowns, floating, overruns, To enter a glide, the pilot should close the throttle and, and possibly stalls and an accident. if equipped, advance the propeller lever forward. With back pressure on the elevator flight control, the pilot Gliding Turns should maintain altitude until the airspeed decreases to The absence of the propeller slipstream, loss of effectiveness the recommended best glide speed. In most airplanes, as of the various flight control surfaces at lower airspeeds, and power is reduced, propeller slipstream decreases over the designed-in aerodynamic corrections complicates the task of horizontal stabilizer, which decreases the tail-down force, flight control coordination in comparison to powered flight for and the airplane’s nose tends to lower immediately. To keep the inexperienced pilot. These principles should be thoroughly pitch attitude constant after a power change, the pilot must explained by the flight instructor so that the beginner pilot counteract the pitch down with a simultaneous increase in may be aware of the necessary differences in coordination. elevator back pressure. If the pitch attitude is allowed to decrease during glide entry, excess airspeed is carried into Three elements in gliding turns that tend to force the nose the glide and retards the attainment of the correct glide angle down and increase glide speed are: • Decrease in lift due to the direction of the lifting force • Excessive rudder inputs as a result of reduced flight control pressures 3-21

• The normal stability and inherent characteristics of The level-off from a glide must be started before reaching the the airplane to nose-down with the power off desired altitude because of the airplane’s downward inertia. The amount of lead depends on the rate of descent and what These three factors make it necessary to use more back airspeed is desired upon completion of the level off. For pressure on the elevator than is required for a straight example, assume the aircraft is in a 500 fpm rate of descent, glide or a level turn; and therefore, have a greater effect on and the desired final airspeed is higher than the glide speed. control coordination. In rolling in or out of a gliding turn, The altitude lead should begin at approximately 100 feet the rudder is required to compensate for yawing tendencies; above the target altitude and at the lead point, power should however, the required rudder pedal pressures are reduced as be increased to the appropriate level flight cruise power result of the reduced forces acting on the control surfaces. setting when the desired final airspeed is higher than the glide Because the rudder forces are reduced, the pilot may apply speed. At the lead point, power should be increased to the excessive rudder pedal pressures based on their experience appropriate level flight cruise power setting. The airplane’s with powered flight and overcontrol the aircraft causing slips nose tends to rise as airspeed and power increases and the and skids rather than coordinated flight. This may result in a pilot must smoothly control the pitch attitude so that the much greater deflection of the rudder resulting in potentially level-off is completed at the desired altitude and airspeed. hazardous flight control conditions. When recovery is being made from a gliding turn, the back pressure on the elevator control, which was applied during Some examples of this hazard: the turn, must be decreased or the airplane’s nose will pitch up excessively high resulting in a rapid loss of airspeed. This • A low-level gliding steep turn during an engine failure error requires considerable attention and conscious control emergency. If the rudder is excessively deflected in adjustment before the normal glide can be resumed. the direction of the bank while the pilot is increasing elevator back pressure in an attempt to retain altitude, Common errors in the performance of descents and the situation can rapidly turn into an unrecoverable spin. descending turns are: • During a power-off landing approach. The pilot • Failure to adequately clear for aircraft traffic in the depresses the rudder pedal with excessive pressure that turn direction or descent. leads to increased lift on the outside wing, banking the airplane in the direction of the rudder deflection. • Inadequate elevator back pressure during glide entry The pilot may improperly apply the opposite aileron resulting in an overly steep glide. to prevent the bank from increasing while applying elevator back pressure. If allowed to progress, this • Failure to slow the airplane to approximate glide speed situation may result in a fully developed cross-control prior to lowering pitch attitude. condition. A stall in this situation almost certainly results in a rapid and unrecoverable spin. • Attempting to establish/maintain a normal glide solely by reference to flight instruments. Level-off from a glide is really two different maneuvers depending on the type of glide: • Inability to sense changes in airspeed through sound and feel. 1. In the event of a complete power failure, the best glide speed should be held until necessary to reconfigure for • Inability to stabilize the glide (chasing the airspeed the landing, with planning for a steeper approach than indicator). usual when partial power is used for the approach to landing. A 10 percent lead (100 feet if the decent rate is • Attempting to “stretch” the glide by applying back- 1,000 feet per minute) factor should be sufficient. That elevator pressure. is what is given in the Instrument flying Handbook, so that should be the general rule of thumb for all • Skidding or slipping during gliding turns due to publications. inadequate appreciation of the difference in rudder forces as compared to turns with power. 2. In the case of a quicker descent or simulated power failure training, power should be applied as the 10% • Failure to lower pitch attitude during gliding turn entry lead value appears on the altimeter to allow a slow resulting in a decrease in airspeed. but positive power application to maintain or increase airspeed while raising the nose to stop the descent. • Excessive rudder pressure during recovery from Retrim as necessary. gliding turns. • Inadequate pitch control during recovery from straight glide. 3-22

• Cross-controlling during gliding turns near the ground. • Failure to maintain constant bank angle during gliding turns. Chapter Summary The four fundamental maneuvers of straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents are the foundation of basic airmanship. Effort and continued practice are required to master the fundamentals. It is important that a pilot consider the six motions of flight: bank, pitch, yaw and horizontal, vertical, and lateral displacement. In order for an airplane to fly from one location to another, it pitches, banks, and yaws while it moves over and above, in relationship to the ground, to reach its destination. The airplane must be treated as an aerodynamic vehicle that is subject to rigid aerodynamic laws. A pilot must understand and apply the principles of flight in order to control an airplane with the greatest margin of mastery and safety. 3-23

3-24

CMhapateri4ntaining Aircraft Control: Upset Prevention and Recovery Training Introduction A pilot’s fundamental responsibility is to prevent a loss of control (LOC). Loss of control in-flight (LOC-I) is the leading cause of fatal general aviation accidents in the U.S. and commercial aviation worldwide. LOC-I is defined as a significant deviation of an aircraft from the intended flightpath and it often results from an airplane upset. Maneuvering is the most common phase of flight for general aviation LOC-I accidents to occur; however, LOC-I accidents occur in all phases of flight. To prevent LOC-I accidents, it is important for pilots to recognize and maintain a heightened awareness of situations that increase the risk of loss of control. Those situations include: uncoordinated flight, equipment malfunctions, pilot complacency, distraction, turbulence, and poor risk management – like attempting to fly in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) when the pilot is not qualified or proficient. Sadly, there are also LOC-I accidents resulting from intentional disregard or recklessness. 4-1

To maintain aircraft control when faced with these or other ELDE.CC.. contributing factors, the pilot must be aware of situations where LOC-I can occur, recognize when an airplane is approaching L a stall, has stalled, or is in an upset condition, and understand INFONRO2MPAITTICMOIHNN. R and execute the correct procedures to recover the aircraft. Defining an Airplane Upset 60° The term “upset” was formally introduced by an industry work group in 2004 in the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Centrifugal force 1.73 G’sGravity 1G Recovery,” which is one part of the “Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid.” The working group was primarily Load factor 2 G’s focused on large transport airplanes and sought to come up with one term to describe an “unusual attitude” or “loss of Figure 4-1. Coordinated flight in a turn. control,” for example, and to generally describe specific parameters as part of its definition. Consistent with the Guide, is not slipping or skidding. A correction should be made by the FAA has defined an upset as an event that unintentionally applying rudder pressure on the side toward which one feels exceeds the parameters normally experienced in flight or a leaning sensation. This will be the same side to which the training. These parameters are: ball in the slip/skid indicator has slewed (i.e., the old saying “step on the ball”). • Pitch attitude greater than 25°, nose up Angle of Attack • Pitch attitude greater than 10°, nose down The angle of attack (AOA) is the angle at which the chord of the wing meets the relative wind. The chord is a straight line • Bank angle greater than 45° from the leading edge to the trailing edge. At low angles of attack, the airflow over the top of the wing flows smoothly • Within the above parameters, but flying at airspeeds and produces lift with a relatively small amount of drag. As inappropriate for the conditions. the AOA increases, lift as well as drag increases; however, above a wing’s critical AOA, the flow of air separates from The reference to inappropriate airspeeds describes a number the upper surface and backfills, burbles and eddies, which of undesired aircraft states, including stalls. However, stalls reduces lift and increases drag. This condition is a stall, are directly related to angle of attack (AOA), not airspeed. which can lead to loss of control if the AOA is not reduced. To develop the crucial skills to prevent LOC-I, a pilot must It is important for the pilot to understand that a stall is the result receive upset prevention and recovery training (UPRT), which of exceeding the critical AOA, not of insufficient airspeed. should include: slow flight, stalls, spins, and unusual attitudes. The term “stalling speed” can be misleading, as this speed is often discussed when assuming 1G flight at a particular weight Upset training has placed more focus on prevention— and configuration. Increased load factor directly affects understanding what can lead to an upset so a pilot does not stall speed (as well as do other factors such as gross weight, find himself or herself in such a situation. If an upset does center of gravity, and flap setting). Therefore, it is possible occur, however, upset training also reinforces proper recovery to stall the wing at any airspeed, at any flight attitude, and at techniques. A more detailed discussion of UPRT to include any power setting. For example, if a pilot maintains airspeed its core concepts, what the training should include, and what and rolls into a coordinated, level 60° banked turn, the load airplanes or kinds of simulation can be used for the training factor is 2Gs, and the airplane will stall at a speed that is 40 can be found later in this chapter. percent higher than the straight-and-level stall speed. In that 2G level turn, the pilot has to increase AOA to increase the Coordinated Flight lift required to maintain altitude. At this condition, the pilot Coordinated flight occurs whenever the pilot is proactively is closer to the critical AOA than during level flight and correcting for yaw effects associated with power (engine/ propeller effects), aileron inputs, how an airplane reacts when turning, and airplane rigging. The airplane is in coordinated flight when the airplane’s nose is yawed directly into the relative wind and the ball is centered in the slip/skid indicator. [Figure 4-1] A pilot should develop a sensitivity to side loads that indicate the nose is not yawed into the relative wind, and the airplane 4-2

therefore closer to the higher speed that the airplane will stall feels at the slower airspeeds aids the pilot in learning that at. Because “stalling speed” is not a constant number, pilots as airspeed decreases, control effectiveness decreases. For must understand the underlying factors that affect it in order instance, reducing airspeed from 30 knots to 20 knots above to maintain aircraft control in all circumstances. the stalling speed will result in a certain loss of effectiveness of flight control inputs because of less airflow over the Slow Flight control surfaces. As airspeed is further reduced, the control effectiveness is further reduced and the reduced airflow over Slow flight is when the airplane AOA is just under the AOA the control surfaces results in larger control movements which will cause an aerodynamic buffet or a warning from a being required to create the same response. Pilots sometimes stall warning device if equipped with one. A small increase in refer to the feel of this reduced effectiveness as “sloppy” or AOA may result in an impending stall, which increases the risk “mushy” controls. of an actual stall. In most normal flight operations the airplane would not be flown close to the stall-warning AOA or critical When flying above minimum drag speed (L/DMAX), even AOA, but because the airplane is flown at higher AOAs, and a small increase in power will increase the speed of the thus reduced speeds in the takeoff/departure and approach/ airplane. When flying at speeds below L/DMAX, also referred landing phases of flight, learning to fly at reduced airspeeds is to as flying on the back side of the power curve, larger essential. In these phases of flight, the airplane’s close proximity inputs in power or reducing the AOA will be required for to the ground would make loss of control catastrophic; the airplane to be able to accelerate. Since slow flight will be therefore, the pilot must be proficient in slow flight. performed well below L/DMAX, the pilot must be aware that large power inputs or a reduction in AOA will be required The objective of maneuvering in slow flight is to understand to prevent the aircraft from decelerating. It is important to the flight characteristics and how the airplane’s flight controls note that when flying on the backside of the power curve, feel near its aerodynamic buffet or stall-warning. It also as the AOA increases toward the critical AOA and the helps to develop the pilot’s recognition of how the airplane airplane’s speed continues to decrease, small changes in feels, sounds, and looks when a stall is impending. These the pitch control result in disproportionally large changes in characteristics include, degraded response to control inputs induced drag and therefore changes in airspeed. As a result, and difficulty maintaining altitude. Practicing slow flight will pitch becomes a more effective control of airspeed when help pilots recognize an imminent stall not only from the feel flying below L/DMAX and power is an effective control of of the controls, but also from visual cues, aural indications, the altitude profile (i.e., climbs, descents, or level flight) and instrument indications. For pilot training and testing purposes, slow flight includes It is also important to note that an airplane flying below two main elements: L / DMAX, exhibits a characteristic known as “speed instability” and the airspeed will continue to decay without appropriate 1. Slowing to, maneuvering at, and recovering from pilot action. For example, if the airplane is disturbed by an airspeed at which the airplane is still capable of turbulence and the airspeed decreases, the airspeed may maintaining controlled flight without activating the continue to decrease without the appropriate pilot action of stall warning—5 to 10 knots above the 1G stall speed reducing the AOA or adding power. [Figure 4-2] is a good target; and .200 Separation 2. Performing slow flight in configurations appropriate .180 & stall 1.8 to takeoffs, climbs, descents, approaches to landing, .160Coefficient of drag (CD) CLMAX 18 and go-arounds. Lift/drag1.616 Slow flight should be introduced with the airspeed .140 L/DMAX Coefficient of lift 1.4 14 sufficiently above the stall to permit safe maneuvering, but .120 Lift to 1.2 12 close enough to the stall warning for the pilot to experience .100 1.0 CL 10 the characteristics of flight at a very low airspeed. One way .080 drag ratio 0.8 8 to determine the target airspeed is to slow the airplane to the stall warning when in the desired slow flight configuration, .060 0.6 6 pitch the nose down slightly to eliminate the stall warning, add power to maintain altitude and note the airspeed. .040 Coefficient of drag 0.4 4 .020 0.2 2 0 0 0° 2° 4° 6° 8° 10° 12° 14° 16° 18° 20° 22° Angle of attack in degrees When practicing slow flight, a pilot learns to divide attention Figure 4-2. Angle-of-attack in degrees. between aircraft control and other demands. How the airplane 4-3

Performing the Slow Flight Maneuver Slow Flight Slow flight should be practiced in straight-and-level flight, straight-ahead climbs and climbing medium-banked Low airspeed, (approximately 20 degrees) turns, and straight-ahead power- high angle of attack, off gliding descents and descending turns to represent the high power setting, and takeoff and landing phases of flight. Slow flight training constant altitude. should include slowing the airplane smoothly and promptly from cruising to approach speeds without changes in altitude Figure 4-3. Slow flight—low airspeed, high angle of attack, high or heading, and understanding the required power and power, and constant altitude. trim settings to maintain slow flight. It should also include configuration changes, such as extending the landing gear left yaw, which requires right rudder input to maintain and adding flaps, while maintaining heading and altitude. coordinated flight. The closer the airplane is to the 1G stall, Slow flight in a single-engine airplane should be conducted the greater the amount of right rudder pressure required. so the maneuver can be completed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL, or higher, if recommended by the manufacturer. In Maneuvering in Slow Flight all cases, practicing slow flight should be conducted at an When the desired pitch attitude and airspeed have been adequate height above the ground for recovery should the established in straight-and-level slow flight, the pilot must airplane inadvertently stall. maintain awareness of outside references and continually cross-check the airplane’s instruments to maintain control. To begin the slow flight maneuver, clear the area and The pilot should note the feel of the flight controls, especially gradually reduce thrust from cruise power and adjust the the airspeed changes caused by small pitch adjustments, pitch to allow the airspeed to decrease while maintaining and the altitude changes caused by power changes. The altitude. As the speed of the airplane decreases, note a change pilot should practice turns to determine the airplane’s in the sound of the airflow around the airplane. As the speed controllability characteristics at this low speed. During the approaches the target slow flight speed, which is an airspeed turns, it will be necessary to increase power to maintain just above the stall warning in the desired configuration altitude. Abrupt or rough control movements during slow (i.e., approximately 5–10 knots above the stall speed for flight may result in a stall. For instance, abruptly raising the that flight condition), additional power will be required to flaps while in slow flight can cause the plane to stall. maintain altitude. During these changing flight conditions, it is important to trim the airplane to compensate for changes in The pilot should also practice climbs and descents by control pressures. If the airplane remains trimmed for cruising adjusting the power when stabilized in straight-and-level speed (a lower AOA), strong aft (back) control pressure is slow flight. The pilot should note the increased yawing needed on the elevator, which makes precise control difficult tendency at high power settings and counter it with rudder unless the airplane is retrimmed. input as needed. Slow flight is typically performed and evaluated in the To exit the slow flight maneuver, follow the same procedure landing configuration. Therefore, both the landing gear as for recovery from a stall: apply forward control pressure and the flaps should be extended to the landing position. to reduce the AOA, maintain coordinated flight and level the It is recommended the prescribed before-landing checks wings, and apply power as necessary to return to the desired be completed to configure the airplane. The extension of flightpath. As airspeed increases, clean up the airplane by gear and flaps typically occurs once cruise power has been retracting flaps and landing gear if they were extended. A reduced and at appropriate airspeeds to ensure limitations pilot should anticipate the changes to the AOA as the landing for extending those devices are not exceeded. Practicing this gear and flaps are retracted to avoid a stall. maneuver in other configurations, such as a clean or takeoff configuration, is also good training and may be evaluated Common errors in the performance of slow flight are: on the practical test. • Failure to adequately clear the area • Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, With an AOA just under the AOA which may cause an resulting in altitude loss aerodynamic buffet or stall warning, the flight controls are less effective. [Figure 4-3] The elevator control is less responsive and larger control movements are necessary to retain control of the airplane. In propeller-driven airplanes, torque, slipstream effect, and P-factor may produce a strong 4-4

• Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, uncommanded rolling motion. For airplanes equipped resulting in a climb followed by a rapid reduction in with stick pushers, its activation is also a full stall airspeed indication. • Insufficient right rudder to compensate for left yaw Although it depends on the degree to which a stall has progressed, some loss of altitude is expected during recovery. • Fixation on the flight instruments The longer it takes for the pilot to recognize an impending stall, the more likely it is that a full stall will result. Intentional • Failure to anticipate changes in AOA as flaps are stalls should therefore be performed at an altitude that extended or retracted provides adequate height above the ground for recovery and return to normal level flight. • Inadequate power management Stall Recognition • Inability to adequately divide attention between A pilot must recognize the flight conditions that are airplane control and orientation conducive to stalls and know how to apply the necessary corrective action. This level of proficiency requires learning • Failure to properly trim the airplane to recognize an impending stall by sight, sound, and feel. • Failure to respond to a stall warning Stalls are usually accompanied by a continuous stall warning for airplanes equipped with stall warning devices. These Stalls devices may include an aural alert, lights, or a stick shaker all which alert the pilot when approaching the critical AOA. A stall is an aerodynamic condition which occurs when Certification standards permit manufacturers to provide smooth airflow over the airplane’s wings is disrupted, the required stall warning either through the inherent resulting in loss of lift. Specifically, a stall occurs when the aerodynamic qualities of the airplane or through a stall AOA—the angle between the chord line of the wing and the warning device that gives a clear indication of the impending relative wind—exceeds the wing’s critical AOA. It is possible stall. However, most vintage airplanes, and many types of to exceed the critical AOA at any airspeed, at any attitude, light sport and experimental airplanes, do not have stall and at any power setting. [Figure 4-4] warning devices installed. For these reasons, it is important to understand factors and Other sensory cues for the pilot include: situations that can lead to a stall, and develop proficiency in stall recognition and recovery. Performing intentional stalls • Feel—the pilot will feel control pressures change as will familiarize the pilot with the conditions that result in a speed is reduced. With progressively less resistance on stall, assist in recognition of an impending stall, and develop the control surfaces, the pilot must use larger control the proper corrective response if a stall occurs. Stalls are movements to get the desired airplane response. The practiced to two different levels: pilot will notice the airplane’s reaction time to control movement increases. Just before the stall occurs, • Impending Stall—an impending stall occurs when the buffeting, uncommanded rolling, or vibrations may AOA causes a stall warning, but has not yet reached begin to occur. the critical AOA. Indications of an impending stall can include buffeting, stick shaker, or aural warning. • Full Stall—a full stall occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded. Indications of a full stall are typically that an uncommanded nose-down pitch cannot be readily arrested, and this may be accompanied by an AB C 10° 16° 17° Figure 4-4. Critical angle of attack and stall. 4-5 2.0 B C A BC

• Vision—since the airplane can be stalled in any or contact the manufacturer for specific limitations applicable attitude, vision is not a foolproof indicator of to that indicator type. an impending stall. However, maintaining pitch awareness is important. Stall Characteristics • Hearing—as speed decreases, the pilot should notice Different airplane designs can result in different stall a change in sound made by the air flowing along the characteristics. The pilot should know the stall characteristics of the airplane being flown and the manufacturer’s airplane structure. recommended recovery procedures. Factors that can affect • Kinesthesia—the physical sensation (sometimes the stall characteristics of an airplane include its geometry, referred to as “seat of the pants” sensations) of changes CG, wing design, and high-lift devices. Engineering design in direction or speed is an important indicator to the variations make it impossible to specifically describe the stall trained and experienced pilot in visual flight. If this characteristics for all airplanes; however, there are enough sensitivity is properly developed, it can warn the pilot similarities in small general aviation training-type airplanes of an impending stall. to offer broad guidelines. Pilots in training must remember that a level-flight 1G stalling Most training airplanes are designed so that the wings stall speed is valid only: progressively outward from the wing roots (where the wing attaches to the fuselage) to the wingtips. Some wings are • In unaccelerated 1G flight AB • In coordinated flight (slip-skid indicator centered) • At one weight (typically maximum gross weight) • At a particular center of gravity (CG) (typically maximum forward CG) Angle of Attack Indicators C 10° 16° A BC Learning to recognize stalls without relying on stall warning 17° devices is important. However, airplanes can be equipped 2.0 BC with AOA indicators that can provide a visual indication of the airplane’s proximity to the critical AOA. There are several different kinds of AOA indicators with varying methods for calculating AOA, therefore proper installation and training on the use of these devices is important. AOA indicators measure several parameters simultaneously, determine the current AOA, and provide a visual image of the proximity to the critical AOA. [Figure 4-5] Some AOA indicators also provide aural indications, which can provide awareness to a change in AOA that is trending towards the critical AOA prior to installed stall warning systems. It’s important to note that some indicators take flap position into consideration, but not all do. Understanding what type of AOA indicator is installed on an Coefficient of Lift (CL) 1.5 airplane, how the particular device determines AOA, what the 1.0 A display is indicating and when the critical AOA is reached, and what the appropriate response is to those indications 0.5 are all important components to AOA indicator training. It is also encouraged to conduct in-flight training to see the -4 0 5 10 15 20 indications throughout various maneuvers, like slow flight, stalls, takeoffs, and landings, and to practice the appropriate Angle of attack in degrees responses to those indications. It is also important to note that some items may limit the effectiveness of an AOA indicator Figure 4-5. A conceptual representation of an AOA indicator. It (e.g., calibration techniques, wing contamination, unheated is important to become familiar with the equipment installed in a probes/vanes). Pilots flying an airplane equipped with an specific airplane. AOA indicator should refer to the pilot handbook information 4-6

manufactured with a certain amount of twist, known as [Figure 4-6] However, a pilot should always follow the washout, resulting in the outboard portion of the wings having aircraft-specific manufacturer’s recommended procedures a slightly lower AOA than the wing roots. This design feature if published and current. causes the wingtips to have a smaller AOA during flight than the wing roots. Thus, the wing roots of an airplane exceed the The recovery actions should be made in a procedural manner; critical AOA before the wingtips, meaning the wing roots stall they can be summarized in Figure 4-6. The following first. Therefore, when the airplane is in a stalled condition, discussion explains each of the six steps: the ailerons should still have a degree of control effectiveness until/unless stalled airflow migrates outward along the wings. 1. Disconnect the wing leveler or autopilot (if equipped). Although airflow may still be attached at the wingtips, a Manual control is essential to recovery in all pilot should exercise caution using the ailerons prior to the situations. Disconnecting this equipment should be reduction of the AOA because it can exacerbate the stalled done immediately and allow the pilot to move to the condition. For example, if the airplane rolls left at the stall next crucial step quickly. Leaving the wing leveler or (“rolls-off”), and the pilot applies right aileron to try to level autopilot connected may result in inadvertent changes the wing, the downward-deflected aileron on the left wing or adjustments to the flight controls or trim that may produces a greater AOA (and more induced drag), and a more not be easily recognized or appropriate, especially complete stall at the tip as the critical AOA is exceeded. This during high workload situations. can cause the wing to roll even more to the left, which is why it is important to first reduce the AOA before attempting to 2. a) Pitch nose-down control. Reducing the AOA is roll the airplane. crucial for all stall recoveries. Push forward on the flight controls to reduce the AOA below the critical The pilot must also understand how the factors that affect AOA until the impending stall indications are stalls are interrelated. In a power-off stall, for instance, the eliminated before proceeding to the next step. cues (buffeting, shaking) are less noticeable than in the power-on stall. In the power-off, 1G stall, the predominant b) Trim nose-down pitch. If the elevator does not cue may be the elevator control position (full up elevator provide the needed response, pitch trim may be against the stops) and a high descent rate. necessary. However, excessive use of pitch trim may aggravate the condition, or may result in loss of control Fundamentals of Stall Recovery or high structural loads. Depending on the complexity of the airplane, stall recovery could consist of as many as six steps. Even so, the pilot should 3. Roll wings level. This orients the lift vector properly remember the most important action to an impending stall or for an effective recovery. It is important not to be a full stall is to reduce the AOA. There have been numerous tempted to control the bank angle prior to reducing situations where pilots did not first reduce AOA, and instead AOA. Both roll stability and roll control will improve prioritized power and maintaining altitude, which resulted considerably after getting the wings flying again. It is in a loss of control. This section provides a generic stall also imperative for the pilot to proactively cancel yaw recovery procedure for light general aviation aircraft adapted with proper use of the rudder to prevent a stall from from a template developed by major airplane manufacturers progressing into a spin. and can be adjusted appropriately for the aircraft used. 4. Add thrust/power. Power should be added as needed, as stalls can occur at high power or low power settings, or at high airspeeds or low airspeeds. Advance the 1. Wing leveler or autopilot Stall Recovery Template 2. a) Pitch nose-down 1. Disconnect 2. a) Apply until impending stall indications are eliminated b) Trim nose-down pitch b) As needed 3. Bank 3. Wings Level 4. Thrust/Power 4. As needed 5. Speed brakes/spoilers 5. Retract 6. Return to the desired flight path 4-7 Figure 4-6. Stall recovery template.

throttle promptly, but smoothly, as needed while the pilot’s awareness of what could happen if the controls using rudder and elevator controls to stop any yawing are improperly used during a turn from the base leg to the motion and prevent any undesirable pitching motion. final approach. The power-off straight-ahead stall simulates Adding power typically reduces the loss of altitude the stall that could occur when trying to stretch a glide after during a stall recovery, but it does not eliminate a stall. the engine has failed, or if low on the approach to landing. The reduction in AOA is imperative. For propeller- driven airplanes, power application increases the As in all maneuvers that involve significant changes in altitude airflow around the wing, assisting in stall recovery. or direction, the pilot must ensure that the area is clear of other air traffic at and below their altitude and that sufficient altitude 5. Retract speedbrakes/spoilers (if equipped). This will is available for a recovery before executing the maneuver. It is improve lift and the stall margin. recommended that stalls be practiced at an altitude that allows recovery no lower than 1,500 feet AGL for single-engine 6. Return to the desired flightpath. Apply smooth and airplanes, or higher if recommended by the AFM/POH. Losing coordinated flight control movements to return the altitude during recovery from a stall is to be expected. airplane to the desired flightpath being careful to avoid a secondary stall. The pilot should, however, be Approaches to Stalls (Impending Stalls), Power‑On situationally aware of the proximity to terrain during or Power-Off the recovery and take the necessary flight control An impending stall occurs when the airplane is approaching, action to avoid contact with it. but does not exceed the critical AOA. The purpose of practicing impending stalls is to learn to retain or regain full control of The above procedure can be adapted for the type of aircraft the airplane immediately upon recognizing that it is nearing a flown. For example, a single-engine training airplane without stall, or that a stall is likely to occur if the pilot does not take an autopilot would likely only use four of the six steps. The appropriate action. Pilot training should emphasize teaching first step is not needed therefore reduction of the AOA until the same recovery technique for impending stalls and full stalls. the stall warning is eliminated is first. Use of pitch trim is less of a concern because most pilots can overpower the trim The practice of impending stalls is of particular value in in these airplanes and any mistrim can be corrected when developing the pilot’s sense of feel for executing maneuvers returning to the desired flightpath. The next step is rolling in which maximum airplane performance is required. These the wings level followed by the addition of power as needed maneuvers require flight in which the airplane approaches all while maintaining coordinated flight. The airplane is not a stall, but the pilot initiates recovery at the first indication, equipped with speedbrakes or spoilers therefore this step can such as by a stall warning device activation. be skipped and the recovery will conclude with returning to the desired flightpath. Impending stalls may be entered and performed in the same attitudes and configurations as the full stalls or other Similarly, a glider pilot does not have an autopilot therefore maneuvers described in this chapter. However, instead of the first step is the reduction of AOA until the stall warning allowing the airplane to reach the critical AOA, the pilot is eliminated. The pilot would then roll wings level while must immediately reduce AOA once the stall warning maintaining coordinated flight. There is no power to add device goes off, if installed, or recognizes other cues such therefore this step would not apply. Retracting speedbrakes as buffeting. Hold the nose down control input as required or spoilers would be the next step for a glider pilot followed to eliminate the stall warning. Then level the wings maintain by returning to the desired flightpath. coordinated flight, and then apply whatever additional power is necessary to return to the desired flightpath. The pilot Stall Training will have recovered once the airplane has returned to the Practice in both power-on and power-off stalls is important desired flightpath with sufficient airspeed and adequate flight because it simulates stall conditions that could occur control effectiveness and no stall warning. Performance of during normal flight maneuvers. It is important for pilots to the impending stall maneuver is unsatisfactory if a full stall understand the possible flight scenarios in which a stall could occurs, if an excessively low pitch attitude is attained, or if the occur. Stall accidents usually result from an inadvertent stall pilot fails to take timely action to avoid excessive airspeed, at a low altitude, with the recovery not completed prior to excessive loss of altitude, or a spin. ground contact. For example, power-on stalls are practiced to develop the pilot’s awareness of what could happen if Full Stalls, Power-Off the airplane is pitched to an excessively nose-high attitude The practice of power-off stalls is usually performed with immediately after takeoff, during a climbing turn, or when normal landing approach conditions to simulate an accidental trying to clear an obstacle. Power-off turning stalls develop 4-8

stall occurring during approach to landing. However, power- of these stalls, take care to ensure that the airplane remains off stalls should be practiced at all flap settings to ensure coordinated and the turn continues at a constant bank angle familiarity with handling arising from mechanical failures, until the full stall occurs. If the airplane is allowed to develop icing, or other abnormal situations. Airspeed in excess of a slip, the outer wing may stall first and move downward the normal approach speed should not be carried into a stall abruptly. The recovery procedure is the same, regardless entry since it could result in an abnormally nose-high attitude. of whether one wing rolls off first. The pilot must apply as much nose down control input as necessary to eliminate the To set up the entry for a straight-ahead power-off stall, stall warning, level the wings with ailerons, coordinate with airplanes equipped with flaps or retractable landing gear rudder, and add power as needed. In the practice of turning should be in the landing configuration. After extending the stalls, no attempt should be made to stall or recover the landing gear, applying carburetor heat (if applicable), and airplane on a predetermined heading. However, to simulate a retarding the throttle to idle (or normal approach power), turn from base to final approach, the stall normally should be hold the airplane at a constant altitude in level flight until the made to occur within a heading change of approximately 90°. airspeed decelerates to normal approach speed. The airplane should then be smoothly pitched down to a normal approach Full Stalls, Power-On attitude to maintain that airspeed. Wing flaps should be Power-on stall recoveries are practiced from straight climbs extended and pitch attitude adjusted to maintain the airspeed. and climbing turns (15° to 20° bank) to help the pilot recognize the potential for an accidental stall during takeoff, go around, When the approach attitude and airspeed have stabilized, the climb, or when trying to clear an obstacle. Airplanes equipped pilot should smoothly raise the airplane’s nose to an attitude with flaps or retractable landing gear should normally be in that induces a stall. Directional control should be maintained the takeoff configuration; however, power-on stalls should and wings held level by coordinated use of the ailerons and also be practiced with the airplane in a clean configuration rudder. Once the airplane reaches an attitude that will lead (flaps and gear retracted) to ensure practice with all possible to a stall, the pitch attitude is maintained with the elevator takeoff and climb configurations. Power for practicing the until the stall occurs. The stall is recognized by the full-stall takeoff stall recovery should be maximum power, although cues previously described. for some airplanes it may be reduced to a setting that will prevent an excessively high pitch attitude. Recovery from the stall is accomplished by reducing the AOA, applying as much nose-down control input as required To set up the entry for power-on stalls, establish the airplane to eliminate the stall warning, leveling the wings, maintaining in the takeoff or climb configuration. Slow the airplane to coordinated flight, and then applying power as needed. Right normal lift-off speed while continuing to clear the area of rudder pressure may be necessary to overcome the engine other traffic. Upon reaching the desired speed, set takeoff torque effects as power is advanced and the nose is being power or the recommended climb power for the power-on lowered. [Figure 4-7] If simulating an inadvertent stall on stall (often referred to as a departure stall) while establishing a approach to landing, the pilot should initiate a go-around climb attitude. The purpose of reducing the airspeed to lift-off by establishing a positive rate of climb. Once in a climb, airspeed before the throttle is advanced to the recommended the flaps and landing gear should be retracted as necessary. setting is to avoid an excessively steep nose-up attitude for a long period before the airplane stalls. Recovery from power-off stalls should also be practiced from shallow banked turns to simulate an inadvertent stall during After establishing the climb attitude, smoothly raise the nose a turn from base leg to final approach. During the practice to increase the AOA, and hold that attitude until the full stall Power-Off Stall and Recovery When stall occurs, As flying speed Maintain climb airspeed, Return to the Establish normal Raise nose, reduce angle of returns, stop descent raise landing gear and desired flightpath. approach. maintain heading. and establish a climb. flaps, and trim. attack, roll wings level, and add power as needed. Figure 4-7. Power-off stall and recovery. 4-9

Power-On Stall and Recovery Slow to lift-off speed, Set takeoff power, When stall occurs, As flying speed returns, Maintain climb airspeed, Return to the maintain altitude. raise nose. reduce AOA, roll stop descent and raise landing gear and desired flightpath. wings level, and add establish a climb. flaps, and trim. power as needed. Figure 4-8. Power-on stall. occurs. As described in connection with the stall characteristics quickly and the critical AOA is exceeded a second time. It discussion, continual adjustments must be made to aileron can also occur when the pilot does not sufficiently reduce pressure, elevator pressure, and rudder pressure to maintain the AOA by lowering the pitch attitude or attempts to break coordinated flight while holding the attitude until the full stall the stall by using power only. [Figure 4-9] occurs. In most airplanes, as the airspeed decreases the pilot must move the elevator control progressively further back When a secondary stall occurs, the pilot should again perform while simultaneously adding right rudder and maintaining the stall recovery procedures by applying nose-down elevator the climb attitude until reaching the full stall. pressure as required to eliminate the stall warning, level the wings with ailerons, coordinate with rudder, and adjust The pilot must promptly recognize when the stall has occurred power as needed. When the airplane is no longer in a stalled and take action to prevent a prolonged stalled condition. The condition the pilot can return the airplane to the desired pilot should recover from the stall by immediately reducing flightpath. For pilot certification, this is a demonstration-only the AOA and applying as much nose-down control input as maneuver; only flight instructor applicants may be required required to eliminate the stall warning, level the wings with to perform it on a practical test. ailerons, coordinate with rudder, and smoothly advance the power as needed. Since the throttle is already at the climb Accelerated Stalls power setting, this step may simply mean confirming the The objectives of demonstrating an accelerated stall are to proper power setting. [Figure 4-8] determine the stall characteristics of the airplane, experience stalls at speeds greater than the +1G stall speed, and develop The final step is to return the airplane to the desired flightpath the ability to instinctively recover at the onset of such stalls. (e.g., straight and level or departure/climb attitude). With This is a maneuver only commercial pilot and flight instructor sufficient airspeed and control effectiveness, return the applicants may be required to perform or demonstrate on a throttle to the appropriate power setting. practical test. However, all pilots should be familiar with the situations that can cause an accelerated stall, how to recognize Secondary Stall it, and the appropriate recovery action should one occur. A secondary stall is so named because it occurs after recovery from a preceding stall. It is typically caused by abrupt control At the same gross weight, airplane configuration, CG inputs or attempting to return to the desired flightpath too location, power setting, and environmental conditions, Secondary Stall Initial stall Incomplete or improper recovery Secondary stall Figure 4-9. Secondary stall. 4-10

a given airplane consistently stalls at the same indicated An airplane typically stalls during a level, coordinated turn airspeed provided the airplane is at +1G (i.e., steady-state similar to the way it does in wings level flight, except that unaccelerated flight). However, the airplane can also stall at the stall buffet can be sharper. If the turn is coordinated at a higher indicated airspeed when the airplane is subject to an the time of the stall, the airplane’s nose pitches away from acceleration greater than +1G, such as when turning, pulling the pilot just as it does in a wings level stall since both wings up, or other abrupt changes in flightpath. Stalls encountered will tend to stall nearly simultaneously. If the airplane is not any time the G-load exceeds +1G are called “accelerated properly coordinated at the time of stall, the stall behavior maneuver stalls”. The accelerated stall would most frequently may include a change in bank angle until the AOA has been occur inadvertently during improperly executed turns, stall reduced. It is important to take recovery action at the first and spin recoveries, pullouts from steep dives, or when indication of a stall (if impending stall training/checking) or overshooting a base to final turn. An accelerated stall is immediately after the stall has fully developed (if full stall typically demonstrated during steep turns. training/checking) by applying forward elevator pressure as required to reduce the AOA and to eliminate the stall A pilot should never practice accelerated stalls with wing warning, level the wings using ailerons, coordinate with flaps in the extended position due to the lower design G-load rudder, and adjust power as necessary. Stalls that result limitations in that configuration. Accelerated stalls should be from abrupt maneuvers tend to be more aggressive than performed with a bank of approximately 45°, and in no case at unaccelerated, +1G stalls. Because they occur at higher- a speed greater than the airplane manufacturer’s recommended than-normal airspeeds or may occur at lower-than-anticipated airspeed or the specified design maneuvering speed (VA). pitch attitudes, they can surprise an inexperienced pilot. A prolonged accelerated stall should never be allowed. Failure It is important to be familiar with VA, how it relates to to take immediate steps toward recovery may result in a spin accelerated stalls, and how it changes depending on the or other departure from controlled flight. airplane’s weight. VA is the maximum speed at which the maximum positive design load limit can be imposed either Cross-Control Stall by gusts or full one-sided deflection with one control surface The objective of the cross-control stall demonstration is to without causing structural damage. Performing accelerated show the effects of uncoordinated flight on stall behavior stalls at or below VA allows the airplane to reach the critical and to emphasize the importance of maintaining coordinated AOA, which unloads the wing before it reaches the load flight while making turns. This is a demonstration-only limit. At speeds above VA, the wing can reach the design load maneuver; only flight instructor applicants may be required limit at an AOA less than the critical AOA. This means it is to perform it on a practical test. However, all pilots should possible to damage the airplane before reaching the critical be familiar with the situations that can lead to a cross-control AOA and an accelerated stall. Knowing what VA is for the stall, how to recognize it, and the appropriate recovery action weight of the airplane being flown is critical to prevent should one occur. exceeding the load limit of the airplane during the maneuver. The aerodynamic effects of the uncoordinated, cross-control There are two methods for performing an accelerated stall. stall can surprise the unwary pilot because it can occur with The most common accelerated stall procedure starts from very little warning and can be deadly if it occurs close to straight-and-level flight at an airspeed at or below VA. the ground. The nose may pitch down, the bank angle may Roll the airplane into a coordinated, level-flight 45° turn suddenly change, and the airplane may continue to roll to an and then smoothly, firmly, and progressively increase the inverted position, which is usually the beginning of a spin. It AOA through back elevator pressure until a stall occurs. is therefore essential for the pilot to follow the stall recovery Alternatively, roll the airplane into a coordinated, level- procedure by reducing the AOA until the stall warning has been flight 45° turn at an airspeed above VA. After the airspeed eliminated, then roll wings level using ailerons, and coordinate reaches VA, or at an airspeed 5 to 10 percent faster than the with rudder inputs before the airplane enters a spiral or spin. unaccelerated stall speed, progressively increase the AOA through back elevator pressure until a stall occurs. The A cross-control stall occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded increased back elevator pressure increases the AOA, which with aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder increases the lift and thus the G load. The G load pushes pressure in the opposite direction, causing uncoordinated the pilot’s body down in the seat. The increased lift also flight. A skidding cross-control stall is most likely to occur increases drag, which may cause the airspeed to decrease. in the traffic pattern during a poorly planned and executed It is recommended that you know the published stall speed base-to-final approach turn in which the airplane overshoots for 45° of bank, flaps up, before performing the maneuver. the runway centerline and the pilot attempts to correct back This speed is typically published in the AFM. 4-11

to centerline by increasing the bank angle, increasing back Elevator Trim Stall elevator pressure, and applying rudder in the direction of the The elevator trim stall demonstration shows what can happen turn (i.e., inside or bottom rudder pressure) to bring the nose when the pilot applies full power for a go-around without around further to align it with the runway. The difference maintaining positive control of the airplane. [Figure 4-10] This in lift between the inside and outside wing will increase, is a demonstration-only maneuver; only flight instructor resulting in an unwanted increase in bank angle. At the same applicants may be required to perform it on a practical test. time, the nose of the airplane slices downward through the However, all pilots should be familiar with the situations that horizon. The natural reaction to this may be for the pilot to can cause an elevator trim stall, how to recognize it, and the pull back on the elevator control, increasing the AOA toward appropriate recovery action should one occur. critical. Should a stall be encountered with these inputs, the airplane may rapidly enter a spin. The safest action for an This situation may occur during a go-around procedure from “overshoot” is to perform a go-around. At the relatively low a normal landing approach or a simulated, forced-landing altitude of a base-to-final approach turn, a pilot should be approach, or immediately after a takeoff, with the trim set for reluctant to use angles of bank beyond 30 degrees to correct a normal landing approach glide at idle power. The objective back to runway centerline. of the demonstration is to show the importance of making smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim forces, Before performing this stall, establish a safe altitude for entry maintaining positive control of the airplane to hold safe flight and recovery in the event of a spin, and clear the area of other attitudes, and using proper and timely trim techniques. It traffic while slowly retarding the throttle. The next step is to also develops the pilot’s ability to avoid actions that could lower the landing gear (if equipped with retractable gear), result in this stall, to recognize when an elevator trim stall is close the throttle, and maintain altitude until the airspeed approaching, and to take prompt and correct action to prevent approaches the normal glide speed. To avoid the possibility of a full stall condition. It is imperative to avoid the occurrence exceeding the airplane’s limitations, do not extend the flaps. of an elevator trim stall during an actual go-around from an While the gliding attitude and airspeed are being established, approach to landing. the airplane should be retrimmed. Once the glide is stabilized, the airplane should be rolled into a medium-banked turn to At a safe altitude and after ensuring that the area is clear of simulate a final approach turn that overshoots the centerline other air traffic, the pilot should slowly retard the throttle of the runway. and extend the landing gear (if the airplane is equipped with retractable gear). The next step is to extend the flaps to the During the turn, smoothly apply excessive rudder pressure one-half or full position, close the throttle, and maintain in the direction of the turn but hold the bank constant by altitude until the airspeed approaches the normal glide speed. applying opposite aileron pressure. At the same time, increase back elevator pressure to keep the nose from lowering. All of When the normal glide is established, the pilot should trim these control pressures should be increased until the airplane the airplane nose-up for the normal landing approach glide. stalls. When the stall occurs, recover by applying nose-down During this simulated final approach glide, the throttle is then elevator pressure to reduce the AOA until the stall warning advanced smoothly to maximum allowable power, just as it has been eliminated, remove the excessive rudder input and would be adjusted to perform a go-around. level the wings, and apply power as needed to return to the desired flightpath. The combined effects of increased propwash over the tail and elevator trim tend to make the nose rise sharply and turn to the Elevator Trim Stall Return to the desired flightpath. Configure for landing, Apply maximum allowable Prior to a full stall, apply forward pressure, establish normal glide speed power to simulate a go-around. eliminate stall warning, establish a normal climb while straight-and-level, Allow the nose to rise. attitude, and re-trim. then trim nose-up. Figure 4-10. Elevator trim stall. 4-12

left. With the throttle fully advanced, the pitch attitude increases Spin Awareness above the normal climbing attitude. When it is apparent the A spin is an aggravated stall that typically occurs from a full airplane is approaching a stall, the pilot must apply sufficient stall occurring with the airplane in a yawed state and results forward elevator pressure to reduce the AOA and eliminate in the airplane following a downward corkscrew path. As the the stall warning before returning the airplane to the normal airplane rotates around a vertical axis, the outboard wing is less climbing attitude. The pilot will need to adjust trim to relieve stalled than the inboard wing, which creates a rolling, yawing, the heavy control pressures and then complete the normal go- and pitching motion. The airplane is basically descending around procedures and return to the desired flightpath. If taken due to gravity, rolling, yawing, and pitching in a spiral path. to the full stall, recovery will require a significant nose-down [Figure 4-11] The rotation results from an unequal AOA on the attitude to reduce the AOA below its critical AOA, along with airplane’s wings. The less-stalled rising wing has a decreasing a corresponding significant loss of altitude. AOA, where the relative lift increases and the drag decreases. Meanwhile, the descending wing has an increasing AOA, Common Errors which results in decreasing relative lift and increasing drag. Common errors in the performance of intentional stalls are: A spin occurs when the airplane’s wings exceed their critical • Failure to adequately clear the area AOA (stall) with a sideslip or yaw acting on the airplane at, or beyond, the actual stall. An airplane will yaw not only because • Over-reliance on the airspeed indicator and slip-skid of incorrect rudder application but because of adverse yaw indicator while excluding other cues created by aileron deflection; engine/prop effects, including p-factor, torque, spiraling slipstream, and gyroscopic • Inadvertent accelerated stall by pulling too fast on the precession; and wind shear, including wake turbulence. If controls during a power-off or power on stall entry the yaw had been created by the pilot because of incorrect • Inability to recognize an impending stall condition • Failure to take timely action to prevent a full stall during the conduct of impending stalls • Failure to maintain a constant bank angle during turning stalls • Failure to maintain proper coordination with the rudder throughout the stall and recovery • Recovering before reaching the critical AOA when practicing the full stall maneuver • Not disconnecting the wing leveler or autopilot, if equipped, prior to reducing AOA • Recovery is attempted without recognizing the importance of pitch control and AOA • Not maintaining a nose down control input until the stall warning is eliminated • Pilot attempts to level the wings before reducing AOA • Pilot attempts to recover with power before reducing AOA • Failure to roll wings level after AOA reduction and stall warning is eliminated • Inadvertent secondary stall during recovery • Excessive forward-elevator pressure during recovery resulting in low or negative G load • Excessive airspeed buildup during recovery • Losing situational awareness and failing to return to desired flightpath or follow ATC instructions after recovery. Figure 4-11. Spin—an aggravated stall and autorotation. 4-13

rudder use, the pilot may not be aware that a critical AOA has Prior to beginning spin training, clear the flight area above been exceeded until the airplane yaws out of control toward and below the airplane for other traffic. This task may be the lowering wing. A stall that occurs while the airplane is accomplished while slowing the airplane for the spin entry. in a slipping or skidding turn can result in a spin entry and In addition, all spin training should be initiated at an altitude rotation in the direction of rudder application, regardless of high enough to complete recovery at or above 1,500 feet AGL. which wingtip is raised. If the pilot does not immediately initiate stall recovery, the airplane may enter a spin. It may be appropriate to introduce spin training by first practicing both power-on and power-off stalls in a clean Maintaining directional control and not allowing the nose to configuration. This practice helps familiarize the pilot with yaw before stall recovery is initiated is key to averting a spin. the airplane’s specific stall and recovery characteristics. In all The pilot must apply the correct amount of rudder to keep the phases of training, the pilot should take care with handling of nose from yawing and the wings from banking. the power (throttle), and apply carburetor heat, if equipped, according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Modern airplanes tend to be more reluctant to spin compared to older designs, however it is not impossible for them to There are four phases of a spin: entry, incipient, developed, spin. Mishandling the controls in turns, stalls, and flight and recovery. [Figure 4-12] at minimum controllable airspeeds can put even the most reluctant airplanes into an accidental spin. Proficiency in Entry Phase avoiding conditions that could lead to an accidental stall/spin In the entry phase, the pilot intentionally or accidentally situation, and in promptly taking the correct actions to recover provides the necessary elements for the spin. The entry to normal flight, is essential. An airplane must be stalled and procedure for demonstrating a spin is similar to a power-off yawed in order to enter a spin; therefore, continued practice in stall. During the entry, the pilot should slowly reduce power to stall recognition and recovery helps the pilot develop a more idle, while simultaneously raising the nose to a pitch attitude instinctive and prompt reaction in recognizing an approaching that ensures a stall. As the airplane approaches a stall, smoothly spin. Upon recognition of a spin or approaching spin, the apply full rudder in the direction of the desired spin rotation pilot should immediately execute spin recovery procedures. while applying full back (up) elevator to the limit of travel. Always maintain the ailerons in the neutral position during Spin Procedures the spin procedure unless AFM/POH specifies otherwise. The first rule for spin demonstration is to ensure that the airplane is approved for spins. Please note that this discussion Incipient Phase addresses generic spin procedures; it does not cover special The incipient phase occurs from the time the airplane stalls spin procedures or techniques required for a particular and starts rotating until the spin has fully developed. This airplane. Safety dictates careful review of the AFM/POH phase may take two to four turns for most airplanes. In this and regulations before attempting spins in any airplane. The phase, the aerodynamic and inertial forces have not achieved review should include the following items: a balance. As the incipient phase develops, the indicated airspeed will generally stabilize at a low and constant airspeed • The airplane’s AFM/POH limitations section, and the symbolic airplane of the turn indicator should indicate placards, or type certification data to determine if the the direction of the spin. The slip/skid ball is unreliable when airplane is approved for spins spinning. • Weight and balance limitations The pilot should initiate incipient spin recovery procedures prior to completing 360° of rotation. The pilot should apply • Recommended entry and recovery procedures full rudder opposite the direction of rotation. The turn indicator shows a deflection in the direction of rotation if • The current 14 CFR Part 91 parachute requirements disoriented. Also essential is a thorough airplane preflight inspection, with Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a steady- special emphasis on excess or loose items that may affect the state spin are the most commonly used maneuver in initial weight, center of gravity, and controllability of the airplane. spin training and recovery techniques. It is also important to ensure that the airplane is within any CG limitations as determined by the manufacturer. Slack or loose control cables (particularly rudder and elevator) could prevent full anti-spin control deflections and delay or preclude recovery in some airplanes. 4-14

Stall Less stalled Incipient Spin • Lasts about 4 to 6 seconds in light Lift Drag Chord line Relative wind aircraft. Lift Loef sasttaacnkgle • Approximately 2 turns. More drag Full Developed Spin • Airspeed, vertical speed, and rate More Chord line stalledRelative wind of rotation are stabilized. Greater angle • Small, training aircraft lose approximately 500 feet per 3-second turn. Recovery • Wings regain lift. • Training aircraft usually recover in about 1/4 to 1/2 of a turn after antispin inputs are applied. of attack Figure 4-12. Spin entry and recovery. Developed Phase To recover, the pilot applies control inputs to disrupt the The developed phase occurs when the airplane’s angular spin equilibrium by stopping the rotation and unstalling rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized in the wing. To accomplish spin recovery, always follow the a flightpath that is nearly vertical. In the developed phase, manufacturer’s recommended procedures. In the absence of aerodynamic forces and inertial forces are in balance, and the manufacturer’s recommended spin recovery procedures the airplane’s attitude, angles, and self-sustaining motions and techniques, use the spin recovery procedures in about the vertical axis are constant or repetitive, or nearly so. Figure 4-13. If the flaps and/or retractable landing gear are The spin is in equilibrium. It is important to note that some extended prior to the spin, they should be retracted as soon training airplanes will not enter into the developed phase as practicable after spin entry. but could transition unexpectedly from the incipient phase into a spiral dive. In a spiral dive the airplane will not be in 1. Reduce the Power (Throttle) to Idle equilibrium but instead will be accelerating and G load can rapidly increase as a result. 2. Position the Ailerons to Neutral Recovery Phase 3. Apply Full Opposite Rudder against the Rotation The recovery phase occurs when rotation ceases and the AOA of the wings is decreased below the critical AOA. This phase 4. Apply Positive, Brisk, and Straight Forward Elevator may last for as little as a quarter turn or up to several turns (Forward of Neutral) depending upon the airplane and the type of spin. 5. Neutralize the Rudder After Spin Rotation Stops 6. Apply Back Elevator Pressure to Return to Level Flight 4-15

Spin Recovery Template 1. Reduce the power (throttle) to idle 2. Position the ailerons to neutral 3. Apply full opposite rudder against the rotation 4. Apply positive, brisk, and straight forward elevator (forward of neutral) 5. Neutralize the rudder after spin rotation stops 6. Apply back elevator pressure to return to level flight Figure 4-13. Spin recovery template. The following discussion explains each of the six steps: 5. Neutralize the Rudder After Spin Rotation Stops. Failure to neutralize the rudder at this time, when 1. Reduce the Power (Throttle) to Idle. Power aggravates airspeed is increasing, causes a yawing or sideslipping spin characteristics. It can result in a flatter spin effect. attitude and usually increases the rate of rotation. 6. Apply Back Elevator Pressure to Return to Level 2. Position the Ailerons to Neutral. Ailerons may have Flight. Be careful not to apply excessive back elevator an adverse effect on spin recovery. Aileron control pressure after the rotation stops and the rudder has in the direction of the spin may accelerate the rate been neutralized. Excessive back elevator pressure of rotation, steepen the spin attitude and delay the can cause a secondary stall and may result in another recovery. Aileron control opposite the direction of spin. The pilot must also avoid exceeding the G-load the spin may cause flattening of the spin attitude and limits and airspeed limitations during the pull out. delayed recovery; or may even be responsible for causing an unrecoverable spin. The best procedure is Again, it is important to remember that the spin recovery to ensure that the ailerons are neutral. procedures and techniques described above are recommended for use only in the absence of the manufacturer’s procedures. 3. Apply Full Opposite Rudder against the Rotation. The pilot must always be familiar with the manufacturer’s Apply and hold full opposite rudder until rotation procedures for spin recovery. stops. Rudder tends to be the most important control for recovery in typical, single-engine airplanes, and Intentional Spins its application should be brisk and full opposite to the If the manufacturer does not specifically approve an airplane direction of rotation. Avoid slow and overly cautious for spins, intentional spins are not authorized by the CFRs opposite rudder movement during spin recovery, or by this handbook. The official sources for determining which can allow the airplane to spin indefinitely, even whether the spin maneuver is approved are: with anti-spin inputs. A brisk and positive technique results in a more positive spin recovery. • Type Certificate Data Sheets or the Aircraft Specifications 4. Apply Positive, Brisk, and Straight Forward Elevator (Forward of Neutral). This step should be taken • The limitation section of the FAA-approved AFM/ immediately after full rudder application. Do not wait POH. The limitation section may provide additional for the rotation to stop before performing this step. specific requirements for spin authorization, such as The forceful movement of the elevator decreases the limiting gross weight, CG range, and amount of fuel. AOA and drives the airplane toward unstalled flight. In some cases, full forward elevator may be required for • On a placard located in clear view of the pilot in the recovery. Hold the controls firmly in these positions airplane (e.g., “NO ACROBATIC MANEUVERS until the spinning stops. (Note: If the airspeed is INCLUDING SPINS APPROVED”). In airplanes increasing, the airplane is no longer in a spin. In a placarded against spins, there is no assurance that spin, the airplane is stalled, and the indicated airspeed recovery from a fully developed spin is possible. should therefore be relatively low and constant and not be accelerating.) 4-16

Unfortunately, accident records show occurrences in which • Failure to apply sufficient forward-elevator during pilots intentionally ignored spin restrictions. Despite the recovery installation of placards prohibiting intentional spins in these airplanes, some pilots and even some flight instructors • Waiting for rotation to stop before applying forward attempt to justify the maneuver, rationalizing that the spin elevator restriction results from a “technicality” in the airworthiness standards. They believe that if the airplane was spin tested • Failure to neutralize the rudder after rotation stops, during its certification process, no problem should result possibly resulting in a secondary spin from demonstrating or practicing spins. • Slow and overly cautious control movements during Such pilots overlook the fact that certification of a normal recovery category airplane only requires the airplane to recover from a one-turn spin in not more than one additional turn or • Excessive back elevator pressure after rotation stops, three seconds, whichever takes longer. In other words, the possibly resulting in secondary stall airplane may never be in a fully developed spin. Therefore, in airplanes placarded against spins, there is absolutely • Insufficient back elevator pressure during recovery no assurance that recovery from a fully developed spin is resulting in excessive airspeed possible under any circumstances. The pilot of an airplane placarded against intentional spins should assume that the Upset Prevention and Recovery airplane could become uncontrollable in a spin. Unusual Attitudes Versus Upsets Weight and Balance Requirements Related to Spins An unusual attitude is commonly referenced as an unintended In airplanes that are approved for spins, compliance with or unexpected attitude in instrument flight. These unusual weight and balance requirements is important for safe attitudes are introduced to a pilot during student pilot training performance and recovery from the spin maneuver. Pilots as part of basic attitude instrument flying and continue to be must be aware that even minor weight or balance changes trained and tested as part of certification for an instrument can affect the airplane’s spin recovery characteristics. Such rating, aircraft type rating, and an airline transport pilot changes can either degrade or enhance the spin maneuver certificate. A pilot is taught the conditions or situations and/or recovery characteristics. For example, the addition of that could cause an unusual attitude, with focus on how to weight in the aft baggage compartment, or additional fuel, recognize one, and how to recover from one. may still permit the airplane to be operated within CG, but could seriously affect the spin and recovery characteristics. As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, the term “upset” An airplane that may be difficult to spin intentionally in the is inclusive of unusual attitudes. An upset is defined as an utility category (restricted aft CG and reduced weight) could event that unintentionally exceeds the parameters normally have less resistance to spin entry in the normal category experienced in flight or training. These parameters are: (less restricted aft CG and increased weight). This situation arises from the airplane’s ability to generate a higher AOA. • Pitch attitude greater than 25°, nose up An airplane that is approved for spins in the utility category but loaded in accordance with the normal category may not • Pitch attitude greater than 10°, nose down recover from a spin that is allowed to progress beyond one turn. • Bank angle greater than 45° Common Errors Common errors in the performance of intentional spins are: • Within the above parameters, but flying at airspeeds inappropriate for the conditions. • Failure to apply full rudder pressure (to the stops) in the desired spin direction during spin entry (Note: The reference to inappropriate airspeeds describes a number of undesired aircraft states, including stalls. • Failure to apply and maintain full up-elevator pressure However, stalls are directly related to AOA, not airspeed.) during spin entry, resulting in a spiral Given the upset definition, there are a few key distinctions • Failure to achieve a fully-stalled condition prior to between an unusual attitude and an upset. First, an upset spin entry includes stall events where unusual attitude training typically does not. Second, an upset can include overspeeds or other • Failure to apply full rudder (to the stops) briskly inappropriate speeds for a given flight condition, which is against the spin during recovery also not considered part of unusual attitude training. Finally, an upset has defined parameters; an unusual attitude does not. For example, for training purposes an instructor could place the airplane in a 30° bank with a nose up pitch attitude of 15° and ask the student to recover and that would be considered 4-17

an unusual attitude, but would not meet the upset parameters. Human Factors While the information that follows in this section could apply VMC to IMC to unusual attitudes, the focus will be on UPRT. Unfortunately, accident reports indicate that continued VFR flight from visual meteorological conditions (VMC) into The top four causal and contributing factors that have led to marginal VMC and IMC is a factor contributing to LOC an upset and resulted in LOC-I accidents are: I. A loss of the natural horizon substantially increases the chances of encountering vertigo or spatial disorientation, 1. Environmental factors which can lead to upset. 2. Mechanical factors IMC When operating in IMC, maintain awareness of conditions 3. Human factors and use the fundamental instrument skills—cross-check, interpretation, and control—to prevent an upset. 4. Stall-related factors Diversion of Attention With the exception of stall-related factors, which were covered In addition to its direct impact, an inflight anomaly or in the previous section, the remaining causal and contributing malfunction can also lead to an upset if it diverts the pilot’s factors to LOC-I accidents will be discussed further below. attention from basic airplane control responsibilities. Failing to monitor the automated systems, over-reliance on those Environmental Factors systems, or incomplete knowledge and experience with Turbulence, or a large variation in wind velocity over a short those systems can lead to an upset. Diversion of attention distance, can cause upset and LOC-I. Maintain awareness of can also occur simply from the pilot’s efforts to set avionics conditions that can lead to various types of turbulence, such or navigation equipment while flying the airplane. as clear air turbulence, mountain waves, wind shear, and thunderstorms or microbursts. In addition to environmentally- Task Saturation induced turbulence, wake turbulence from other aircraft can The margin of safety is the difference between task lead to upset and LOC-I. requirements and pilot capabilities. An upset and eventual LOC-I can occur whenever requirements exceed capabilities. Icing can destroy the smooth flow of air over the airfoil and For example, an airplane upset event that requires rolling increase drag while decreasing the ability of the airfoil to an airplane from a near-inverted to an upright attitude create lift. Therefore, it can significantly degrade airplane may demand piloting skills beyond those learned during performance, resulting in a stall if not handled correctly. primary training. In another example, a fatigued pilot who inadvertently encounters IMC at night coupled with a vacuum Mechanical Factors pump failure, or a pilot fails to engage pitot heat while flying Modern airplanes and equipment are very reliable, but in IMC, could become disoriented and lose control of the anomalies do occur. Some of these mechanical failures airplane due to the demands of extended—and unpracticed— can directly cause a departure from normal flight, such as partial panel flight. Additionally, unnecessary low-altitude asymmetrical flaps, malfunctioning or binding flight controls, flying and impromptu demonstrations for friends or others and runaway trim. on the ground often lead pilots to exceed their capabilities, with fatal results. Upsets can also occur if there is a malfunction or misuse of the autoflight system. Advanced automation may tend to Sensory Overload/Deprivation mask the cause of the anomaly. Disengaging the autopilot A pilot’s ability to adequately correlate warnings, and the autothrottles allows the pilot to directly control the annunciations, instrument indications, and other cues from airplane and possibly eliminate the cause of the problem. For the airplane during an upset can be limited. Pilots faced with these reasons the pilot must maintain proficiency to manually upset situations can be rapidly confronted with multiple fly the airplane in all flight conditions without the use of the or simultaneous visual, auditory, and tactile warnings. autopilot/autothrottles. Conversely, sometimes expected warnings are not provided when they should be; this situation can distract a pilot as Although these and other inflight anomalies may not much as multiple warnings can. be preventable, knowledge of systems and AFM/POH recommended procedures helps the pilot minimize their impact and prevent an upset. In the case of instrument failures, avoiding an upset and subsequent LOC-I may depend on the pilot’s proficiency in the use of secondary instrumentation and partial panel operations. 4-18

The ability to separate time-critical information from Startle Response distractions takes practice, experience and knowledge of the Startle is an uncontrollable, automatic muscle reflex, raised airplane and its systems. Cross-checks are necessary not only heart rate, blood pressure, etc., elicited by exposure to a to corroborate other information that has been presented, but sudden, intense event that violates a pilot’s expectations. also to determine if information might be missing or invalid. For example, a stall warning system may fail and therefore Surprise Response not warn a pilot of close proximity to a stall, other cues Surprise is an unexpected event that violates a pilot’s must be used to avert a stall and possible LOC-I. These cues expectations and can affect the mental processes used to include aerodynamic buffet, loss of roll authority, or inability respond to the event. to arrest a descent. Spatial Disorientation This human response to unexpected events has traditionally Spatial disorientation has been a significant factor in been underestimated or even ignored during flight training. many airplane upset accidents. Accident data from 2008 The reality is that untrained pilots often experience a state to 2013 shows nearly 200 accidents associated with spatial of surprise or a startle response to an airplane upset event. disorientation with more than 70% of those being fatal. All Startle may or may not lead to surprise. Pilots can protect pilots are susceptible to false sensory illusions while flying themselves against a debilitating surprise reaction or startle at night or in certain weather conditions. These illusions response through scenario-based training, and in such can lead to a conflict between actual attitude indications training, instructors can incorporate realistic distractions to and what the pilot senses is the correct attitude. Disoriented help provoke startle or surprise. To be effective the controlled pilots may not always be aware of their orientation error. training scenarios must have a perception of risk or threat Many airplane upsets occur while the pilot is engaged of consequences sufficient to elevate the pilot’s stress in some task that takes attention away from the flight levels. Such scenarios can help prepare a pilot to mitigate instruments or outside references. Others perceive a conflict psychological/physiological reactions to an actual upset. between bodily senses and the flight instruments, and allow the airplane to divert from the desired flightpath because Upset Prevention and Recovery Training (UPRT) they cannot resolve the conflict. Upsets are not intentional flight maneuvers, except in maneuver-based training; therefore, they are often A pilot may experience spatial disorientation or perceive the unexpected. The reaction of an inexperienced or inadequately situation in one of three ways: trained pilot to an unexpected abnormal flight attitude is usually instinctive rather than intelligent and deliberate. Such 1. Recognized spatial disorientation: the pilot recognizes a pilot often reacts with abrupt muscular effort, which is the developing upset or the upset condition and is able without purpose and even hazardous in turbulent conditions, to safely correct the situation. at excessive speeds, or at low altitudes. 2. Unrecognized spatial disorientation: the pilot is Without proper upset recovery training on interpretation and unaware that an upset event is developing, or has airplane control, the pilot can quickly aggravate an abnormal occurred, and fails to make essential decisions or take flight attitude into a potentially fatal LOC-I accident. any corrective action to prevent LOC-I. Consequently, UPRT is intended to focus education and training on the prevention of upsets, and on recovering from 3. Incapacitating spatial disorientation: the pilot is unable these events if they occur. [Figure 4-14] to affect a recovery due to some combination of: (a) not understanding the events as they are unfolding, • Upset prevention refers to pilot actions to avoid a (b) lacking the skills required to alleviate or correct divergence from the desired airplane state. Awareness the situation, or (c) exceeding psychological or and prevention training serve to avoid incidents; physiological ability to cope with what is happening. early recognition of an upset scenario coupled with appropriate preventive action often can mitigate a For detailed information regarding causal factors of situation that could otherwise escalate into a LOC-I spatial disorientation, refer to Aerospace Medicine accident. Spatial Disorientation and Aerospace Medicine Reference Collection, which provides spatial disorientation videos. This collection can be found online at: www.faa.gov/about/ office_org/ headquarters_offices/avs/offices/aam/cami/ library/online_libraries/aerospace_medicine/sd/videos/. 4-19

for pilots to reduce surprise and it mitigates confusion during unexpected upsets. The goal is to equip the pilot to promptly recognize an escalating threat pattern or sensory overload and quickly identify and correct an impending upset. UPRT stresses that the first step is recognizing any time the airplane begins to diverge from the intended flightpath or airspeed. Pilots must identify and determine what, if any, action must be taken. As a general rule, any time visual cues or instrument indications differ from basic flight maneuver expectations, the pilot should assume an upset and cross-check to confirm the attitude, instrument error or instrument malfunction. Figure 4-14. Maneuvers that better prepare a pilot for understanding To achieve maximum effect, it is crucial for UPRT unusual attitudes and situations are representative of upset training. concepts to be conveyed accurately and in a non- threatening manner. Reinforcing concepts through • Recovery refers to pilot actions that return an airplane positive experiences significantly improves a pilot’s that is diverging in altitude, airspeed, or attitude to a depth of understanding, retention of skills, and desire for desired state from a developing or fully developed continued training. Also, training in a carefully structured upset. Learn to initiate recovery to a normal flight environment allows for exposure to these events and can mode immediately upon recognition of the developing help the pilot react more quickly, decisively, and calmly upset condition. Ensure that control inputs and power when the unexpected occurs during flight. However, like adjustments applied to counter an upset are in direct many other skills, the skills needed for upset prevention proportion to the amount and rates of change of roll, and recovery are perishable and thus require continuous yaw, pitch, or airspeed so as to avoid overstressing the reinforcement through training. airplane unless ground contact is imminent. Recovery training serves to reduce accidents as a result of an UPRT in the airplane and flight simulation training unavoidable or inadvertently encountered upset event. device (FSTD) should be conducted in both visual and simulated instrument conditions to allow pilots to practice UPRT Core Concepts recognition and recovery under both situations. UPRT Airplane upsets are by nature time-critical events; they can should allow them to experience and recognize some of the also place pilots in unusual and unfamiliar attitudes that physiological factors related to each, such as the confusion sometimes require counterintuitive control movements. and disorientation that can result from visual cues in an Upsets have the potential to put a pilot into a life-threatening upset event. Training that includes recovery from bank situation compounded by panic, diminished mental capacity, angles exceeding 90 degrees could further add to a pilot’s and potentially incapacitating spatial disorientation. Because overall knowledge and skills for upset recognition and real-world upset situations often provide very little time to recovery. For such training, additional measures should be react, exposure to such events during training is essential taken to ensure the suitability of the airplane or FSTD and that instructors are appropriately qualified. Upset prevention and recovery training is different from aerobatic training. [Figure 4-15] In aerobatic training, the pilot knows and expects the maneuver, so effects of startle or surprise are missing. The main goal of aerobatic training is to teach pilots how to intentionally and precisely maneuver an aerobatic-capable airplane in three dimensions. The primary goal of UPRT is to help pilots overcome sudden onsets of stress to avoid, prevent, and recover from unplanned excursions that could lead to LOC-I. 4-20

Aerobatics vs. UPRT Flight Training Methods ASPECT OF TRAINING AEROBATICS UPSET PREVENTION AND RECOVERY TRAINING Primary Objective Precision maneuvering capability Safe, effective recovery from aircraft upsets Secondary Outcome Improved manual aircraft handling skills Improved manual aircraft handling skills Aerobatic Maneuvering Primary mode of training Supporting mode of training Academics Supporting role Fundamental component Training Resources Utilized Aircraft (few exceptions) Aircraft or a full-flight simulator Figure 4-15. Some differences between aerobatic training and upset prevention and recovery training. Comprehensive UPRT builds on three mutually supportive Prevention Through ADM and Risk Management components: academics, airplane-based training and, typically at the transport category type-rating training level, This element of prevention routinely occurs in a time- use of FSTDs. Each has unique benefits and limitations scale of minutes or hours, revolving around the concept but, when implemented cohesively and comprehensively of effective ADM and risk management through analysis, throughout a pilot’s career, the components can offer awareness, resource management, and interrupting the error maximum preparation for upset awareness, prevention, chain through basic airmanship skills and sound judgment. recognition, and recovery. For instance, imagine a situation in which a pilot assesses conditions at an airport prior to descent and recognizes Academic Material (Knowledge and Risk those conditions as being too severe to safely land the Management) airplane. Using situational awareness to avert a potentially Academics establish the foundation for development of threatening flight condition is an example of prevention of situational awareness, insight, knowledge, and skills. As in a LOC-I situation through effective risk management. Pilots practical skill development, academic preparation should move should evaluate the circumstances for each flight (including from the general to specific while emphasizing the significance the equipment and environment), looking specifically for of each basic concept. Although academic preparation is scenarios that may require a higher level of risk management. crucial and does offer a level of mitigation of the LOC-I These include situations which could result in low-altitude threat, long-term retention of knowledge is best achieved when maneuvering, steep turns in the pattern, uncoordinated flight, applied and correlated with practical hands-on experience. or increased load factors. The academic material needs to build awareness in the Another part of ADM is crew resource management (CRM) pilot by providing the concepts, principles, techniques, and or Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM). Both are procedures for understanding upset hazards and mitigating relevant to the UPRT environment. When available, a strategies. Awareness of the relationship between AOA, coordinated crew response to potential and developing upsets G-load, lift, energy management, and the consequences of can provide added benefits such as increased situational their mismanagement, is essential for assessing hazards, awareness, mutual support, and an improved margin of mitigating the risks, and acquiring and employing prevention safety. Since an untrained crewmember can be the most skills. Training maneuvers should be designed to provide unpredictable element in an upset scenario, initial UPRT awareness of situations that could lead to an upset or LOC. for crew operations should be mastered individually before With regard to the top four causal and contributing factors being integrated into a multi-crew, CRM environment. A to LOC-I accidents presented earlier in this chapter, training crew must be able to accomplish the following: should include scenarios that place the airplane and pilot in a simulated situation/environment that can lead to an upset. • Communicate and confirm the situation clearly and concisely; The academics portion of UPRT should also address the prevention concepts surrounding Aeronautical Decision • Transfer control to the most situationally aware Making (ADM) and risk management (RM), and proportional crewmember; counter response. • Using standardized interactions, work as a team to enhance awareness, manage stress, and mitigate fear. 4-21

Prevention through Proportional Counter-Response • Failure to disconnect the wing leveler or autopilot • Failure to unload the airplane, if necessary In simple terms, proportional counter response is the timely • Failure to roll in the correct direction manipulation of flight controls and thrust, either as the • Inappropriate management of the airspeed during the sole pilot or crew as the situation dictates, to manage an airplane flight attitude or flight envelope excursion that was recovery unintended or not commanded by the pilot. The time-scale of this element of prevention typically occurs Roles of FSTDs and Airplanes in UPRT on the order of seconds or fractions of seconds, with the Training devices range from aviation training devices goal being able to recognize a developing upset and take (e.g., basic and advanced) to FSTDs (e.g., flight training proportionally appropriate avoidance actions to preclude devices (FTD) and full flight simulators (FFS)) and have the airplane entering a fully developed upset. Due to the a broad range of capabilities. While all of these devices sudden, surprising nature of this level of developing upset, have limitations relative to actual flight, only the higher there exists a high risk for panic and overreaction to ensue fidelity devices (i.e., Level C and D FFS) are a satisfactory and aggravate the situation. substitution for developing UPRT skills in the actual aircraft. Except for these higher fidelity devices, initial skill Recovery development should be accomplished in a suitable airplane, Last but not least, the academics portion lays the foundation and the accompanying training device should be used to build for development of UPRT skills by instilling the knowledge, upon these skills. [Figure 4-17] procedures, and techniques required to accomplish a safe recovery. The airplane and FSTD-based training elements Airplane-Based UPRT presented below serve to translate the academic material Ultimately, the more realistic the training scenario, the more into structured practice. This can start with classroom indelible the learning experience. Although creating a visual visualization of recovery procedures and continue with scene of a 110° banked attitude with the nose 30° below repetitive skill practiced in an airplane, and then potentially the horizon may not be technically difficult in a modern further developed in the simulated environment. simulator, the learning achieved while viewing that scene from the security of the simulator is not as complete as when In the event looking outside does not provide enough viewing the same scene in an airplane. Maximum learning situational awareness of the airplane attitude, a pilot can use is achieved when the pilot is placed in the controlled, yet the flight instruments to recognize and recover from an upset. adrenaline-enhanced, environment of upsets experienced To recover from nose-high and nose-low attitudes, the pilot should follow the procedures recommended in the AFM/ POH. In general, upset recovery procedures are summarized in Figure 4-16. Upset Recovery Template 1. Disconnect the wing leveler or autopilot 2. Apply forward column or stick pressure to unload the airplane 3. Aggressively roll the wings to the nearest horizon 4. Adjust power as necessary by monitoring airspeed 5. Return to level flight Figure 4-16. Upset recovery template. Common Errors Figure 4-17. A Level D full-flight simulator could be used for UPRT. Common errors associated with upset recoveries include the following: • Incorrect assessment of what kind of upset the airplane is in 4-22

while in flight. For these reasons, airplane-based UPRT results from a botched turn. In a spiral dive, the airplane improves a pilot’s ability to overcome fear in an airplane is flying very tight circles, in a nearly vertical attitude and upset event. will be accelerating because it is no longer stalled. Pilots typically get into a spiral dive during an inadvertent IMC However, airplane-based UPRT does have limitations. encounter, most often when the pilot relies on kinesthetic The level of upset training possible may be limited by the sensations rather than on the flight instruments. A pilot maneuvers approved for the particular airplane, as well as by distracted by other sensations can easily enter a slightly the flight instructor’s own UPRT capabilities. For instance, nose low, wing low, descending turn and, at least initially, UPRT conducted in the normal category by a typical CFI fail to recognize this error. Especially in IMC, it may be will necessarily be different from UPRT conducted in the only the sound of increasing speed that makes the pilot aerobatic category by a CFI with expertise in aerobatics. aware of the rapidly developing situation. Upon recognizing the steep nose down attitude and steep bank, the startled When considering upset training conducted in an aerobatic- pilot may react by pulling back rapidly on the yoke while capable airplane in particular, the importance of employing simultaneously rolling to wings level. This response can instructors with specialized UPRT experience in those create aerodynamic loads capable of causing airframe airplanes cannot be overemphasized. Just as instrument or structural damage and /or failure. tailwheel instruction requires specific skill sets for those operations, UPRT demands that instructors possess the 1. Reduce Power (Throttle) to Idle competence to oversee trainee progress, and the ability to intervene as necessary with consistency and professionalism. 2. Apply Some Forward Elevator As in any area of training, the improper delivery of stall, spin and upset recovery training often results in negative learning, 3. Roll Wings Level which could have severe consequences not only during the training itself, but in the skills and mindset pilots take with 4. Gently Raise the Nose to Level Flight them into the cockpits of airplanes where the lives of others may be at stake. 5. Increase Power to Climb Power All-Attitude/All-Envelope Flight Training Methods The following discussion explains each of the five steps: Sound UPRT encompasses operation in a wide range of possible flight attitudes and covers the airplane’s limit flight 1. Reduce Power (Throttle) to Idle. Immediately reduce envelope. This training is essential to prepare pilots for power to idle to slow the rate of acceleration. unexpected upsets. As stated at the outset, the primary focus of a comprehensive UPRT program is the avoidance of, and 2. Apply Some Forward Elevator. Prior to rolling the safe recovery from, upsets. Much like basic instrument skills, wings level, it is important to unload the G-load on which can be applied to flying a vast array of airplanes, the the airplane (“unload the wing”). This is accomplished majority of skills and techniques required for upset recovery by applying some forward elevator pressure to return are not airplane specific. Just as basic instrument skills learned to about +1G. Apply just enough forward elevator to in lighter and lower performing airplanes are applied to more ensure that you are not aggravating the spiral with aft advanced airplanes, basic upset recovery techniques provide elevator. While generally a small input, this push has lessons that remain with pilots throughout their flying careers. several benefits prior to rolling the wings level in the next step – the push reduces the AOA, reduces the FSTD–based UPRT G-load, and slows the turn rate while increasing the UPRT can be effective in high fidelity devices (i.e. Level C turn radius, and prevents a rolling pullout. The design and D FFS), however instructors and pilots must be mindful limit of the airplane is lower during a rolling pullout, so of the technical and physiological boundaries when using failure to reduce the G-load prior to rolling the wings a particular FSTD for upset training. The FSTD must be level could result in structural damage or failure. qualified by the FAA National Simulator Program for UPRT; and, if the training is required for pilots by regulation, the 3. Roll Wings Level. Roll to wings level using course must also be FAA approved. coordinated aileron and rudder inputs. Even though the airplane is in a nose-low attitude, continue the Spiral Dive roll until the wings are completely level again before A spiral dive, a nose low upset, is a descending turn during performing step four. which airspeed and G-load can increase rapidly and often 4. Gently Raise the Nose to Level Flight. It is possible that the airplane in a spiral dive might be at or even beyond VNE (never exceed speed) speed. Therefore, the pilot must make all control inputs slowly and gently at this point to prevent structural failure. Raise the nose to a climb attitude only after speed decreases to safe levels. 4-23

Spiral Dive Recovery Template Chapter Summary 1. Reduce power (throttle) to idle 2. Apply some forward elevator A pilot’s most fundamental and important responsibility is to 3. Roll wings level maintain aircraft control. Initial flight training thus provides 4. Gently raise the nose to level flight skills to operate an airplane in a safe manner, generally within 5. Increase power to climb power normal “expected” environments, with the addition of some instruction in upset and stall situations. Figure 4-18. Spiral dive recovery template. This chapter discussed the elements of basic aircraft control, 5. Increase Power to Climb Power. Once the airspeed with emphasis on AOA. It offered a discussion of circumstances has stabilized to VY, apply climb power and climb and scenarios that can lead to LOC-I, including stalls and back to a safe altitude. airplane upsets. It discussed the importance of developing proficiency in slow flight, stalls, and stall recoveries, spin awareness and recovery, upset prevention and recovery, and spiral dive recovery. In general, spiral dive recovery procedures are summarized Pilots need to understand that primary training cannot cover in Figure 4-18. all possible contingencies that an airplane or pilot may encounter, and therefore they should seek recurrent/additional Common errors in the recovery from spiral dives are: training for their normal areas of operation, as well as to seek appropriate training that develops the aeronautical skill set • Failure to reduce power first beyond the requirements for initial certification. • Mistakenly adding power For additional considerations on performing some of these maneuvers in multiengine airplanes and jet powered • Attempting to pull out of dive without rolling wings airplanes, refer to Chapters 12 and 15, respectively. level Additional advisory circular (AC) guidance is available at • Simultaneously pulling out of dive while rolling wings www.faa.gov: level • AC 61-67 (as revised), Stall and Spin Awareness • Not unloading the Gs prior to rolling level Training; • Not adding power once climb is established • AC 120-109 (as revised), Stall Prevention and Recovery Training; and UPRT Summary A significant point to note is that UPRT skills are both complex • AC 120-111 (as revised), Upset Prevention and and perishable. Repetition is needed to establish the correct Recovery Training. mental models, and recurrent practice/training is necessary as well. The context in which UPRT procedures are introduced and implemented is also an important consideration. The pilot must clearly understand, for example, whether a particular procedure has broad applicability, or is type-specific. To attain the highest levels of learning possible, the best approach starts with the broadest form of a given procedure, then narrows it down to type-specific requirements. 4-24

TChaaptekr5eoffs and Departure Climbs Introduction A review of aircraft accident data shows that about twenty percent of all general aviation (GA) accidents occur during takeoff and departure climbs. Further breakdown of the data indicates that more than half of those accidents were the result of some sort of failure of the pilot, and twenty percent of the mishaps are the result of loss in control of the airplane. When compared to the entire profile of a normal flight, this phase of a flight is relatively short, but the pilot workload is greatest. This chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs in airplanes under normal conditions and under conditions that require maximum performance. 5-1

Though it may seem relatively simple, the takeoff often explanation: 1. takeoff roll, 2. lift-off, and 3. initial climb presents the most hazards of any part of a flight. The after becoming airborne. [Figure 5-1] importance of thorough knowledge of procedures and techniques coupled with proficiency in performance cannot • Takeoff roll (ground roll) is the portion of the takeoff be overemphasized. procedure during which the airplane is accelerated from a standstill to an airspeed that provides sufficient The discussion in this chapter is centered on airplanes lift for it to become airborne. with tricycle landing gear (nose-wheel). Procedures for conventional gear airplanes (tail-wheel) are discussed in • Lift-off is when the wings are lifting the weight of the Chapter 14. The manufacturer’s recommended procedures airplane off the surface. In most airplanes, this is the pertaining to airplane configuration, airspeeds, and other result of the pilot rotating the nose up to increase the information relevant to takeoffs and departure climbs in a angle of attack (AOA). specific make and model airplane are contained in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approved Airplane Flight • The initial climb begins when the airplane leaves the Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) surface and a climb pitch attitude has been established. for that airplane. If any of the information in this chapter Normally, it is considered complete when the airplane differs from the airplane manufacturer’s recommendations has reached a safe maneuvering altitude or an en route as contained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s climb has been established. recommendations take precedence. Prior to Takeoff Terms and Definitions Although the takeoff and climb is one continuous maneuver, Before going to the airplane, the pilot should check the it will be divided into three separate steps for purposes of POH/AFM performance charts to determine the predicted performance and decide if the airplane is capable of a safe takeoff and climb for the conditions and location. [Figure 5-2] High density altitudes reduce engine and Safe maneuvering altitude WIND climb power En route climb Best climb speed Vy, Vx or POH/AFM cruise climb speed Takeoff pitch altitude Climb (3) Takeoff power Lift-off (2) Takeoff roll (1) Figure 5-1. Takeoff and climb. 5-2