FAA-H-8083-3B Airplane Flying Handbook, 2016

Airplane Flying Handbook 2016 U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service

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Preface PrefaceThe Glider Flying Handbook is designed as a technical manual for applicants who are preparing for glider category rating and for currently certificated glider pilots who wish to improve their knowledge. Certificated flight instructors will find this handbook a valuable training aid, since detailed coverage of aeronautical decision-making, components and systems, aerodynamics, flight instruments, performance limitations, ground operations, flight maneuvers, traffic patterns, emergencies, soaring weather, soaring techniques, and cross-country flight is included. Topics such as radio navigation and communication, use of flight information publications, and regulations are available in other Federal Aviation Administration T(FhAe AA)irppulabnliecaFtliyoinnsg. Handbook provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces basic pilot skills and knowledge that are essential for piloting airplanes. It provides information on transition to other airplanes and the oTpheeradtiisocnuossfivoanriaonudseaxirppllaannaetisoynsstermefsle. cItt itshdeemveolsotpceodmbmy othnelyFluisgehdt SptraancdtiacredssaSnedrvpircien,cAipilrems.aOn cTceasstiionngaSlltya,ntdhaerdwsoBrdra“nmchu,sitn” coorospimerialtairolnanwgiuthagveairsiouussedavwiahteiroentheedudceastiorersd aanctdioinndisusdtereym. Tedhicsrihtiacnadl.bToohke uissedoevf esluocphedlantoguaasgseisitssntuodt einnttepnidleodtstoleaadrndintog, tiontfelrypraeitr,polarnreesl.ieIvteisaadlsuotybiemnpefoisceiadlbtyo Tpiiltolets1w4 hoof twheisCh otodeimofpFroevdeertahleRirefglyuilnatgiopnrsof(i1c4ieCncFyR)a.nPdearseoronnsawutoirckailnkgntoowwlaerddgsea, tghloidseerprialotitnsgparerepaardinvgisefodrtaodrdeivtiioenwalthceerrteiffiecraetnecseosrfrroatmingthse, aanpdplfilciagbhlteinpsrtarcutcictoarlsteesntgsatganeddairndtsh(eFiAnsAtr-uGc-t8io0n82o-f4b,oStphosrttuPdielnott aanndd FcelirgtihfticIantsetdrupcitloortsw. iItthianStrpoodrutcPeislotthRe aftuitnugreKpniolowtletodgtheeTreesatlGmuiodfef,liFgAhtAa-nGd-8p0ro8v2i-d5e, sCionmfomrmeractiiaolnPailnodt KguniodwanlecdegienTtehset pGeurfidoerm, aanndceFoAfApr-oGc-e8d0u8r2e-s1a7n, dRmecarneeautivoenraslrPeqiluoitreadndfoPrrpivilaottecPeirltoifticKantioown.leTdogpeicTsessutcGhuaisdne)a.vRigeastoiounrcaensdfocor mstmuduyniicnactliuodne, mFAetAeo-Hro-l8o0g8y3,-u2s5e, Poifloftl’igshHtainndfobromokatoiof nAepruobnlaicuatitcioanl Ks,nroewguleladtgioe,nFs,AaAn-dHa-e8r0o8n3a-u2t,icRailskdeMciasniaognemmaeknitnHgaanrdeboavoaki,laanbdleAidnvoisthoeryr FCeidrceuralalrA(AviCat)io0n0-A6d, mAviniaisttiroantiWone(aFthAeAr )FoprubPliilcoattsioannsd. Flight Operations Personnel, AC 00-45, Aviation Weather Services, as these documents contain basic material not duplicated herein. All beginning applicants should refer to FAA-H-8083-25, OPiclcoat’ssioHnaalnlydbthoeokwoorfdA“emrounsta”uotircsailmKilnaorwlalnegdugaeg,efoisrusstueddywahnedrebtahseicdelsibirreadryacrteifoenreisndcee.emed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the IAt eisroensasuetnitciaall fIonrfopremrsaotinosnuMsinagnutahlis(AhaIMnd)b.oTohketoAbIMecoims eavfaaimlaiblilaer owniltihneanadt wapwpwly.ftahae.gpoevrt.inTehnet pcuarrtrsenotf F1l4igChtFRStaannddatrhdes ASeerrvoincaeuatiicrmalaInntfroarimniantgioanndMtaenstuianlg(mAaIMter)i.alTahnedAleIaMrniinsgasvtaaitleambleentosnfloinrealaltaiwrmwawn.fcaear.tgifoicva. tTeshaencdurrarteinntgsFlciagnhtbeStoabntdaainrdesd Sfreormvicwewaiwrm.faaan.gtroavin. ing and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from www.faa.gov. This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-13, Glider Flying Handbook, dated 2003. Always select the latest edition of any Tpuhbislihcaantidobnoaonkdsuchpeecrskedthees wFAebAs-itHe-f8o0r8e3r-r3aAta, pAaigrepslaannedFlliysitninggHoafncdhbaonogke,sdtaoteFdA2A00e4d.ucational publications developed by the FAA’s Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630. This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov. This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov. This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman TTehsitsinhganSdtbanodoakrdisspBurbalnischhe,dAbFySt-h6e30U,nPi.tOed. BStoaxte2s5D0e8p2a,rOtmkleanhtoomf aTrCaintysp, oOrKtat7io3n1,2F5e.deral Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address: Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address: [email protected] [email protected] John S. Duncan Director, Flight Standards Service iii iii

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Acknowledgments The Airplane Flying Handbook was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors: Mr. Shane Torgerson for imagery of the Sedona Airport (Chapter 1) Mr. Robert Frola for imagery of an Evektor-Aerotechnik EV-97 SportStar Max (Chapter 16) Additional appreciation is extended to the General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GA JSC) and the Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Committee’s (ARAC) Airman Certification Standards (ACS) Working Group for their technical support and input. v

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Table of Contents Preface....................................................................iii Risk Mitigation......................................................2-10 Resource Management...........................................2-11 Acknowledgments...................................................v Ground Operations........................................................2-11 Engine Starting..............................................................2-12 Table of Contents..................................................vii Hand Propping..............................................................2-13 Taxiing..........................................................................2-14 Chapter 1 Before-Takeoff Check..................................................2-17 Introduction to Flight Training............................1-1 Takeoff Checks.............................................................2-18 Introduction.....................................................................1-1 After-Landing...............................................................2-18 Role of the FAA..............................................................1-2 Clear of Runway and Stopped......................................2-18 Flight Standards Service.................................................1-5 Parking..........................................................................2-19 Role of the Pilot Examiner..............................................1-6 Engine Shutdown..........................................................2-19 Role of the Flight Instructor............................................1-7 Post-Flight.....................................................................2-19 Sources of Flight Training..............................................1-8 Securing and Servicing..............................................2-19 Chapter Summary.........................................................2-19 Practical Test Standards (PTS) and Airman Certification Standards (ACS)..................................1-10 Chapter 3 Safety of Flight Practices..........................................1-11 Basic Flight Maneuvers.......................................3-1 Introduction.....................................................................3-1 Collision Avoidance..............................................1-11 The Four Fundamentals..................................................3-2 Runway Incursion Avoidance................................1-12 Effect and Use of the Flight Controls.............................3-2 Stall Awareness.....................................................1-12 Use of Checklists...................................................1-13 Feel of the Airplane.....................................................3-4 Positive Transfer of Controls.................................1-15 Attitude Flying................................................................3-4 Chapter Summary.........................................................1-15 Integrated Flight Instruction...........................................3-5 Straight-and-Level Flight................................................3-6 Chapter 2 Ground Operations...............................................2-1 Straight Flight..............................................................3-7 Introduction.....................................................................2-1 Level Flight.................................................................3-8 Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft...............................2-2 Trim Control.................................................................3-10 Level Turns...................................................................3-10 Visual Preflight Assessment........................................2-3 Turn Radius...............................................................3-12 Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section........................2-5 Establishing a Turn....................................................3-13 Fuel and Oil.................................................................2-6 Climbs and Climbing Turns..........................................3-16 Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes.................................2-8 Establishing a Climb.................................................3-17 Engine and Propeller...................................................2-9 Climbing Turns.........................................................3-18 Risk and Resource Management.....................................2-9 Descents and Descending Turns...................................3-19 Risk Management......................................................2-10 Glides............................................................................3-20 Gliding Turns............................................................3-21 Identifying the Hazard...........................................2-10 Chapter Summary.........................................................3-23 Risk........................................................................2-10 Risk Assessment....................................................2-10 Risk Identification.................................................2-10 vii

Chapter 4 Academic Material (Knowledge and Maintaining Aircraft Control: Upset Risk Management)....................................................4-20 Prevention and Recovery Training.....................4-1 Introduction.....................................................................4-1 Prevention Through ADM and Risk Management..................................................4-21 Defining an Airplane Upset.........................................4-2 Prevention through Proportional Coordinated Flight.......................................................4-2 Counter-Response..................................................4-21 Angle of Attack...........................................................4-2 Recovery................................................................4-22 Slow Flight......................................................................4-3 Common Errors.........................................................4-22 Performing the Slow Flight Maneuver........................4-4 Roles of FSTDs and Airplanes in UPRT..................4-22 Stalls................................................................................4-5 Airplane-Based UPRT...............................................4-22 Stall Recognition.........................................................4-5 All-Attitude/All-Envelope Flight Training Methods......................................................4-23 Angle of Attack Indicators ......................................4-6 FSTD–based UPRT...................................................4-23 Stall Characteristics.....................................................4-6 Spiral Dive.................................................................4-23 Fundamentals of Stall Recovery.................................4-7 UPRT Summary........................................................4-24 Stall Training...............................................................4-8 Chapter Summary.........................................................4-24 Approaches to Stalls (Impending Stalls),  Power‑On or Power-Off..............................................4-8 Chapter 5 Full Stalls, Power-Off.................................................4-8 Takeoffs and Departure Climbs..........................5-1 Full Stalls, Power-On..................................................4-9 Introduction.....................................................................5-1 Secondary Stall..........................................................4-10 Accelerated Stalls......................................................4-10 Terms and Definitions.................................................5-2 Cross-Control Stall....................................................4-11 Prior to Takeoff...............................................................5-2 Elevator Trim Stall....................................................4-12 Normal Takeoff...............................................................5-3 Common Errors.........................................................4-13 Spin Awareness.........................................................4-13 Takeoff Roll................................................................5-3 Spin Procedures.........................................................4-14 Lift-Off........................................................................5-4 Initial Climb................................................................5-5 Entry Phase............................................................4-14 Crosswind Takeoff..........................................................5-6 Incipient Phase.......................................................4-14 Takeoff Roll................................................................5-6 Developed Phase....................................................4-15 Lift-Off........................................................................5-8 Recovery Phase......................................................4-15 Initial Climb................................................................5-8 Intentional Spins........................................................4-16 Ground Effect on Takeoff...............................................5-9 Weight and Balance Requirements Related Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum to Spins......................................................................4-17 Performance Climb.......................................................5-10 Common Errors.........................................................4-17 Takeoff Roll..............................................................5-10 Upset Prevention and Recovery ...................................4-17 Lift-Off......................................................................5-10 Unusual Attitudes Versus Upsets..............................4-17 Initial Climb..............................................................5-11 Environmental Factors..............................................4-18 Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb...........................5-11 Mechanical Factors...................................................4-18 Takeoff Roll..............................................................5-12 Human Factors..........................................................4-18 Lift-Off......................................................................5-12 VMC to IMC..........................................................4-18 Initial Climb..............................................................5-12 IMC........................................................................4-18 Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure..................................5-12 Diversion of Attention...........................................4-18 Noise Abatement...........................................................5-13 Task Saturation......................................................4-18 Chapter Summary.........................................................5-13 Sensory Overload/Deprivation..............................4-18 Spatial Disorientation............................................4-19 Chapter 6 Startle Response.....................................................4-19 Ground Reference Maneuvers............................6-1 Surprise Response..................................................4-19 Introduction.....................................................................6-1 Upset Prevention and Recovery Training (UPRT)...4-19 Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects..............6-2 UPRT Core Concepts................................................4-20 Drift and Ground Track Control.....................................6-3 Correcting Drift During Straight-and-Level Flight.....6-3 viii

Constant Radius During Turning Flight......................6-4 360° Power-Off Approach........................................8-25 Tracking Over and Parallel to a Straight Line.............6-6 Emergency Approaches and Landings (Simulated)......8-26 Rectangular Course.........................................................6-6 Faulty Approaches and Landings .................................8-27 Turns Around a Point......................................................6-8 S-Turns..........................................................................6-10 Low Final Approach..................................................8-27 Elementary Eights.........................................................6-11 High Final Approach.................................................8-28 Eights Along a Road.................................................6-11 Slow Final Approach.................................................8-28 Eights Across A Road...............................................6-13 Use of Power.............................................................8-29 Eights Around Pylons................................................6-13 High Round Out........................................................8-29 Eights-on-Pylons.......................................................6-14 Late or Rapid Round Out..........................................8-30 Chapter Summary.........................................................6-18 Floating During Round Out.......................................8-30 Ballooning During Round Out..................................8-30 Chapter 7 Bouncing During Touchdown...................................8-31 Airport Traffic Patterns........................................7-1 Porpoising..................................................................8-32 Introduction.....................................................................7-1 Wheel Barrowing......................................................8-33 Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations.........................7-2 Hard Landing.............................................................8-33 Standard Airport Traffic Patterns....................................7-2 Touchdown in a Drift or Crab...................................8-34 Non-Towered Airports....................................................7-5 Ground Loop.............................................................8-34 Safety Considerations.....................................................7-5 Wing Rising After Touchdown.................................8-35 Chapter Summary...........................................................7-6 Hydroplaning................................................................8-35 Dynamic Hydroplaning.............................................8-35 Chapter 8 Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning................................8-35 Approaches and Landings..................................8-1 Viscous Hydroplaning...............................................8-36 Introduction.....................................................................8-1 Chapter Summary.........................................................8-36 Normal Approach and Landing......................................8-2 Chapter 9 Base Leg......................................................................8-2 Performance Maneuvers......................................9-1 Final Approach............................................................8-3 Introduction.....................................................................9-1 Use of Flaps.................................................................8-4 Steep Turns.....................................................................9-2 Estimating Height and Movement...............................8-5 Steep Spiral.....................................................................9-4 Round Out (Flare).......................................................8-6 Chandelle........................................................................9-5 Touchdown..................................................................8-7 Lazy Eight.......................................................................9-6 After-Landing Roll......................................................8-8 Chapter Summary...........................................................9-8 Stabilized Approach Concept......................................8-9 Intentional Slips............................................................8-11 Chapter 10 Go-Arounds (Rejected Landings).................................8-12 Night Operations................................................10-1 Power.........................................................................8-13 Introduction...................................................................10-1 Attitude......................................................................8-13 Night Vision..................................................................10-2 Configuration............................................................8-13 Night Illusions...............................................................10-3 Ground Effect................................................................8-14 Pilot Equipment............................................................10-4 Crosswind Approach and Landing................................8-14 Airplane Equipment and Lighting................................10-4 Crosswind Final Approach........................................8-14 Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids..........................10-5 Crosswind Round Out (Flare)...................................8-15 Training for Night Flight..............................................10-6 Crosswind Touchdown..............................................8-15 Preparation and Preflight..............................................10-6 Crosswind After-Landing Roll..................................8-16 Starting, Taxiing, and Runup........................................10-6 Maximum Safe Crosswind Velocities.......................8-17 Takeoff and Climb........................................................10-7 Turbulent Air Approach and Landing...........................8-18 Orientation and Navigation...........................................10-7 Short-Field Approach and Landing..............................8-18 Approaches and Landings.............................................10-8 Soft-Field Approach and Landing................................8-21 Power-Off Accuracy Approaches.................................8-22 Night Emergencies....................................................10-9 90° Power-Off Approach..........................................8-22 Chapter Summary.........................................................10-9 180° Power-Off Approach........................................8-23 ix

Chapter 11 Normal Approach and Landing..................................12-14 Transition to Complex Airplanes......................11-1 Crosswind Approach and Landing..............................12-16 Introduction...................................................................11-1 Short-Field Takeoff and Climb...................................12-17 Short-Field Approach and Landing............................12-17 Function of Flaps.......................................................11-2 Go-Around..................................................................12-18 Flap Effectiveness.....................................................11-3 Rejected Takeoff.........................................................12-19 Operational Procedures.............................................11-3 Engine Failure After Lift-Off......................................12-19 Controllable-Pitch Propeller.........................................11-4 Constant-Speed Propeller..........................................11-4 Landing Gear Down................................................12-19 Takeoff, Climb, and Cruise.......................................11-6 Landing Gear Control Selected Up, Single- Blade Angle Control..................................................11-7 Engine Climb Performance Inadequate ..................12-20 Governing Range.......................................................11-7 Landing Gear Control Selected Up, Single- Constant-Speed Propeller Operation.........................11-7 Engine Climb Performance Adequate.....................12-20 Turbocharging...............................................................11-8 Ground Boosting Versus Altitude Turbocharging....11-9 Control.................................................................12-20 Operating Characteristics..........................................11-9 Configuration.......................................................12-21 Heat Management...................................................11-10 Climb...................................................................12-21 Turbocharger Failure...............................................11-10 Checklist..............................................................12-21 Engine Failure During Flight......................................12-22 Over-Boost Condition..........................................11-10 Engine Inoperative Approach and Landing................12-23 Low Manifold Pressure........................................11-11 Engine Inoperative Flight Principles..........................12-23 Retractable Landing Gear...........................................11-11 Slow Flight..................................................................12-26 Landing Gear Systems............................................11-11 Stalls............................................................................12-26 Controls and Position Indicators.............................11-11 Power-Off Approach to Stall (Approach Landing Gear Safety Devices..................................11-11 and Landing)...........................................................12-26 Emergency Gear Extension Systems.......................11-12 Power-On Approach to Stall (Takeoff Operational Procedures...........................................11-12 and Departure).........................................................12-27 Preflight...............................................................11-12 Full Stall..................................................................12-27 Takeoff and Climb...............................................11-13 Accelerated Approach to Stall.................................12-27 Approach and Landing........................................11-15 Spin Awareness.......................................................12-28 Transition Training.....................................................11-16 Chapter Summary.......................................................11-16 Chapter 13 Transition to Tailwheel Airplanes.....................13-1 Chapter 12 Introduction...................................................................13-1 Transition to Multiengine Airplanes.................12-1 Landing Gear................................................................13-2 Introduction...................................................................12-1 General..........................................................................12-2 Instability...................................................................13-2 Terms and Definitions...................................................12-2 Angle of Attack.............................................................13-2 Operation of Systems....................................................12-3 Taxiing..........................................................................13-2 Weathervaning..............................................................13-3 Propellers...................................................................12-3 Visibility.......................................................................13-3 Propeller Synchronization.........................................12-6 Directional Control.......................................................13-3 Fuel Crossfeed...........................................................12-6 Normal Takeoff Roll.....................................................13-3 Combustion Heater....................................................12-6 Liftoff............................................................................13-4 Flight Director/Autopilot...........................................12-6 Crosswind Takeoff........................................................13-4 Yaw Damper.............................................................12-7 Short-Field Takeoff.......................................................13-4 Alternator/Generator.................................................12-7 Soft-Field Takeoff.........................................................13-4 Nose Baggage Compartment.....................................12-7 Landing.........................................................................13-5 Anti-Icing/Deicing....................................................12-8 Touchdown...................................................................13-5 Performance and Limitations........................................12-9 Weight and Balance....................................................12-11 Three-Point Landing.................................................13-5 Ground Operation.......................................................12-12 Wheel Landing..........................................................13-6 Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb................12-13 Crosswinds................................................................13-6 Level Off and Cruise...................................................12-14 After-Landing Roll........................................................13-6 Crosswind After-Landing Roll.....................................13-7 x

Short-Field Landing......................................................13-7 Takeoff Roll............................................................15-21 Soft-Field Landing........................................................13-8 Rejected Takeoff.....................................................15-22 Ground Loop.................................................................13-8 Rotation and Lift-Off..............................................15-24 Chapter Summary.........................................................13-8 Initial Climb............................................................15-24 Jet Airplane Approach and Landing...........................15-25 Chapter 14 Landing Requirements............................................15-25 Transition to Turbopropeller- Landing Speeds.......................................................15-25 Powered Airplanes.............................................14-1 Significant Differences............................................15-26 Introduction...................................................................14-1 Stabilized Approach................................................15-27 Gas Turbine Engine......................................................14-2 Approach Speed......................................................15-27 Turboprop Engines........................................................14-2 Glidepath Control....................................................15-28 Turboprop Engine Types..............................................14-3 The Flare.................................................................15-28 Touchdown and Rollout..........................................15-29 Fixed Shaft................................................................14-3 Key Points...................................................................15-30 Split Shaft/ Free Turbine Engine ..............................14-5 Chapter Summary.......................................................15-31 Reverse Thrust and Beta Range Operations.................14-7 Turboprop Airplane Electrical Systems........................14-8 Chapter 16 Operational Considerations...........................................14-9 Transition to Light Sport Airplanes (LSA)........16-1 Training Considerations..............................................14-11 Introduction...................................................................16-1 Ground Training......................................................14-12 Light Sport Airplane (LSA) Background.....................16-2 Flight Training.........................................................14-12 LSA Synopsis...............................................................16-3 Chapter Summary.......................................................14-13 Sport Pilot Certificate...................................................16-3 Transition Training Considerations..............................16-4 Chapter 15 Transition to Jet-Powered Airplanes................15-1 Flight School.............................................................16-4 Introduction...................................................................15-1 Flight Instructors.......................................................16-4 Jet Engine Basics..........................................................15-2 LSA Maintenance.........................................................16-5 Operating the Jet Engine...............................................15-3 Airframe and Systems...................................................16-5 Construction..............................................................16-5 Jet Engine Ignition....................................................15-4 Engines......................................................................16-6 Continuous Ignition...................................................15-4 Instrumentation..........................................................16-6 Fuel Heaters...............................................................15-4 Weather Considerations................................................16-6 Setting Power............................................................15-4 Flight Environment.......................................................16-7 Thrust To Thrust Lever Relationship........................15-5 Preflight.....................................................................16-7 Variation of Thrust with RPM..................................15-5 Inside of the Airplane................................................16-8 Slow Acceleration of the Jet Engine.........................15-6 Outside of the Airplane.............................................16-9 Jet Engine Efficiency....................................................15-6 Before Start and Starting Engine.............................16-10 Absence of Propeller Effect..........................................15-6 Taxi..........................................................................16-10 Absence of Propeller Slipstream...................................15-6 Takeoff and Climb..................................................16-11 Absence of Propeller Drag............................................15-7 Cruise......................................................................16-11 Speed Margins..............................................................15-7 Approach and Landing ...........................................16-12 Recovery From Overspeed Conditions.........................15-9 Emergencies............................................................16-12 Mach Buffet Boundaries...............................................15-9 Postflight.................................................................16-12 Low Speed Flight........................................................15-10 Key Points...................................................................16-12 Stalls............................................................................15-11 Chapter Summary.......................................................16-13 Drag Devices...............................................................15-14 Thrust Reversers.........................................................15-15 Chapter 17 Pilot Sensations in Jet Flying......................................15-17 Emergency Procedures.....................................17-1 Jet Airplane Takeoff and Climb..................................15-18 Emergency Situations...................................................17-1 Minimum Equipment List and Configuration Emergency Landings....................................................17-2 Deviation List .........................................................15-18 V-Speeds.................................................................15-20 Types of Emergency Landings..................................17-2 Pre-Takeoff Procedures...........................................15-20 Psychological Hazards..............................................17-2 xi

Basic Safety Concepts...................................................17-2 General......................................................................17-2 Attitude and Sink Rate Control.................................17-4 Terrain Selection.......................................................17-4 Airplane Configuration.............................................17-4 Approach...................................................................17-5 Terrain Types................................................................17-5 Confined Areas..........................................................17-5 Trees (Forest)............................................................17-5 Water (Ditching) and Snow.......................................17-6 Engine Failure After Takeoff (Single-Engine).............17-6 Emergency Descents.....................................................17-6 In-Flight Fire.................................................................17-7 Engine Fire................................................................17-8 Electrical Fires...........................................................17-8 Cabin Fire..................................................................17-8 Flight Control Malfunction/Failure...............................17-9 Total Flap Failure......................................................17-9 Asymmetric (Split) Flap............................................17-9 Loss of Elevator Control...........................................17-9 Landing Gear Malfunction......................................17-10 Systems Malfunctions.................................................17-11 Electrical System.....................................................17-11 Pitot-Static System..................................................17-12 Abnormal Engine Instrument Indication....................17-13 Door Opening In-Flight..............................................17-13 Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC ..............................17-15 Recognition.............................................................17-15 Maintaining Airplane Control.................................17-15 Attitude Control.......................................................17-16 Turns........................................................................17-16 Climbs.....................................................................17-17 Descents..................................................................17-17 Combined Maneuvers.............................................17-17 Transition to Visual Flight......................................17-18 Chapter Summary.......................................................17-18 Glossary...............................................................G-1 Index.......................................................................I-1 xii

IChnaptterr1 oduction to Flight Training Introduction The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight training, as outlined in this handbook, is the acquisition and honing of basic airmanship skills. [Figure 1-1] Airmanship is a broad term that includes a sound knowledge of and experience with the principles of flight, the knowledge, experience, and ability to operate an airplane with competence and precision both on the ground and in the air, and the application of sound judgment that results in optimal operational safety and efficiency. [Figure 1-2] Learning to fly an airplane has often been likened to learning to drive an automobile. This analogy is misleading. Since an airplane operates in a three-dimensional environment, it requires a depth of knowledge and type of motor skill development that is more sensitive to this situation, such as: • Coordination—the ability to use the hands and feet together subconsciously and in the proper relationship to produce desired results in the airplane. • Timing—the application of muscular coordination at the proper instant to make flight, and all maneuvers, a constant, smooth process. • Control touch—the ability to sense the action of the airplane and knowledge to determine its probable actions immediately regarding attitude and speed variations by sensing the varying pressures and resistance of the control surfaces transmitted through the flight controls. • Speed sense—the ability to sense and react to reasonable variations of airspeed. 1-1

Pre-Solo Solo Maneuvers Cross-country Checkride Figure 1-1. Primary and intermediate flight training teaches basic airmanship skills and creates a good foundation for student pilots. An accomplished pilot demonstrates the knowledge and ability is not to learn how to fly a particular make and model airplane. to assess a situation quickly and accurately and determine The underlying purpose of flight training is to develop the the correct procedure to be followed under the existing knowledge, experience, skills, and safe habits that establish circumstance. He or she is also able to analyze accurately a foundation and are easily transferable to any airplane. The the probable results of a given set of circumstances or of pilot who has acquired necessary skills during training, and a proposed procedure; to exercise care and due regard for develops these skills by flying training-type airplanes with safety; to gauge accurately the performance of the airplane; to precision and safe flying habits, is able to easily transition to recognize personal limitations and limitations of the airplane more complex and higher performance airplanes. It should and avoid approaching the critical points of each; and the also be remembered that the goal of flight training is a safe ability to identify, assess, and mitigate risk. The development and competent pilot; passing required practical tests for pilot of airmanship skills requires effort and dedication on the part of certification is only incidental to this goal. both the student pilot and the flight instructor, beginning with the very first training flight where proper habit formation begins Role of the FAA with the student being introduced to good operating practices. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empowered by Every airplane has its own particular flight characteristics. The the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safety by prescribing purpose of primary and intermediate flight training; however, safety standards for civil aviation. Standards are established Figure 1-2. Good airmanship skills include sound knowledge of the principles of flight and the ability to operate an airplane with competence and precision. 1-2

for the certification of airmen and aircraft, as well as outlining titled Aeronautics and Space with Chapter 1 dedicated to the operating rules. This is accomplished through the Code of FAA. Subchapters are broken down by category with numbered Federal Regulations (CFR), formerly referred to as Federal parts detailing specific information. [Figure 1-3] For ease of Aviation Regulations (FAR). Title 14 of the CFR (14 CFR) is Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations Aeronautics and Space CHAPTER 1 Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation Subchapter A Definitions and General Requirements Part 1 Definitions and Abbreviations Subchapter B Procedural Rules Part 11 General Rulemaking Procedures Part 17 Procedures for Protests and Contract Disputes Subchapter C Aircraft Part 21 Certification Procedures for Products and Articles Parts 23—31 Airworthiness Standards for Various Categories of Aircraft Airworthiness Directives Part 39 Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding and Alteration Part 43 Identification and Registration Marking Part 45 Subchapter D Airmen Part 61 Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors and Ground Instructors Part 67 Medical Standards and Certification Subchapter E Airspace Part 71 Designation of Class A,B,C,D and E Airspace Areas; Air Traffic Service Routes; and Reporting Points Part 73 Special Use Airspace Subchapter F Air Traffic and General Operating Rules Part 91 General Operating and Flight Rules Part 97 Standard Instrument Procedures Part 103 Ultralight Vehicles Subchapter G Air Carriers and Operators for Compensation or Hire: Certification and Operations Part 110 - 139 General and Operating Requirements 14 Subchapter H Schools and Other Certificated Agencies Part 1 to 59 Revised as January 27, 2012 Part 141 Pilot Schools Part 142 Training Centers Aeronautics and Space Subchapter I Airports Part 150 - 169 Navigational Facilities Subchapter J Administrative Regulations Part 170 - 171 Subchapter K Part 183 - 193 Figure 1-3. Title 14 CFR, Chapter 1, Aeronautics and Space and subchapters. 1-3

reference since the parts are numerical, the abbreviated pattern certain replacement and modification parts, and the 14 CFR part ___ is used (e.g., 14 CFR part 91). nationality and registration marking required on U.S.- registered aircraft. While the various subchapters and parts of 14 CFR provide general to specific guidance regarding aviation operations • 14 CFR part 43 prescribes rules governing the within the U.S., the topic of aircraft certification and maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and airworthiness is spread through several interconnected parts alteration of any aircraft having a U.S. airworthiness of 14 CFR. certificate. It also applies to the airframe, aircraft engines, propellers, appliances, and component parts • 14 CFR part 21 prescribes procedural requirements of such aircraft. for issuing airworthiness certificates and airworthiness approvals for aircraft and aircraft parts. A standard • 14 CFR part 91 outlines aircraft certifications and airworthiness certificate, FAA Form 8100-2, is equipment requirements for the operation of aircraft required to be displayed in the aircraft. [Figure 1-4] in U.S. airspace. It also prescribes rules governing It is issued for aircraft type certificated in the normal, maintenance, preventive maintenance, and alterations. utility, acrobatic, commuter or transport category, and Also found in 14 CFR part 91 is the requirement for manned free balloons. A standard airworthiness to maintain records of maintenance, preventive certificate remains valid as long as the aircraft maintenance, and alterations, as well as records of the meets its approved type design, is in a condition for 100-hour, annual, progressive, and other required or safe operation and maintenance, and preventative approved inspections. maintenance and alterations are performed in accordance with 14 CFR parts 21, 43, and 91. While 14 CFR part 91 outlines the minimum equipment required for flight, the Airplane Flight Manual/Pilot’s • 14 CFR part 39 is the authority for the FAA to issue Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) lists the equipment Airworthiness Directives (ADs) when an unsafe required for the airplane to be airworthy. The equipment condition exists in a product, aircraft, or part, and the list found in the AFM/POH is developed during the condition is likely to exist or develop in other products airplane certification process. This list identifies those of the same type design. items that are required for airworthiness, optional equipment installed in addition to the required • 14 CFR part 45 identifies the requirements for equipment, and any supplemental items or appliances. the identification of aircraft, engines, propellers, UUNNIITTEED STATES OF AMERICA DDEEPPAARRTTMEENNTT OOFF TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTTAATTION-FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION STANDARD AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATE 11 NNAATTIIOONNAALLIITTYY AND 22 MANUFACTURER AND MODEL 3 AIRCRAFT SERIAL 4 CATEGORY RREEGGIISSTTRRAATTIIOONN MMAARRKKSS NNUUMMBBEERR N12345 Douglas DC-6A 43219 Transport 55 AAUUTTHHOORRIITTYY AANDD BAASIS FOOR ISSUANCE TThhiiss aaiirrwwoorrtthhiinneessss cceerrttiiffiiccaattee iiss iissssuueedd ppuurrssuuaanntt ttoo 4499 UU..SS..CC.. §§ 4444770044 aanndd cceerrttiiffiieess tthhaatt,, aass ooff tthhee ddaattee ooff iissssuuaannccee,, tthhee aaiirrccrraafftt ttoo wwhhiicchh iissssuueedd hhaass bbeeeenn iinnssppeecctteedd aanndd ffoouunndd ttoo ccoonnffoorrmm ttoo tthhee ttyyppee cceerrttiiffiiccaattee tthheerreeffoorree,, ttoo bbee iinn ccoonnddiittiioonn ffoorr ssaaffee ooppeerraattiioonn,, aanndd hhaass bbeeeenn sshhoowwnn ttoo mmeeeett tthhee rreeqquuiirreemmeennttss ooff tthhee aapppplliiccaabbllee ccoommpprreehheennssiivvee aanndd ddeettaaiilleedd aaiirrwwoorrtthhiinneessss ccooddee aass pprroovviiddeedd bbyy AAnnnneexx 88 ttoo tthhee CCoonnvveennttiioonn oonn IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall CCiivviill AAvviiaattiioonn,, eexxcceepptt aass nnootteedd hheerreeiinn.. EExxcceeppttiioonnss:: None 66 TTEERRMMSS AANNDD CCOONNDDIITTIIOONNSS UUnnlleessss ssoooonneerr ssuurrrreennddeerreedd,, ssuussppeennddeedd,, rreevvookkeedd,, oorr aa tteerrmmiinnaattiioonn ddaattee iiss ootthheerrwwiissee eessttaabblliisshheedd bbyy tthhee FFAAAA,, tthhiiss aaiirrwwoorrtthhiinneessss cceerrttiiffiiccaattee iiss eeffffeeccttiivvee aass lloonngg aass tthhee mmaaiinntteennaannccee,, pprreevveennttaattiivvee mmaaiinntteennaannccee,, aanndd aalltteerraattiioonnss aarree ppeerrffoorrmmeedd iinn aaccccoorrddaannccee wwiitthh PPaarrttss 2211,, 4433,, aanndd 9911oofftthheeFFeeddeerraall AAvviiaattiioonn RReegguullaattiioonnss,, aass aapppprroopprriiaattee,, aanndd tthhee aaiirrccrraafftt iiss rreeggiisstteerreedd iinn tthhee UUnniitteedd SSttaatteess.. DDAATTEE OOFF IISSSSUUAANNCCEE FFAAAA RREEPPRREESSEENNTTAATTIIVVEE DDEESSIIGGNNAATTIIOONN NNUUMMBBEERR 01/20/2000 EE..RR.. WWhhiittee EE..RR. .WhWithe ite NE-XX TTHHIISSAACnCnyEyERiRitteeTTrrIaIaFFttIiIioCoCnnAA,,TTrreEeEppMMrrooUUddSuSucTcTttiiBoBonEnE,,DoDorIrISSmmPPiisLsLuAuAssYYeeEEooDDff tItIhNhNiissTTccHHeeEErrttiiAfAfiicIcIRRaatCtCeeRRmmAAaaFFyyTTbbIIeNeNppAAuuCCnnCiCissOhOhaaRRbbDDlleeAAbbNNyyCCaaEEffiWiWnneeIITTnnHHoottAAeePPxxPcPceeLLeeIICCddAiiAnnBBggLL$$EE11,,FF00EE00D0D0,EEooRRrriAAimmLLppAArriisVVsoIoIAnAnmTTmIIeOOennNNttnRnRooEEtt GGeexxUUccLLeeAAeeTddTiiIInnOOggNN33SSyy.. eeaarrss oorr bbootthh.. FFAAAA FFoorrmm 88110000--22 ((0044--1111)) SSuuppeerrsseeddeess PPrreevviioouuss EEddiittiioonn Figure 1-4. FAA Form 8100-2, Standard Airworthiness Certificate. 1-4

Figure 1-5 shows an example of some of the required • 14 CFR part 67 prescribes the medical standards equipment, standard or supplemental (not required and certification procedures for issuing medical but commonly found in the airplane) and optional certificates for airmen and for remaining eligible for equipment list for an aircraft. It is originally issued by a medical certificate. the manufacturer and is required to be maintained by • 14 CFR part 91 contains general operating and flight the Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS). An aircraft rules. The section is broad in scope and provides and its installed components and parts must continually general guidance in the areas of general flight rules, meet the requirements of the original Type Certificate visual flight rules (VFR), instrument flight rules (IFR), or approved altered conditions to be airworthy. and as previously discussed aircraft maintenance, and • 14 CFR part 61 pertains to the certification of preventive maintenance and alterations. pilots, flight instructors, and ground instructors. It prescribes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, Flight Standards Service flight proficiency training, and testing requirements Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service (AFS) sets for each type of pilot certificate issued. the aviation standards for airmen and aircraft operations Sym: Items in this listing are coded by a symbol indicating the status of the item. These codes are: C Required item for FAA Certification. S Standard equipment. Most standard equipment is applicable to all airplanes. Some equipment may be replaced by optional equipment. O Optional equipment. Optional equipment may be installed in addition to or to replace standard equipment. Qty: The quantity of the listed item in the airplane. A hyphen (-) in this column indicates that the equipment was not installed. ATA Item Description SYM QTY Part Number Unit Weight Arm 34-08 C 1 0.4 136.2 34-09 GPS 1 Antenna S 1 12744-001 0.4 110.3 34-10 GPS 2 Antenna C 1 12744-001 0.1 105.0 34-11 Transponder Antenna C 1 12739-001 0.4 331.0 34-12 VOR/LOC Antenna C 1 12742-001 1.8 118.0 34-13 Turn coordinator, modified S 1 11891-001 1.5 121.5 34-14 GMA 340 audio panel O 1 12717-050 5.0 121.0 34-15 GNS 420 (GPS/COM/NAV) C 1 12718-004 5.0 121.0 34-16 GNS 420 (GPS/COM/NAV) O 1 12718-051 5.0 122.4 34-17 GNS 420 (GPS/COM/NAV) O 1 12718-051 2.0 118.0 34-18 EMax engine monitoring O 1 2.0 108.0 34-19 • Data acquisition unit O 1 16692-001 0.5 118.0 34-20 • Monitor cabin harness O 1 16695-005 2.3 150.5 34-21 Sky watch option O 1 140.0 34-22 • Sky watch inverter O 1 14484-001 10.0 199.0 34-23 • Sky watch antenna nsti O 1 14480-001 1.7 191.0 34-24 • Sky watch track box C 1 14477-050 0.9 124.9 34-25 Stormscope option O - 1.6 121.0 34-26 • Processor O 1 12745-050 2.6 117.0 34-27 • Antenna O 1 12745-070 1.3 114.0 34-28 Transponder option O 1 1.7 149.3 61 • Mode A/C transponder C 1 13587-001 0.2 61-01 • Mode S transponder O 1 15966-050 48.0 61-02 TAWS option C 1 79.8 50.0 61-03 • KGP 560 processor C 1 15963-001 78.0 61.7 71 XM satellite option C 1 78.4 71-01 • XM WX/radio receiver C 1 16121-001 3.2 78.4 71-02 • XM radio remote control C 1 16665-501 10.5 78.4 71-03 Propeller 78.4 71-03 • Hartzell propeller installation 15319-00X 5.4 • McCauley propeller installation 15825-00X 5.4 • Propeller governor 15524-001 10.7 Power plant • Upper cowl 20181-003 • Lower cowl LH 20182-005 • Lower cowl RH 20439-005 • Engine baffling installation 15460-001 Figure 1-5. Example of some of the required, standard or supplemental and optional equipment for an aircraft. 1-5

in the United States and for American airmen and aircraft Each FSDO is staffed by Aviation Safety Inspectors (ASIs) around the world. The AFS is headquartered in Washington, whose specialties include operations, maintenance, and D.C., and is broadly organized into divisions based on work avionics. General Aviation ASIs are highly qualified and function (Air Transportation, Aircraft Maintenance, Flight experienced aviators. Once accepted for the position, an Technology, Training, Certification and Surveillance, a inspector must satisfactorily complete indoctrination training Regulatory Support Division based in Oklahoma City, OK, conducted at the FAA Academy that includes airman and a General Aviation and Commercial Division). Regional evaluation and pilot testing techniques and procedures. Flight Standards division managers, one at each of the FAA’s Thereafter, the inspector must complete recurrent training nine regional offices, coordinate AFS activities within their on a regular basis. Among other duties, the FSDO inspector respective regions. is responsible for administering FAA practical tests for pilot and flight instructor certificates and associated ratings. All The interface between AFS and the aviation community/ questions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests for general public is the local Flight Standards District Office other aviation information or services) should be directed to (FSDO). The approximately ninety FSDOs are strategically the FSDO having jurisdiction in the particular geographic located across the United States, each office having area. For specific FSDO locations and telephone numbers, jurisdiction over a specific geographic area. [Figure 1-6] The refer to www.faa.gov. individual FSDO is responsible for all air activity occurring within its geographic boundaries. The individual FSDOs Role of the Pilot Examiner are responsible for the certification and surveillance of air carriers, air operators, flight schools/training centers, airmen Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by the (pilots, flight instructors, mechanics and other certificate FAA upon satisfactory completion of required knowledge holders). Additional duties that are tasked to FSDO inspectors and practical tests. The administration of these tests is an is accident investigation and enforcement actions. NOTE: FAA responsibility that the issuance of pilot and instructor Accident investigation and enforcement actions are a smaller certificates can be carried out at the FSDO level. In order part of a field inspectors job than surveillance and certification. to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and certification services, the FAA delegates certain responsibilities, as WASHINGTON MONTANA NORTH DAKOTA MINNESOTA ANE ANM MAINE OREGON IDAHO VERMONT NEW WYOMING AGLW I S C O N S I N HAMPSHIRE SOUTH NEW MASSACHUSETTS DAKOTA YORK CONNECTICUT MICHIGAN AEA RHODE ISLAND NEVADA IOWA PENNSYLVANIA NEBRASKA NEW JERSEY UTAH OHIO DELAWARE MARYLAND AWP COLORADO ACE ILLINOIS INDIANA WEST VIRGINIA KANSAS VIRGINIA CALIFORNIA MISSOURI KENTUCKY HAWAII NORTH CAROLINA ARIZONA OKLAHOMA ARKANSAS ASOT E N N E S S E E NEW MEXICO ASW SOUTH CAROLINA MISSISSIPPI GEORGIA ALABAMA TEXAS ALASKA LOUISIANA FLORIDA AAL PUERTO RICO Figure 1-6. Flight Standards District Office locations across the United States. 1-6

the need arises, to private individuals who are not FAA A pilot training program is dependent on the quality of the employees. A Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) is a ground and flight instruction the student pilot receives. A good private citizen who is designated as a representative of the flight instructor has a thorough understanding of the learning FAA Administrator to perform specific (but limited) pilot process, knowledge of the fundamentals of instruction, and certification tasks on behalf of the FAA and may charge a the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot. reasonable fee for doing so. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting applications and conducting practical A good flight instructor uses a syllabus and insists on correct tests leading to the issuance of specific pilot certificates techniques and procedures from the beginning of training and/or ratings. A DPE operates under the direct supervision so that the student will develop proper habit patterns. The of the FSDO that holds the examiner’s designation file. syllabus should embody the “building block” method of A FSDO inspector is assigned to monitor the DPE’s instruction in which the student progresses from the known certification activities. Normally, the DPE is authorized to to the unknown. The course of instruction should be laid conduct these activities only within the designating FSDO’s out so that each new maneuver embodies the principles jurisdictional area. involved in the performance of those previously undertaken. Consequently, through each new subject introduced, the The FAA selects only highly qualified individuals to be DPEs. student not only learns a new principle or technique, but These individuals must have good industry reputations for broadens his or her application of those previously learned professionalism, high integrity, a demonstrated willingness to and has his or her deficiencies in the previous maneuvers serve the public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures emphasized and made obvious. [Figure 1-8] in certification matters. A DPE is expected to administer practical tests with the same degree of professionalism, The flying habits of the flight instructor, both during flight using the same methods, procedures, and standards as an instruction and as observed by students when conducting FAA ASI. It should be remembered, however, that a DPE is other pilot operations, have a vital effect on safety. Students not an FAA ASI. A DPE cannot initiate enforcement action, consider their flight instructor to be a paragon of flying investigate accidents, or perform surveillance activities on proficiency whose flying habits they, consciously or behalf of the FAA. However, the majority of FAA practical unconsciously, attempt to imitate. For this reason, a good tests at the recreational, private, and commercial pilot level flight instructor meticulously observes the safety practices are administered by FAA DPEs. taught to the students. Additionally, a good flight instructor carefully observes all regulations and recognized safety Role of the Flight Instructor practices during all flight operations. The flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviation safety. The FAA has adopted an operational training concept that places the full responsibility for student training on the authorized flight instructor. In this role, the instructor assumes the total responsibility for training the student pilot in all the knowledge areas and skills necessary to operate safely and competently as a certificated pilot in the National Airspace System (NAS). This training includes airmanship skills, pilot judgment and decision-making, hazard identification, risk analysis, and good operating practices. (See Risk Management Handbook, FAA-H-8083-2). [Figure 1-7] An FAA Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI) has to meet Figure 1-7. The flight instructor is responsible for teaching and broad flying experience requirements, pass rigid knowledge training students to become safe and competent certificated pilots. and practical tests, and demonstrate the ability to apply recommended teaching techniques before being certificated. In addition, the flight instructor’s certificate must be renewed every 24 months by showing continued success in training pilots or by satisfactorily completing a flight instructor’s refresher course or a practical test designed to upgrade aeronautical knowledge, pilot proficiency, and teaching techniques. 1-7

Lesson ________________________ Student _________________________________ Date _________________________ Objective • To familiarize the student with the stall warnings and handling characteristics of the airplane as it Content approaches a stall. To develop the student’s skill in recognition and recovery from stalls. Schedule • Configuration of airplane for power-on and power-off stalls. • Observation of airplane attitude, stall warnings, and handling characteristics as it approaches Equipment Instructor’s actions a stall. • Control of airplane attitude, altitude, and heading. Student’s actions • Initiation of stall recovery procedures. • Preflight Discussion......................................................................:10 • Instructor Demonstrations............................................................:25 • Student Practice ...........................................................................:45 • Postflight Critique .........................................................................:10 • Chalkboard or notebook for preflight discussion. • Preflight—discuss lesson objective. • Inflight—demonstrate elements. Demonstrate power-on and power-off stalls and recovery procedures. Coach student practice. • Postflight—critique student performance and assign study material. • Preflight—discuss lesson objective and resolve questions. • Inflight—review previous maneuvers including slow flight. Perform each new maneuver as directed. • Postflight—ask pertinent questions. Completion standards • Student should demonstrate competency in controlling the airplane at airspeeds approaching a stall. Student should recognize and take prompt corrective action to recover from power-on and power-off stalls. This is a typical lesson plan for flight training which emphasizes stall recognition and recovery procedures. Figure 1-8. Sample lesson plan for stall training and recovery procedures. Generally, the student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training maintenance, and facilities. The school must operate in program is prepared to commit considerable time, effort, accordance with an established curriculum that includes a and expense in pursuit of a pilot certificate. The student may training course outline (TCO) approved by the FAA. The tend to judge the effectiveness of the flight instructor and the TCO must contain student enrollment prerequisites, detailed overall success of the pilot training program solely in terms description of each lesson including standards and objectives, of being able to pass the requisite FAA-practical test. A good expected accomplishments and standards for each stage of flight instructor is able to communicate to the student that training, and a description of the checks and tests used to evaluation through practical tests is a mere sampling of pilot measure a student’s accomplishments. FAA-approved pilot ability that is compressed into a short period of time. The school certificates must be renewed every 2 years. flight instructor’s role is to train the “total” pilot. Renewal is contingent upon proof of continued high quality Sources of Flight Training instruction and a minimum level of instructional activity. Training at an FAA-certificated pilot school is structured The major sources of flight training in the United States and because of this structured environment, the graduates include FAA-approved pilot schools and training centers, of these pilot schools are allowed to meet the certification non-certificated (14 CFR part 61) flying schools, and experience requirements of 14 CFR part 61 with less flight independent flight instructors. FAA-approved schools are time. Many FAA-certificated pilot schools have DPEs on those flight schools certificated by the FAA as pilot schools staff to administer FAA practical tests. Some schools have under 14 CFR part 141. [Figure 1-9] been granted examining authority by the FAA. A school with examining authority for a particular course(s) has the authority Application for certification is voluntary, and the school to recommend its graduates for pilot certificates or ratings must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, 1-8

Figure 1-9. FAA Form 8000-4, Air Agency Certificate. 1-9

without further testing by the FAA. A list of FAA-certificated Practical Test Standards (PTS) and Airman pilot schools and their training courses can be found at http:// Certification Standards (ACS) av-info.faa.gov/pilotschool.asp. Practical tests for FAA pilot certificates and associated ratings are administered by FAA inspectors and DPEs in accordance FAA-approved training centers are certificated under 14 CFR with FAA-developed Practical Test Standards (PTS) and part 142. Training centers, like certificated pilot schools, Airman Certification Standards (ACS). [Figure 1-10] operate in a structured environment with approved courses 14 CFR part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which and curricula and stringent standards for personnel, equipment, knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant. facilities, operating procedures, and record keeping. Training The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit the FAA to publish centers certificated under 14 CFR part 142, however, specialize PTS and ACS containing the areas of operation and specific in the use of flight simulation (flight simulators and flight tasks in which competence must be demonstrated. The FAA training devices) in their training courses. requires that all practical tests be conducted in accordance with the appropriate PTS and ACS and the policies set forth There are a number of flying schools in the United States in the introduction section of the PTS and ACS. that are not certificated by the FAA. These schools operate under the provisions of 14 CFR part 61. Many of these non- It must be emphasized that the PTS and ACS are testing certificated flying schools offer excellent training and meet documents rather than teaching documents. Although the or exceed the standards required of FAA-approved pilot pilot applicant should be familiar with these books and schools. Flight instructors employed by non-certificated refer to the standards it contains during training, the PTS flying schools, as well as independent flight instructors, and ACS is not intended to be used as a training syllabus. must meet the same basic 14 CFR part 61 flight instructor It contains the standards to which maneuvers/procedures requirements for certification and renewal as those flight on FAA practical tests must be performed and the FAA instructors employed by FAA-certificated pilot schools. In policies governing the administration of practical tests. the end, any training program is dependent upon the quality An appropriately rated flight instructor is responsible for of the ground and flight instruction a student pilot receives. training a pilot applicant to acceptable standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers included in, and FAA-S-ACS-X FAA-S-ACS-8 (Change 1) FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR Practical Test Standards Instrument Rating – Airplane FA(CAh-Sa-nAgCeS1-6) Airman Certification Standards for AirmaPnrivCaetretiPfiicloattio–nASirtpalnadneards GLIDER FLIGHT STANDARDS SERVICE Washington, DC 20591 FLIGWHaTsShTinAgNtDonA,RDDCS2S0E5R9V1ICE FLIGWHaTshSiTnAgNtoDnA, RDDCS2S0E5R9V1ICE Figure 1-10. Airman Certification Standards (ACS) developed by the FAA. 1-10

encompassed by, the tasks within each area of operation in the appropriate PTS and ACS. Flight instructors and pilot applicants should always remember that safe, competent piloting requires a commitment to learning, planning, and risk management that goes beyond rote performance of maneuvers. Descriptions of tasks and information on how to perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in reference and teaching documents, such as this handbook. A list of reference documents is contained in the introduction section of each PTS and ACS. It is necessary that the latest version of the PTS and ACS, with all recent changes, be referenced for training. All recent versions and changes to the FAA PTS and ACS may be viewed or downloaded at www.faa.gov. Safety of Flight Practices Figure 1-11. Most midair collision accidents occur in good weather. In the interest of safety and good habit pattern formation, may be used to increase the effectiveness of the scan time. The there are certain basic flight safety practices and procedures human eyes tend to focus somewhere, even in a featureless that must be emphasized by the flight instructor, and adhered sky. In order to be most effective, the pilot should shift glances to by both instructor and student, beginning with the very and refocus at intervals. Most pilots do this in the process first dual instruction flight. These include, but are not limited of scanning the instrument panel, but it is also important to to, collision avoidance procedures including proper scanning focus outside to set up the visual system for effective target techniques and clearing procedures, runway incursion acquisition. Pilots should also realize that their eyes may avoidance, stall awareness, positive transfer of controls, and require several seconds to refocus when switching views flight deck workload management. between items on the instrument panel and distant objects. Proper scanning requires the constant sharing of attention Collision Avoidance with other piloting tasks, thus it is easily degraded by such All pilots must be alert to the potential for midair collision and impending loss of separation. The general operating and Blind spots flight rules in 14 CFR part 91 set forth the concept of “See and Avoid.” This concept requires that vigilance shall be Figure 1-12. Proper scanning techniques can mitigate midair maintained at all times by each person operating an aircraft collisions. Pilots must be aware of potential blind spots and attempt regardless of whether the operation is conducted under IFR or to clear the entire area that they are maneuvering in. VFR. Pilots should also keep in mind their responsibility for continuously maintaining a vigilant lookout regardless of the type of aircraft being flown and the purpose of the flight. Most midair collision accidents and reported near midair collision incidents occur in good VFR weather conditions and during the hours of daylight. Most of these accident/incidents occur within 5 miles of an airport and/or near navigation aids. [Figure 1-11] The “See and Avoid” concept relies on knowledge of the limitations of the human eye and the use of proper visual scanning techniques to help compensate for these limitations. Pilots should remain constantly alert to all traffic movement within their field of vision, as well as periodically scanning the entire visual field outside of their aircraft to ensure detection of conflicting traffic. Remember that the performance capabilities of many aircraft, in both speed and rates of climb/descent, result in high closure rates limiting the time available for detection, decision, and evasive action. [Figure 1-12] The probability of spotting a potential collision threat increases with the time spent looking outside, but certain techniques 1-11

psychological and physiological conditions, such as fatigue, creates a collision hazard or results in a loss of separation boredom, illness, anxiety, or preoccupation. with an aircraft taking off, landing, or intending to land. The three major areas contributing to runway incursions Effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, are communications, airport knowledge, and flightdeck regularly-spaced eye movements that bring successive areas procedures for maintaining orientation. [Figure 1-13] of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the entire flight observed for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. During flight horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem preferred training, the instructor should emphasize the importance by most pilots, each pilot should develop a scanning pattern of vigilance during taxi operations. Both the student pilot that is most comfortable to them and adhere to it to assure and the flight instructor need to be continually aware of the optimum scanning. movement and location of other aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport movement area. Many flight training activities Peripheral vision can be most useful in spotting collision are conducted at non-tower controlled airports. The absence threats from other aircraft. Each time a scan is stopped and of an operating airport control tower creates a need for the eyes are refocused, the peripheral vision takes on more increased vigilance on the part of pilots operating at those importance because it is through this element that movement airports. [Figure 1-14] is detected. Apparent movement is almost always the first perception of a collision threat and probably the most important Planning, clear communications, and enhanced situational because it is the discovery of a threat that triggers the events awareness during airport surface operations reduces the leading to proper evasive action. It is essential to remember, potential for surface incidents. Safe aircraft operations can be however, that if another aircraft appears to have no relative accomplished and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly motion, it is likely to be on a collision course with you. If trained early on and throughout their flying career on standard the other aircraft shows no lateral or vertical motion, but is taxi operating procedures and practices. This requires the increasing in size, take immediate evasive action. development of the formalized teaching of safe operating practices during taxi operations. The flight instructor is The importance of, and the proper techniques for, visual the key to this teaching. The flight instructor should instill scanning should be taught to a student pilot at the very in the student an awareness of the potential for runway beginning of flight training. The competent flight instructor incursion, and should emphasize the runway incursion should be familiar with the visual scanning and collision avoidance procedures. For more detailed information and a avoidance information contained in AC 90-48, Pilots’ Role list of additional references, refer to Chapter 14 of the Pilot’s in Collision Avoidance, and the Aeronautical Information Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Manual (AIM). Stall Awareness There are many different types of clearing procedures. Most 14 CFR part 61 requires that a student pilot receive and are centered around the use of clearing turns. The essential log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to solo idea of the clearing turn is to be certain that the next maneuver flight. [Figure 1-15] During this training, the flight instructor is not going to proceed into another airplane’s flightpath. should emphasize that the direct cause of every stall is an Some pilot training programs have hard and fast rules, such excessive angle of attack (AOA). The student pilot should as requiring two 90° turns in opposite directions before fully understand that there are several flight maneuvers that executing any training maneuver. Other types of clearing may produce an increase in the wing’s AOA, but the stall procedures may be developed by individual flight instructors. does not occur until the AOA becomes excessive. This critical Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructor should AOA varies from 16°–20° depending on the airplane design. teach the beginning student an effective clearing procedure [Figure 1-16] and insist on its use. The student pilot should execute the appropriate clearing procedure before all turns and before The flight instructor must emphasize that low speed is not executing any training maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be brought to an combined with proper visual scanning techniques, are the excessive AOA at any speed. High pitch attitude is not an most effective strategy for collision avoidance. absolute indication of proximity to a stall. Some airplanes are capable of vertical flight with a corresponding low AOA. Runway Incursion Avoidance Most airplanes are quite capable of stalling at a level or near A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport involving level pitch attitude. an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that 1-12

Figure 1-13. Three major areas contributing to runway incursions are communications with air traffic control (ATC), airport knowledge, and flight deck procedures. The key to stall awareness is the pilot’s ability to visualize The pilot must understand and appreciate factors such as the wing’s AOA in any particular circumstance, and thereby airspeed, pitch attitude, load factor, relative wind, power be able to estimate his or her margin of safety above stall. setting, and aircraft configuration in order to develop a This is a learned skill that must be acquired early in flight reasonably accurate mental picture of the wing’s AOA at any training and carried through the pilot’s entire flying career. particular time. It is essential to safety of flight that pilots take into consideration this visualization of the wing’s AOA prior to entering any flight maneuver. Chapter 3, Basic Flight Maneuvers, discusses stalls in greater detail. Figure 1-14. Sedona Airport is one of the many airports that operate Use of Checklists without a control tower. Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization and flight deck safety for years. [Figure 1-17] The checklist is a memory aid and helps to ensure that critical items necessary for the safe operation of aircraft are not overlooked or forgotten. Checklists need not be “do lists.” In other words, the proper actions can be accomplished, and then the checklist used to quickly ensure all necessary tasks or actions have been completed. Emphasis on the “check” in checklist. However, 1-13

Figure 1-15. All student pilots must receive and log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to their first solo flight. checklists are of no value if the pilot is not committed to At a minimum, prepared checklists should be used for the using them. Without discipline and dedication to using the following phases of flight. [Figure 1-18] appropriate checklists at the appropriate times, the odds are on the side of error. Pilots who fail to take the use of • Preflight Inspection checklists seriously become complacent and begin to rely • Before Engine Start solely on memory. • Engine Starting • Before Taxiing The importance of consistent use of checklists cannot be • Before Takeoff overstated in pilot training. A major objective in primary • After Takeoff flight training is to establish habit patterns that will serve • Cruise pilots well throughout their entire flying career. The flight • Descent instructor must promote a positive attitude toward the use of • Before Landing checklists, and the student pilot must realize its importance. • After Landing • Engine Shutdown and Securing Tilt with respect to Turbulent wake horizontal plane Separation point 0° Separation point moves slightly forward 5° Maximum lift Separation point jumps forward 16° Stall angle Separated flow region expands and reduces AFT 20° Large turbulent wake Figure 1-17. Checklists have been the foundation of pilot (reduced lift end large pressure drag) standardization and flight safety for many years. Figure 1-16. Stalls occur when the airfoils angle of attack reaches the critical point which can vary between 16° and 20°. 1-14

Figure 1-18. A sample before landing checklist used by pilots. Positive Transfer of Controls stay on the controls until the instructor says: “I have the flight controls.” There should never be any doubt as to who is During flight training, there must always be a clear flying the airplane at any one time. Numerous accidents have understanding between the student and flight instructor of occurred due to a lack of communication or misunderstanding who has control of the aircraft. Prior to any flight, a briefing as to who actually had control of the aircraft, particularly should be conducted that includes the procedures for the between students and flight instructors. Establishing the exchange of flight controls. The following three-step process above procedure during initial training ensures the formation for the exchange of flight controls is highly recommended. of a very beneficial habit pattern. When a flight instructor wishes the student to take control Chapter Summary of the aircraft, he or she should say to the student, “You have the flight controls.” The student should acknowledge This chapter discussed some of the concepts and goals of immediately by saying, “I have the flight controls.” The flight primary and intermediate flight training. It identified and instructor should then confirm by again saying, “You have provided an explanation of regulatory requirements and the flight controls.” Part of the procedure should be a visual the roles of the various entities involved. It also offered check to ensure that the other person actually has the flight recommended techniques to be practiced and refined to controls. When returning the controls to the flight instructor, develop the knowledge, proficiency, and safe habits of a the student should follow the same procedure the instructor competent pilot. used when giving control to the student. The student should 1-15

1-16

GroundChapter2 Operations Introduction All pilots must ensure that they place a strong emphasis on ground operations as this is where safe flight begins and ends. At no time should a pilot hastily consider ground operations without proper and effective thoroughness. This phase of flight provides the first opportunity for a pilot to safely assess the various factors of flight operations including the regulatory requirements, an evaluation of the airplane’s condition, and the pilot’s readiness for their pilot in command (PIC) responsibilities. 2-1

Flying an airplane presents many new responsibilities that are not required for other forms of transportation. Focus is often overly placed on the flying portion itself with less emphasis placed on ground operations; it must be stressed that a pilot should allow themselves adequate time to properly prepare for flight and maintain effective situational awareness at all times until the airplane is safely and securely returned to its tie-down or hangar. This chapter covers the essential elements for the regulatory Figure 2-2. A visual inspection of the aircraft before flight is an basis of flight including an airplane’s airworthiness important step in mitigating airplane flight hazards. requirements, important inspection items when conducting a preflight visual inspection, managing risk and resources, and be kept accurate and secure but available for inspection. proper and effective airplane surface movements including Airplane logbooks are not required, nor is it advisable, to be the use of the Airplane Flight Manual/Pilot’s Operating kept in the airplane. It should be a matter of procedure by Handbook (AFM/POH) and airplane checklists. the pilot to inspect the airplane logbooks or a summary of the airworthy status prior to flight to ensure that the airplane Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft records of maintenance, alteration, and inspections are current and correct. [Figure 2-4] The following is required: The visual preflight assessment is an important step in mitigating airplane flight hazards. The purpose of the • Annual inspection within the preceding 12-calendar preflight assessment is to ensure that the airplane meets months (Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations regulatory airworthiness standards and is in a safe mechanical (14 CFR) part 91, section 91.409(a)) condition prior to flight. The term “airworthy” means that the aircraft and its component parts meet the airplane’s type • 100-hour inspection, if the aircraft is operated for hire design or is in a properly altered configuration and is in a (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(b)) condition for safe operation. The inspection has two parts and involves the pilot inspecting the airplane’s airworthiness • Transponder certification within the preceding status and a visual preflight inspection of the airplane 24-calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.413) following the AFM/POH to determine the required items for inspection. [Figures 2-1 through 2-3] The owner/operator is • Static system and encoder certification, within the primarily responsible for maintenance, but the pilot is (solely) preceding 24-calendar months, required for instrument responsible for determining the airworthiness (and/or safety) flight rules (IFR) flight in controlled airspace (14 CFR of the airplane for flight. part 91, section 91.411) Each airplane has a set of logbooks that include airframe • 30-day VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) equipment and engine and, in some cases, propeller and appliance check required for IFR flight (14 CFR part 91, section logbooks, which are used to record maintenance, alteration, 91.171) and inspections performed on a specific airframe, engine, propeller, or appliance. It is important that the logbooks • Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) inspection within the last 12 months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(d)) • ELT battery due (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(c)) • Current status of life limited parts per Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417) • Status, compliance, logbook entries for airworthiness directives (ADs) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417(a) (2)(v)) Figure 2-1. Pilots must view the aircraft’s maintenance logbook • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Form 337, prior to flight to ensure the aircraft is safe to fly. Major Repair or Alteration (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417) • Inoperative equipment (14 CFR part 91, section 91.213) 2-2

Figure 2-3. Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM) and the Pilot Operating Visual Preflight Assessment Handbook (POH) for each individual aircraft explain the required The inspection should start with the cabin door. If the door items for inspection. is hard to open or close, does not fit snugly, or the door latches do not engage or disengage smoothly, the surrounding A review determines if the required maintenance and structure, such as the door post, should be inspected for inspections have been performed on the airplane. Any misalignment which could indicate structural damage. The discrepancies must be addressed prior to flight. Once the pilot visual preflight inspection should continue to the interior of has determined that the airplane’s logbooks provide factual the cabin or cockpit where carpeting should be inspected assurance that the aircraft meets its airworthy requirements, to ensure that it is serviceable, dry, and properly affixed; it is appropriate to visually inspect the airplane. The visual seats belts and shoulder harnesses should be inspected to preflight inspection of the airplane should begin while ensure that they are free from fraying, latch properly, and approaching the airplane on the ramp. The pilot should make are securely attached to their mounting fittings; seats should note of the general appearance of the airplane, looking for be inspected to ensure that the seats properly latch into the discrepancies such as misalignment of the landing gear and seat rails through the seat lock pins and that seat rail holes airplane structure. The pilot should also take note of any are not abnormally worn to an oval shape; [Figure 2-5] the distortions of the wings, fuselage, and tail, as well as skin windshield and windows should be inspected to ensure that damage and any staining, dripping, or puddles of fuel or oils. they are clean and free from cracks, and crazing. A dirty, scratched, and/or a severely crazed window can result in It must be determined by the pilot that the following near zero visibility due to light refraction at certain angles documents are, as appropriate, on board, attached, or affixed to from the sun. the airplane: AFM/POH must be the reference for conducting the visual • Original Airworthiness Certificate (14 CFR part 91, preflight inspection, and each manufacturer has a specified section 91.203) sequence for conducting the actions. In general, the following items are likely to be included in the AFM/POH preflight • Original Registration Certificate (14 CFR part 91, inspection: section 91.203) • Master, alternator, and magneto switches are OFF • Radio station license for flights outside the United States or airplanes greater than 12,500 pounds (Federal • Control column locks are REMOVED Communications Commission (FCC) rule) • Landing gear control is DOWN • Operating limitations, which may be in the form of an FAA-approved AFM/POH, placards, instrument • Fuel selectors should be checked for proper operation markings, or any combination thereof (14 CFR part in all positions, including the OFF position. Stiff fuel 91, section 91.9) selectors or where the tank position is not legible or lacking detents are unacceptable. • Official weight and balance • Trim wheels, which include elevator and may include • Compass deviation card (14 CFR part 23, section rudder and aileron, are set for takeoff position. 23.1547) • Avionics master OFF • External data plate (14 CFR part 45, section 45.11) • Circuit breakers checked IN • Flight instruments must read correctly. Airspeed zero; altimeter when properly set to the current barometric setting should indicate the field elevation within 75 feet for IFR flight; the magnetic compass should indicate the airplane’s direction accurately; and the compass correction card should be legible and complete. For conventional wet magnetic compasses, the instrument face must be clear and the instrument case full of fluid. A cloudy instrument face, bubbles in the fluid, or a partially filled case renders the compass unusable. The vertical speed indictor (VSI) should read zero. If the VSI does not show a zero reading, a small screwdriver can be used to zero the instrument. 2-3

Airplane Airworthiness CheckAiOrOpRrairgOaliigAaridPnppiiOninralelCoAapaaEflrefnolclSaaAixicaemRArttntii1iDearsranpnVeepdw0rtAlgngginasOSol0oFoWlauir,astLstnreRlichaaimisltitnegnamhrotL—Dluia—ihsDetigceuineicatttttmhe3riraeerSe1otMu—tva0Itsrtn2nymni—hiaeoasassPDNanmCnnestentCl2iaeendasuoneop4fytexm,tantro1BnesttrwemlNmri2ttCafDaiha(ihffc,eclFaoil5nasnauciiaxgrctnA:0drsneakttidhhtC0/eRmctiohEDonHete(msuspr(gonFnu4oF(:rooPsnacFeAr5bDAseu,uotyiA.bRhl71nRnouotdsRsbs-1tdrete23i’:e9d3)Dssar390D1—1e2inuO.1(-n-.u14F2y3e2t.2phe525t0C10hc41ee40.1-317oCe22r731m)aU-m0-))3fR3toon1ib1n1runi3i-mtgn-e2lte2had0H)0ost1i1:aSfo32DanntanduttbheeFoesA1oroe-Ak3ro-1(afA-p(2FFp0MAr1oR/3vPe9Od1H.9),)RVeFARqTlOtua(MiDAmiclTiahiOartereFensoyeLtimmiuleAp)mfaMd-VoperepnEFnpelSrlFedaetdeeALtiLEaFdR-gerirsTpRLCenaafnurAsIqeIravgtNFPotn(eseufu9nSutEneouRlydeotisrGrl1trgidloGriexeicisesss—-Bci.Ihiuecec2iuinnpeaGtGoCtgeeraaoi0rd—gnFoctnmaelporaaocl5tieelnAcsLuithmuPurLFbsgraRigaolagegwiigaoaieopgtgesfteoehrsunrona9hhritag1ttttieon Figure 2-4. A sample airworthiness checklist used by pilots to inspect an aircraft. The VSI is the only flight instrument that a pilot has • If the airplane has retractable gear, landing gear down the prerogative to adjust. All others must be adjusted and locked lights are checked green. by an FAA-certificated repairman or mechanic. • Mechanical air-driven gyro instruments must be • Check the landing gear switch is DOWN, then turn the inspected for signs of hazing on the instrument face, master switch to the ON position and fuel qualities must which may indicate leaks. be noted on the fuel quantity gauges and compared to a visual inspection of the tank level. If so equipped, fuel Ensure that seats properly latch into the seat rails pumps may be placed in the ON position to verify fuel through the seat lock pins and that seat rail holes pressure in the proper operating range. are not abnormally worn to an oval shape. • Other items may include checking that lights for both the interior and exterior airplane positions are operating and any annunciator panel checks. Figure 2-5. Seats should be inspected to ensure that they are Advanced avionics aircraft have specific requirements for properly latched into the seat rails and checked for damage. testing Integrated Flight Deck (IFD) “glass-panel” avionics and supporting systems prior to flight. IFD’s are complex electronic systems typically integrating flight control, navigation and communication, weather, terrain, and traffic subsystems with the purpose to enhance a pilot’s situational awareness (SA), aeronautical decision-making (ADM), and single-pilot resource management (SRM) capability. Ground- based inspections may include verification that the flight 2-4

deck reference guide is in the aircraft and assessable, system Figure 2-7. Example of rivet heads where black oxide film has driven removal of “Xs” over engine indicators, pitot/static formed due to the rivet becoming loose in its hole. and attitude displays, testing of low level alarms, annunciator panels, setting of fuel levels, and verification that the avionics these areas as load-related stresses are concentrated along cooling fans, if equipped, are functional. [Figure 2-6] The spar lines and attach points. Spar lines are lateral rivet lines AFM/POH specifies how these preflight inspections are to that extend from one side of the wing to the other, horizontal take place. Since an advanced avionics aircraft preflight stabilizer, or vertical stabilizer. Pilots should pay close checklist may be extensive, pilots should allow extra time for attention to spar lines looking for distortion, ripples, bubbles, these aircraft to ensure that all items are properly addressed. dents, creases, or waves as any structural deformity may be an indication of internal damage or failure. Inspect around Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section rivet heads looking for cracked paint or a black-oxide film Generally, the AFM/POH specifies a sequence for the pilot that forms when a rivet works free in its hole. [Figure 2-7] to inspect the aircraft which may sequence from the cabin entry access opening and then in a counterclockwise direction Additional areas that should be scrutinized are the leading until the aircraft has been completely inspected. Besides the edges of the wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer. These AFM/POH preflight assessment, the pilot must also develop areas may be impact damaged by rocks, ice, birds, and or awareness for potential areas of concern, such as signs of deterioration or distortion of the structure, whether metal or composite, as well as loose or missing rivets or screws. Besides all items specified in the AFM/POH that must be inspected, the pilot should also develop an awareness for critical areas, such as spar lines, wing, horizontal, and vertical attach points including wing struts and landing gear attachment areas. The airplane skin should be inspected in NAV1 KDRO KFMN DIS 16.3 NM BRG 212° COM1 NAV2 COM2 GPS AP ALT 7680FT E 6500 A ATTITUDE FAIL V I AE RF HDG LR SA T F TF PI IA A EL T I SI E U L PL D DE EE TAS D A212IHDG UP HDG 220° CRS 212° 0 GPS TERM D195I D212I 10 NM OAT 0°C XPDR UTC 19:24:36 ADF/DME MSG Figure 2-6. Ground-based inspections include verification that “Xs” on the instrument display are displayed until the sensor activates. 2-5

hangar rash incidents—dents and dings may render the is sometimes difficult to identify unless a fuel sample is held structure unairworthy. Some leading edge surfaces have up against a white background in reasonable white lighting. aerodynamic devices, such as stall fences, slots, or vortex generators, and deicing equipment, such as weeping wings Aircraft piston engines certificated for grade 80/87 run and boots. If these items exist on the airplane which the pilot satisfactorily on 100LL if approved as an alternate. The intends to fly, knowledge of an acceptable level of proper reverse is not true. Fuel of a lower grade should never be condition must be gained so that an adequate preflight substituted for a required higher grade. Detonation will inspection may take place. severely damage the engine in a very short period of time. Detonation, as the name suggests, is an explosion of the On metal airplanes, wingtips, fairings, and non-structural fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder. During detonation, the covers may be fabricated out of thin fiberglass or plastic. fuel/air charge (or pockets within the charge) explodes rather These items are frequently affected by cracks radiating from than burning smoothly. Because of this explosion, the charge screw holes or concentrated radiuses. Often, if any of these exerts a much higher force on the piston and cylinder, leading items are cracked, it is practice to “stop-drill” the crack to to increased noise, vibration, and cylinder head temperatures. prevent crack progression. [Figure 2-8] Extra care should be The violence of detonation also causes a reduction in exercised to ensure that these devices are in good condition power. Mild detonation may increase engine wear, though without cracks that may render them unairworthy. Cracks some engines can operate with mild detonation regularly. that have continued beyond a stop drilled location or any new However, severe detonation can cause engine failure in adjacent cracks that have formed may lead to in-flight failure. minutes. Because of the noise that it makes, detonation is called \"engine knock\" or \"pinging\" in cars. Inspecting composite airplanes can be more challenging as the airplanes generally have no rivets or screws to aid the pilot When approved for the specific airplane to be flown, in identifying spar lines and wing attach points; however, automobile gasoline is sometimes used as a substitute fuel delamination of spar to skin or other structural problems may in certain airplanes. Its use is acceptable only when the be identified by bubbles, fine hair-line cracks, or changes in particular airplane has been issued a Supplemental Type sound when gently tapping on the structure with a fingertip. Certificate (STC) to both the airframe and engine. Anything out of place should be addressed by discussing the issue with a properly rated aircraft mechanic. Jet fuel is a kerosene-based fuel for turbine engines and a new generation of diesel-powered airplanes. Jet fuel has a Fuel and Oil stubborn, distinctive, non-gasoline odor and is oily to the While there are various formulations of aviation gasoline touch. Jet fuel is clear or straw colored, although it may (AVGAS), only three grades are conventional: 80/87, appear dyed when mixed with AVGAS. Jet fuel has disastrous 100LL, and 100/130. 100LL is the most widely available consequences when introduced into AVGAS burning in the United States. AVGAS is dyed with a faint color reciprocating airplane engines. A reciprocating engine for grade identification: 80/87 is dyed red; 100LL is dyed operating on jet fuel may start, run, and power the airplane blue; and 100/130 is dyed green. All AVGAS grades have a for a time long enough for the airplane to become airborne familiar gasoline scent and texture. 100LL with its blue dye only to have the engine fail catastrophically after takeoff. Jet fuel refueling trucks and dispensing equipment are marked with JET-A placards in white characters on a black background. Because of the dire consequences associated with misfueling, fuel nozzles are specific to the type of fuel. AVGAS fuel filler nozzles are straight with a constant diameter. [Figure 2-9] However, jet fuel filler nozzles are flared at the end to prevent insertion into AVGAS fuel tanks. [Figure 2-10] Figure 2-8. Cracks radiating from screw holes that have been stop- Using the proper, approved grade of fuel is critical for safe, drilled to prevent crack progression. reliable engine operation. Without the proper fuel quantity, grade, and quality, the engine(s) will likely cease to operate. Therefore, it is imperative that the pilot visually verify that the airplane has the correct quantity for the intended flight plus adequate and legal reserves, as well as inspect that the fuel is of the proper grade and that the quality of the fuel is 2-6

Figure 2-9. An AVGAS fuel filler nozzle is straight with a constant Figure 2-11. Evidence of fuel leakage can be found along rivet lines. diameter. fuel system from deteriorated gas cap seals exposed to rain acceptable. The pilot should always ensure that the fuel caps or from the supplier’s storage tanks and delivery vehicles. have been securely replaced following each fueling. Sediment contamination can arise from dust and dirt entering the tanks during refueling or from deteriorating rubber fuel Many airplanes are very sensitive to its attitude when tanks or tank sealant. Deteriorating rubber from seals and attempting to fuel for maximum capacity. Nosewheel or main sealant may show up in the fuel sample as small dark specks. landing gear strut extension, both high as well as low, and the slope of the ramp can significantly alter the attitude of The best preventive measure is to minimize the opportunity the aircraft and therefore the fuel capacity. Always positively for water to condense in the tanks. If possible, the fuel tanks confirm the fuel quantity indicated on the fuel gauges by should be completely filled with the proper grade of fuel visually inspecting the level of each tank. after each flight, or at least filled after the last flight of the day. The more fuel that is in the tanks, the less room inside The pilot should be aware that fuel stains anywhere on the the tank exists for condensation to occur. Keeping fuel tanks wing or any location where a fuel tank is mounted warrants filled is also the best way to slow the aging of rubber fuel further investigation—no matter how old the stains appear tanks and tank sealant. to be. Fuel stains are a sign of probable fuel leakage. On airplanes equipped with wet-wing fuel tanks, evidence of Sufficient fuel should be drained from the fuel strainer quick fuel leakage can be found along rivet lines. [Figure 2-11] drain and from each fuel tank sump to check for fuel grade/ color, water, dirt, and odor. If water is present, it is usually Checking for water and other sediment contamination is a key in bubble or bead-like droplets, different in color (usually preflight item. Water tends to accumulate in fuel tanks from clear, sometimes muddy yellow to brown with specks of condensation, particularly in partially filled tanks. Because dirt), in the bottom of the sample jar. In extreme water water is heavier than fuel, it tends to collect in the low points contamination cases, consider the possibility that the entire of the fuel system. Water can also be introduced into the fuel sample, particularly if a small sample was taken, is water. If water is found in the first fuel sample, continue sampling until no water and contamination appears. Significant and/ or consistent water, sediment or contaminations are grounds for further investigation by qualified maintenance personnel. Each fuel tank sump should be drained during preflight and after refueling. The order of sumping the fuel system is often very important. Check the AFM/POH for specific procedures and order to be followed. Figure 2-10. A jet fuel filler nozzle is flared at the end to prevent Checking the fuel tank vent is an important part of a preflight an inadvertent insertion into an AVGAS fuel tank. assessment. If outside air is unable to enter the tank as fuel is drawn into the engine, the eventual result is fuel starvation 2-7

and engine failure. During the preflight assessment, the pilot environment in a precise and controlled manner. The landing should look for signs of vent damage and blockage. Some gear, tires, and brakes must be inspected to ensure that the airplanes utilize vented fuel caps, fuel vent tubes, or recessed airplane can be positively controlled on the ground. Landing areas under the wings where vents are located. The pilot gear on airplanes varies from simple fixed gear to complex should use a flashlight to look at the fuel vent to ensure that retractable gear systems. it is free from damage and clear of obstructions. If there is a rush of air when the fuel tank cap is cracked, there could be Fixed landing gear is a gear system in which the landing a serious problem with the vent system. gear struts, tires, and brakes are exposed and lend themselves to relatively simple inspection. However, more complex Aviation oils are available in various single/multi-grades airplanes may have retractable landing gear with multiple and mineral/synthetic-based formulations. It is important to tires per landing gear strut, landing gear doors, over-center always use the approved and recommended oil for the engine. locks, springs, and electrical squat switches. Regardless of The oil not only acts as a lubricant but also as a medium to the system, it is imperative that the pilot follow the AFM/ transfer heat as a result of engine operation and to suspend POH in inspecting that the landing gear is ready for operation. dirt, combustion byproducts, and wear particles between oil changes. Therefore, the proper level of oil is required to On many fixed-gear airplanes, inspection of the landing gear ensure lubrication, effective heat transfer, and the suspension system can be hindered by wheel pants, which are covers used of various contaminators. The oil level should be checked to reduce aerodynamic drag. It is still the pilot’s responsibility during each preflight, rechecked with each refueling, and to inspect the airplane properly. A flashlight helps the pilot in maintained to not have the oil level fall below the minimum peering into covered areas. On low-wing airplanes, covered required during engine operation. or retraceable landing gear presents additional effort required to crouch below the wing to properly inspect the landing gear. During the preflight assessment, if the engine is cold, oil levels on the oil dipstick show higher levels than if the The following provides guidelines for inspecting the landing engine was warm and recently shutdown after a flight. When gear system; however, the AFM/POH must be the pilot’s removing the oil dipstick, care should be taken to keep the reference for the appropriate procedures. dipstick from coming in contact with dirty or grimy areas. The dipstick should be inspected to verify the oil level. Typically, • The pilot, when approaching the airplane, should look piston airplane engines have oil reservoirs with capacities at the landing gear struts and the adjacent ground for between four and eight quarts, with six quarts being common. leaking hydraulic fluid that may be coming from struts, Besides the level of oil, the oil’s color provides an insight hydraulic lines from landing gear retraction pumps, as to its operating condition. Oils darken in color as the oil or from the braking system. Landing gear should be operating hours increase—this is common and expected relatively free from grease, oil, and fluid without as the oil traps contaminators; however, oils that rapidly any undue amounts. Any amount of leaking fluid is darken in the first few hours of use after an oil change may unacceptable. In addition, an overview of the landing indicate engine cylinder problems. Piston airplane engines gear provides an opportunity to verify landing gear consume a small amount of oil during normal operation. The alignment and height consistency. amount of consumption varies on many factors; however, if consumption increases or suddenly changes, qualified • All landing gear shock struts should also be checked maintenance personnel should investigate. to ensure that they are properly inflated, clean, and free from hydraulic fluid and damage. All axles, It is suggested that the critical aspect of fuel and oil not be links, collars, over-center locks, push rods, forks, and left to line service personnel without oversight of the pilot fasteners should be inspected to ensure that they are responsible for flight. While line personnel are aviation free from cracks, corrosion, rust, and determined to professionals, it is the pilot who is responsible for the safe be airworthy. outcome of their flight. During refueling or when oil is added to an engine, the pilot must monitor and ensure that the correct • Tires should be inspected for proper inflation, an quantity, quality, and grade of fuel and oil is added and that acceptable level of remaining tread, and normal wear all fuel and oil caps have been securely replaced. pattern. Abnormal wear patterns, sidewall cracks, and damage, such as cuts, bulges, imbedded foreign Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes objects, and visible cords, render the tire unairworthy. The landing gear, tires, and brakes allow the airplane to maneuver from and return to the ramp, taxiway, and runway • Wheel hubs should be inspected to ensure that they are free from cracks, corrosion, and rust, that all fasteners are secure, and that the air valve stem is straight, capped, and in good condition. 2-8

• Brakes and brake systems should be checked to ensure rivets and other fasteners as this may be a sign of a lack of that they are free from rust and corrosion and that security. Any cowling security issues must be referred to a all fasteners and safety wires are secure. Brake pads competent and rated airplane maintenance mechanic. should have a proper amount of material remaining and should be secure. All brake lines should be secure, From the cowling, a general inspection of the propeller dry, and free of signs of hydraulic leaks, and devoid spinner, if so equipped, should be completed. Not all airplane/ of abrasions and deep cracking. propeller combinations have a spinner, so adherence to the AFM/POH checklist is required. Spinners are subjected to • On tricycle gear airplanes, a shimmy damper is used great stresses and should be inspected to be free from dents, to damp oscillations of the nose gear and must be cracks, corrosion, and in proper alignment. Cracks may not inspected to ensure that they are securely attached, only occur at locations where fasteners are used but also on are free of hydraulic fluid leaks, and are in overall the rear facing spinner plate. In conditions where ice or snow good condition. Some shimmy dampeners do not may have entered the spinner around the propeller openings, use hydraulic fluid and instead use an elastomeric the pilot should inspect the area to ensure that the spinner compound as the dampening medium. Nose gear links, is internally free from ice. The engine/propeller/spinner is collars, steering rods, and forks should be inspected balanced around the crankshaft and a small amount of ice to ensure the security of fasteners, minimal free play or snow can produce damaging vibrations. Cracks, missing between torque links, crack-free components, and for fasteners, or dents results in a spinner that is unairworthy. proper servicing and general condition. The propeller should be checked for blade erosion, nicks, • On some conventional gear airplanes, those airplanes cracks, pitting, corrosion, and security. On controllable pitch with a tailwheel or skid, the main landing gear may propellers, the propeller hub should be checked for oil leaks have bungee cords to help in absorbing landing loads that tend to stream directionally from the propeller hub toward and shocks. The bungee cords must be inspected for the tip. On airplanes so equipped, the alternator/generator drive security and condition. belts should be checked for proper tension and signs of wear. • Where the landing gear transitions into the airplane’s When inspecting inside the cowling, the pilot should look for structure, the pilot should inspect the attachment signs of fuel dye, which may indicate a fuel leak. The pilot points and the airplane skin in the adjacent area—the should check for oil leaks, deterioration of oil and hydraulic pilot needs to inspect for wrinkled or other damaged lines, and to make certain that the oil cap, filter, oil cooler, skin, loose bolts, and rivets and verify that the area is and drain plug are secure. This may be difficult to inspect free from corrosion. without the aid of a flashlight, so even during day operations, a flashlight is handy when peering into the cowling. The Engine and Propeller inside of the cowling should be inspected for oil or fuel stains. Properly managing the risks associated with flying requires The pilot should also check for loose or foreign objects inside that the pilot of the airplane identify and mitigate any the cowling, such as bird nests, shop rags, and/or tools. All potential hazards prior to flight to prevent, to the furthest visible wires and lines should be checked for security and extent possible, a hazard becoming a realized risk. The condition. The exhaust system should be checked for white engine and propeller make up the propulsion system of the stains caused by exhaust leaks at the cylinder head or cracks airplane—failure of this critical system requires a well- in the exhaust stacks. The heat muffs, which provide cabin trained and competent pilot to respond with significant time heating on some airplanes, should also be checked for general constraints to what is likely to become a major emergency. condition and signs of cracks or leaks. The pilot must ensure that the engine, propeller, and associated The air filter should be checked to ensure that it is free from systems are functioning properly prior to operation. This starts substantial dirt or restrictions, such as bugs, birds, or other with an overview of the cowling that surrounds the airplane’s causes of airflow restrictions. In addition, air filters elements engines looking for loose, worn, missing, or damaged are made from various materials and, in all cases, the element fasteners, rivets, and latches that secure the cowling around should be free from decomposition and properly serviced. the engine and to the airframe. The pilot should be vigilant as fasteners and rivets can be numerous and surround the cowling Risk and Resource Management requiring a visual inspection from above, the sides, and the bottom to ensure that all areas have been inspected. Like other Ground operations also include the pilot’s assessment of the areas on the airframe, rivets should be closely inspected for risk factors that contribute to safety of flight and the pilot’s looseness by looking for signs of a black oxide film around management of the resources, which may be leveraged to the rivet head. Pay attention to chipped or flaking paint around 2-9

maximize the flight’s successes. The Risk Management may encounter inadvertent instrument conditions, loss Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2) should be reviewed for a of airplane control may result. comprehensive discussion of this topic, but presented below are a summary of key points. • If the pilot’s lack of training is not properly assessed, the pilot may be placed in flight regimes that exceed Approximately 85 percent of all aviation accidents have been the pilot’s stick and rudder capability. determined by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to have been caused by “failure of the pilot to...” Risk Assessment As such, a reduction of these failures is the fundamental Risk assessment determines the degree of risk and whether cornerstone to risk and resource management. The risks the degree of risk is worth the outcome of the planned activity. involved with flying an airplane are very different from Once the planned activity is started, the pilot must consider those experienced in daily activities, such as driving to whether or not to continue. A pilot must always have viable work. Managing risks and resources requires a conscious alternatives available in the event the original flight plan effort that goes beyond the stick and rudder skills required cannot be accomplished. Thus, hazard and risk are the two to pilot the airplane. defining elements of risk management. A hazard can be a real or perceived condition, event, or circumstance that a pilot Risk Management encounters. Risk assessment is a quantitative value weighted Risk management is a formalized structured process for to a task, action, or event. When armed with the predicted identifying and mitigating hazards and assessing the risk assessment of an activity, pilots are able to manage and consequences and benefits of the accepted risk. A hazard is mitigate their risk. a condition, event, object, or circumstance that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesired event, such as an In the example where marginal weather is the identified incident or accident. It is a source of potential danger. Some hazard, it is relatively simple to understand that the risk examples of hazards are: associated with flight and that the consequences of loss of control in inadvertent meteorological conditions (IMC) • Marginal weather or environmental conditions are likely to be severe for a pilot without certification, proficiency, competency, and currency in instrument flight. • Lack of pilot qualification, currency, or proficiency A risk assessment in this example would determine that for the intended flight the risk is unacceptable and as a result, mitigation of the risk is required. Proper risk mitigation would require that Identifying the Hazard flight be cancelled or delayed until weather conditions Hazard identification is the critical first step of the risk were not conducive for inadvertent flight into instrument management process. If pilots do not recognize and properly meteorological conditions. identify a hazard and choose to continue, the consequences of the risk involved is not managed or mitigated. In the Risk Identification previous examples, the hazard identification process results Identifying hazards and associated risk is key to preventing in the following assessment: risk and accidents. If a pilot fails to search for risk, it is likely that he or she will neither see it nor appreciate it for what • Marginal weather or environmental conditions is it represents. Unfortunately, in aviation, pilots seldom have an identified hazard because it may result in the the opportunity to learn from their small errors in judgment pilot having a skill level that is not adequate for because even small mistakes in aviation are often fatal. In managing the weather conditions or requiring airplane order to identify risk, the use of standard procedures is of performance that is unavailable. great assistance. Several procedures are discussed in detail in the Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2). • The lack of pilot training is an identified hazard because the pilot does not have experience to either Risk Mitigation meet the legal requirements or the minimum necessary Risk assessment is only part of the equation. After skills to safely conduct the flight. determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to mitigate the risk. For example, the VFR pilot flying from point A to point Risk B (50 miles) in marginal flight conditions has several ways Risk is the future impact of a hazard that is not controlled to reduce risk: or eliminated. It can be viewed as future uncertainty created by the hazard. • Wait for the weather to improve to good VFR conditions. • If the weather or environmental conditions are not properly assessed, such as in a case where an airplane 2-10

• Take a pilot who is more experienced or who is thereby reducing situational awareness and leading to certified as an instrument flight rules (IFR) pilot. complacency. Information from these systems needs to be continually monitored to ensure proper situational awareness. • Delay the flight. It is essential that pilots be aware not only of equipment • Cancel the flight. capabilities, but also equipment limitations in order to • Drive. manage those systems effectively and safely. Resource Management Information workloads and automated systems, such as Crew resource management (CRM) and single-pilot resource autopilots, need to be properly managed to ensure a safe management (SRM) is the ability for the crew or pilot to flight. The pilot who effectively manages his or her workload manage all available resources effectively to ensure that the completes as many of these tasks as early as possible to outcome of the flight is successful. In general aviation, SRM preclude the possibility of becoming overloaded by last is more often than CRM. The focus of SRM is on the single- minute changes and communication priorities in the later, pilot operation. SRM integrates the following: more critical stages of the approach. Routine tasks delayed until the last minute can contribute to the pilot becoming • Situational Awareness overloaded and stressed, resulting in erosion of performance. By planning ahead, a pilot can effectively reduce workload • Human Resource Management during critical phases of flight. • Task Management Task Management Pilots have a limited capacity for information. Once • Aeronautical Decision-making (ADM) information flow exceeds the pilot’s ability to mentally process the information, any additional information becomes Situational Awareness unattended or displaces other tasks and information already Situational awareness is the accurate perception of being processed. For example, do not become distracted operational and environmental factors that affect the flight. and fixate on an instrument light failure. This unnecessary It is a logical analysis based upon the airplane, external focus displaces capability and prevents the pilot’s ability to support, environment, and the pilot. It is awareness on what appreciate tasks of greater importance. is happening in and around the flight. Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) Human Resource Management Flying safely requires the effective integration of three Human Resource Management requires an effective use of separate sets of skills: stick-and rudder skills needed to all available resources: human, equipment, and information. control the airplane; skills related to proficient operation of aircraft systems; and ADM skills. The ADM process Human resources include the essential personnel routinely addresses all aspects of decision-making in the flight deck working with the pilot to ensure safety of flight. These and identifies the steps involved in good decision-making. people include, but are not limited to: weather briefers, While the ADM process does not eliminate errors, it helps flight line personnel, maintenance personnel, crew members, the pilot recognize errors and enables the pilot to manage the pilots, and air traffic personnel. Pilots need to effectively error to minimize its effects. These steps are: communicate with these people. This is accomplished by using the key components of the communication process: • Identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight; inquiry, advocacy, and assertion. Pilots must recognize the need to seek enough information from these resources to • Learning behavior modification techniques; make a valid decision. After the necessary information has been gathered, the pilot’s decision must be passed on to those • Learning how to recognize and cope with stress; concerned, such as air traffic controllers, crew members, and passengers. The pilot may have to request assistance from • Developing risk assessment skills; others and be assertive to safely resolve some situations. • Using all resources; and Equipment in many of today’s aircraft includes automated flight and navigation systems. These automatic systems, • Evaluating the effectiveness of one’s own personal while providing relief from many routine cabin or cockpit ADM skills. tasks, present a different set of problems for pilots. The automation intended to reduce pilot workload essentially Ground Operations removes the pilot from the process of managing the aircraft, The airport ramp can be a complex environment with airport personnel, passengers, trucks and other vehicles, airplanes, 2-11

helicopters, and errant animals. The pilot is responsible Stop Come ahead Emergency stop for the operation of their airplane and must operate safely Cut engines at all times. Ground operations provide unique hazards, All clear (O.K.) Left turn and mitigating those hazards requires proper planning and situational awareness at all times in the ground environment. A fundamental ground operation mitigation tactic is for the pilot to always have reviewed the airport diagram prior to operating and have it readily available at all times. Whether departing to or from the ramp, the pilot must maintain a high level of awareness that requires preparation to maximize safety. This includes being familiar and competent with the following: • Refueling operations • Passenger and baggage security and loading • Ramp and taxi operations • Standard ramp signals During refueling operations, it is advisable that the pilot remove all passengers from aircraft during fueling operations and witness the refueling to ensure that the correct fuel and quantity is dispensed into the airplane and that any caps and cowls are properly secured after refueling. Passengers may have little experience with the open ramp of Start engine Pull chocks Insert Chocks an airport. The pilot must ensure the safety of their passengers by only allowing them to undertake freedoms for which they NIGHT OPERATION have been given direction by the pilot. At no time should passengers be allowed to roam the ramp without an escort to ensure their safety and ramp security. Baggage loading and security should be directly supervised by the pilot. Unsecured baggage or improperly loaded baggage may adversely affect the center of gravity of the airplane. Ramp traffic may vary from a deserted open space to a Slow down Right turn Same hand complex environment with heavy corporate or military movements as aircraft. Powerful aircraft may produce an environment, from day operations exhaust blast or rotor downwash, which could easily cause a light airplane to become uncontrollable. Mitigating these light Figure 2-12. Standard hand signals used to assist pilots in managing airplane hazards is important to starting off on a safe flight. a safe departure from the ramp to the taxiway or runway. Some ramps may be staffed by personnel to assist the Prior to engine start, the pilot must ensure that the ramp area pilot in managing a safe departure from the ramp to the surrounding the airplane is clear of persons, equipment, and taxiway. These personnel use standard hand signals and the other hazards from coming into contact with the airplane pilot should be familiar with the meaning of those signals. or the propeller. Also, an awareness of what is behind the [Figure 2-12] airplane prior to engine start is standard practice. A propeller or other engine thrust can produce substantial velocities, result Engine Starting in damage to property, and injure those on the ground. The hazard of debris being blown into persons or property must Airplane engines vary substantially and specific procedures be mitigated by the pilot. At all times before engine start, the for engine starting must be accomplished in reference to anti-collision lights should be turned on. For night operations, approved engine start checklist as detailed in the airplane’s AFM/POH. However, some generally accepted hazard mitigation practices and procedures are outlined. 2-12

the position (navigation) lights should also be on. Finally, necessary to “hand prop” an aircraft for starting. Hand just prior to starter engagement, the pilot should always call propping an aircraft is a hazardous procedure when done “CLEAR” out of the side window and wait for a response perfectly. The consequences of not mitigating the hazards from anyone who may be nearby before engaging the starter. associated with hand propping can lead to serious injury, fatalities, and runaway airplanes. All alternatives must be When activating the starter, the wheel brakes must be depressed considered prior to hand propping an aircraft and, when a and one hand is to be kept on the throttle to manage the initial decision is made to do so, the procedure must be carried starting engine speed. Ensuring that properly operating brakes out only by competent persons who have been trained to are engaged prior to starter engagement prevents the airplane accomplish the procedure, understand how to mitigate the from rapidly lunging forward. After engine start, the pilot hazards, and take all the necessary precautions. manipulates the throttle to set the engine revolutions per minute (rpm) at the AFM/POH prescribed setting. In general, Even though today most airplanes are equipped with 1,000 rpm is recommended following engine start to allow electric starters, it is still helpful if a pilot is familiar with oil pressure to rise and minimize undue engine wear due to the procedures and dangers involved in starting an aircraft insufficient lubrication at high rpm. It is important in low engine by turning the propeller by hand; however, a person temperatures that an airplane engine use the proper grade of unfamiliar with the controls must never be allowed to occupy oil for the operating temperature range and engine preheat the pilot’s seat when hand propping. when temperatures approach and descend below freezing. It is critical that the procedure never be attempted alone. Hand The oil pressure must be monitored after engine start to ensure propping should only be attempted when two properly trained that pressure is increasing toward the AFM/POH specified people, both familiar and experienced with the airplane value. The AFM/POH specifies an oil pressure range for and hand propping techniques, are available to perform the the engine, if the limits are not reached and maintained, procedure. The first person is responsible for directing the serious internal engine damage is likely. In most conditions, procedure including pulling the propeller blades through. oil pressure should rise to at least the lower limit within 30 The second person must be seated in the airplane to ensure seconds. To prevent damage, the engine should be shut down that the brakes are set, and controls are properly exercised, immediately if the oil pressure does not rise to the AFM/POH and to follow direction of the person pulling the propeller. values within the required time. When hand propping is necessary, the ground surface near the Engine starters are electric motors designed to produce rapid propeller should be stable and free of debris—loose gravel, rotation of the engine crankshaft for starting. These electric wet grass, mud, oil, ice, or snow might cause the person motors are not designed for continuous duty and should the pulling the propeller through to slip into the rotating blades as engine not start readily, avoid continuous starter operation for the engine starts. Unless a firm footing is available, relocate periods longer than 30 seconds without a cool down period the airplane to mitigate this dire consequences hazard. of at least 30 seconds to 1 minute (some AFM/POH specify times greater than these given). Engine starter motors service Both participants should discuss the procedure and agree on life is drastically shortened from high heat through overuse. voice commands and expected action. To begin the procedure, the fuel system and engine controls (tank selector, primer, Although quite rare, the starter motor may remain electrically pump, throttle, and mixture) are set for a normal start. The and mechanically engaged after engine start. This can be ignition/magneto switch should be checked to be sure that it detected by a continuous and very high current draw on the is OFF. Then the descending propeller blade should be rotated ammeter. Some airplanes also have a starter engaged warning so that it assumes a position slightly above the horizontal. The light specifically for this purpose. The engine should be shut person doing the hand propping should face the descending down immediately if this occurs. blade squarely and stand slightly less than one arm’s length from the blade. If a stance too far away were assumed, The pilot should be attentive for sounds, vibrations, smell, it would be necessary to lean forward in an unbalanced or smoke that are not consistent with normal operational condition to reach the blade, which may cause the person to experience. Any concerns should lead to a shutdown and fall forward into the rotating blades when the engine starts. further investigation. The procedure and commands for hand propping are: Hand Propping • Person out front says, “GAS ON, SWITCH OFF, A spinning propeller can be lethal should it strike someone. THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.” Historically, when aircraft lacked electrical systems, it was 2-13

• Pilot seat occupant, after making sure the fuel is ON, An essential requirement in conducting safe taxi operations mixture is RICH, magneto switch is OFF, throttle is where the pilot maintains situational awareness of the is CLOSED, and brakes are SET, says, “GAS ON, ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES the persons, equipment and aircraft at all times. Without SET.” such awareness, safety may be compromised. Depending on the airport, parking, ramp, and taxiways may or may not be • Person out front, after pulling the propeller through to controlled. As such, it is important that the pilot completely prime the engine says, “BRAKES AND CONTACT.” understand the environment in which they are operating. At small, rural airports these areas may be desolate with few • Pilot seat occupant checks the brakes SET and turns aircraft which limits the potential hazards; however, as the the magnetos switch ON, then says, “BRAKES AND complexity of the airport increases so does the potential CONTACT.” for hazards. Regardless of the complexity, some generally accepted procedures are appropriate. The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward rapidly, pushing with the palms of both hands. If the blade • The pilot should make themselves familiar with the is gripped tightly with the fingers, the person’s body may be parking, ramp, and taxi environment. This can be done drawn into the propeller blades should the engine misfire and by having an airport diagram, if available, out and in rotate momentarily in the opposite direction. As the blade is view at all times. [Figure 2-13] pushed down, the person should step backward, away from the propeller. If the engine does not start, the propeller should • The pilot must be vigilant of the entire area around not be repositioned for another attempt until it is verified that the airplane to ensure that the airplane clears all the magneto switch is turned OFF. obstructions. If, at any time, there is doubt about a safe clearance from an object, the pilot should stop the The words CONTACT (magnetos ON) and SWITCH OFF airplane and check the clearance. It may be necessary (magnetos OFF) are used because they are significantly to have the airplane towed or physically moved by a different from each other. Under noisy conditions or high ground crew. winds, the words CONTACT and SWITCH OFF are less likely to be misunderstood than SWITCH ON and SWITCH OFF. • When taxiing, the pilot’s eyes should be looking outside the airplane scanning from side to side while When removing the wheel chocks or untying the tail after the looking both near and far to assess routing and engine starts, it is critical that everyone involved remember potential conflicts. that the propeller is nearly invisible. Serious injuries and fatalities have occurred when people who have just started • A safe taxiing speed must be maintained. The primary an engine walk or reach into the propeller arc to remove the requirements for safe taxiing are positive control, the chocks, reach the cabin, or in an attempt to reach the tail ability to recognize any potential hazards in time to of the airplane. Before the wheel chocks are removed, the avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn where and throttle should be set to idle and the chocks approached only when desired, without undue reliance on the brakes. from the rear of the propeller. One should never approach Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed on congested the wheel chocks from the front or the side. or busy ramps. Normally, the speed should be at the rate where movement of the airplane is dependent on The procedures for hand propping should always be in the throttle. That is, slow enough so when the throttle accordance with the AFM/POH and only accomplished is closed, the airplane can be stopped promptly. if no alternatives are available, and then only by persons who are competent with hand propping procedures. The • The pilot should accurately place the aircraft centered consequences of the hazards associated with hand propping on the taxiway at all times. Some taxiways have above are serious to fatal. ground taxi lights and signage that could impact the airplane or propellers if the pilot does not exercise Taxiing accurate control. When yellow taxiway centerline stripes are marked, this is more easily accomplished Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its by the pilot visually placing the centerline stripe so it own power while on the surface. Since an airplane is moved is under the center of the airplane fuselage. under its own power between a parking area and the runway, the pilot must thoroughly understand and be proficient in • When taxiing, the pilot must slow down before taxi procedures. attempting a turn. Sharp high-speed turns place undesirable side loads on the landing gear and may 2-14

SW-2, 12 JAN 2012 to 09 FEB 2012 SW-2, 12 JAN 2012 to 09 FEB 2012 Figure 2-13. Airport Diagram of Monterey Peninsula (MRY), Monterey, California. 2-15

result in tire damage or an uncontrollable swerve Wind Wind or a ground loop. Swerves are most likely to occur when turning from a downwind heading toward an Use up aileron on Use up aileron on upwind heading. In moderate to high-wind conditions, left-hand wing and right-hand wing and the airplane may weathervane increasing the swerving tendency. neutral elevator neutral elevator Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals and brakes. To Use down aileron Use down aileron turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot should apply the on left-hand wing on right-hand wing rudder in the desired direction of turn and use the appropriate and down elevator and down elevator power or brake to control the taxi speed. The rudder pedal should be held in the direction of the turn until just short of Wind Wind the point where the turn is to be stopped. Rudder pressure is then released or opposite pressure is applied as needed. Figure 2-14. Control positions of the nosewheel airplane. More engine power may be required to start the airplane sharp turns at low speed, the throttle should always be at moving forward, or to start a turn, than is required to keep it idle before the brakes are applied. It is a common error to moving in any given direction. When using additional power, taxi with a power setting that requires controlling taxi speed the throttle should immediately be retarded once the airplane with the brakes. begins moving to prevent excessive acceleration. When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing on the The brakes should be tested for proper operation as soon as upwind side (the side that the wind is coming from) tends to the airplane is put in motion. Applying power to start the be lifted by the wind unless the aileron control is held in that airplane moving forward slowly, then retarding the throttle direction (upwind aileron UP). Moving the aileron into the UP and simultaneously applying just enough pressure to one position reduces the effect of the wind striking that wing, thus side, then the other to confirm proper function and reaction reducing the lifting action. This control movement also causes of both brakes. This is best if the airplane has individual left/ the downwind aileron to be placed in the DOWN position, right brakes to stop the airplane. If braking performance is thus a small amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing, unsatisfactory, the engine should be shut down immediately. further reducing the tendency of the upwind wing to rise. When taxiing at appropriate speeds in no-wind conditions, the When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator should aileron and elevator control surfaces have little or no effect be held in the DOWN position, and the upwind aileron, on directional control of the airplane. These controls should DOWN. Since the wind is striking the airplane from behind, not be considered steering devices and should be held in a these control positions reduce the tendency of the wind to neutral position. [Figure 2-14] get under the tail and the wing and to nose the airplane over. The application of these crosswind taxi corrections helps to The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/or a strong minimize the weathervaning tendency and ultimately results propeller slipstream makes the use of the elevator necessary in making the airplane easier to steer. to maintain control of the pitch attitude while taxiing. This becomes apparent when considering the lifting action that Normally, all turns should be started using the rudder pedal may be created on the horizontal tail surfaces by either of to steer the nosewheel. To tighten the turn after full pedal those two factors. The elevator control in nosewheel-type deflection is reached, the brake may be applied as needed. airplanes should be held in the neutral position, while in When stopping the airplane, it is advisable to always stop tailwheel-type airplanes, it should be held in the full aft with the nosewheel straight ahead to relieve any side load on position to hold the tail down. the nosewheel and to make it easier to start moving ahead. Downwind taxiing usually requires less engine power after During crosswind taxiing, even the nosewheel-type the initial ground roll is begun, since the wind is pushing airplane has some tendency to weathervane. However, the airplane forward. To avoid overheating the brakes and controlling the airplane’s speed when taxiing downwind, the pilot must keep engine power to a minimum. Rather than continuously riding the brakes to control speed, it is appropriate to apply brakes only occasionally. Other than 2-16

the weathervaning tendency is less than in tailwheel-type roll forward slightly to ensure that the nosewheel or tailwheel airplanes because the main wheels are located behind the is in alignment with the longitudinal axis of the airplane. airplane’s center of gravity, and the nosewheel’s ground friction helps to resist the tendency. The nosewheel linkage While performing the before-takeoff checklist in accordance from the rudder pedals provides adequate steering control for with the airplane’s AFM/POH, the pilot must divide their safe and efficient ground handling, and normally, only rudder attention between the inside and outside of the airplane. If pressure is necessary to correct for a crosswind. the parking brake slips, or if application of the toe brakes is inadequate for the amount of power applied, the airplane Taxiing checklists are sometimes specified by the AFM/POH, could rapidly move forward and go unnoticed if pilot attention and the pilot must accomplish any items that are required. If is fixed only inside the airplane. A good operational practice there are no specific checklist items, taxiing still provides an is to split attention from one item inside to a look outside. opportunity to verify the operation and cross-check of the flight instruments. In general, the flight instruments should Air-cooled engines generally are tightly cowled and equipped indicate properly with the airspeed at or near zero (depending with baffles that direct the flow of air to the engine in on taxi speed, wind speed and direction, and lower limit sufficient volumes for cooling while in flight; however, sensitivity); the attitude indictor should indicate pitch and on the ground, much less air is forced through the cowling roll level (depending on airplane attitude) with no flags; the and around the baffling. Prolonged ground operations may altimeter should indicate the proper elevation within prescribed cause cylinder overheating long before there is an indication limits; the turn indictor should show the correct direction of of rising oil temperature. To minimize overheating during turn with the ball movement toward the outside of the turn engine run-up, it is recommended that the airplane be with no flags; the directional gyro should be set and crossed headed as nearly as possible into the wind and, if equipped, checked to the magnetic compass and verified accurate to the engine instruments that indicate cylinder head temperatures direction of taxi; and the vertical speed indictor (VSI) should should be monitored. Cowl flaps, if available, should be set read zero. These checks can be accomplished on conventional according to the AFM/POH. mechanical instrumented aircraft or glass cockpits. Each airplane has different features and equipment and the Before-Takeoff Check before-takeoff checklist provided in airplane’s AFM/POH must be used to perform the run-up. Many critical systems The before-takeoff check is the systematic AFM/POH are checked and set during the before-takeoff checklist. Most procedure for checking the engine, controls, systems, airplanes have at least the following systems checked and set: instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, the before-takeoff checklist is performed after taxiing to a run-up • Fuel System—set per the AFM/POH and verified ON position near the takeoff end of the runway. Many engines and the proper and correct fuel tanks selected. require that the oil temperature reach a minimum value as stated in the AFM/POH before takeoff power is applied. • Trim—set for takeoff position which includes the Taxiing to the run-up position usually allows sufficient time elevator and may also include rudder and aileron trim. for the engine to warm up to at least minimum operating temperatures; however, the pilot verifies that temperatures are • Flight Controls—checked throughout their entire in their proper range prior to the application of high power. operating range. This includes full aileron, elevator, and rudder deflection in all directions. Often, pilots A suitable location for run-up should be firm (a smooth, paved do not exercise a full range of movement of the flight or turf surface if possible) and free of debris. Otherwise, the controls, which is not acceptable. propeller may pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, sand, or other loose objects and hurl them backwards. This damages the propeller • Engine Operation—checked to ensure that temperatures and may damage the tail of the airplane. Small chips in the and pressures are in their normal ranges; magneto or leading edge of the propeller form stress risers or high stress Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) concentrations. These are highly undesirable and may lead operation on single or dual ignition are acceptable to cracks and possible propeller blade failure. The airplane and within limits; and, if equipped, carburetor heat is should also be positioned clear of other aircraft and the functioning. If the airplane is equipped with a constant taxiway. There should not be anything behind the airplane that speed or feathering propeller, that its operation is might be damaged by the propeller airflow blasting rearward. acceptable; and at minimum idle, the engine rpm continues to run smoothly. Before beginning the before-takeoff check, after the airplane is properly positioned for the run-up, it should be allowed to • Electrical System—verified to ensure voltages are within operating range and that the system shows the battery system charging. 2-17

• Vacuum System—must show an acceptable level of • Engine instruments normal and in green ranges? vacuum, which is typically between 4.8 and 5.2 inches of mercury (\"Hg) at 2,000 rpm. Refer to the AFM/POH • Doors latched and windows closed as required? for the manufacturer’s values. It is important to ensure that mechanical gyroscopic instruments have adequate • Controls held so rudder is used to keep airplane time to spool up to acceptable rpm in order for them to parallel to centerline and ailerons are used to keep indicate properly. A hasty and quick taxi and run-up airplane on centerline? does not allow mechanical gyroscopic instruments to indicate properly and a departure into instrument After-Landing meteorological conditions (IMC) is unadvisable. During the after-landing roll, while maintaining airplane • Flight Instruments—rechecked and set for the track over runway centerline with ailerons and heading down departure. Verify that the directional gyro and the runway with rudder pedals, the airplane should be gradually magnetic compass are in agreement. If the directional slowed to normal taxi speed with normal brake pressure before gyro has a heading bug, it may be set to the runway turning off of the landing runway. Any significant degree of heading that is in use or as assigned by air traffic turn at faster speeds could result in subsequent damage to the control (ATC). landing gear, tires, brakes, or the airplane structure. • Avionics—set with the appropriate frequencies, To give full attention to controlling the airplane during the initial navigation sources and courses, autopilot landing roll, the after-landing checklist should be performed preselects, transponder codes, and other settings and only after the airplane is brought to a complete stop beyond configurations based on the airplane’s equipment and the runway holding position markings. There have been many flight requirements. cases where a pilot has mistakenly manipulated the wrong handle and retracted the landing gear, instead of the flaps, • Takeoff Briefing—made out loud by the pilot even due to improper division of attention while the airplane was when no other person is there to listen. A sample moving. However, this procedure may be modified if the takeoff briefing may be the following: manufacturer recommends that specific after-landing items be accomplished during landing rollout. For example, when “This will be normal takeoff (use normal, short, or soft performing a short-field landing, the manufacturer may as appropriate) from runway (use runway assigned), recommend retracting the flaps on rollout to improve braking. wind is from the (direction and speed), rotation speed In this situation, the pilot should make a positive identification is (use the specified or calculated manufacturer’s of the flap control handle before retracting the flaps. takeoff or rotation speed (VR)), an initial turn to (use planned heading) and climb to (use initial altitude in Clear of Runway and Stopped feet). The takeoff will be rejected for engine failure below VR, applying appropriate braking, stopping Because of different configurations and equipment in various ahead. Engine failure after VR and with runway airplanes, the after-landing checklist within the AFM/POH remaining, I will lower pitch to best glide speed, must be used. Some of the items may include: land, and apply appropriate braking, stopping straight ahead. Engine failure after VR and with no runway • Power—set to the AFM/POH values such as throttle remaining, I will lower pitch to best glide speed, no 1,000 rpm, propeller full forward, mixture leaned. turns will be made prior to (insert appropriate altitude), land in the most suitable area, and apply appropriate • Fuel—may require switching tanks and fuel pumps braking, avoiding hazards on the ground as much switched off. possible. If time permits, fuel, ignition, and electrical systems will be switched off.” • Flaps—set to the retracted position. Takeoff Checks: • Cowl flaps—may be opened or closed depending on temperature conditions. Runway numbers on paved runways agree with magnetic compass and heading indicators before beginning takeoff • Trim—reset to neutral or takeoff position. roll. The last check on engines as power is brought to full takeoff power includes: • Lights—may be switched off if not needed, such as strobe lights. • Is power correct? • Avionics—may be switched off or to standby, • RPM normal? such as the transponder and frequencies changed to contact ground control or Common Traffic Advisory • Engine smooth? Frequency (CTAF), as required. 2-18

• Install chocks and release parking brake in accordance Oil levels should be checked and quantities brought to AFM/ with AFM/POH. POH levels. Fuel should be added based on the immediate use of the airplane. If the airplane is going to be inactive, it Parking is a good operating practice to fill the fuel tanks to prevent water condensation from forming inside the tank. If another Unless parking in a designated, supervised area, the pilot flight is planned, the fuel tanks should be filled based on the should select a location and heading that prevents propeller flight planning requirements for that flight. or jet blast of other airplanes from striking the airplane unnecessarily. Whenever possible, the airplane should be The aircraft should be hangared or tied down, flight controls parked headed into the existing or forecast wind. Often secured, and security locks in place. The type of tie downs airports have airplane tie downs located on ramp areas may vary significantly from chains to well-worn ropes. which may or may not be aligned with the wind or provide Chains are not flexible and as such should not be made taught a significant choice in parking location. After stopping in as to allow the airplane some movement and prevent airframe the desired direction, the airplane should be allowed to roll structural damage. Tie down ropes are flexible and may be straight ahead enough to straighten the nosewheel or tailwheel. reasonably cinched to the airplane’s tie down rings. Consider utilizing pitot tube covers, cowling inlet covers, rudder gust Engine Shutdown locks, window sunscreens, and propeller security locks to further enhance the safety and security of the airplane. The pilot should always use the procedures in the airplane’s AFM/POH shutdown checklist for shutting down the engine Hangaring is not without hazards to the airplane. The pilot and securing the airplane. Important items may include: should ensure that enough space is allocated to the airplane so it is free from any impact to the hangar, another aircraft, • Parking Brake—set to ON. or vehicle. The airplane should be inspected after hangaring to ensure that no damage was imparted on the airplane. • Throttle—set to IDLE or 1,000 rpm. If turbocharged, observe the manufacturer’s spool down procedure. Chapter Summary • Magneto Switch Test—turn momentarily OFF then In this chapter emphasis was placed on determining the quickly ON again at idle rpm to check for proper airworthiness of the airplane, preflight visual inspection, operation of switch in the OFF position. managing risk and pilot-available resources, safe surface- based operations, and the adherence to and proper use of the • Propeller—set to FULL INCREASE, if equipped. AFM/POH and checklists. To maximize the safety of flight operations, a pilot must recognize that flight safety begins by • Avionics—turn OFF. properly preparing for flight and by managing the airplane, environment, resources, and themselves until the airplane is • Alternator—turn OFF. returned to its tie-down or hangar at the termination of flight. This is accomplished by the pilot ensuring that the airplane • Mixture—set to IDLE CUTOFF. is in a safe condition for flight and it meets all the regulatory requirements of 14 CFR part 91 by an effective and continuous • Magneto Switch—turn ignition switch to OFF when assessment of the risks and utilization of resources, and by the engine stops. pilot honestly evaluating and determining their preparedness and continuation for acting as PIC. • Master Switch—turn to OFF. • Secure—install control locks and anti-theft security locks. Post-Flight A flight is not complete until the engine is shut down and the airplane is secured. A pilot should consider this an essential part of any flight. Securing and Servicing After engine shutdown and deplaning passengers, the pilot should accomplish a post-flight inspection. This includes a walk around to inspect the general condition of the aircraft. Inspect near and around the cowling for signs of oil or fuel streaks and around the oil breather for excessive oil discharge. Inspect under wings and other fuel tank locations for fuel stains. Inspect landing gear and tires for damage and brakes for any leaking hydraulic fluid. Inspect cowling inlets for obstructions. 2-19

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