Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B) Note An errata sheet indicating the content and grammatical errors discovered in this handbook since its publication can be found at http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/ handbooks_manuals/aviation/ These errors will be corrected in the next version of the handbook.
FAA-H-8083-15B Instrument Flying Handbook U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
Instrument Flying Handbook 2012 U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service
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Preface This Instrument Flying Handbook is designed for use by instrument flight instructors and pilots preparing for instrument rating tests. Instructors may find this handbook a valuable training aid as it includes basic reference material for knowledge testing and instrument flight training. Other Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications should be consulted for more detailed information on related topics. This handbook conforms to pilot training and certification concepts established by the FAA. There are different ways of teaching, as well as performing, flight procedures and maneuvers and many variations in the explanations of aerodynamic theories and principles. This handbook adopts selected methods and concepts for instrument flying. The discussion and explanations reflect the most commonly used practices and principles. Occasionally the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). All of the aeronautical knowledge and skills required to operate in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) are detailed. Chapters are dedicated to human and aerodynamic factors affecting instrument flight, the flight instruments, attitude instrument flying for airplanes, basic flight maneuvers used in IMC, attitude instrument flying for helicopters, navigation systems, the National Airspace System (NAS), the air traffic control (ATC) system, instrument flight rules (IFR) flight procedures, and IFR emergencies. Clearance shorthand and an integrated instrument lesson guide are also included. This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8081-15A, Instrument Flying Handbook, dated 2007. This handbook may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC 20402-9325, or from GPO's website. http://bookstore.gpo.gov This handbook is also available for download, in PDF format, from the Regulatory Support Division’s (AFS-600) website. http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs600 This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address. [email protected] iii
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Acknowledgments This handbook was produced as a combined Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and industry effort. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors: The laboratory of Dale Purves, M.D. and Mr. Al Seckel in providing imagery (found in Chapter 3) for visual illusions from the book, The Great Book of Optical Illusions, Firefly Books, 2004 Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation and Robinson Helicopter Company for imagery provided in Chapter 2 Garmin Ltd. for providing flight system information and multiple display systems to include integrated flight, GPS and communication systems; information and hardware used with WAAS, LAAS; and information concerning encountering emergencies with high-technology systems Universal Avionics System Corporation for providing background information of the Flight Management System and an overview on Vision–1 and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance systems (TCAS) Meggitt/S-Tec for providing detailed autopilot information regarding installation and use Cessna Aircraft Company in providing instrument panel layout support and information on the use of onboard systems Kearfott Guidance and Navigation Corporation in providing background information on the Ring-LASAR gyroscope and its history Honeywell International Inc., for Terrain Awareness Systems (TAWS) and various communication and radio systems sold under the Bendix-King name Chelton Flight Systems and Century Flight Systems, Inc., for providing autopilot information relating to Highway in the Sky (Chelton) and HSI displays (Century) Avidyne Corporation for providing displays with alert systems developed and sold by Ryan International, L3 Communications, and Tectronics Additional appreciation is extended to the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), the AOPA Air Safety Institute, and the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) for their technical support and input. v
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Introduction Is an Instrument Rating Necessary? need it sometime, but because it represents achievement and The answer to this question depends entirely upon individual provides training you will use continually and build upon needs. Pilots may not need an instrument rating if they fly in as long as you fly. But most importantly it means greater familiar uncongested areas, stay continually alert to weather safety in flying. developments, and accept an alternative to their original plan. However, some cross-country destinations may take a pilot Instrument Rating Requirements to unfamiliar airports and/or through high activity areas in A private or commercial pilot must have an instrument marginal visual or instrument meteorological conditions rating and meet the appropriate currency requirements if (IMC). Under these conditions, an instrument rating may that pilot operates an aircraft using an instrument flight be an alternative to rerouting, rescheduling, or canceling rules (IFR) flight plan in conditions less than the minimums a flight. Many accidents are the result of pilots who lack prescribed for visual flight rules (VFR), or in any flight in the necessary skills or equipment to fly in marginal visual Class A airspace. meteorological conditions (VMC) or IMC and attempt flight without outside references. You will need to carefully review the aeronautical knowledge and experience requirements for the instrument rating as Pilots originally flew aircraft strictly by sight, sound, and outlined in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations feel while comparing the aircraft’s attitude to the natural (14 CFR) part 61. After completing the Federal Aviation horizon. As aircraft performance increased, pilots required Administration (FAA) Knowledge Test issued for the more inflight information to enhance the safe operation of instrument rating, and all the experience requirements have their aircraft. This information has ranged from a string tied been satisfied, you are eligible to take the practical test. The to a wing strut, to development of sophisticated electronic regulations specify minimum total and pilot-in-command flight information systems (EFIS) and flight management time requirements. This minimum applies to all applicants systems (FMS). Interpretation of the instruments and aircraft regardless of ability or previous aviation experience. control have advanced from the “one, two, three” or “needle, ball, and airspeed” system to the use of “attitude instrument Training for the Instrument Rating flying” techniques. A person who wishes to add the instrument rating to his or her pilot certificate must first make commitments of time, Navigation began by using ground references with dead money, and quality of training. There are many combinations reckoning and has led to the development of electronic of training methods available. Independent studies may be navigation systems. These include the automatic direction adequate preparation to pass the required FAA Knowledge finder (ADF), very-high frequency omnidirectional range Test for the instrument rating. Occasional periods of ground (VOR), distance measuring equipment (DME), tactical air and flight instruction may provide the skills necessary to navigation (TACAN), long range navigation (LORAN), pass the required test. Or, individuals may choose a training global positioning system (GPS), instrument landing system facility that provides comprehensive aviation education and (ILS), microwave landing system (MLS), and inertial the training necessary to ensure the pilot will pass all the navigation system (INS). required tests and operate safely in the National Airspace System (NAS). The aeronautical knowledge may be Perhaps you want an instrument rating for the same basic administered by educational institutions, aviation-oriented reason you learned to fly in the first place—because you like schools, correspondence courses, and appropriately rated flying. Maintaining and extending your proficiency, once you instructors. Each person must decide for themselves which have the rating, means less reliance on chance and more on training program best meets his or her needs and at the same skill and knowledge. Earn the rating—not because you might time maintain a high quality of training. Interested persons vii
should make inquiries regarding the available training at activities. Your instrument rating permits you to fly into nearby airports, training facilities, in aviation publications, instrument weather conditions with no previous instrument and through the FAA Flight Standards District Office weather experience. Your instrument rating is issued on (FSDO). the assumption that you have the good judgment to avoid situations beyond your capabilities. The instrument training Although the regulations specify minimum requirements, program you undertake should help you to develop not only the amount of instructional time needed is determined not essential flying skills but also the judgment necessary to use by the regulation, but by the individual’s ability to achieve the skills within your own limits. a satisfactory level of proficiency. A professional pilot with diversified flying experience may easily attain a satisfactory Regardless of the method of training selected, the curriculum level of proficiency in the minimum time required by in Appendix B, Instrument Training Lesson Guide, provides regulation. Your own time requirements will depend upon a guidance as to the minimum training required for the addition variety of factors, including previous flying experience, rate of an instrument rating to a private or commercial pilot of learning, basic ability, frequency of flight training, type of certificate. aircraft flown, quality of ground school training, and quality of flight instruction, to name a few. The total instructional Maintaining the Instrument Rating time you will need, the scheduling of such time, is up to the Once you hold the instrument rating, you may not act as pilot- individual most qualified to judge your proficiency—the in-command under IFR or in weather conditions less than the instructor who supervises your progress and endorses your minimums prescribed for VFR, unless you meet the recent record of flight training. flight experience requirements outlined in 14 CFR part 61. These procedures must be accomplished within the preceding You can accelerate and enrich much of your training by 6 months and include six instrument approaches, holding informal study. An increasing number of visual aids and procedures, and intercepting and tracking courses through the programmed instrument courses is available. The best course use of navigation systems. If you do not meet the experience is one that includes a well-integrated flight and ground school requirements during these 6 months, you have another 6 curriculum. The sequential nature of the learning process months to meet these minimums. If the requirements are requires that each element of knowledge and skill be learned still not met, you must pass an instrument proficiency check, and applied in the right manner at the right time. which is an inflight evaluation by a qualified instrument flight instructor using tasks outlined in the instrument rating Part of your instrument training may utilize a flight simulator, practical test standards (PTS). flight training device, basic aviation training device (BATD), or an advanced aviation training device (AATD). This The instrument currency requirements must be accomplished ground-based flight training equipment is a valuable tool under actual or simulated instrument conditions. You may log for developing your instrument cross-check and learning instrument flight time during the time for which you control procedures, such as intercepting and tracking, holding the aircraft solely by reference to the instruments. This can patterns, and instrument approaches. Once these concepts are be accomplished by wearing a view-limiting device, such as fully understood, you can then continue with inflight training a hood, flying an approved flight-training device, or flying and refine these techniques for full transference of your new in actual IMC. knowledge and skills. It takes only one harrowing experience to clarify the Holding the instrument rating does not necessarily make you a distinction between minimum practical knowledge and a competent all-weather pilot. The rating certifies only that you thorough understanding of how to apply the procedures and have complied with the minimum experience requirements, techniques used in instrument flight. Your instrument training that you can plan and execute a flight under IFR, that you is never complete; it is adequate when you have absorbed can execute basic instrument maneuvers, and that you have every foreseeable detail of knowledge and skill to ensure a shown acceptable skill and judgment in performing these solution will be available if and when you need it. viii
Table of Contents Preface....................................................................iii The Profile View...................................................1-21 Acknowledgments..................................................v Landing Minimums...................................................1-23 Introduction...........................................................vii Airport Sketch /Airport Diagram..............................1-27 Inoperative Components...........................................1-27 Is an Instrument Rating Necessary?.............................vii RNAV Instrument Approach Charts.........................1-30 Instrument Rating Requirements.................................vii Training for the Instrument Rating..............................vii Chapter 2 Maintaining the Instrument Rating.............................viii The Air Traffic Control System...........................2-1 Table of Contents...................................................ix Introduction....................................................................2-1 Communication Equipment............................................2-2 Chapter 1 The National Airspace System............................1-1 Navigation/Communication Equipment.....................2-2 Introduction....................................................................1-1 Radar and Transponders.............................................2-3 Airspace Classification................................................1-2 Mode C (Altitude Reporting)..................................2-3 Special Use Airspace..................................................1-2 Communication Procedures............................................2-4 Federal Airways..........................................................1-4 Communication Facilities...............................................2-4 Other Routing..............................................................1-5 IFR En Route Charts......................................................1-6 Flight Service Stations (FSS)......................................2-4 Airport Information.....................................................1-6 ATC Towers................................................................2-5 Charted IFR Altitudes.................................................1-6 Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON).........2-6 Navigation Features....................................................1-7 Tower En Route Control (TEC)..................................2-7 Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)...............2-7 Types of NAVAIDs................................................1-7 Center Approach/Departure Control...........................2-7 ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance..............2-11 Identifying Intersections..........................................1-7 ATC Radar Weather Displays..................................2-11 Weather Avoidance Assistance.................................2-11 Other Route Information.......................................1-10 Approach Control Facility............................................2-12 Approach Control Advances........................................2-12 Weather Information and Communication Precision Runway Monitor (PRM)...........................2-12 Features.................................................................1-10 PRM Radar............................................................2-12 PRM Benefits........................................................2-13 New Technologies........................................................1-10 Control Sequence..........................................................2-13 Terminal Procedures Publications................................1-12 Letters of Agreement (LOA)....................................2-14 Departure Procedures................................................1-12 Chapter 3 Standard Terminal Arrival Routes............................1-12 Human Factors.....................................................3-1 Instrument Approach Procedure Charts ......................1-12 Introduction....................................................................3-1 Margin Identification................................................1-12 Sensory Systems for Orientation....................................3-2 The Pilot Briefing......................................................1-16 The Plan View...........................................................1-16 Eyes.............................................................................3-2 Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)......................................1-18 Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination............3-3 Course Reversal Elements in Plan View and Profile View..............................................................1-20 Procedure Turns....................................................1-20 Holding in Lieu of Procedure Turn.......................1-20 Teardrop Procedure...............................................1-21 ix
Ears. ............................................................................ 3-4 Lift..................................................................................4-6 Nerves.........................................................................3-5 Pitch/Power Relationship............................................4-6 Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation....................3-5 Vestibular Illusions.....................................................3-5 Drag Curves....................................................................4-6 Regions of Command.................................................4-7 The Leans................................................................3-5 Control Characteristics............................................4-7 Coriolis Illusion.......................................................3-6 Speed Stability............................................................4-8 Normal Command...................................................4-8 Graveyard Spiral.....................................................3-6 Reversed Command................................................4-8 Somatogravic Illusion.............................................3-6 Trim................................................................................4-8 Inversion Illusion.....................................................3-6 Slow-Speed Flight..........................................................4-8 Elevator Illusion......................................................3-6 Small Airplanes...........................................................4-9 Large Airplanes.........................................................4-10 Visual Illusions...........................................................3-7 Climbs...........................................................................4-10 False Horizon..........................................................3-7 Acceleration in Cruise Flight....................................4-10 Turns.............................................................................4-10 Autokinesis..............................................................3-7 Rate of Turn..............................................................4-11 Radius of Turn..........................................................4-11 Postural Considerations..................................................3-7 Coordination of Rudder and Aileron Controls..........4-11 Demonstration of Spatial Disorientation........................3-7 Load Factor...................................................................4-12 Icing..............................................................................4-13 Climbing While Accelerating.....................................3-8 Types of Icing...............................................................4-13 Climbing While Turning.............................................3-8 Structural Icing..........................................................4-13 Diving While Turning.................................................3-8 Induction Icing..........................................................4-13 Tilting to Right or Left................................................3-8 Clear Ice....................................................................4-13 Reversal of Motion.....................................................3-8 Rime Ice....................................................................4-14 Diving or Rolling Beyond the Vertical Plane.............3-8 Mixed Ice..................................................................4-14 Coping with Spatial Disorientation................................3-8 General Effects of Icing on Airfoils..........................4-14 Optical Illusions..............................................................3-9 Runway Width Illusion...............................................3-9 Piper PA-34-200T (Des Moines, Iowa)................4-16 Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion...........................3-9 Featureless Terrain Illusion.........................................3-9 Tailplane Stall Symptoms.........................................4-16 Water Refraction.........................................................3-9 Propeller Icing...........................................................4-16 Haze............................................................................3-9 Effects of Icing on Critical Aircraft Systems............4-16 Fog..............................................................................3-9 Ground Lighting Illusions...........................................3-9 Flight Instruments.................................................4-16 How To Prevent Landing Errors Due to Optical Illusions..............................................................3-9 Stall Warning Systems..........................................4-17 Chapter 4 Windshields...........................................................4-17 Aerodynamic Factors..........................................4-1 Introduction....................................................................4-1 Antenna Icing............................................................4-17 Summary...................................................................4-17 The Wing....................................................................4-2 Review of Basic Aerodynamics.....................................4-2 Chapter 5 Flight Instruments................................................5-1 The Four Forces..........................................................4-2 Introduction....................................................................5-1 Lift...........................................................................4-2 Pitot/Static Systems........................................................5-2 Weight.....................................................................4-3 Static Pressure.............................................................5-2 Blockage of the Pitot-Static System...........................5-2 Thrust. ..................................................................... 4-3 Blocked Pitot System..............................................5-2 Drag.........................................................................4-3 Blocked Static System.............................................5-3 Newton’s First Law, the Law of Inertia......................4-4 Newton’s Second Law, the Law of Momentum.........4-4 Effects of Flight Conditions....................................5-3 Newton’s Third Law, the Law of Reaction................4-4 Atmosphere.....................................................................4-4 Pitot/Static Instruments..................................................5-3 Layers of the Atmosphere...........................................4-5 Sensitive Altimeter......................................................5-3 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)..................4-5 Principle of Operation.............................................5-3 Pressure Altitude.....................................................4-5 Altimeter Errors.......................................................5-4 Density Altitude......................................................4-6 Cold Weather Altimeter Errors...............................5-5 x
ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table.........................5-5 Terrain Alerting Systems .....................................5-34 Nonstandard Pressure on an Altimeter....................5-6 Required Navigation Instrument System Inspection....5-36 Altimeter Enhancements (Encoding) .....................5-7 Systems Preflight Procedures....................................5-36 Before Engine Start...................................................5-36 Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)...5-7 After Engine Start.....................................................5-37 Taxiing and Takeoff..................................................5-37 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)...................................5-8 Engine Shut Down....................................................5-38 Dynamic Pressure Type Instruments..............................5-8 Chapter 6, Section I Airspeed Indicator (ASI).............................................5-8 Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying Using Types of Airspeed...................................................5-9 Analog Instrumentation.......................................6-1 Introduction....................................................................6-1 Airspeed Color Codes...........................................5-10 Learning Methods...........................................................6-2 Magnetism....................................................................5-10 Attitude Instrument Flying Using the Control and The Basic Aviation Magnetic Compass ...................5-10 Performance Method ..................................................6-2 Magnetic Compass Overview...............................5-10 Control Instruments ................................................6-2 Magnetic Compass Errors.....................................5-12 Performance Instruments ........................................6-2 Navigation Instruments ..........................................6-2 The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass......................5-15 Procedural Steps in Using Control The Flux Gate Compass System...............................5-15 and Performance......................................................6-2 Remote Indicating Compass.....................................5-15 Aircraft Control During Instrument Flight..............6-3 Gyroscopic Systems.....................................................5-16 Attitude Instrument Flying Using the Primary and Power Sources ..........................................................5-17 Supporting Method.....................................................6-4 Pitch Control...........................................................6-4 Pneumatic Systems ...............................................5-17 Bank Control...........................................................6-7 Power Control.........................................................6-8 Vacuum Pump Systems.........................................5-17 Trim Control............................................................6-8 Airplane Trim..........................................................6-8 Electrical Systems.................................................5-17 Helicopter Trim.....................................................6-10 Example of Primary and Support Instruments..........6-10 Gyroscopic Instruments................................................5-19 Fundamental Skills.......................................................6-10 Attitude Indicators....................................................5-19 Instrument Cross-Check............................................6-10 Heading Indicators....................................................5-19 Common Cross-Check Errors...............................6-11 Turn Indicators..........................................................5-20 Instrument Interpretation..........................................6-13 Turn-and-Slip Indicator.........................................5-20 Chapter 6, Section II Turn Coordinator...................................................5-21 Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying Using an Electronic Flight Display...................................6-15 Flight Support Systems.................................................5-22 Introduction..................................................................6-15 Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS)....5-22 Learning Methods.........................................................6-16 Air Data Computer (ADC)........................................5-22 Control and Performance Method.............................6-18 Analog Pictorial Displays.............................................5-23 Control Instruments...............................................6-18 Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) .......................5-23 Performance Instruments.......................................6-19 Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI) ..........................5-23 Navigation Instruments.........................................6-19 Flight Director System (FDS)...................................5-23 Integrated Flight Control System .............................5-25 The Four-Step Process Used to Change Attitude.....6-19 Autopilot Systems.................................................5-25 Establish................................................................6-19 Trim.......................................................................6-20 Flight Management Systems (FMS).............................5-26 Cross-Check..........................................................6-20 Electronic Flight Instrument Systems.......................5-27 Adjust....................................................................6-20 Primary Flight Display (PFD)......................................5-27 Synthetic Vision........................................................5-28 Multi-Function Display (MFD)................................5-28 Advanced Technology Systems...................................5-28 Automatic Dependent Surveillance—Broadcast (ADS-B)....................................................................5-28 Safety Systems..............................................................5-29 Radio Altimeters.......................................................5-29 Traffic Advisory Systems ........................................5-29 Traffic Information System ..................................5-29 Traffic Alert Systems ...........................................5-30 Traffic Avoidance Systems...................................5-30 xi
Applying the Four-Step Process...............................6-20 Entry......................................................................7-14 Pitch Control.........................................................6-20 Bank Control.........................................................6-20 Leveling Off..........................................................7-16 Power Control.......................................................6-21 Descents....................................................................7-16 Attitude Instrument Flying—Primary and Entry......................................................................7-17 Supporting Method...................................................6-21 Leveling Off..........................................................7-17 Pitch Control.........................................................6-22 Straight-and-Level Flight......................................6-22 Common Errors in Straight Climbs and Descents....7-17 Primary Pitch.........................................................6-22 Turns.............................................................................7-19 Primary Bank.........................................................6-23 Primary Yaw.........................................................6-23 Standard Rate Turns..................................................7-19 Primary Power.......................................................6-24 Turns to Predetermined Headings.............................7-20 Fundamental Skills of Attitude Instrument Flying.......6-24 Timed Turns..............................................................7-21 Instrument Cross-Check............................................6-24 Compass Turns..........................................................7-21 Scanning Techniques....................................................6-24 Steep Turns...............................................................7-22 Selected Radial Cross-Check....................................6-24 Climbing and Descending Turns..............................7-24 Starting the Scan....................................................6-24 Change of Airspeed During Turns............................7-24 Trend Indicators....................................................6-26 Common Errors in Turns..........................................7-25 Common Errors............................................................6-27 Fixation.....................................................................6-27 Pitch.......................................................................7-25 Omission...................................................................6-28 Emphasis...................................................................6-28 Bank. ..................................................................... 7-25 Chapter 7, Section I Power.....................................................................7-26 Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers Using Analog Instrumentation.......................................7-1 Trim.......................................................................7-26 Introduction....................................................................7-1 Straight-and-Level Flight...............................................7-2 Errors During Compass Turns...............................7-26 Pitch Control...............................................................7-2 Approach to Stall..........................................................7-26 Attitude Indicator....................................................7-2 Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries................................7-26 Altimeter..................................................................7-3 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)................................7-4 Recognizing Unusual Attitudes................................7-27 Airspeed Indicator (ASI).........................................7-6 Recovery from Unusual Attitudes............................7-27 Nose-High Attitudes.................................................7-27 Bank Control...............................................................7-6 Nose-Low Attitudes..................................................7-28 Attitude Indicator....................................................7-6 Common Errors in Unusual Attitudes.......................7-28 Heading Indicator....................................................7-7 Instrument Takeoff.......................................................7-29 Turn Coordinator.....................................................7-7 Common Errors in Instrument Takeoffs...................7-29 Turn-and-Slip Indicator (Needle and Ball).............7-8 Basic Instrument Flight Patterns..................................7-30 Racetrack Pattern......................................................7-30 Power Control.............................................................7-8 Procedure Turn..........................................................7-30 Power Settings.........................................................7-9 Standard 45° Procedure Turn....................................7-30 Airspeed Changes in Straight-and-Level Flight....7-11 80/260 Procedure Turn.............................................7-31 Teardrop Patterns......................................................7-31 Trim Technique.........................................................7-12 Circling Approach Patterns.......................................7-32 Common Errors in Straight-and-Level Flight ..........7-12 Pattern I.................................................................7-32 Pitch.......................................................................7-12 Heading.................................................................7-13 Pattern II................................................................7-32 Power.....................................................................7-13 Trim.......................................................................7-13 Chapter 7, Section II Straight Climbs and Descents.......................................7-14 Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers Using an Climbs.......................................................................7-14 Electronic Flight Display...................................7-33 Introduction..................................................................7-33 Straight-and-Level Flight.............................................7-34 Pitch Control.............................................................7-34 Attitude Indicator..................................................7-34 Altimeter................................................................7-36 Partial Panel Flight................................................7-36 VSI Tape...............................................................7-36 xii
Airspeed Indicator (ASI).......................................7-37 Straight-and-Level Flight...............................................8-3 Bank Control.............................................................7-37 Pitch Control...............................................................8-3 Attitude Indicator....................................................8-3 Attitude Indicator..................................................7-37 Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI).....................7-38 Altimeter..................................................................8-4 Heading Indicator..................................................7-38 Turn Rate Indicator...............................................7-38 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)................................8-5 Slip/Skid Indicator.................................................7-39 Power Control...........................................................7-39 Airspeed Indicator...................................................8-5 Power Settings.......................................................7-39 Airspeed Changes in Straight-and-Level Flight....7-40 Bank Control...............................................................8-5 Trim Technique.........................................................7-43 Attitude Indicator....................................................8-5 Common Errors in Straight-and-Level Flight...........7-43 Pitch.......................................................................7-43 Heading Indicator....................................................8-6 Heading.................................................................7-44 Power.....................................................................7-45 Turn Indicator..........................................................8-7 Trim.......................................................................7-45 Straight Climbs and Descents.......................................7-46 Common Errors During Straight-and-Level Flight.....8-7 Entry..........................................................................7-46 Power Control During Straight-and-Level Flight.......8-7 Constant Airspeed Climb From Common Errors During Airspeed Changes..............8-10 Cruise Airspeed.....................................................7-46 Straight Climbs (Constant Airspeed an Constant Airspeed Climb from Constant Rate)..............................................................8-10 Established Airspeed.............................................7-47 Entry..........................................................................8-10 Constant Rate Climbs............................................7-47 Level Off...................................................................8-12 Leveling Off..........................................................7-48 Straight Descents (Constant Airspeed and Descents....................................................................7-49 Constant Rate)..............................................................8-12 Entry..........................................................................7-49 Entry..........................................................................8-12 Leveling Off..........................................................7-50 Level Off...................................................................8-13 Common Errors in Straight Climbs and Descents....7-50 Common Errors During Straight Climbs Turns.............................................................................7-51 and Descents.............................................................8-13 Standard Rate Turns..................................................7-51 Turns.............................................................................8-13 Establishing A Standard Rate Turn.......................7-51 Turn to a Predetermined Heading.............................8-13 Common Errors.....................................................7-51 Timed Turns..............................................................8-13 Turns to Predetermined Headings.............................7-52 Change of Airspeed in Turns....................................8-14 Timed Turns..............................................................7-53 Compass Turns..........................................................8-15 Compass Turns..........................................................7-53 Steep Turns...............................................................7-53 30° Bank Turn.......................................................8-15 Unusual Attitude Recovery Protection..................7-55 Common Errors Leading to Unusual Attitudes.....7-58 Climbing and Descending Turns..............................8-15 Instrument Takeoff.......................................................7-60 Common Errors During Turns..................................8-15 Common Errors in Instrument Takeoffs...................7-61 Unusual Attitudes.........................................................8-16 Basic Instrument Flight Patterns..................................7-61 Common Errors During Unusual Attitude Recoveries...................................................8-16 Chapter 8 Emergencies. ................................................................ 8-16 Helicopter Attitude Instrument Flying................8-1 Autorotations.............................................................8-17 Introduction....................................................................8-1 Flight Instruments...........................................................8-2 Common Errors During Autorotations..................8-17 Instrument Flight............................................................8-2 Servo Failure.............................................................8-17 Instrument Cross-Check..............................................8-2 Instrument Takeoff.......................................................8-17 Instrument Interpretation............................................8-3 Aircraft Control...........................................................8-3 Common Errors During Instrument Takeoffs...........8-18 Changing Technology..................................................8-18 Chapter 9 Navigation Systems.............................................9-1 Introduction....................................................................9-1 Basic Radio Principles....................................................9-2 How Radio Waves Propagate.....................................9-2 Ground Wave..........................................................9-2 Sky Wave................................................................9-2 Space Wave.............................................................9-2 xiii
Disturbances to Radio Wave Reception.....................9-3 GPS Errors.............................................................9-31 Traditional Navigation Systems.....................................9-3 System Status........................................................9-31 Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB).........................9-3 NDB Components...................................................9-3 GPS Familiarization..............................................9-31 ADF Components....................................................9-3 Function of ADF.....................................................9-4 Differential Global Positioning Systems (DGPS).....9-32 Operational Errors of ADF......................................9-8 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS).............9-32 Very High Frequency Omnidirectional General Requirements...........................................9-32 Range (VOR)..............................................................9-8 Instrument Approach Capabilities.........................9-32 VOR Components.................................................9-10 Function of VOR...................................................9-11 Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)..............9-33 VOR Operational Errors........................................9-14 Inertial Navigation System (INS).............................9-34 VOR Accuracy......................................................9-16 VOR Receiver Accuracy Check............................9-16 INS Components...................................................9-34 VOR Test Facility (VOT).....................................9-16 Certified Checkpoints............................................9-16 INS Errors.............................................................9-34 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)...................9-17 DME Components.................................................9-17 Instrument Approach Systems......................................9-35 Function of DME..................................................9-17 Instrument Landing Systems (ILS)...........................9-35 DME Arc...............................................................9-17 ILS Components....................................................9-35 Intercepting Lead Radials......................................9-18 DME Errors...........................................................9-19 Approach Lighting Systems (ALS)..........................9-38 Area Navigation (RNAV).........................................9-19 ILS Airborne Components....................................9-38 VOR/DME RNAV................................................9-22 VOR/DME RNAV Components...........................9-23 ILS Function.............................................................9-40 Function of VOR/DME RNAV.............................9-23 ILS Errors..................................................................9-40 VOR/DME RNAV Errors.....................................9-24 Advanced Technologies...............................................9-24 Marker Beacons.....................................................9-40 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)............9-24 Global Positioning System (GPS).............................9-25 Operational Errors.................................................9-42 GPS Components..................................................9-25 Function of GPS....................................................9-26 Simplified Directional Facility (SDF).......................9-42 GPS Substitution...................................................9-27 Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA)....................9-43 GPS Substitution for ADF or DME......................9-27 Microwave Landing System (MLS).........................9-43 To Determine Aircraft Position Over a DME Fix................................................................9-27 Approach Azimuth Guidance................................9-43 To Fly a DME Arc................................................9-27 To Navigate TO or FROM an NDB/Compass Required Navigation Performance...............................9-44 Locator. ................................................................. 9-28 Flight Management Systems (FMS).............................9-44 To Determine Aircraft Position Over an NDB/ Compass Locator...................................................9-28 Function of FMS.......................................................9-46 To Determine Aircraft Position Over a Fix Head-Up Display (HUD)..............................................9-46 Made up of an NDB/Compass Locator Bearing Radar Navigation (Ground-Based)...............................9-46 Crossing a VOR/LOC Course...............................9-28 To Hold Over an NDB/Compass Locator:............9-28 Functions of Radar Navigation.................................9-47 IFR Flight Using GPS...........................................9-28 Airport Surface Detection Equipment...................9-48 GPS Instrument Approaches.................................9-29 Departures and Instrument Departure Radar Limitations......................................................9-48 Procedures (DPs)...................................................9-31 Chapter 10 IFR Flight.............................................................10-1 Introduction..................................................................10-1 Sources of Flight Planning Information.......................10-2 Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).................10-2 Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)............................10-2 Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP)....................10-2 POH/AFM.................................................................10-2 IFR Flight Plan.............................................................10-2 Filing in Flight..........................................................10-2 Cancelling IFR Flight Plans......................................10-3 Clearances.....................................................................10-3 Examples...................................................................10-4 Clearance Separations...............................................10-4 Departure Procedures (DPs).........................................10-5 Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP).....................10-5 Standard Instrument Departures...............................10-5 xiv
Radar-Controlled Departures....................................10-5 Conducting an IFR Flight...........................................10-26 Departures From Airports Without an Operating Preflight...................................................................10-26 Control Tower...........................................................10-7 Departure.................................................................10-31 En Route Procedures....................................................10-7 En Route..................................................................10-32 ATC Reports.............................................................10-7 Arrival.....................................................................10-33 Position Reports........................................................10-7 Additional Reports....................................................10-7 Chapter 11 Planning the Descent and Approach.........................10-8 Emergency Operations......................................11-1 Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs).............10-9 Introduction..................................................................11-1 Substitutes for Inoperative or Unusable Unforecast Adverse Weather........................................11-2 Components............................................................10-10 Holding Procedures....................................................10-10 Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter.......................11-2 Standard Holding Pattern (No Wind).....................10-10 Inadvertent Icing Encounter......................................11-2 Standard Holding Pattern (With Wind)..................10-10 Precipitation Static....................................................11-3 Holding Instructions................................................10-10 Aircraft System Malfunctions......................................11-3 Standard Entry Procedures......................................10-11 Electronic Flight Display Malfunction.....................11-4 Time Factors...........................................................10-12 Alternator/Generator Failure.....................................11-4 DME Holding..........................................................10-13 Techniques for Electrical Usage...............................11-5 Approaches.................................................................10-13 Compliance With Published Standard Instrument Master Battery Switch...........................................11-5 Approach Procedures..............................................10-13 Operating on the Main Battery..............................11-5 Instrument Approaches to Civil Airports................10-13 Loss of Alternator/Generator for Electronic Flight Instrumentation.........................................................11-5 Approach to Airport Without an Operating Techniques for Electrical Usage...............................11-6 Standby Battery.....................................................11-6 Control Tower.....................................................10-13 Operating on the Main Battery..............................11-6 Analog Instrument Failure............................................11-7 Approach to Airport With an Operating Pneumatic System Failure............................................11-7 Pitot/Static System Failure...........................................11-8 Tower, With No Approach Control.....................10-15 Communication/Navigation System Malfunction........11-8 GPS Nearest Airport Function......................................11-9 Approach to an Airport With an Operating Nearest Airports Using the PFD...............................11-9 Additional Information for a Specific Airport.....11-10 Tower, With an Approach Control......................10-15 Nearest Airports Using the MFD............................11-10 Navigating the MFD Page Groups......................11-10 Radar Approaches...................................................10-15 Nearest Airport Page Group................................11-10 Radar Monitoring of Instrument Approaches.........10-18 Nearest Airports Page Soft Keys.........................11-10 Timed Approaches From a Holding Fix.................10-18 Situational Awareness................................................11-11 Approaches to Parallel Runways............................10-20 Traffic Avoidance...................................................11-12 Side-Step Maneuver................................................10-20 Circling Approaches...............................................10-20 Appendix A.......................................................... A-1 IAP Minimums.......................................................10-21 Clearance Shorthand Missed Approaches.................................................10-21 Landing...................................................................10-22 Appendix B.......................................................... B-1 Instrument Weather Flying.........................................10-22 Instrument Training Lesson Guide Flying Experience...................................................10-22 Glossary...............................................................G-1 Recency of Experience........................................10-22 Index.......................................................................I-1 Airborne Equipment and Ground Facilities........10-22 Weather Conditions................................................10-22 Turbulence...........................................................10-22 Structural Icing....................................................10-23 Fog.......................................................................10-24 Volcanic Ash.......................................................10-24 Thunderstorms.....................................................10-24 Wind Shear..........................................................10-25 VFR-On-Top...........................................................10-26 VFR Over-The-Top................................................10-26 xv
xvi
TheChapter1 National Airspace System Introduction The National Airspace System (NAS) is the network of United States airspace: air navigation facilities, equipment, services, airports or landing areas, aeronautical charts, information/services, rules, regulations, procedures, technical information, manpower, and material. Included are system components shared jointly with the military. The system’s present configuration is a reflection of the technological advances concerning the speed and altitude capability of jet aircraft, as well as the complexity of microchip and satellite- based navigation equipment. To conform to international aviation standards, the United States adopted the primary elements of the classification system developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). This chapter is a general discussion of airspace classification; en route, terminal, and approach procedures; and operations within the NAS. Detailed information on the classification of airspace, operating procedures, and restrictions is found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). 1-1
Airspace Classification 5. Class E. Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, B, Airspace in the United States [Figure 1-1] is designated C, or D, and is controlled airspace, then it is Class E as follows: airspace. Class E airspace extends upward from either the surface or a designated altitude to the overlying 1. Class A. Generally, airspace from 18,000 feet mean or adjacent controlled airspace. When designated as a sea level (MSL) up to and including flight level (FL) surface area, the airspace is configured to contain all 600, including the airspace overlying the waters instrument procedures. Also in this class are federal within 12 nautical miles (NM) of the coast of the airways, airspace beginning at either 700 or 1,200 feet 48 contiguous states and Alaska. Unless otherwise above ground level (AGL) used to transition to and authorized, all pilots must operate their aircraft under from the terminal or en route environment, and en instrument flight rules (IFR). route domestic and offshore airspace areas designated below 18,000 feet MSL. Unless designated at a lower 2. Class B. Generally, airspace from the surface to 10,000 altitude, Class E airspace begins at 14,500 MSL over feet MSL surrounding the nation’s busiest airports in the United States, including that airspace overlying the terms of airport operations or passenger enplanements. waters within 12 NM of the coast of the 48 contiguous The configuration of each Class B airspace area is states and Alaska, up to but not including 18,000 feet individually tailored, consists of a surface area and two MSL, and the airspace above FL 600. or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding cakes), and is designed to 6. Class G. Airspace not designated as Class A, B, C, contain all published instrument procedures once D, or E. Class G airspace is essentially uncontrolled an aircraft enters the airspace. An air traffic control by ATC except when associated with a temporary (ATC) clearance is required for all aircraft to operate control tower. in the area, and all aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services within the airspace. Special Use Airspace Special use airspace is the designation for airspace in which 3. Class C. Generally, airspace from the surface to 4,000 certain activities must be confined or where limitations may feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) be imposed on aircraft operations that are not part of those surrounding those airports that have an operational activities. Certain special use airspace areas can create control tower are serviced by a radar approach control limitations on the mixed use of airspace. The special use and have a certain number of IFR operations or airspace depicted on instrument charts includes the area name passenger enplanements. Although the configuration or number, effective altitude, time and weather conditions of each Class C area is individually tailored, the of operation, the controlling agency, and the chart panel airspace usually consists of a surface area with a location. On National Aeronautical Navigation Products 5 NM radius, an outer circle with a 10 NM radius (AeroNav Products) en route charts, this information is that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the available on one of the end panels. airport elevation and an outer area. Each aircraft must establish two-way radio communications with Prohibited areas contain airspace of defined dimensions the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited. Such areas to entering the airspace and thereafter maintain those are established for security or other reasons associated with communications while within the airspace. the national welfare. These areas are published in the Federal Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts. The area is 4. Class D. Generally, airspace from the surface to 2,500 charted as a “P” followed by a number (e.g., “P-123”). feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational Restricted areas are areas where operations are hazardous to control tower. The configuration of each Class D nonparticipating aircraft and contain airspace within which airspace area is individually tailored and, when the flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject instrument procedures are published, the airspace to restrictions. Activities within these areas must be confined normally designed to contain the procedures. Arrival because of their nature, or limitations may be imposed upon extensions for instrument approach procedures (IAPs) aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities, or may be Class D or Class E airspace. Unless otherwise both. Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual, often authorized, each aircraft must establish two-way radio invisible, hazards to aircraft (e.g., artillery firing, aerial communications with the ATC facility providing gunnery, or guided missiles). IFR flights may be authorized air traffic services prior to entering the airspace and to transit the airspace and are routed accordingly. Penetration thereafter maintain those communications while in the airspace. 1-2
(Not to scale) FL 600 Class A 18,000' MSL Class B Class E 14,500' MSL A1,G20L0' A1,G20L0' Class C 1,200' Nontowered A70G0L' AGL airport with Class G Nontowered Class DA70G0L' no instrument airport with A70G0L' Class G approach instrument approach Class G Class G Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E Class G ATC clearance ATC clearance Prior two-way Prior two-way Prior two-way None Instrument Private or Student communications communications communications* Student Rating certification— Student Student Student certificate local restrictions certificate certificate certificate Yes apply. No Yes N/A Yes Yes Yes, under IFR None N/A flight plan* N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A Yes 3 statute miles 3 statute miles 3 statute miles 3 statute miles** 1 statute mile† N/A Clear of clouds 500' below, 500' below,** Clear of clouds† 1,000' above, 500' below, 1,000' above, All 2,000' horizontal 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal Yes 2,000' horizontal IFR aircraft None None Radar Runway Instrument Yes operations Workload Workload approaches Radar Workload permitting permitting Weather Instrument permitting Control tower approaches Instrument Control tower High density Weather Instrument approaches Control tower approaches Weather Weather Control tower *Exception: temporary tower or control tower present AGL—above ground level **True only below 10,000 feet FL—flight level MSL—mean sea level True only during day at or below 1,200 feet AGL (see 14 CFR part 91) Figure 1-1. Airspace classifications. 1-3
of restricted areas without authorization from the using Military Training Routes (MTRs) are routes used by military or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to the aircraft to maintain proficiency in tactical flying. These routes aircraft and its occupants. ATC facilities apply the following are usually established below 10,000 feet MSL for operations procedures when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance at speeds in excess of 250 knots. Some route segments may (including those cleared by ATC to maintain visual flight be defined at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity. rules (VFR)-On-Top) via a route that lies within joint-use Routes are identified as IFR (IR) and VFR (VR) followed by restricted airspace: a number. MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet AGL are identified by four number characters (e.g., IR1206, VR1207). 1. If the restricted area is not active and has been released MTRs that include one or more segments above 1,500 feet to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the AGL are identified by three number characters (e.g., IR206, ATC facility will allow the aircraft to operate in the VR207). IFR low altitude en route charts depict all IR routes restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance and all VR routes that accommodate operations above 1,500 for it to do so. feet AGL. IR routes are conducted in accordance with IFR regardless of weather conditions. 2. If the restricted area is active and has not been released to the FAA, the ATC facility will issue a Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) are put into effect clearance that will ensure the aircraft avoids the when traffic in the airspace would endanger or hamper air restricted airspace. or ground activities in the designated area. For example, a forest fire, chemical accident, flood, or disaster-relief effort Restricted areas are charted with an “R” followed by a could warrant a TFR, which would be issued as a Notice to number (e.g., “R-5701”) and are depicted on the en route Airmen (NOTAM). chart appropriate for use at the altitude or FL being flown. Warning areas are similar in nature to restricted areas; National Security Areas (NSAs) consist of airspace with however, the U.S. Government does not have sole jurisdiction defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at over the airspace. A warning area is airspace of defined locations where there is a requirement for increased security dimensions, extending from 12 NM outward from the coast of and safety of ground facilities. Flight in NSAs may be the United States, containing activity that may be hazardous temporarily prohibited by regulation under the provisions of to nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose of such areas is Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 99 to warn nonparticipating pilots of the potential danger. A and prohibitions will be disseminated via NOTAM. warning area may be located over domestic or international waters or both. The airspace is designated with a “W” Federal Airways followed by a number (e.g., “W-123”). The primary means for routing aircraft operating under IFR is the Federal Airways System. Each Federal airway is Military operations areas (MOAs) consist of airspace with based on a centerline that extends from one navigational aid defined vertical and lateral limits established for the purpose (NAVAID)/waypoint/fix/intersection to another NAVAID/ of separating certain military training activities from IFR waypoint/fix/intersection specified for that airway. A Federal traffic. Whenever an MOA is being used, nonparticipating airway includes the airspace within parallel boundary lines IFR traffic may be cleared through an MOA if IFR separation 4 NM to each side of the centerline. As in all instrument can be provided by ATC. Otherwise, ATC will reroute or flight, courses are magnetic, and distances are in NM. The restrict nonparticipating IFR traffic. MOAs are depicted on airspace of a Federal airway has a floor of 1,200 feet AGL, sectional, VFR terminal area, and en route low altitude charts unless otherwise specified. A Federal airway does not include and are not numbered (e.g., “Boardman MOA”). the airspace of a prohibited area. Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical charts with an Victor airways include the airspace extending from 1,200 “A” followed by a number (e.g., “A-123”) to inform feet AGL up to, but not including 18,000 feet MSL. The nonparticipating pilots of areas that may contain a high airways are designated on sectional and IFR low altitude en volume of pilot training or an unusual type of aerial activity. route charts with the letter “V” followed by a number (e.g., Pilots should exercise caution in alert areas. All activity “V23”). Typically, Victor airways are given odd numbers within an alert area shall be conducted in accordance with when oriented north/south and even numbers when oriented regulations, without waiver, and pilots of participating east/west. If more than one airway coincides on a route aircraft, as well as pilots transiting the area, shall be equally segment, the numbers are listed serially (e.g., “V287-495- responsible for collision avoidance. 500”). [Figure 1-2] 1-4
Altitude change No altitude change V520 (even) oriented east/west V595 MRA 9300 V287-495-500 confluence of airways Altitude change V287 MOCA *3400 V165 (odd) oriented north/south Victor Airway V23 Figure 1-2. Victor airways and charted IFR altitudes. Jet routes exist only in Class A airspace,Ffirgoumre188-,20.00Vifcetoetr MairSwLays, aRnaddcahrarmteodnIFiRtoarltiintugdebsy. ATC is required on all random to FL 450, and are depicted on high-altitude en route charts. RNAV routes. These routes can only be approved in a The letter “J” precedes a number to label the airway (e.g., J12). radar environment. Factors that are considered by ATC in approving random RNAV routes include the capability Area navigation (RNAV) routes have been established in to provide radar monitoring and compatibility with traffic both the low-altitude and the high-altitude structures in recent volume and flow. ATC will radar monitor each flight; years and are depicted on the en route low and high chart however, navigation on the random RNAV route is the series. High altitude RNAV routes are identified with a “Q” responsibility of the pilot. prefix (except the Q-routes in the Gulf of Mexico) and low altitude RNAV routes are identified with a “T” prefix. RNAV Other Routing routes and data are depicted in aeronautical blue. Preferred IFR routes have been established between major terminals to guide pilots in planning their routes of In addition to the published routes, a random RNAV route flight, minimizing route changes, and aiding in the orderly may be flown under IFR if it is approved by ATC. Random management of air traffic on Federal airways. Low and high RNAV routes are direct routes, based on RNAV capability, altitude preferred routes are listed in the Airport/Facility between waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude Directory (A/FD). To use a preferred route, reference the coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets from established departure and arrival airports; if a routing exists for your routes/airways at a specified distance and direction. flight, then airway instructions are listed. 1-5
Tower En Route Control (TEC) is an ATC program that When the AeroNav Products en route chart is unfolded, the uses overlapping approach control radar services to provide legend is displayed and provides information concerning IFR clearances. By using TEC, a pilot is routed by airport airports, NAVAIDs, communications, air traffic services, control towers. Some advantages include abbreviated filing and airspace. procedures and reduced traffic separation requirements. TEC is dependent upon the ATC’s workload, and the procedure Airport Information varies among locales. Airport information is provided in the legend, and the symbols used for the airport name, elevation, and runway The latest version of Advisory Circular (AC) 90-91, North length are similar to the sectional chart presentation. American Route Program (NRP), provides guidance to users Associated city names are shown for public airports only. of the NAS for participation in the NRP. All flights operating FAA identifiers are shown for all airports. ICAO identifiers at or above FL 290 within the conterminous United States are also shown for airports outside of the contiguous United and Canada are eligible to participate in the NRP, the primary States. Instrument approaches can be found at airports with purpose of which is to allow operators to plan minimum time/ blue or green symbols, while the brown airport symbol cost routes that may be off the prescribed route structure. NRP denotes airports that do not have instrument approaches. aircraft are not subject to route-limiting restrictions (e.g., Stars are used to indicate the part-time nature of tower published preferred IFR routes) beyond a 200 NM radius of operations, Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) their point of departure or destination. frequencies, part-time or on request lighting facilities, and part-time airspace classifications. A box after an airport name IFR En Route Charts with a “C” or “D” inside (e.g., ) indicates Class C and D airspace, respectively, per Figure 1-3. The objective of IFR en route flight is to navigate within the lateral limits of a designated airway at an altitude consistent Charted IFR Altitudes with the ATC clearance. Your ability to fly instruments The minimum en route altitude (MEA) ensures a navigation safely and competently in the system is greatly enhanced by signal strong enough for adequate reception by the aircraft understanding the vast array of data available to the pilot on navigation (NAV) receiver and obstacle clearance along the instrument charts. AeroNav Products maintains and produces airway. Communication is not necessarily guaranteed with the charts for the U.S. Government. MEA compliance. The obstacle clearance, within the limits of the airway, is typically 1,000 feet in non-mountainous areas En route high-altitude charts provide aeronautical information and 2,000 feet in designated mountainous areas. MEAs can for en route instrument navigation at or above 18,000 feet be authorized with breaks in the signal coverage; if this is MSL. Information includes the portrayal of Jet and RNAV the case, the AeroNav Products en route chart notes “MEA routes, identification and frequencies of radio aids, selected GAP” parallel to the affected airway. MEAs are usually airports, distances, time zones, special use airspace, and bidirectional; however, they can be single-directional. Arrows related information. Established jet routes from 18,000 feet are used to indicate the direction to which the MEA applies. MSL to FL 450 use NAVAIDs not more than 260 NM apart. The charts are revised every 56 days. The minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA), as the name suggests, provides the same obstruction clearance as To effectively depart from one airport and navigate en route an MEA; however, the NAV signal reception is ensured only under instrument conditions, a pilot needs the appropriate within 22 NM of the closest NAVAID defining the route. The IFR en route low-altitude chart(s). The IFR low altitude en MOCA is listed below the MEA and indicated on AeroNav route chart is the instrument equivalent of the sectional chart. Products charts by a leading asterisk (e.g., “*3400”—see When folded, the cover of the AeroNav Products en route Figure 1-2, V287 at bottom left). chart displays an index map of the United States showing the coverage areas. Cities near congested airspace are shown in The minimum reception altitude (MRA) identifies the lowest black type and their associated area chart is listed in the box altitude at which an intersection can be determined from in the lower left-hand corner of the map coverage box. Also an off-course NAVAID. If the reception is line-of-sight noted is an explanation of the off-route obstruction clearance based, signal coverage only extends to the MRA or above. altitude (OROCA). The effective date of the chart is printed However, if the aircraft is equipped with distance measuring on the other side of the folded chart. Information concerning equipment (DME) and the chart indicates the intersection can MTRs is also included on the chart cover. The en route charts be identified with such equipment, the pilot could define the are revised every 56 days. 1-6
Figure 1-3. En route airport legend. Figure 8-3. En route airport legend. fix without attaining the MRA. On AeroNav Products charts, Navigation Features the MRA is indicated by the symbol and the altitude Types of NAVAIDs preceded by “MRA” (e.g., “MRA 9300”). [Figure 1-2] Very high frequency omnidirectional ranges (VORs) are the principal NAVAIDs that support the Victor and Jet airways. The minimum crossing altitude (MCA) is charted when Many other navigation tools are also available to the pilot. a higher MEA route segment is approached. The MCA is For example, nondirectional beacons (NDBs) can broadcast usually indicated when a pilot is approaching steeply rising signals accurate enough to provide stand-alone approaches, terrain and obstacle clearance and/or signal reception is and DME allows the pilot to pinpoint a reporting point on the compromised. In this case, the pilot is required to initiate a airway. Though primarily navigation tools, these NAVAIDs climb so the MCA is reached by the time the intersection is can also transmit voice broadcasts. crossed. On AeroNav Products charts, the MCA is indicated by the symbol , and the Victor airway number, altitude, Tactical air navigation (TACAN) channels are represented and the direction to which it applies (e.g. “V24 8000 SE”). as the two- or three-digit numbers following the three-letter identifier in the NAVAID boxes. The AeroNav Products The maximum authorized altitude (MAA) is the highest terminal procedures provide a frequency-pairing table for altitude at which the airway can be flown with assurance the TACAN-only sites. On AeroNav Products charts, very- of receiving adequate navigation signals. Chart depictions high frequencies and ultra-high frequencies (VHF/UHF) appear as “MAA-15000.” NAVAIDs (e.g., VORs) are depicted in black, while low frequencies and medium frequencies (LF/MF) are depicted When an MEA, MOCA, and/or MAA change on a segment as brown. [Figure 1-5] other than at a NAVAID, a sideways “T” ( ) is depicted on the chart. If there is an airway break without the symbol, Identifying Intersections one can assume the altitudes have not changed (see the upper Intersections along the airway route are established by a variety left area of Figure 1-2). When a change of MEA to a higher of NAVAIDs. An open triangle indicates the location of an MEA is required, the climb may commence at the break, ATC reporting point at an intersection. If the triangle is solid ensuring obstacle clearance. [Figure 1-4] , a report is compulsory. [Figure 1-4] NDBs, localizers, 1-7
Figure 8-4b. Legend from en route low altitude chart. Figure 1-4. Legend from en route low attitude chart, air traffic services and airspace information section. 1-8
Figure 1-5. Legend from en route low Fatitgituudree c8h-a4rat.. Legend from en route low altitude chart. 1-9
and off-route VORs are used to establish intersections. NDBs the controller may provide the holding direction and the statement “as published.” [Figure 1-4] are sometimes collocated with intersections, in which case passage of the NDB would mark the intersection. A bearing to an off-route NDB also can provide intersection identification. Boundaries separating the jurisdiction of Air Route Traffic A localizer course used to identify an intersection is depicted Control Centers (ARTCC) are depicted on charts with blue by a feathered arrowhead symbol on the en route chart serrations . The name of the controlling ( ). If feathered markings appear on facility is printed on the corresponding side NAME of the division line. ARTCC remote sites are Name the left-hand side of the arrowhead ( ), depicted as blue serrated boxes and contain 000.0 000.0 a back course (BC) signal is transmitted. On AeroNav Products en route charts, the localizer symbol is only depicted to identify the center name, sector name, and the sector frequency. an intersection. [Figure 1-4] Off-route VORs remain the most common means of Weather Information and Communication Features En route NAVAIDs also provide weather information and identifying intersections when traveling on an airway. Arrows serve communication functions. When a NAVAID is shown as a shadowed box, an automated depicted next to the intersection indicate the NAVAID flight service station (AFSS) of the same name is directly associated with to be used for identification. Another means of identifying an the facility. If an AFSS is located without an associated NAVAID, the intersection is with the use of DME. A hollow arrowhead shadowed box is smaller and contains only the name and identifier. The AFSS frequencies are provided above the indicates DME is authorized for intersection identification. If box. (Frequencies 122.2 and 255.4, and emergency frequencies 121.5 and the DME mileage at the intersection is a cumulative distance 243.0 are not listed.) of route segments, the mileage is totaled and indicated by A Remote Communications Outlet (RCO) associated with a NAVAID is designated by a thin-lined box with the a D-shaped symbol with a mileage number inside . controlling AFSS frequency above the box and the name under the box. [Figure 1-4] Approved IFR global positioning system (GPS) Without an associated facility, the thin-lined RCO box contains the units can also be used to report intersections. AFSS name and remote frequency. Other Route Information Automated Surface Observing Station (ASOS), Automated Weather Observing Station DME and GPS provide valuable route information concerning (AWOS), Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS), and Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) such factors as mileage, position, and ground speed. Even are continuously transmitted over selected NAVAIDs and depicted without this equipment, information is provided on the charts in the NAVAID box. ASOS/ AWOS are depicted by a white for making the necessary calculations using time and distance. “A”, HIWAS by a “H” and TWEB broadcasts by a “T” in a solid black circle in the upper right or left corner. The en route chart depicts point-to-point distances on the New Technologies airway system. Distances from VOR to VOR are charted with Technological advances have made multifunction displays a number inside of a box . To differentiate distances when and moving maps more common in newer aircraft. Even older aircraft are being retrofitted to include “glass” in the flight two airways coincide, the word “TO” with the three-letter VOR deck. [Figure 1-6] Moving maps improve pilot situational awareness (SA) by providing a picture of aircraft location identifier appear to the left of the distance boxes . in relation to NAVAIDS, waypoints, airspace, terrain, and VOR changeover points (COPs) are depicted on the charts by this symbol . The numbers indicate the distance at which to change the VOR frequency. The frequency change might be required due to signal reception or conflicting frequencies. If a COP does not appear on an airway, the frequency should be changed midway between the facilities. A COP at an intersection may indicate a course change. Occasionally an “x” appears at a separated segment of an airway that is not an intersection. The “x” is a mileage breakdown or computer navigation fix and may indicate a course change. Today’s computerized system of ATC has greatly reduced the need for holding en route. However, published holding patterns are still found on charts at junctures where ATC has deemed it necessary to enable traffic flow. When a holding pattern is charted, Holding Pattern 1-10
NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT ______DIS __._NM DTK ___° TRK 360° 134.000 118.000 COM1 NAV2 108.00 110.60 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 123.800 118.000 COM2 23.0 130 33030000 2 120 3200 2300 1110 3100 1 100 60 1 9 2 43000000 90 20 13.7 80 270° 2900 70 VOR 1 2800 46 TAS 100KT 2300 200 3600 3500 1652 3400 1 3300 338 3X2P00DR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34 DCLTR 5 3100 OAT 7°C MAP Figure 1-6. Moving map displayM. FD provide navigation information - moving map hazardous weather. GPS systems can be certified for terminal area and en route use as well as approach guidance. Additional breakthroughs in display technology are the Figure 1-7. Example of an electronic flight bag. new electronic chart systems or electronic flight bags that facilitate the use of electronic documents in the general aviation flight deck. [Figure 1-7] An electronic chart or flight bag is a self-powered electronic library that stores and displays en route charts and other essential documents on a screen. These electronic devices can store the digitized United States terminal procedures, en route charts, the complete A/FD, in addition to 14 CFR and the AIM. Full touch-screen based computers allow pilots to view airport approach and area charts electronically while flying. With FAA approval, an operator may replace paper charts as well as other paper materials including minimum equipment lists (MELs), standard operating procedures (SOPs), standard instrument departures (SIDs), standard terminal arrival routes (STARs), checklists, and flight deck manuals. As with paper flight publications, the electronic database needs to be current to provide accurate information regarding NAVAIDS, waypoints, and terminal procedures. Databases are updated every 28 days and are available from various commercial vendors. Pilots should be familiar with equipment operation, capabilities, and limitations prior to use. 1-11
Terminal Procedures Publications analyses of obstructions, terrain features, and navigational facilities. Maneuvers, including altitude changes, course While the en route charts provide the information necessary corrections, and other limitations, are prescribed in the IAP. to safely transit broad regions of airspace, the United States The approach charts reflect the criteria associated with the Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) enables pilots to United States Standard for Terminal Instrument Approach guide their aircraft in the airport area. Whether departing or Procedures (TERPs), which prescribes standardized methods arriving, these procedures exist to make the controllers’ and for use in designing instrument flight procedures. pilots’ jobs safer and more efficient. Available in booklets by region (published by AeroNav Products), the TPP includes In addition to the AeroNav Products, other governmental approach procedures, STARs, Departure Procedures (DPs), and corporate entities produce approach procedures. The and airport diagrams. U.S. Military IAPs are established and published by the Department of Defense and are available to the public Departure Procedures upon request. Special IAPs are approved by the FAA for There are two types of DPs: Obstacle Departure Procedures individual operators and are not available to the general (ODP) and SIDs. [Figure 1-8] Both types of DPs provide public. Foreign country standard IAPs are established and obstacle clearance protection to aircraft in instrument published according to the individual country’s publication meteorological conditions (IMC), while reducing procedures. The information presented in the following communications and departure delays. DPs are published in sections highlight features of the United States TPP. text and/or charted graphic form. Regardless of the format, all DPs provide a way to depart the airport and transition to the The instrument approach chart is divided into six main en route structure safely. When possible, pilots are strongly sections, which include the margin identification, pilot encouraged to file and fly a DP at night, during marginal briefing (and notes), plan view, profile view, landing visual meteorological conditions (VMC) and IMC. minimums, and airport diagram. [Figure 1-10] An examination of each section follows. All DPs provide obstacle clearance provided the aircraft crosses the end of the runway at least 35 feet AGL; climbs Margin Identification to 400 feet above airport elevation before turning; and climbs The margin identification, at the top and bottom of the chart, at least 200 feet per nautical mile (FPNM), unless a higher depicts the airport location and procedure identification. climb gradient is specified to the assigned altitude. ATC may The civil approach plates are organized by city, then airport vector an aircraft off a previously assigned DP; however, name and state. For example, Orlando Executive in Orlando, the 200 FPNM or the FPNM specified in the DP is required. Florida, is alphabetically listed under “O” for Orlando. Military approaches are organized by airport name first. Textual ODPs are listed by city and airport in the IFR Take- Off Minimums and DPs section of the TPP. SIDs are depicted The chart’s amendment status appears below the city in the TPP following the approach procedures for the airport. and state in the bottom margin. The amendment number is followed by the five-digit julian-date of the last chart Standard Terminal Arrival Routes change.“05300” is read, “the 300th day of 2005.” At the STARs depict prescribed routes to transition the instrument center of the top margin is the FAA chart reference number pilot from the en route structure to a fix in the terminal area and the approving authority. At the bottom center, the from which an instrument approach can be conducted. If a airport’s latitude and longitude coordinates are provided. If pilot does not have the appropriate STAR, write “No STAR” a chart is original, the date of issuance can be used instead in the flight plan. However, if the controller is busy, the pilot of the julian-date. might be cleared along the same route and, if necessary, the controller has the pilot copy the entire text of the procedure. The procedure chart title (top and bottom margin area of Figure 1-10) is derived from the type of navigational facility STARs are listed alphabetically at the beginning of the providing final approach course guidance. A runway number AeroNav Products booklet. Figure 1-9 shows an example is listed when the approach course is aligned within 30º of a STAR, and the legend for STARs and DPs printed in of the runway centerline. This type of approach allows a AeroNav Products booklets. straight-in landing under the right conditions. The type of approach followed by a letter identifies approaches that do Instrument Approach Procedure Charts not have straight-in landing minimums. Examples include procedure titles at the same airport, which have only The instrument approach procedure (IAP) chart provides circling minimums. The first approach of this type created the method to descend and land safely in low visibility conditions. The FAA establishes an IAP after thorough 1-12
L1 TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES 10322 INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE CHARTS IFR TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES Civil Airports and Selected Military Airports ALL USERS: Airports that have Departure Procedures (DPs) designed specifically to assist pilots in avoiding obstacles during the climb to the minimum enroute altitude , and/or airports that have civil IFR take-off minimums other than standard, are listed below. Take-off Minimums and Departure Procedures apply to all runways unless otherwise specified. Altitudes, unless otherwise indicated, are minimum altitudes in MSL. DPs specifically designed for obstacle avoidance are referred to as Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs) and are described below in text, or published separately as a graphic procedure. If the (Obstacle) DP is published as a graphic procedure, its name will be listed below, and it can be found in either this volume (civil), or a separate Departure Procedure volume (military), as appropriate. Users will recognize graphic obstacle DPs by the term \"(OBSTACLE)\" included in the procedure title; e.g., TETON TWO (OBSTACLE). If not assigned a SID or radar vector by ATC, an ODP may be flown without ATC clearance to ensure obstacle clearance. Graphic DPs designed by ATC to standardize traffic flows, ensure aircraft separation and enhance SE-3, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 capacity are referred to as \"Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs)\". SIDs also provide obstacle clearance and are published under the appropriate airport section. ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID. 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 CIVIL USERS NOTE: Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations Part 91 prescribes standard take-off rules 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 and establishes take-off minimums for certain operators as follows: (1) Aircraft having two engines or SE-3, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 less - one statute mile. (2) Aircraft having more than two engines - one-half statute mile. These standard minima apply in the absence of any different minima listed below. MILITARY USERS NOTE: Civil (nonstandard) take-off minima are published below. For military take- off minima, refer to appropriate service directives. NAME TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS NAME TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS ADA, OK ALTUS, OK ADA MUNI (ADH) ALTUS/QUARTZ MOUNTAIN RGNL (AXS) AMDT 3 09127 (FAA) ORIG 09267 (FAA) TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwy 13, 300-1¼ or std. w/ NOTE: Rwy 35, terrain 51' from DER, 410' right of min. climb of 307' per NM to 1300. Rwy 17, 300-1¼ or centerline, 1435' MSL. Trees beginning 1215' from DER, std. w/ min. climb of 326' per NM to 1300. 765' left of centerline, up to 40' AGL/1470' MSL. DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 17, climb heading 174° to 1600 before proceeding on course. ALTUS AFB (KLTS) ALTUS, OK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .09295 NOTE: Rwy 13, bush 316' from DER, 43' right of TAKE-OFF OBSTACLES: 174° Assault Strip, Aircraft centerline, 9' AGL/988' MSL. Tower 5477' from DER, taxiing 87' from DER, 360' left of centerline, 65' AGL/ 1425' MSL, aircraft taxiing between 1038' and 2525' from 872' left of centerline, 120' AGL/1117' MSL. Post 123' DER, 717' left of centerline, 65' AGL/1425' MSL. from DER, 73' right of centerline, 3' AGL/982' MSL. Tower 1.08 NM from DER, 9' left of centerline, 160' AGL/1160' MSL. Rwy 17, tower 1.02 NM from DER, 1411' right of centerline, 165' AGL/1165' MSL. Pole ALVA, OK ALVA RGNL 1017' from DER, 449' left of centerline, 90' AGL/1053' DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwys 8, 35, climb on MSL. Trees beginning 83' from DER, 272' left of runway heading to 2000 before turning. centerline, up to 82' AGL/1041' MSL. Trees beginning 32' from DER, 100' right of centerline, up to 58' AGL/ 1037' MSL. Rwy 31, trees beginning 2179' from DER, 988' right of centerline, up to 64' AGL/1083' MSL. Obstruction light on amom 703' from DER, 548' right of centerline, 6' AGL/1042' MSL. Rwy 35, trees beginning 75' from DER, 72' left of centerline, up to 56' AGL/1065' MSL. Trees beginning 132' from DER, 261' right of centerline, up to 51' AGL/1050' MSL. 10322 TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES SC-1 L1 1-13 Figure 1-8. Obstacle departure procedures (ODP) and standard instrument departures (SID).
SE-3, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 201116 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 SE-3, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 Figure 1-9. DP chart legend and STAR. 1-14
Issuing authority Procedure ID City/airport PILOT BRIEFING AND Coverage area/ PROCEDURE NOTES effective date PLAN VIEW SE-3, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 SE-3, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 AIRPORT DIAGRAM PROFILE MINIMUMS Amendment # Latitude/longitude coordinates Figure 1-10. Instrument approach chart. 1-15
at the airport is labeled with the letter A, and the lettering When a triangle containing a “T” ( ) appears in the notes continues in alphabetical order (e.g., “VOR-A or “LDA-B”). section, it signifies the airport has nonstandard IFR takeoff The letter designation signifies the expectation is for the minimums. Pilots should refer to the DPs section of the TPP procedure to culminate in a circling approach to land. As a to determine takeoff minimums. general rule, circling-only approaches are designed for one of the two following reasons: When a triangle containing an “A” ( ) appears in the notes section, it signifies the airport has nonstandard IFR alternate • The final approach course alignment with the runway minimums. Civil pilots should refer to the Alternate Minimums centerline exceeds 30º. Section of the TPP to determine alternate minimums. Military pilots should refer to appropriate regulations. • The descent gradient is greater than 400 FPNM from the final approach fix (FAF) to the threshold crossing When a triangle containing an “A” NA ( ) appears in height (TCH). When this maximum gradient is exceeded, the circling-only approach procedure may the notes area, it signifies that Alternate Minimums are Not be designed to meet the gradient criteria limits. Authorized due to unmonitored facility or the absence of Further information on this topic can be found in the Instrument Procedures Handbook, Chapter 4, under weather reporting service. Approach Naming Chart Conventions. Communication frequencies are listed in the order in which To distinguish between the left, right, and center runways, they would be used during the approach. Frequencies for an “L,” “R,” or “C” follows the runway number (e.g., “ILS weather and related facilities are included, where applicable, RWY 16R”). In some cases, an airport might have more than such as ATIS, ASOS, AWOS, and AFSSs. one circling approach, shown as VOR-A, VOR/DME-B, etc. The Plan View More than one navigational system separated by a slash The plan view provides a graphical overhead view of the indicates more than one type of equipment is required to procedure and depicts the routes that guide the pilot from execute the final approach (e.g., VOR/DME RWY 31). the en route segments to the initial approach fix (IAF). More than one navigational system separated by “or” [Figure 1-10] During the initial approach, the aircraft has indicates either type of equipment may be used to execute departed the en route phase of flight and is maneuvering to enter the final approach (e.g., VOR or GPS RWY 15). Multiple an intermediate or final segment of the instrument approach. approaches of the same type, to the same runway and using An initial approach can be made along prescribed routes within the same guidance, have an additional letter from the end of the terminal area, which may be along an arc, radial, course, the alphabet, number, or term in the title (e.g., ILS Z RWY heading, radar vector, or a combination thereof. Procedure turns 28, SILVER ILS RWY 28, or ILS 2 RWY 28). VOR/DME and high-altitude teardrop penetrations are initial approach RNAV approaches are identified as VOR/DME RNAV segments. Features of the plan view, including the procedure RWY (runway number). Helicopters have special IAPs turn, obstacle elevation, minimum safe altitude (MSA), and designated with COPTER in the procedure identification procedure track are depicted in Figure 1-11. Terrain is depicted (e.g., COPTER LOC/DME 25L). Other types of navigation in the plan view portion of all IAPs if the terrain within the systems may be required to execute other portions of the plan view exceeds 4,000 feet above the airport elevation, or if approach prior to intercepting the final approach segment within a 6 NM radius of the airport reference point the terrain or during the missed approach. rises at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation. The Pilot Briefing Some AeroNav Products charts contain a reference or The pilot briefing is located at the top of the chart and distance circle with a specified radius (10 NM is most provides the pilot with information required to complete common). Normally, approach features within the plan the published approach procedure. Included in the pilot view are shown to scale; however, only the data within the briefing are the NAVAID providing approach guidance, reference circle is always drawn to scale. its frequency, the final approach course, and runway information. A notes section contains additional procedural Concentric dashed circles, or concentric rings around the information. For example, a procedural note might indicate distance circle, are used when the information necessary to restrictions for circling maneuvers. Some other notes might the procedure will not fit to scale within the limits of the plan concern a local altimeter setting and the resulting change view area. They serve as a means to systematically arrange in the minimums. The use of RADAR may also be noted in this information in its relative position outside and beyond this section. Additional notes may be found in the plan view. the reference circle. These concentric rings are labeled en route facilities and feeder facilities. 1-16
PILOT BRIEFING INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (CHARTS) AND Additional equipment PROCEDURE NOTES requirement PLAN VIEW NAVAID ID Highest obstacle Obstacle SE-2, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 IAF SE-2, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 Main procedure Holding pattern No procedure turn AIRPORT Main procedure DIAGRAM Nonprecision FAF PROFILE MINIMUMS 1-17 Figure 1-11. IAP plan view and symbol legends.
The primary airport depicted in the plan view is drawn using a thin, hash marked line with a directional arrow with enough detail to show the runway orientation and final ( ). A visual flightpath segment approach course alignment. Airports other than the primary appears as a thick dashed line with a directional arrow approach airport are not normally depicted in the AeroNav (Visual Flightpath ). IAFs are charted IAF when associated Products plan view. with a NAVAID or when freestanding. Known spot elevations are indicated on the plan view with a The missed approach holding pattern track is represented with dot in MSL altitude. The largest dot and number combination a thin, dashed line. When collocated, the missed approach indicates the highest elevation. An inverted “V” with a dot in holding pattern and procedure turn holding pattern are the center depicts an obstacle ( ). The highest obstacle is indicated as a solid, black line. Arrival holding patterns are indicated with a bolder, larger version of the same symbol. depicted as thin, solid lines. [Figure 1-11] Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) The MSA circle appears in the plan view, except in approaches for which the Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) format is used or The design objective of the TAA procedure is to provide appropriate NAVAIDs (e.g., VOR or NDB) are unavailable. a transition method for arriving aircraft with GPS/RNAV The MSA is provided for emergency purposes only and equipment. TAAs also eliminate or reduce the need for guarantees 1,000 feet obstruction clearance in the sector feeder routes, departure extensions, and procedure turns or indicated with reference to the bearings in the circle. For course reversal. The TAA is controlled airspace established conventional navigation systems, the MSA is normally based in conjunction with the standard or modified RNAV on the primary omnidirectional facility (NAVAID) on which approach configurations. the IAP is predicated. The MSA depiction on the approach chart contains the facility The standard TAA has three areas: straight-in, left base, and identifier of the NAVAID used to determine right base. The arc boundaries of the three areas of the TAA the MSA altitudes. For RNAV approaches, are published portions of the approach and allow aircraft to the MSA is based on the runway waypoint for transition from the en route structure direct to the nearest straight-in approaches or the airport waypoint IAF. When crossing the boundary of each of these areas or for circling approaches. For GPS approaches, the MSA center when released by ATC within the area, the pilot is expected header is the missed approach waypoint. The MSL altitudes to proceed direct to the appropriate waypoint IAF for the appear in boxes within the circle, which is typically a 25 NM approach area being flown. A pilot has the option in all areas radius unless otherwise indicated. The MSA circle header of proceeding directly to the holding pattern. refers to the letter identifier of the NAVAID or waypoint that describes the center of the circle. The TAA has a “T” structure that normally provides a No Procedure Turn (NoPT) for aircraft using the approach. NAVAIDs necessary for the completion of the instrument [Figure 1-12] The TAA provides the pilot and air traffic procedure include the facility name, letter identifier, and controller with an efficient method for routing traffic from Morse code sequence. They may also furnish the frequency, the en route to the terminal structure. The basic “T” contained Morse code, and channel. A heavy-lined NAVAID box in the TAA normally aligns the procedure on runway depicts the primary NAVAID used for the approach. An centerline with the missed approach point (MAP) located “I” in front of the NAVAID identifier (in Figure 1-11, at the threshold, the FAF 5 NM from the threshold, and the “I-AVL”) listed in the NAVAID box indicates a localizer. intermediate fix (IF) 5 NM from the FAF. The requirement for an ADF, DME, or RADAR in the approach is noted in the plan view. In order to accommodate descent from a high en route altitude to the initial segment altitude, a hold in lieu of a procedure Intersections, fixes, radials, and course lines describe route turn provides the aircraft with an extended distance for the necessary descent gradient. The holding pattern constructed for and approach sequencing information. The main procedure this purpose is always established on the center IAF waypoint. Other modifications may be required for parallel runways or or final approach course is a thick, solid line ( ). special operational requirements. When published, the RNAV chart depicts the TAA through the use of icons representing A DME arc, which is part of the main procedure course, each TAA associated with the RNAV procedure. These icons are depicted in the plan view of the approach, generally is also represented as a thick, solid line ( ). A arranged on the chart in accordance with their position relative to the aircraft’s arrival from the en route structure. feeder route is depicted with a medium line ( ) and provides heading, altitude, and distance information. (All three components must be designated on the chart to provide a navigable course.) Radials, such as lead radials, are shown by thin lines ( ). The missed approach track is drawn 1-18
PILOT BRIEFING INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (CHARTS) AND PROCEDURE NOTES Missed approach text PLAN VIEW SC-4, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 SC-4, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 AIRPORT Nonprecision approaches (FAF) Missed approach icons DIAGRAM PROFILE MINIMUMS 1-19 Figure 1-12. Basic “T” design of terminal arrival area (TAA) and legend.
Course Reversal Elements in Plan View and procedure turn altitude begins after the aircraft is established Profile View on the inbound course. Course reversals included in an IAP are depicted in one of three different ways: a 45°/180° procedure turn, a holding The procedure turn is not required when the symbol “NoPT” pattern in lieu of procedure turn, or a teardrop procedure. appears, when radar vectoring to the final approach is The maneuvers are required when it is necessary to reverse provided, when conducting a timed approach, or when the direction to establish the aircraft inbound on an intermediate procedure turn is not authorized. Pilots should contact the or final approach course. Components of the required appropriate ATC facility when in doubt if a procedure turn procedure are depicted in the plan view and the profile view. is required. The maneuver must be completed within the distance and at the minimum altitude specified in the profile view. Pilots Holding in Lieu of Procedure Turn should coordinate with the appropriate ATC facility relating A holding pattern in lieu of a procedure turn may be specified to course reversal during the IAP. for course reversal in some procedures. [Figure 1-14] In such cases, the holding pattern is established over an intermediate Procedure Turns fix (IF) or a FAF. The holding pattern distance or time specified in the profile view must be observed. Maximum A procedure turn barbed arrow indicates holding airspeed limitations as set forth for all holding patterns apply. The holding pattern maneuver is completed the direction or side of the outbound course on which when the aircraft is established on the inbound course after executing the appropriate entry. If cleared for the approach the procedure turn is made. [Figure 1-13] Headings are prior to returning to the holding fix and the aircraft is at the prescribed altitude, additional circuits of the holding pattern provided for course reversal using the 45° procedure turn. are neither necessary nor expected by ATC. If pilots elect to make additional circuits to lose excessive altitude or to However, the point at which the turn may be commenced, become better established on course, it is their responsibility to advise ATC upon receipt of their approach clearance. and the type and rate of turn is left to the discretion of the When holding in lieu of a procedure turn, the holding pattern must be followed, except when RADAR VECTORING to pilot. Some of the options are the 45° procedure turn, the the final approach course is provided or when NoPT is shown on the approach course. racetrack pattern, the teardrop procedure turn, or the 80°/260° course reversal. The absence of the procedure turn barbed arrow in the plan view indicates that a procedure turn is not authorized for that procedure. A maximum procedure turn speed of not greater than 200 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) should be observed when turning outbound over the IAF and throughout the procedure turn maneuver to ensure staying within the obstruction clearance area. The normal procedure turn distance is 10 NM. This may be reduced to a minimum of 5 NM where only Category A or helicopter aircraft are operated, or increased to as much as 15 NM to accommodate high performance aircraft. Descent below the Figure 1-14. HoldHionlgdiinngliienuLoiefuporof cPerodcuerdeuturernT.urn C-1, 31 AUG 2006 to 28 SEP 2006 Figure 1-13. 45° procedPurroecetudrunr.e Turns 1-20
Teardrop Procedure altitude for crossing the FAF when the GS is inoperative or not used. Precision approach profiles also depict the GS When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted and a course angle of descent, threshold crossing height (TCH), and GS reversal is required, unless otherwise authorized by ATC, altitude at the outer marker (OM). this type of procedure must be executed. [Figure 1-15] The teardrop procedure consists of departure from an IAF on the For nonprecision approaches, a final descent is initiated and published outbound course followed by a turn toward and the final segment begins at either the FAF or the final approach intercepting the inbound course at or prior to the intermediate point (FAP). The FAF is identified by use of the Maltese cross fix or point. Its purpose is to permit an aircraft to reverse symbol in the profile view ( ). [Figure 1-11] When no FAF direction and lose considerable altitude within reasonably is depicted, the final approach point is the point at which the limited airspace. Where no fix is available to mark the aircraft is established inbound on the final approach course. beginning of the intermediate segment, it shall be assumed [Figure 1-16] to commence at a point 10 NM prior to the FAF. When the facility is located on the airport, an aircraft is considered Stepdown fixes in nonprecision procedures are provided to be on final approach upon completion of the penetration between the FAF and the airport for authorizing a lower turn. However, the final approach segment begins on the final minimum descent altitude (MDA) after passing an approach course 10 NM from the facility. obstruction. Stepdown fixes can be identified by NAVAID, NAVAID fix, waypoint, or radar and are depicted by a hash marked line ( ). Normally, there is only one stepdown fix between the FAF and the MAP, but there can be several. If the stepdown fix cannot be identified for any reason, the minimum altitude at the stepdown fix becomes the MDA for the approach. However, circling minimums apply if they are higher than the stepdown fix minimum altitude, and a circling approach is required. The visual descent point (VDP) is a defined point on the final approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach procedure. A normal descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be commenced, provided visual reference is established. The VDP is identified on the profile view of the approach chart by the symbol “V.” [Figure 1-12] Figure 1-15. Teardrop pDroocthedaunrTee.ardrop The MAP varies depending upon the approach flown. For the ILS, the MAP is at the decision altitude/decision height The Profile View (DA/DH). For nonprecision procedures, the pilot determines The profile view is a depiction of the procedure from the side the MAP by timing from FAF when the approach aid is away and illustrates the vertical approach path altitudes, headings, from the airport, by a fix or NAVAID when the navigation distances, and fixes. [Figures 1-10, 1-11, and 1-12] The facility is located on the field, or by waypoints as defined view includes the minimum altitude and the maximum by GPS or VOR/DME RNAV. The pilot may execute the distance for the procedure turn, altitudes over prescribed MAP early, but pilots should, unless otherwise cleared by fixes, distances between fixes, and the missed approach ATC, fly the IAP as specified on the approach plate to the procedure. The profile view aids in the pilot’s interpretation MAP at or above the MDA or DA/DH before executing a of the IAP. The profile view is not drawn to scale. turning maneuver. [Figures 1-10, 1-11, 1-12, and 1-16] A complete description of the MAP appears in the pilot The precision approach glideslope (GS) intercept altitude briefing section. [Figure 1-16] Icons indicating what is to is a minimum altitude for GS interception after completion be accomplished at the MAP are located in the profile view. of the procedure turn, illustrated by an altitude number and When initiating a missed approach, the pilot is directed to “zigzag” line. It applies to precision approaches, and except climb straight ahead (e.g., “Climb to 2,000”) or commence where otherwise prescribed, also applies as a minimum a turning climb to a specified altitude (e.g., “Climbing right turn to 2,000.”). In some cases, the procedure directs the pilot to climb straight ahead to an initial altitude, then turn or enter 1-21
1-22 PILOT BRIEFING Glideslope outer marker altitude speed AND FAF Maltese cross Glideslope descent angle PROCEDURE NOTES PLAN VIEW Glideslope intercept for full ILS SC-4, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 SC-4, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 AIRPORT DIAGRAM PROFILE MAP 0.4 NM from Stepdown fix—cannot descend from 5,300' until 4 DME from LMT is identified. runway for obstacle clearance MINI- MUMS Figure 1-16. More IAP profile view features.
a climbing turn to the holding altitude (e.g., “Climb to 900, two sets of minimums may be published depending upon then climbing right turn to 2,500 direct ABC VOR and hold.”) how the fix can be identified. Two sets of minimums may also be published when a second altimeter source is used When the MAP specifies holding at a facility or fix, the pilot in the procedure. The minimums ensure that final approach proceeds according to the missed approach track and pattern obstacle clearance is provided from the start of the final depicted on the plan view. An alternate MAP may also be segment to the runway or MAP, whichever occurs last. The issued by ATC. The textual description also specifies the same minimums apply to both day and night operations unless NAVAID(s) or radials that identify the holding fix. different minimums are specified in the notes section of the pilot briefing. Published circling minimums provide obstacle The profile view also depicts minimum, maximum, clearance when pilots remain within the appropriate area of recommended, and mandatory block altitudes used in protection. [Figure 1-18] approaches. The minimum altitude is depicted with the altitude underscored ( ). On final approach, aircraft are Minimums are specified for various aircraft approach required to maintain an altitude at or above the depicted categories based upon a value 1.3 times the stalling speed altitude until reaching the subsequent fix. The maximum of the aircraft in the landing configuration at maximum altitude is depicted with the altitude overscored ( ), certified gross landing weight. If it is necessary to maneuver and aircraft must remain at or below the depicted altitude. at speeds in excess of the upper limit of a speed range for a Mandatory altitudes are depicted with the altitude both category, the minimums for the next higher category should underscored and overscored ( ), and altitude is to be be used. For example, an aircraft that falls into category maintained at the depicted value. Recommended altitudes A, but is circling to land at a speed in excess of 91 knots, are advisory altitudes and are neither over- nor underscored. should use approach category B minimums when circling When an over- or underscore spans two numbers, a to land. [Figure 1-19] mandatory block altitude is indicated, and aircraft are required to maintain altitude within the range of the two The minimums for straight-in and circling appear directly numbers. [Figures 1-11 and 1-12] under each aircraft category. [Figure 1-19] When there is no solid division line between minimums for each category The Vertical Descent Angle (VDA) found on nonprecision on the rows for straight-in or circling, the minimums apply approach charts provides the pilot with information required to the two or more categories. to establish a stabilized approach descent from the FAF or stepdown fix to the TCH. [Figure 1-17] Pilots can use the The terms used to describe the minimum approach altitudes published angle and estimated or actual groundspeed to find differ between precision and nonprecision approaches. a target rate of descent using the rate of descent table in the Precision approaches use DH, which is referenced to the back of the TPP. height above threshold elevation (HAT). Nonprecision approaches use MDA, referenced to “feet MSL.” The MDA is also referenced to HAT for straight-in approaches, or height above airport (HAA) for circling approaches. On AeroNav Products charts, the figures listed parenthetically are for military operations and are not used in civil aviation. Figure 1F-in1a7.l AVpeprtriocaalchdeAsncgenlet faonrgVleer(tVicDalAP)a.th Computers Visibility figures are provided in statute miles or runway visual range (RVR), which is reported in hundreds of feet. Landing Minimums RVR is measured by a transmissometer, which represents the The minimums section sets forth the lowest altitude and horizontal distance measured at points along the runway. It visibility requirements for the approach, whether precision is based on the sighting of either high intensity runway lights or nonprecision, straight-in or circling, or radar vectored. or on the visual contrast of other targets, whichever yields When a fix is incorporated in a nonprecision final segment, the greater visual range. RVR is horizontal visual range, not slant visual range, and is used in lieu of prevailing visibility in determining minimums for a particular runway. It is illustrated in hundreds of feet if less than a mile (i.e., “24” is an RVR of 2,400 feet). [Figures 1-19 and 1-20] Visibility figures are depicted after the DA/DH or MDA in the minimums section. If visibility in statute miles is indicated, 1-23
1-24 INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (CHARTS)16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 Vertical descent angle Figure 1-18. IAP profile legend. 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 AIRPORT SE-2, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 PLAN VIEW PILOT BRIEFING DIAGRAM AND PROCEDURE NOTES MINIMUMS PROFILE SE-2, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011
1-25 Figure 1-19. Descent rate table. 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 MINIMUMS PROFILE SE-3, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 PLAN VIEW PILOT BRIEFING AND PROCEDURE NOTES RVR AIRPORT SE-3, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 DIAGRAM
1-26 All minima step in parentheses not applicable to Civil Pilots. Military Pilots refer to appropriate regulations. 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 201116 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 Figure 1-20. Terms/landing minima data.
an altitude number, hyphen, and a whole or fractional By knowing the layout of the airport and their particular number appear; for example, 530-1, which indicates “530 procedures, pilots are able to anticipate, understand, and feet MSL” and 1 statute mile visibility. This is the descent safely execute all ATC directives and procedures. A major minimum for the approach. The RVR value is separated contributor to runway incursions is pilots not knowing from the minimum altitude with a slash, such as “1065/24,” the airport layout and procedures. This lack of situational which indicates 1,065 feet MSL and an RVR of 2,400 feet. awareness causes unnecessary accidents that can be avoided If RVR is prescribed for the procedure, but not available, a by proper flight planning. The FAA believes that following conversion table is used to provide the equivalent visibility the aircraft’s progress on the airport diagram to be sure that in this case, of ½ statute mile visibility. [Figure 1-20] The the instructions received from ATC are being followed is conversion table is also available in the TPP. one of the key procedures in reducing runway incursions. To do this, pilots must take the time prior to the flight to study When an alternate airport is required, standard IFR alternate all procedures so that they are not trying to learn about the airport while they are receiving ATC instructions. minimums apply. For aircraft other than helicopters, precision The airport sketch, located on the bottom of the chart, includes approach procedures require a 600-feet ceiling and 2 statute many helpful features. IAPs for some of the larger airports devote an entire page to an airport diagram. Airport sketch miles visibility; nonprecision approaches require an 800-feet information concerning runway orientation, lighting, final approach bearings, airport beacon, and obstacles all serve to ceiling and 2 statute miles visibility. Helicopter alternate guide the pilot in the final phases of flight. See Figure 1-21 for a legend of airport diagram/airport sketch features (see also minimums are a ceiling that is 200 feet above the minimum Figure 1-10 for an example of an airport diagram). for the approach to be flown and visibility of at least 1 The airport elevation is indicated in a separate box at the top left of the airport sketch. The touchdown zone elevation statute mile, but not less than the minimum visibility for the (TDZE), which is the highest elevation within the first 3,000 feet of the runway, is designated at the approach end of the approach to be flown. When a black triangle with a white “A” procedure’s runway. appears in the notes section of the pilot briefing, it indicates Beneath the airport sketch is a time and speed table when applicable. The table provides the distance and the amount non-standard IFR alternate minimums exist for the airport. of time required to transit the distance from the FAF to the MAP for selected groundspeeds. If an “NA” appears after the “A” ( ), then alternate The approach lighting systems and the visual approach lights minimums are not authorized. This information is found in are depicted on the airport sketch. White on black symbols ( ) are used for identifying pilot-controlled lighting (PCL). the beginning of the TPP. Runway lighting aids are also noted (e.g., REIL, HIRL), as is the runway centerline lighting (RCL). [Figure 1-22] In addition to the COPTER approaches, instrument- equipped helicopters may fly standard approach procedures. The airport diagram shows the paved runway configuration The required visibility minimum may be reduced to one-half in solid black, while the taxiways and aprons are shaded the published visibility minimum for category A aircraft, gray. Other runway environment features are shown, such but in no case may it be reduced to less than ¼ mile or as the runway identification, dimensions, magnetic heading, 1,200 feet RVR. displaced threshold, arresting gear, usable length, and slope. Two terms are specific to helicopters. Height above landing Inoperative Components (HAL) means height above a designated helicopter landing Certain procedures can be flown with inoperative components. area used for helicopter IAPs. “Point in space approach” According to the Inoperative Components Table, for refers to a helicopter IAP to a MAP more than 2,600 feet example, an instrument landing system (ILS) approach from an associated helicopter landing area. with a malfunctioning Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights (MALSR = Airport Sketch /Airport Diagram MALS with RAIL) can be flown if the minimum visibility is Prior to all flights, pilots should take the time and study the airport layout for all of the airports that they intend to land, including those that may be used as an alternate. During the flight planning phase, study the taxi procedures for the departure airport and landing procedures for the arrival airport. The expected taxi route should be checked against the airport diagram or taxi chart, and special attention should be given to the unique or complex intersections along the taxi route. Pilots should identify critical times and locations on the taxi route (e.g., transitioning through complex intersections, crossing intervening runways, entering and lining up on the runway for takeoff, and approaching and lining up on the runway for landing). 1-27
1-28 INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (CHARTS)16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 Figure 1-21. Airport legend and diagram. 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 MINIMUMS PROFILE SE-4, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 PLAN VIEW PILOT BRIEFING AND PROCEDURE NOTES AIRPORT SE-4, 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 DIAGRAM
INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (CHARTS) INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (CHARTS) 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 201116 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 16 DEC 2010 to 13 JAN 2011 1-29 Figure 1-22. Approach lighting legend.
increased by ¼ mile. [Figure 1-23] A note in this section 2. MDA continues to be used only for the LNAV and might read, “Inoperative Table does not apply to ALS or circling procedures. HIRL Runway 13L.” 3. TCH has been traditionally used in precision RNAV Instrument Approach Charts approaches as the height of the GS above threshold. To avoid unnecessary duplication and proliferation of With publication of LNAV/VNAV minimums and approach charts, approach minimums for unaugmented RNAV descent angles, including graphically depicted GPS, Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), Local descent profiles, TCH also applies to the height of the Area Augmentation System (LAAS) are published on “descent angle,” or glidepath, at the threshold. Unless the same approach chart as lateral navigation/vertical otherwise required for larger type aircraft that may be navigation (LNAV/VNAV). Other types of equipment using the IAP, the typical TCH is 30 to 50 feet. may be authorized to conduct the approach based on the minima notes in the front of the TPP approach chart books. The minima format changes slightly: Approach charts titled “RNAV RWY XX” may be used by aircraft with navigation systems that meet the required 1. Each line of minima on the RNAV IAP is titled to navigational performance (RNP) values for each segment reflect the RNAV system applicable (e.g., LPV, LNAV/ of the approach. [Figure 1-24] VNAV, and LNAV). Circling minima is also provided. The chart may contain as many as four lines of approach 2. The minima title box also indicates the nature of the minimums: global landing system (GLS), WAAS and LAAS, minimum altitude for the IAP. For example: DA is LNAV/VNAV, LNAV, and circling. LNAV/VNAV is an published next to the minima line title for minimums instrument approach with lateral and vertical guidance with supporting vertical guidance, and MDA is published integrity limits similar to barometric vertical navigation where the minima line supports only lateral guidance. (BARO VNAV). During an approach where an MDA is used, descent below MDA is not authorized. RNAV procedures that incorporate a final approach stepdown fix may be published without vertical navigation on a separate 3. Where two or more systems share the same minima, chart also titled RNAV. During a transition period when GPS each line of minima is displayed separately. procedures are undergoing revision to a new title, both RNAV and GPS approach charts and formats are published. ATC For more information concerning government charts, the clearance for the RNAV procedure authorizes a properly AeroNav Products can be contacted by telephone or via their certificated pilot to utilize any landing minimums for which internet address at: the aircraft is certified. National Aeronautical Navigation Products (AeroNav Products) Telephone 800-626-3677 www.aeronav.faa.gov Chart terminology changes slightly to support the new procedure types: 1. DA replaces the term DH. DA conforms to the international convention where altitudes relate to MSL and heights relate to AGL. DA will eventually be published for other types of IAPs with vertical guidance, as well. DA indicates to the pilot that the published descent profile is flown to the DA (MSL), where a missed approach is initiated if visual references for landing are not established. Obstacle clearance is provided to allow a momentary descent below DA while transitioning from the final approach to the missed approach. The aircraft is expected to follow the missed approach instructions while continuing along the published final approach course to at least the published runway threshold waypoint or MAP (if not at the threshold) before executing any turns. 1-30
Figure 1-23. IAP inoperative components table. 1-31
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