Concise Islamic History

630 Prior to the conquest of Mecca, a few occasions occurred. In 628 C.E., the Prophet Muhammad PBUH set out with around 1400 Muslims from Medina to perform umrah, the minor journey. When they achieved the edges of Mecca, the Prophet sent an emissary to the Meccans illuminating them that the Muslims were not coming to battle but rather coming to play out a custom. The Muslims were not allowed to play out the journey that year, but rather an understanding was come to between the Muslims and Quraysh. This understanding was known as the Treaty of Hudaybiyah. As indicated by the arrangement, the Muslims would put off their journey to the next year. At the point when the Muslims returned for the journey, the Meccans would clear the city so that the Muslims could play out the custom gently. Likewise, all the Arab tribes would align themselves with the

Meccans or the Muslims and shield the particular side ought to there be an assault. At long last, the arrangement illustrated an arrangement for a long time of peace between the two sides, keeping any gore. Both sides clung to the bargain at first. In any case, after two years there was an infringement of the understanding. One of the tribes aligned with the Meccans assaulted and executed a few individuals from a tribe aligned with the Muslims. This episode disintegrated the settlement.. At the point when the Muslims returned for the journey, the Meccans would clear the city so that the Muslims could play out the custom gently. Likewise, all the Arab tribes would align themselves with the Meccans or the Muslims and shield the particular side ought to there be an assault. At long last, the arrangement illustrated an arrangement for a long time of peace between the two sides, keeping any gore. Both sides clung to the bargain at first. In any case, after two years there was an infringement of the understanding. One of the tribes aligned with the Meccans assaulted and executed a few individuals from a tribe aligned with the Muslims. This episode disintegrated the settlement. During that period the Muslims had turned into an imposing power thus in 630 C.E. the Prophet Muhammad chosen to take a multitude of 10,000 towards Mecca. Once the Muslims had achieved Mecca, the pioneers of Quraysh surrendered. At long last, the success was a pivotal turning point since it built up Islam on the Arabian Peninsula, from that point it spread to end up noticeably a noteworthy world religion. Many Muslims protested at the conclusion of the agreement. Among the protestors was Hazrat Umar bin al-Khattab, for what, he thought, the toleration and resilience on the part of the Messenger (saw.). The protestors found fault with the agreement till the revelation of the Qura'nic Surah of al-Fath (the victory) which after its signing disclosed the philosophy of the agreement.

628 Treaty of Hudaybiyah It was a sweeping victory for the Muslims and their Message. So great was the positive effects of the agreement on the historical movement of Islam that it opened closed doors for the Muslims to convey their da'wah to non-Quraishi Arabs, building and solidifying their state and strengthening their nascent community against the pressures being exerted by the Quraish on the Muslims, including their wars. With the narration of Abu Dawud, and Sahih Bukhari, we can gather the following facts: 1. The agreement was in regards to men only. 2. The treaty agreement and Umm Kulthum incident happened at the same time, (few hours apart or the next day) in the 6th year of Hijri. 3. The Prophet (p) rejected returning believing woman on grounds that they were not part of the treaty. 4. Silence – Quraysh says nothing against the Prophet’s refusal on grounds that only men were included. The treaty agreement continues. 5. Straight after this, Abu Basir is wanted by the Quraysh. They ask the Prophet to send him back to them, the Prophet sends the man Abu Basir back to the Quraysh, as it was part of the treaty agreement. ‘THE TRUCE REMAINED IN EFFECT FOR SOME 17 OR 18 MONTHS. But then Banu Bakr attacked Khuza’a at night at a well called al-Watir, close to Mecca. Quraysh, thinking that because it was night and that they would not be observed, assisted Banu Bakr by providing horses and weapons, and fought along with them in order to express their hatred for the Messenger of God (SAW). Then Budayl b. Warq went with a group of Khuza’a to the Messenger of God (SAAS) and told how they had

BEEN ATTACKED AND HOW QURAYSH HAD JOINED WITH BANU BAKR AGAINST THEM.” (The Life of the Prophet Muhammed (‘Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya’) [Translated by Professor Trevor Le Gassick, Garnet Publishing – Copyright 2000, The Center for Muslim Contribution To civilization], by Ibn Kathir, volume 3, page 377 – 399) At first many of the companions were opposed to this treaty and considered its clauses unfair and biased against the Muslims. But with time they, perceived its positive results and beneficial effects. Among them were: 1. The Quraysh's acknowledgement of the Muslim state - for an agreement can only be drawn up between two equals. This had its effect on the other tribes. 2. Fear was introduced into the hearts of the polytheists and hypocrites and many of them now expected that Islam would triumph. Signs of this were apparent in its acceptance by a number of prominent Qurayshites such as Khalid ibn al-Waleed (may Allah be pleased with them)and `Amr ibn al-`Aas(may Allah be pleased with them).

3. The opportunity was increased to spread Islam and make it known to people, which led to its acceptance by many of the tribes. 4. The Muslims were no longer in danger from the Quraysh, so they could concentrate on the threat from the Jews and other hostile tribes. Thus, the battle of Khaybar took place after the treaty of Hudaybiyah. 5. Negotiations leading to the treaty allowed the allies of Quraysh to understand the position of the Muslims and sympathize with it. When al-Hulays ibn `Alqamah saw them reciting the talbiyah for `Umrah, he returned to his associates and said, \"I saw the sacrificial animals garlanded and marked, so I do not think they should be prevented from the House of Allah.\" 6. The treaty of Hudaybiyah enabled the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah upon him) to prepare for the battle of Mu'tah, which was a new step in extending the call to Islam outside the Arabian Peninsula.

7. The treaty of Hudaybiyah enabled the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah upon him) to send letters to the rulers of the Persians, Byzantines and Copts, inviting them to Islam. 8. The treaty of Hudaybiyah led directly to the conquest of Makkah. Following the peaceful armistice at Hudaibiyah, Islam increased by leaps and bounds. Quraish had lost three battles against the Muslims and people were now beginning to foresee the eventual triumph of Islam. Thus began the conversion to Islam in the thousands. The Prophet (peace be upon him) entered Makkah the following year with 2000 pilgrims alongside him, an increase of 600 from the previous year. The treaty is referred to in the 48th “surah”, or chapter, of the Qur’an. Practically, there remained virtually no enemies to Islam in Makkah. The Makkan leadership, which had previously banned his entry to the city in the sixth year following his immigration, welcomed him as their head within 22 months, thus highlighting the great achievement of the Hudaibiyah treaty. This honorable Surah was revealed after the Messenger of Allah returned from the area of Al-Hudaybiyyah, during the month of Dhul- Qa`dah, in the sixth year of Hijrah. Allah the Exalted and Most Honored revealed this Surah about what occurred between him and the idolators. Allah declared the Al-Hudaybiyyah peace treaty a manifest victory, because of the benefits peace would carry and the good results that did originate from it The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) had thus achieved his divine mission. While he embraced slaves such as Bilal bin Rabah, Zaid bin Hartha and Wahshi, he was also able to cultivate the ruling elite. He nine important letters to the rulers of leading empires and prominent kingdoms including King Najashi, ruler of Abyssinia, Emperor Heraclius

of Rome, Emperor Chosroes of Persia, King Makawkas of Egypt, Hauza bin Ali, the ruler of Yamamah in Yemen, the ruler of Busra in Jordon, Harith bin Shammar, ruler of Damascus, Manzar bin Sawi, ruler of Bahrain and Jeefar, ruler of Oman. Prophet Muhammad PBUH took his first true Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca and in March, 632, he delivered his last and famous sermon at Mount Arafat. Upon his return to Medina he fell ill for several days and spent his last days with ‘A’isha RA. Thus the final messenger sent to humanity died at the age of 63 years in the 10th year of the Hijrah (migration) – 632 C.E, and was buried at al-Masjid an- Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) (the Mosque of the Prophet) one of the first mosques built by Muhammad PBUH in Medina.

The Final Sermon: After praising, and thanking God, the Prophet, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, said \"O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether after this year, I shall ever be amongst you again. Therefore, listen to what I am saying to you very carefully and take these words to those who could not be present here today. O People, just as you regard this month, this day, this city as Sacred, so regard the life and property of every Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners. Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you. Remember that you will indeed meet your Lord, and that He will indeed reckon your deeds. God has forbidden you to take usury (interest), therefore all interest obligation shall henceforth be waived. Your capital, however, is yours to keep. You will neither inflict nor suffer any inequity. God has Judged that there shall be no interest, and that all the interest due to Al-Abbas ibn Abd’el Muttalib shall henceforth be waived... Beware of Satan, for the safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small things. O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have rights over you. Remember that you have taken them as your wives only under a trust from God and with His permission. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with any one of whom you do not approve, as well as never to be unchaste.

O People, listen to me in earnest, worship God, perform your five daily prayers, fast during the month of Ramadan, and offer Zakat. Perform Hajj if you have the means. All mankind is from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have any superiority over an Arab; a white has no superiority over a black, nor does a black have any superiority over a white; [none have superiority over another] except by piety and good action. Learn that every Muslim is a brother to every Muslim and that the Muslims constitute one brotherhood. Nothing shall be legitimate to a Muslim which belongs to a fellow Muslim unless it was given freely and willingly. Do not, therefore, do injustice to yourselves. Remember, one day you will appear before God and answer for your deeds. So beware, do not stray from the path of righteousness after I am gone. O People, no prophet or apostle will come after me, and no new faith will be born. Reason well, therefore, O people, and understand words which I convey to you. I leave behind me two things, the Quran and my example, the Sunnah, and if you follow these you will never go astray. All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and those to others again; and it may be that the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to me directly. Be my witness, O God, that I have conveyed your message to your people.\" Thus the beloved Prophet completed his Final Sermon, and upon it, near the summit of Arafat, the revelation came down: \"…This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My Grace upon you, and have chosen Islam for you as your religion…\"

The last sermon of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) teaches the importance of equality and fair treatment, and laid the outline for the First Human Rights declaration, many hundreds of years before the Magna Carta, Bill of Rights and UN Human Rights codes.

Inspirational Prophet Muhammad ‫ﷺ‬ Quotes 1. “Be kind, for whenever kindness becomes part of something, it beautifies it. Whenever it is taken from something, it leaves it tarnished.” Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) 2. “The best among you is the one who doesn’t harm others with his tongue and hands.” Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) 3. “A good man treats women with honour.” Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) 4. “The greatest of richness is the

632-661 Rashidun Caliphate The Rashidun Caliphate (632 - 661), which means \"Rightly Guided\" in Arabic, is the term for the first four caliphs after Muhammad. However, a strict body of Ansar, or companions of the Prophet, used their influence to make sure the caliphs strictly adhered to religious law. The caliphate controlled a vast empire, including large amounts of territory in the Arabian Peninsula and Northern Africa, making it the largest empire in history up to that time. Islamic empire expands into Iraq and Persia.\\ The first four caliphs of the Islamic empire – Abu Bakr RA, Umar RA, Uthman RA, and Ali ibn Abi Talib RA are referred to as Rashidun (rightly guided) Caliphs (632-661 CE) The Rashidun Caliphate is also remembered for Khawla bint al-Azwar (RA). Khawla was daughter of Azwar, a chief of the Banu Asad tribe of Makkah. Her name remained greatly unknown, until the battle of Ajnadi

Khawla bint al-Azwar (RA) came to public attention when Muslim armies were engaged with the conquest of Syria soon after death of the Prophet (PBUH). Her name is as pertinent in the Arab world today as it has been in the preceding fourteen centuries. In Saudi Arabia, many streets and schools are named after her, as are numerous schools and institutions across the Arab world. It also continues to be a popular name for Arab Muslim girls. USA Today reported in July 2005 that an Iraqi all-women military unit had been named after her. The Khawla bint Al-Azwar Military School is a training facility for women in Abu Dhabi established in the previous decade. Jordan issued a stamp in 1981 in her honour as part of the “Arab Women in History” series. She is also mentioned in many school course books. The internet has several references to her. Khawla was daughter of Azwar, a chief of the Banu Asad tribe of Makkah. The tribe held a prestigious position in the hierarchy of Makkah and were believed to have installed the principal idol of Hubal in the Kaabah. They were linked to all the major tribes of Makkah, including the Quraish through marriages and took a significant part in the conquest of Iran and Syria.

Khawla’s brother Al-Zarrar (RA), who is an essential part of this story, was an important Companion and a notable commander. The family was an early convert to Islam. After the Battle of Trench, Zarrar was sent to his tribe to invite them to the new faith. It is reported that the brother and sister pair had great sibling affinity and Khawla had decided to accompany Zarrar in his campaigns as a medical-nurse to take care of the injured and the sick. Her fighting abilities, however, first became evident in the battles against the Byzantine forces. Zarrar remained a favourite commander of Khalid bin Walid (RA) and joined him in all his campaigns including the Ridda wars against apostasy. He was known for his tendency to plunge in to a battle without upper clothes or armour. He is honoured in Pakistan by a Main Battle Tank ‘Al- Zarrar’ and a SSG unit ‘Zarrar Company’ named after him. He later accompanied Khalid on the Iraq campaign. He was part of the small army that undertook the difficult crossing of the Iraqi desert from east to west in April 634 that placed Khalid behind Byzantine forces north of Damascus and enabled him to conquer Palestine, Jordan and Syria in quick succession. If Khawla had been with her brother, as has been reported, she must have made the punishing desert crossing that has been acknowledged as a memorable feat of military endurance. he first major Muslim battle and victory against the Byzantine was fought at Ajnadayn, somewhere in the Ella Valley in modern-day Israel and the West Bank. Lord Kitchener, the future British Field Marshal, described the region as one of the most fertile districts in Palestine while conducting a survey of the area in 1874. The area is reported to be inhabited since at least 1000 BC and the place where David slew Goliath. During the Battle of Ajnadayn, Zarrar was captured by the Byzantine forces. When this news reached Khawla, she wore a soldier’s armour, took up weapons, wrapped herself in a green shawl and rode out on a mare. She fought the Byzantine unit who were attacking Muslim soldiers. She fought with such gallantry that many of the Muslim soldiers thought that Khawlah was Khalid himself – until Khalid appeared. The Muslims defeated the Byzantines, who fled the battlefield. Rafay bin Omeirah Al-Taei, one of the Muslim soldiers, is reported to have been wondering “Who is this fighter? By God, he has no regard for his safety.”

When Khalid found Khawla, she was covered in blood. He asked her to remove her veil. After refusing several times, Khawla revealed her identity. Khalid ordered his army to chase the fleeing Byzantines, with Khawla leading the attack. After a search, the Muslim prisoners were found and freed. During the battle, one of the principal Muslim army commanders, Shurahbil ibn Hassana, saw Khawla fighting and said: “This warrior fights like Khalid ibn Walid, but I am sure he is not Khalid.” In another subsequent battle, Khawla fell from her horse and was captured. Being taken to a camp with other women prisoners, Khawla was earmarked for the leader’s tent as war booty. Instead, Khawla roused the other female prisoners, who used the tent poles as weapons to attack the Byzantine guards. They managed to kill thirty Byzantine soldiers, with Khawla taking credit for five, including the Byzantine who had thought to hold her prisoner. After several subsequent battles, Muslim armies laid siege to Damascus on the 20th of August 634. The siege lasted for a month. On the 19th of September, Khalid defeated a Byzantine force in Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab, 32 km east of Damascus. During the battle, Zarrar, who was leading one of the columns, was wounded and taken prisoner by the Byzantine army. Khalid ibn Walid took his Mobile Guard unit to rescue him. Khawla accompanied the army and rushed on the Byzantine rear-guard all alone. In her armour and typical loose dress of Arabian warriors, she was not recognized as a woman. Khawla’s next fighting episode is recorded for the famous Battle of Yarmouk that was fought over six days between 15th and 21st of August 636. On the fourth day of the battle, perhaps one of the most difficult days for Muslim army, Khawla led a group of women against the Byzantine army, killed several enemy fighters and later was wounded during her fight with a Greek soldier. It is reported by a Muslim historian, “After seeing the women fight, the men returned and said to each other, ‘If we do not fight then we are more entitled to sit in the women’s quarter than the women’.” Her brother Al-Zarrar himself played an important part in this battle when Khalid asked him to guard a bridge on the fifth day to cut off the

expected Byzantine retreat the next day. Zarrar, and by some reports Khawla too, are reported to have died during the plague. May God bless their souls! It is true that most of the incidents involving Khawla have been reported by the 8th/9th- century jurist and historian Al-Waqidi – who enjoys a reputation as a reliable historian.

632 ABU BAKR (RA) SUCCEEDS PROPHET MUHAMMAD S.A.W First Caliph in the History of Islam: Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) was ever the closest friend of the Holy Prophet (SAW) throughout His Islamic caravan. After the death of Hazrat Muhammad (SAW), all the companions of Prophet (PBUH) were in a state of great grief. Nobody knew that who would lead them. Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) was rated so highly among the believers that He was given authority to lead the Muslims after passing of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Although at first, there was some confusion over whether Chief should be from Ansaar or Muhajireen, but eventually Abu Bakr (RA) was given the power to have this great honor as no one was as close to the Messenger (PBUH) of Allah as he was. A number of problems raised when Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) took the charge. Many people left the religion Islam. The people, who claimed prophet-hood increased their activities against Muslims and Islam. Many people refused to pay Zakat (Islamic tax) to government. Some tribes planned to attack on Madina city. Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) faced all these problems bravely. Despite of these problems, he decided to start his duties in continuation of Holy Prophet Muhammad (SAW). Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (RA) re-organized the forces of Holy prophet (SAW). He decided to send the force towards the target under the command of companion Hazrat Osama Bin Zaid. Many companions including Hazrat Umar (RA) opposed the idea, but he disagreed with the proposal. Osama Bin Zaid (RA) completed the adventure in sixty days and returned successful. After successful adventure, all the companions praised the ability and foresight of first caliph.

Operation against Godless People. Some people of Bani Eais and Bani Zebian tribes (both are names of Arab tribes) demanded to excuse the Zakat. In this way, these tribes also demanded reduction in the quantity of prayers. Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) strictly condemned their demand and took timely action against them. He announced war against these tribes and imposed both on them according to Islamic rules. The Godless people attacked on Madina city in retaliation but in vain. Zakat (Islamic Tax) System. He (RA) strictly condemned their demand and took timely action against them. He announced war against these tribes and imposed both on them according to Islamic rules. The Godless people attacked on Madina city in retaliation but in vain. Malkol-Bin-Naweera was leading some Muslim countries, who refused to pay Zakat. Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (RA) timely intervene the matter and save the holy Islamic tax Accumulation of Quran in Written form. system. He strengthened the Zakat system and implemented it all across the Muslim countries. Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (RA) has prepared standard copies of Quran and send it to all provincial headquarters. Many Huffaz (learner of Quran by heart) were embraced Shahadat in the war against Mosleema Kazzab. Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (RA) thought to make the copies of Quran for learning without a Hafiz. Therefore, he gave written form to Quran. He also introduced mutual advisory system of his cabinet. First Adult to Accept Islam Earn the Title of As Siddiqi Earliest Person to Invite Others to Embrace Islam First Caliph in the History of Islam Being Imam of Mosque in Absence of Prophet (SAW) He (RA) started compilation of Quran for the first time

As-Siddiq, the most well-known of Abu Bakr's (R.A.) titles, comes from the word ‘Sidq’ which means truthfulness. Therefore, the word As- Siddiq means a person who is constantly truthful or who constantly believes in the truthfulness of something or someone. In Abu Bakr's (R.A.) case, in the truthfulness of the Prophet Mohammad (S.A.W.). The title 'As- Siddiq' was given to Abu Bakr (R.A.) by none other than the Prophet (S.A.W.). Abu Bakr’s compilation of the Qur’an is regarded by many as his most significant legacy. It was even more significant than the wars of apostasy and the conquest of Iraq and Syria. `Ali ibn Abi Talib used to say: ‘May God have mercy upon Abu Bakr! He is worthy of being superbly rewarded because he was unique in compiling the Qur’an’. (Ibn Hajar) Abu Bakr Siddiq (R.A.) died on Monday, 22nd of Jumada Al-Akhirah, 13th AH (August 23rd, 634 AD) after suffering from fever for 15 days during which he gave instructions that Umar bin Khattab (R.A.) should lead the prayers. When Abu Bakr died, he was sixty-three years old and his caliphate had lasted for only two years and three months. Abu Bakr (R.A.) recommended to Aishah (R.A), his daughter and wife of Prophet Mohammad (S.A.W.), to bury him beside the Prophet (S.A.W.). Abu Bakr (R.A.) was buried in Aishah's room, just beside the Prophet’s (S.A.W.) grave in Prophet’s Mosque (Masjid-e-Nabawi) in Madinah, Saudi Arabia. When he died, the funeral prayer was led by Umar (R.A.) and his grave was placed adjacent to the Prophet (S.A.W.). His grave was dug in such a way that his head was parallel to the shoulder of the Prophet (S.A.W.).

634-644 Hazrat Umar Ibn-Al- Khattab RA imposed Divine Law) as the code of a newly formed International Islamic State; he safeguarded the internal safety by introducing the police force: he gave stipends to the poor; he constructed headquarters and forts for the safety of Islamic armies; he founded new cities for the growth of Islamic culture and civilization; he improved agriculture and economics of the Islamic State; he founded the educational system in an Islamic State; in brief he was the founder of a great Islamic State. Hazrat Umarra RA was born 13 years after ‘Aam-ul-Fil – year of the Elephant. He was 13 years younger than the Holy Prophet Muhammad SAW and was among one of the respected tribes of Mecca. During Umar’s RA Caliphate, Egypt, Iraq, Palestine, Persia and Syria, a total area of 2,251,030 square miles, came under Islamic rule. The conquered territories were dealt with tolerance. Jews and Christians who had been persecuted under the Byzantines appreciated this. Their customs and rules were taken into account while making laws, something hitherto unheard of. Upon his arrival in Madinah, the Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) established a unique and strong ‘brotherhood’ to help settle the ‘Muhajirs’ (migrants) with the ‘Ansars’ (the people of Madinah). Utban bin Malik, who was a chieftain, was chosen as Umar’ RA brother-in-faith. With the growth in the numbers of Muslims, the Prophet wanted to decide upon a way of calling the faithful to prayers. He and some Sahaba (Companions) started considering the use of some kind of musical instrument similar to that of the Jews and the Christians, but at that point, Umar RA related a dream he had had, and suggested, “Why not appoint a man for this purpose?”

The Prophet then sent for Bilal RA and asked him to perform the ‘adhaan’ (the call to prayers). Therefore, the credit goes to Umar RA for the establishment of the ‘adhaan’, which is echoed in every masjid around the globe to this day. He was the one who also inserted the line ‘Prayer is better than sleep’ in the aSubsequently, it was he who instituted the prayers of Tarawih in congregation in the masjid in the month of Ramadan. It was he who established the Hijri calendar, which began in the year of hijrat (migration). From the time of migration till the death of the Prophet, Umar RA was actively involved Hazrat Umar (RA) is the in all the important events. Caliph Umar RA established a new administrative structure it role model for every was under his Khilafat that the system of Muslim. He was an Shura (Consultative Body), Bait-ul-Mal embodiment of justice, (Treasury), were introduced. He was the first principles, piety, humility, ruler in the history of the world to separate judiciary from the executive. Before his and character. He conversion to Islam, Hazrat Umar’s ra performed all his roles whether personal or professional with intensity and not a single example can be put forward which shows that he performed his role less than perfect. character and status was known all throughout Mecca. Now, the whole world knows him as one of the most powIn In 15 years of conquest Alexander had conquered 1.7 million square miles of land with an army of more then 32,000-47,000 infantry and 5,100 cavalry.Hazrat Umar Farooq ‫ﻰّﺿﺭ‬ ‫ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ‬, in 10 years, conquered 2.2 million square miles of land including the super powers of that time, Rome and Persia with an un‐organized army. No ruler of ancient time had a domain as vast as that of Hazrat Umar ‫ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻰ ﺿّﺭ‬which he had not only got conquered on mere horseback but had also managed and ruled it.erful and influential persons to walk

The military successes of Umar’s reign tend to remain the focal point of most histories written about him, but his administrative skills easily overshadow the achievements on the field, some of the most important features of Umar's policy are as follows: • Lenient terms were offered to newly conquered people, including religious freedom; although they were to pay a special tax called jizya. • The purchase of land in newly acquired territories was prohibited. • Troops were housed separately from local populations in garrison cities. • Pensions, police force, courts, and allowances were introduced to facilitate people. • A permanent state treasury called Bayt al Mal (house of fortune) was established. • An uncompromising judicial system based upon supreme standards of justice was established.

There were many notable achievements of Umar Ibn al-Khattab, it would be difficult to name all of them but I will try to name a few of them, The Role of Women, From the aspect of governance, historical records show that Muslim women were involved in leadership positions in the marketplace during his reign (634-644). Shifa Abdullah was one of Prophet Muhammad’s female companions, whom Umar entrusted with a leadership role in monitoring and supervising commercial transactions in the entire marketplace of Madinah, the first capital of the Islamic empire. She was responsible for ensuring that business transactions were conducted according to Islamic law. She patrolled the market, making sure that proper business conducts were in place. Umar recognised Shifa’s knowledge and understanding of Islam, and advised traders to consult her on matters pertaining to the legality of transactions. The appointment of Shifa was so successful that Umar appointed another woman, Samra Nuhayk, as the market controller in Mecca. THE ADMINISTRATION OF UMAR, RA Umar's legendary administration can be introduced by his famous quote, “Even if a dog dies hungry on the banks of the Euphrates river, Umar shall be held accountable for it.” When the lands under Umar were expanded, local notables were included in the new administration, old taxes were collected, Greek, Persian, or Copt remained the official language in these territories for fifty years. Conversion of the subjects to Islam was not encouraged. Non-Muslims took part in consultations in matters of national interest.

In Persia, local Zoroastrians and Magian chiefs were consulted, and a Copt from Egypt was invited to Medina for consultation. The head of the revenue department in Medina was a Greek. In the year 13AH (635) 4000 prisoners arrived in Medina after the capture of Kaisariyah (Caesarea), some of them were employed as clerks and some as manual laborers for the Muslims. People were free to send their complaints to the Caliph against their respective governors. For instance, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqas, governor and commander-in-chief in Iraq, was dismissed from his job in 642 on a complaint that he had erected a wooden door for governor’s mansion, which he surrounded with a fence of reed. Hazrat Umar instructed Muslim armies to act humanly, not to destroy any crops. The landowners whose crops were damaged with the movement of the troops were given ample compensation. Once he gave 10,000 dirhems to a farmer whose harvest was spoiled by the Muslim army. Once Umar saw an old Christian begging, he inquired from him why was he begging? “I have to pay jizya, and I am unable to do that due to my age” was his reply. Hazrat Umar regretted the fact that we enjoy the fruits of their labor when they are young, and should be neglectful when they are old. He brought the old man home, gave him few things, and directed the supervisor of Bait al-Mal (state treasury) to give him subsistence allowance. The man was also exempted from paying jizya. Once some Muslims dispossessed a Jew of a plot of land and built a mosque on the site. Upon learning this Umar issued the directive that the mosque be demolished and land returned to the owner. This home was called Bayt al-Yahoodi and still stands in Lebanon. After the conquest of Persia, he took following steps to regenerate the regenerate the new territory under Muslim rule. 1. 1 – Started Hijri calendar 2 – Introduced Jail System. 3 – Started the salaries for Muezzins (Who Say Azan for Prayers). 4 –Ordered to maintain light in all Mosques during night times.

5 – Introduced the Police system for the first time. 6 – Laid down the foundation of a complete court system where even he was answerable. 7 – Started a regular holidays system for soldiers so that they can give proper time to their family. 8 – Introduced the Canal System for agriculture and irrigation system. 9 – Created the Army FOB’s (Forward operating bases) and laid the foundation of a military departments and a complete organization system. 10 –For the first time in the world ordered funds, benefits and appointed regular salaries for infants, handicapped, homeless, old, helpless and widows. 11 – Made rich, rulers and government officials to declare their assets. 12 – Started punishing unjust judges. 13 – First time in history started accountability of upper class. 12 – Started punishment for the consumption of alcohol. 13 – Ordered to wear uniforms for Police. 14 – During his RA tenure the Taraweeh Prayer was started regularly. 15 – Adopted the sentence ‫( ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻴﺮ ﺃﺻﻠﻮﺃﺓ‬Prayer is Better than Sleep) in Fajar Prayer. 16 – Built resting places on many places on famous trading routes. 17 – Protected the trade caravans at night. 18 – Was the only ruler ever to admit that even if a dog died of hunger on the banks on river Tigris during his rule, he would have to bear the punishment for this. 19 – He RA was in debt when martyred and his loan was paid off by selling his only property according to his will. 20 – His RA sentence “Mothers give birth to free children, since when have you enslaved them” is still considered the charter of human rights.

Umar played pivotal roles in the defining events of the early Muslim community and the life of the Prophet. The Hijra, the formulation of the Medina Charter, the battles of Badr, Uhud, and the battle of the Trench, the truce of Hudaybiyyah and the conquest of Mecca was witnessed and experienced by Umar in his capacity as a companion of the Prophet. He was a figure much respected by the Islamic community (Ummah) at the time, and brought about various political, administrative, social and economic reforms that enabled the expansion of the Islamic Ummah (Flesher 1996). His character and demeanor remains an inspiration to contemporary Muslim rulers

In 15 years of conquest Alexander had conquered 1.7 million square miles of land with an army of more then 32,000- 47,000 infantry and 5,100 cavalry. Hazrat Umar Farooq ‫ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻰّﺿﺭ‬, in 10 years, conquered 2.2 million square miles of land including the super powers of that time, Rome and Persia with an un‐organized army. No ruler of ancient time had a domain as vast as that of Hazrat Umar ‫ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻰ ﺿّﺭ‬which he had not only got conquered on mere horseback but had also managed and ruled it. In the year 23/644 Umar was assassinated by Abu Lua’Lua the Magian, who had a personal grudge against Umar. The assassin stabbed Umar in the back and in his side below the belt with a poisoned dagger during the morning prayers. He also had stabbed thirteen others seven of which died. Abd ar- Rahman bin Awaf finished the prayers quickly as soon as Umar fell. They rushed to the fallen Umar and knew that he was dying and that there was no hope of recovery. Abdallah bin Abbas came to comfort him. Umar appointed the office of Khalifah to one of six ( Uthman, Ali, Talha bin Ubiduallah, Zubair bin al-Awam, Abd ar-Rahman bin Awaf, and Saad bin Abi Waqas) to be chosen in three days. He commanded that Suhaib (the Roman) to lead the prayers. He made sure that his son would not get the office but made him one of the consultants. [57] His Khalifah was for a total of 10 years, six months and four days. [

Muslim leadership was first rate, all commanders being battle tested and led by Khalid, one of the great cavalry commanders of history. The byzantine commanders on the other hand were hesitant and passive and never committed their full force in a determined concentrated assault. 636 Battle of Yarmouk. Like a fire from Arabia, Islam sprang forth onto the world stage and changed the face of history. The story of Islam is one that has been written countless times. At Yarmouk the Muslims took head on Heraclius who was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder and Epiphania, possibly of an Armenian family from Cappadocia, probably of Arsacid descent. In Islamic and Arab histories Heraclius is the only Roman Emperor who is discussed at any length. Owing to his role as the Roman Emperor at the time Islam emerged, he was remembered in Arabic literature, such as the Islamic hadith and sira.

Indeed, it is no exaggeration to state that the Battle of Yarmouk was one of the most decisive battles in history. In the course of six days, a vastly outnumbered Arab army succeeded in annihilating a significantly larger Byzantine force. This defeat led to the permanent loss of not only Syria and Palestine, but also of Egypt and large portions of Mesopotamia, and contributed in part to the rapid collapse of Byzantium’s traditional rival, the Sassanid Empire. The battle consisted of a series of engagements that lasted for six days in August 636, near the Yarmouk River, along what today are the borders of Syria/ Jordon and Syria/ Israel east of the Sea of Galilee. The battle began on the morning of August 20, 636, the two armies faced off against each other along the Yarmouk River, northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Between the two opposing armies stretched the battlefield which consisted of the Plain of the Yarmouk. This is enclosed on its western and southern sides by deep ravines, known as Wadi-ur-Raqqad with the banks about 1,000 feet deep, this ravine joins Yarmouk River on its southern side. Of the entire battlefield only one position has any great strategic importance and it is the hill known as the Jamu’a or Gathering. This hill allows a view of almost the entire field from an elevated position. In this battle it was the Byzantine or \"Roman\". Commanders who had the greater tactical and strategic expertise; hence the even greater war strategist Khalid ibn al-Walid chose to weaken the Byzantines using their own vanity as a weapon because their body armor consisted of Plate Armor. A name translated by modern scholars, as we don't know what the Romans actually called it. This armor was made up of many pieces of laminated iron all bound together to form a very flexible, strong and the most effective of Roman body protection. When the battle started at Ajnadayn, at which Heraclius was not present as he felt the Muslims were a force that could be reckoned with easily, Muslims under Khalid ibn al-Walid marched to meet the Byzantines in the open field. It was a wise choice as the cities that had already fallen to the Arabs were not strategically important. In this case an open battle was far preferable to the

mobile Muslims, who knew that in the case of a siege with which they were evenly opposed the Muslims would ultimately fail. It was this strategy, that of seeking open battle rather than siege, that ensured the Muslims’ final victory. The Muslims’ individual champions would march out to the fore and challenge the Roman officers to single combat. Unfortunately for the Romans or Byzantines, this ploy worked. Scores of experienced Byzantine officers were killed by the more martial and battle-tested Muslim officers One of the more notable occurrences was the story of Zarrar Ibn al-Azwar. Zarrar’s common nom de guerre was \"the half naked warrior\" because he often fought without his shirt and armor, however during the lull for the champions he advanced forward in full armor and an elephant hide shield taken from a dead Byzantine. His challenge to the Byzantine champions for a duel was his famed battle cry, “I am the death of the Pale Faces, I am the killer of Romans, I am the scourge sent upon you, I am Zarrar Ibn al Azwar.” Immediately after this he shed his robes and dropped his shield. Numerous Roman fighters and gladiators came out to slay the fierce captain but instead they found themselves dead upon the Muslims sword, they all were killed in no time, by Zarrar. Followed by these disgraces the Byzantines sent forth several more champions to duel their opposite numbers amongst the Muslims. By the end of the duels al-Walid realized he had achieved the advantage by slaying a high proportion of Byzantine officers for minimal officer losses on his side. At this point the effectiveness of the Byzantine army was thoroughly depleted and al-Walid launched an all-out assault. On the second day the Byzantine commander, Theodorus, laid an ambush for Khalid ibn al-Walid which could have effectively ended the battle. However, the ambush backfired as Theodorus while trying to kill Khalid ibn al-Walid himself was killed. The Byzantines, realizing their commander was dead, lost heart but nonetheless maintained the field. Khalid ibn al-Walid sensed the shift in morale and sent out his last assault against the Byzantine positions. The Roman or Byzantine losses were worse here than on the battlefield and it proved to have grievous effects for the cities that were to soon suffer sieges by the Muslims.

Shortly thereafter the Muslims went on to laying sieges against numerous cities in Palestine and Syria. The Byzantine force that was arrayed against the Muslims was a sizeable one that some historians consider the largest to ever be assembled in the Levant up to that point. Historians of that era, particularly Muslims, estimate the size of Roman Heraclius’ army to be around 150,000 men under arms Losses amongst the Byzantine troops were horrific. It is difficult to gauge the exact numbers but it is estimated that two-thirds of the Byzantine troops who fought at the Yarmouk died during the battle or the ensuing fight along the ravine Even though the Byzantines held an estimated 4:1 advantage in manpower, the tactical ability of Khalid ibn al-Walid was a major factor in the Arab victory. The Arab forces managed to gradually gain the upper hand and on the sixth day of the battle, their cavalry routed their Byzantine counterparts and this enabled them to attack the enemy rear which led to a retreat Khalid ibn al-Walid remains an iconic giant in the history of Islam and of the Middle East, much honored and revered. He was an unvanquished hero, who stands tall and, among others, with like of the legendary Salah-ud Din Ayubi, who took on the Crusaders head on and re-conquered Palestine and the city of Jerusalem in 1187 A. D. Even though the Byzantines held an estimated 4:1 advantage in manpower, the tactical ability of Khalid ibn al-Walid was a major factor in the Arab victory. The Arab forces managed to gradually gain the upper hand and on the sixth day of the battle Byzantine counterparts and this enabled them to attack the enemy rear which led to a retreat. However, the Byzantines had nowhere to run and were slaughtered by the well-trained Arab army. Casualty estimates vary but it is believed that the Byzantines lost up to 70,000 men in the Battle of Yarmouk. The defeat resulted in the Byzantines permanently losing Syria, Palestine, Egypt and even parts of Mesopotamia

A brilliant tactician brace front line leader, one who can be credited to bringing down two super powers of the time while using a less armored and armed force. Always leading from the front he showed courage to his troops to gain morale and personally issue orders on the front. Always staying a few steps further understanding the art of war. Al-Walid is undoubtedly one of the most effective military commanders who was born for the battle field and died warm in his bed full of scars at an old age expressing he'd had rather perished on the battle field. \"And here I am, dying in my bed, like cattle die. May the eyes of cowards never sleep\" Note: At the time not all equipment was standardized how ever the vast majority of infantry were essentially armed in this manner. The Spear, Swords and lances Before unification the Arabs were basically raiders and skirmishers. Al-Walid turned those skirmishing tactics into something that could be used anywhere hence he would skirmish the enemy to death. He would bring his army in front of his enemies , make use of his mobility to shift battle grounds and wait until the battle degenerated into a skirmishing affair between small units. Then after exhausting the enemy units from continuous marching and attacks he would launch his cavalry at their flanks employing Hammer and Anvil tactics as a final blow. It was due to this careful nature that Al-Walid was able to win battle after battle and advance further without reinforcements coming to restrengthen the army.

641-643: A Amr Ibn Al-Aas : Amr Ibn Al-Aas is regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of Egypt because he introduced Islam to the country. Saad Ibn Abi Waqqas, was the one who built the city of Kufa in Iraq during the reign Umar ibn al-Khattab. Saʿd also fought under ʿUmar's command against the Sassanid army at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and Battle of Nahāvand. He was later appointed governor of Kufa and Nejd during the caliphate of ʿUmar.He founded a new city just north of the Roman fort of Babylon called Fustat. The Muslim army captured Alexandria, establishing control over Egypt, but word came from the Caliph Umar in Medina that they should establish a new capital closer to Medina. Heeding the omen of the dove, Amr Ibn Al-Aas built a mosque at the site where his tent had stood and it became the center of the new Muslim capital of Egypt, Fustat. This mosque, founded in 642 AD and named after the general, was the first mosque on the continent of Africa.The mosque of Amr Ibn Al-Aas was originally constructed using palm trunks, mud-brick, and palm leaves for a roof so none of the original structure remains and it has been rebuilt many times since the 7th century. The first arcades of columns were erected in 827, giving it a permanent form that has since been expanded. Only a small number of these original architraves remain today and can be viewed along the mosque’s southern wall. The building was most recently rebuilt in 1875. Saʿd has been traditionally credited by Chinese Muslims with introducing Islam to China in 650, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang the third emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, A mosque in the Lalmonirhat District of Bangladesh has also been found, which is said to be built by himself in 648, and also locally called after his name as Abu Akkas he took part in the battles of Ajnādayn (634) and the Yarmūk River (636) and was responsible for the Muslim conquest of southwestern Palestine. He achieved lasting fame, however, for his conquest of Egypt—a campaign that, according to some sources, he undertook on his own initiative.

Amr ibn Al-Aas was a shrewd, highly intelligent man who belonged to the nobility of the Quraysh. He was determinedly hostile to Islam. In fact he was the Quraysh’s envoy to Negus seeking the extradition of the early Muslims who migrated to Abyssinia. He fought with the Quraysh against Islam in several battles. Little did he know then that he would come to be one of the great commanders fighting for the Islamic cause. His account of his conversion to Islam makes highly interesting reading. He says: “I was strongly hostile to Islam. I took part in the Battles of Badr, Uhud and the Moat, fighting alongside the idolaters, and I was able to survive. Now I started thinking that Muhammad would eventually triumph over the Quraysh. I, therefore, went to my place at Al-Ruht where I lived in semiseclusion. I was still very hostile to Islam and I felt that even if every man in the Quraysh would embrace Islam, I would not. I went to Makkah, where I spoke to a group of my people who valued my opinion and consulted me on every serious matter. I told them that I thought Muhammad was on the crest of a wave. He was bound to overcome whoever resisted him. I then explained that I felt it was wiser to seek refuge in Abyssinia, where we could join Negus. If Muhammad did overcome his enemies, we would be safe with Negus. If the Quraysh turned out to be the winners, they would know that we were on their side. They all agreed with me and we started preparing for our departure. I suggested to them to put together a valuable gift which Negus would like. The gift he liked best from our part of the world was hide. We, therefore, took with us a large quantity of hide and traveled until we reached Abyssinia. When we were in the court of Negus, Amr ibn Umayyah Al-Damri, the envoy sent by Muhammad, arrived with a message. When I saw Amr ibn Umayyah go in for his audience with Negus and leave soon afterward, I said to my people: “This is Amr ibn Umayyah. If I can persuade Negus to give him up to me, I will kill him to give the Quraysh infinite pleasure.” When I was admitted into the presence of Negus, I prostrated myself to him as I used to do. He said to me: “Welcome, my friend. Have you brought me any gifts from your part of the world?”

I said: “Yes, I have brought you a gift of hide.” I presented my gift and he was very pleased with it. He gave some of it to his bishops and patriarchs and ordered that the rest be kept and recorded. When I saw that he was very pleased with my gift, I said to him: “Your Majesty, I have seen a man come out of your court. He is the envoy of our enemy, who has killed a number of our chiefs and noblemen. May I request that you give him up to me so that I can kill him?” He was very angry with me for what I said. He hit me with his hand on my nose and I felt as if my nose was broken. I was bleeding heavily through the nose and tried to wipe the blood with my clothes. I was so humiliated that I wished the earth would open up and swallow me because I was so afraid of him. I then said to him: “Your Majesty, had I known that you would dislike what I said I would not have made that request.” He felt a little ashamed and said to me: “Amr, you are asking me to give up to you the envoy of a man who receives the archangel who used to come to Moses and Jesus so that you can kill him?” When I heard his words, I felt a great change overcoming me. I thought that Negus, the Arabs and the non-Arabs, recognized the truth while I was deliberately turning away from it. I said to him: “Do you testify to that, Your Majesty?” He said: “Yes, I bear witness to that in front of God. Amr, do as I say and follow him, for his cause is that of the truth, and he will win over all those who oppose him, in the same way as Moses won against Pharaoh and his soldiers.” I said to Negus: “Do you accept on his behalf my pledge to follow Islam?” He answered in the affirmative and put out his hands and I gave him my pledge to be a Muslim.

He then called for a bowl of water to be brought for me to wash. He also gave me new clothes, because my own clothes were full of blood. When I went out, my friends were very pleased to see me wearing new clothes given me by Negus. They asked me whether he had granted my request, and I said that I did not feel the occasion was suitable for such a request, since I was speaking to him for the first time. They agreed with me and I pretended that I was going out for some private purpose and left them there. I went straight to the port area, where I found a ship ready to sail. I went on board and sailed to a place called Al- Shu’bah, where I disembarked. I bought a camel and traveled on toward Madinah. I passed through Marr Al-Zahran and went on until I arrived at Al-Haddah. I saw two men who had arrived there a short while earlier, trying to find a place to encamp. One of them was inside the tent; the other was holding the reins of their two camels. Presently, I recognized Khalid ibn Al-Waleed. When I asked him where he was going, he answered: “To Muhammad. All people of any significance have become Muslims. If we were to remain non-Muslim, he would catch us by the neck in the same way as the hyena is caught in its cave.” I told him that I also was going to Muhammad and wanted to be a Muslim. Uthman ibn Talhah came out of the tent and welcomed me. We stayed there together that night. We traveled on together until we arrived at Madinah. I will never forget a man saying as we drew near: Ya Rabah, “What a profitable morning!”’ He repeated that three times. We were very pleased when we heard him say that. As he looked at us, he said: “Makkah has given up the reign after these two have come to join us.” I thought he was referring to me and Khalid ibn Al-Waleed. He went quickly toward the mosque. I thought that he went to give the Prophet (peace be upon him) the news of our arrival. I was proved right. We stopped for a short while at the old volcanic area outside Madinah, where we put on our best clothes. When the midafternoon prayer, Asr, was called for, we went on until we arrived at the mosque to meet the Prophet. His face was beaming with pleasure and all the Muslims were pleased when they learned that we had adopted Islam.

Khalid ibn Al-Waleed went first to give his pledge of loyalty to the Prophet. He was followed by Uthman ibn Talhah. I was third. When I sat down opposite him I could not lift my face up to him because I was feeling very shy. I gave him my pledge of loyalty, provided that God would forgive me all my sins which I had committed in the past. I did not remember to include what I might do in future. The Prophet said to me: “When you embrace Islam, all your past sins are forgiven. When you emigrate for the cause of God, your emigration ensures also the forgiveness of your past sins.” After we embraced Islam, the Prophet placed me and Khalid ibn Al- Waleed at the top of his advisers in any serious matter confronting him. We enjoyed the same positions with Abu Bakr. I continued to enjoy that position during the reign of Umar, but Umar had perhaps some reservations with respect to Khalid.” This is the account of one of the great servants of Islam who was later to command Muslim armies which liberated both Palestine and Egypt. He also ruled over Egypt for a long time. The Amr ibn al-As mosque in Fustat, Egypt

644 Usman R.A succeeds Umar RA Hazrat Usman RA.The first person to become Muslim after Abu Bakr, 'Ali and Zayd ibn Harithah was 'Uthman. Thus he was the fourth man to embrace Islam. 'Uthrnan was hafiz of Qur'an, and he read Qur'an all the time.'Uthman devoted himself to studying various branches of knowledge at the hands of the teacher and guide of mankind who had been taught by his Lord in the best manner. He was eager to learn the Holy Qur'an and the Sunnah from the leader of all of mankind. His most influential achievement was the creation of the first definitive written edition of the Koran, completed by 650. Uthman was one of the richest of those on whom Allah had bestowed wealth. He engaged in trade and was very wealthy, but he used this wealth in obedience to Allah, seeking His pleasure and that which is with Him. The Messenger of Allah had given her in marriage to 'Utbah ibn Abi Lahab, and he had given her sister Umm Kulthoom in marriage to 'Utaybah ibn Abi Lahab, but when Surat al-Masad was revealed – \"Perish the two hands of Abu Lahab (an uncle of the Prophet) and perish he! His wealth and his children will not benefit him! He will be burnt in a Fire of blazing flames! And his wife, too, who carries wood (thorns of Sa'dfin which she used to put on the way of the Prophet or use to slander him). In her neck is a twisted rope of Masad (palm fiber)\" (Al-Masad 111:1-5)

Abu Lahab and their mother Umm Jameel bint Harb ibn Umayyah - the \"carrier of wood\" told them to leave the daughters of Muhammad, so they separated from them before they had consummated the marriage with them, as an honour to them from Allah and as humiliation to the sons of Abu Lahab. Lahab thought that by divorcing Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthoom that they would deal a harsh blow to the family of Muhammad or at least weaken them. But no sooner did 'Uthman hear the news of the divorce of Ruqayyah but he hastened to propose marriage to her through the Messenger of Allah .The Messenger of Allah gave her in marriage to him. It was his close friend Abu Bakr who introduced Uthman to Islam and he embraced the new religion at the age of 34. This was during the very early days of Islam when the men of Makkah were systematically abusing and torturing any converts to Islam. In spite of the abuse, Uthman would not give up his Islam and in time Uthman was married to Prophet Muhammad's daughter, Ruqiayah, thus strengthening his relationship to the Prophet. The abuse and torture continued and Uthman's wealthy family and status in society as a merchant did not protect him. He was abused and tortured even by members of his own family; his uncle shackled his hands and feet and shut him in a dark enclosed room. The continual bad treatment by his close family led Uthman and his wife to participate in the first migration to Abyssinia. Prophet Muhammad (may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him) praised his forbearing character and said \"After Lot, Uthman is the first man who, with his wife, has given up the comfort of his home for the sake of God.\" After some time Uthman and Ruqiayah returned to Makkah to be with the struggling Muslims and their beloved father and Prophet. Uthman formed a very close relationship with Prophet Muhammad, and he gained intricate knowledge about the religion of Islam. He narrated 146 traditions directly from the Prophet himself and was one of very few people who were able to write down Qur'an. Uthman also became a reference point for those trying to learn the rituals of worship. He understood and was able to instruct others in the rituals of ablution,

prayer, and other Islamic obligations. Uthman also participated in the migration to Madinah and here he assisted Prophet Muhammad in establishing the Muslim nation. Prophet Muhammad (may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him) even referred to him as his assistant. In Madinah, water was scarce and control of the wells was tightly held by several men. Because he was a skilful trader and negotiator, Uthman set about trying to procure a well for the use of the Muslims. He negotiated a price for half a well; he would have control one day and the other owner the next day. However, Uthman gave his water to the Muslims freely, so nobody wanted to pay for the water on the alternate days. The original owner of the well had no choice but to sell his half of the well to Uthman who nevertheless paid a fair price for it. Uthman continued to allow the water to be used freely by all and never reminded the people of his charity. He was humble and modest. Uthman gave freely from his wealth to please God and His messenger Muhammad. Historical Islamic stories mention that every Friday Uthman would buy slaves for the purpose of setting them free and that although he was wealthy he was often without servants because of this habit. When Prophet Muhammad (may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him) and the Muslim armies were going to fight the Byzantines at Tabuk, he called on the wealthier people to give from their wealth and property to support and equip the soldiers. Uthman presented 200 saddled camels and 200 ounces of gold. He also gave 1,000 dinars. Prophet Muhammad asked for donations hoping to inspire others to give as freely as Uthman. However, it was Uthman who surpassed them all and gave a total of 900 equipped camels.

He was also present at every major event except the battle of Badr. When the Muslims went out to fight the battle of Badr, 'Uthman's wife, Ruqayyah the daughter of the Messenger of Allah ' was sick with the measles and was confined to her bed at the time when the Messenger of Allah called on the Muslims to intercept the caravan of Quraysh. 'Uthman hastened to go out with the Messenger of Allah but he received orders to stay with Ruqayyah and nurse her; he obeyed willingly and stayed with his wife Ruqayyah the daughter of the Messenger of Allah. Uthman was falsely accused of not having sworn allegiance to the Messenger of Allah in Bay ‘at al-Radwan, when he was absent. This is one of the accusations that were made against 'Uthman when the turmoil (fitnah) arose which was aimed at destroying the foundations of his caliphate. The resting place of Uthman (r.a.) in Jannatul Baqi, Madinah The portrait we are able to build of Uthman is that of a generous, unassuming, and kind man. He was known for his humbleness, modesty, and piety. Uthman would often spend the nights in prayer and he was known to fast often, sometimes on alternative days. In spite of his wealth, he lived simply and would often sleep, wrapped in a blanket, on the sand of the mosque. He was also present at every major event except the battle of Badr. When the Muslims went out to fight the battle of Badr, ' By 650 rebellions had broken out in the provinces of Egypt and Iraq. In 655 a group of Egyptian malcontents and mercenaries marched upon Medina, the seat of caliphal authority. ʿUthmān, however, was conciliatory, and the rebels headed back to Egypt. Shortly thereafter, however, another group of rebels besieged ʿUthmān in his home, and, after several days of desultory fighting, he was assassinated. After two days the rebels allowed the body of Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) to be buried by four people, Hasan, Hussain, Ali and Muhammad bin Talha (may Allah be pleased with them) When they were taking the body of Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) to be buried the rebels began to throw rocks at the body. Amrita bin Arta

(may Allah be pleased with her) swears, “By Allah, each one of these rebels died a terrible death”. Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) was a man about whom the Prophet saw said, “Each and every Prophet will have a companion in Jannah (Paradise) and my companion will be Uthman bin Affan”. Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) died on Friday 18th Zil Hijjah 35 AH at the age of 82.

656–661 Ali ibn Abi Talib R.A, (born c. 600, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia]—died January 661, Kufa, Iraq), cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad SAW, the Prophet of Islam, and fourth of the “rightly guided” (Rashidun) caliphs, as the first four successors of Muhammad SAW are called. Reigning from 656 to 661, he was the first imam (leader) of Shiaism in all its forms. The question of his SAW. right to the caliphate (the political-religious structure comprising the community of Muslims and its territories that emerged after the death of Muhammad SAW) resulted in the only major split in Islam, into the Sunni and Shia branches. Ali R.A is known within the Islamic tradition by a Ali R.A’s life, as number of titles, some reflecting his personal recorded especially Qualities, and others derived from particular in the Sunni and episodes of his life. They include Abu al-Hasan Shia texts, can be (“Father of Hasan” R.A[the name of his oldest son]), divided into Abu Turab (“Father of Dust”), Murtaza (“One Who Is several distinct Chosen and Contented”), Asad Allah (“Lion of God”), periods separated Haidar (“Lion”), and—specifically among the Shiah— by major events. Ali Amir al-Muminin (“Prince of the Faithful”) and R.A was born, Mawlay-i Muttaqiyan (“Master of the God-Fearing”). according to older The title Abu Turab, for example, recalls the time historical sources, when, according to tradition, Muhammad SAW on the 13th day of entered a mosque and, seeing Ali R.A sleeping there the lunar month of full of dust, said to him, “O father of dust, get up Rajab, about the year 600, in Mecca. Many Shias record that he was the only person born in the sacred sanctuary of the Kaaba, Ali R.A was related to the Prophet SAW through his father and mother: Abu Talib b. Abd al-Muttalib RA was Muhammad SAW’s uncle.

When Ali R.A was five years old, his RA father became impoverished, and Ali R.A was taken in and raised by Muhammad SAW and his wife Khadijah RA. Both Sunni and Shia sources confirm the occurrence in 622 of the most important episodes of this period. Muhammad SAW, knowing that his enemies were plotting to assassinate him, asked Ali R.A t take his place and sleep in his bed; Muhammad SAW then left Mecca secretly with Abu Bakr RA and reached Medina safely several days later (his arrival marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar). When the plotters entered Muhammad SAW’s house with drawn daggers, they were deeply surprised to find Ali R.A., whom they did not harm. Ali According to Ibn Umar, Ali b. Abi Talib was the most suitable person for Caliphate for many reasons, he was one of the six persons at the Council who were elected by rumors to be Caliph; he was the most suitable candidate because he was the first young Muslim; he was the cousin and son-in-law of MohammadSAW and had been in daily contact with him; and he was very religious and courageous in time of war. After a while, the first Civil War broke out. It began with the Battle of the Camel, when Talha and al-Zubayr, together with Aisha, wanted to go to Basra in order to fight the Caliph Ali to revenge Uthman. The mood' of the people arose out of feelings of confusion due to the divided loyalties which they shared between Uthman and AlI's cause, together with the existence of a third faction which remained politically neutral. After a few months, another Civil War was to break out; that leading up to the Battle of Siffin, between AlI, the legal Caliph of Isl am, and Muawiyah b. Abi Sufyan, who was the Governor of Syria. Abdallah Umar did not join in the civil war which broke out, neither in the ranks of the Caliph, Ali RA, nor in those of his opponent, Muawiya. in his opinion, such wars were Illegal because both parties were Muslims, and he said: \"I have engaged in wars, as long as they were for God (or in the path of God), but you are fighting just to kill each other and this is sedition. I will not fight any Muslim, following the Prophet's tradition”. Abdallah b. Umar believed that such wars were seditions and would bring about a division in the Islamic community. For this reason, he did not wish to join even the Caliph, Ali b. Abi Talib. Abdallah b. Umar then was a person of high principles who did not want to join in the civil wars against other Muslims.

He SAW arrived safely in Quba on the outskirts of Yathrib, which soon became known as Madinat al-Nabi (“City of the Prophet”) or simply Medina, on the instructions of the Prophet SAW. According to some sources, he RA was one of the first of the Meccan followers of Muhammad SAW to arrive in Medina. When Ali R.A was five years old, his RA father became impoverished, and Ali R.A was taken in and raised by Muhammad SAW and his wife Khadijah RA. At age 10 Ali R.A became, according to tradition, the second person after Khadijah RA to accept Islam. Although Ali R.A’s father refused to give up his devotion to traditional Arabic polytheism, he accepted Ali R.A’s decision, telling him, “Since he [the Prophet SAW] leads you only to righteousness, follow him. Ali was given several important assignments, such as reciting to a large gathering of pilgrims in Mecca in 630 a portion of the Qur,an that declared that Muhammad and the Islamic community were no longer bound by agreements made earlier with polytheists. One year later ,Ali was sent to Yemen to spread the teachings of Islam. The Prophet also designated him as one of the scribes who would write down the text of the Qur,an, which had been revealed to Muhammad during the previous two decades. Ali R.As role in the establishment of the written version of the Qur,an is among the most important of his contributions to Islam. Ali was also deeply involved in the military defense of the Islamic community, according to both Sunni and Shi,i sources. The Quraysh sought to destroy the community in Medina in a series of attacks that are known in Islamic history as The traditional accounts of Ali R.As strength and courage in these battles and his yearning for justice made him an epitome of chivalry throughout the Islamic world. In the Battle of Khaybar in 629, against a group of Medinese Jews who, having reached agreement with the Muslims and then broken their word, had barricaded themselves in a fort, ,Ali is said, according to a very popular legend, to have torn off the door of the fort with one hand and used it as a shield. According to another legend, the archangel Gabriel, speaking to the Prophet and referring to Dhu al-fiqar, a sword that ,Ali received from Muhammad, stated: “There is no chivalrous person but ,Ali. There is no sword but Dhu al-fiqar.

ghazwah (“raid” or “conquest”). ,Ali participated in all but one of these battles, and he was commander at the battles of Fadak in 628 and Al-Yaman in 632. He also had the special role of protecting Muhammad at the battles of U,ud in 625 and ,unayn in 630. He fought the leading warrior of the Quraysh, Tal,ah ibn Abi Tal,ah, who boasted that he would defeat any Muslim sent against him. When Tal,ah himself was defeated, he pleaded for mercy from ,Ali, saying “Karrama Allahu wajhahu” (“May God illuminate his face with nobility”). This benediction became one of Ali R.As titles; used especially by Sunnis, it is usually accompanied by other customary formulae of peace and benediction. Zulfiqar is an Arabic word which means “cleaver of spine”. It was the only sword of that time which had double edges. The traditional accounts of Ali R.As strength and courage in these battles and his yearning for justice made him an epitome of chivalry throughout the Islamic world. In the Battle of Khaybar in 629, against a group of Medinese Jews who, having reached agreement with the Muslims and then broken their word, had barricaded themselves in a fort, ,Ali is said, according to a very popular legend, to have torn off the door of the fort with one hand and used it as a shield. According to another legend, the archangel Gabriel, speaking to the Prophet and referring to Dhu al-fiqar, a sword that ,Ali received from Muhammad, stated: “There is no chivalrous person but ,Ali. There is no sword but Dhu al-fiqar.” As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, ,Ali helped to establish the new Islamic order. He was instructed to write down the Hudaybiyyah agreement, the peace treaty between the Prophet and the Quraysh in 628. When Muhammad finally conquered Mecca in 630, he asked ,Ali to guarantee that the conquest would be bloodless; this was accomplished as a result of the surrender of the Meccans and Muhammad’s forbidding the victorious Muslims from taking revenge on the Meccans, a command that ,Ali ensured was obeyed completely. He ordered ,Ali to break all the idols in the Ka,bah and to purify the shrine after its defilement by the polytheism of the pre-Islamic era, which Muslims call al-jahiliyyah (“the age of ignorance”). ,Ali also was charged with settling several disputes and putting down the uprisings of various tribes.

At Ghadir Khumm in 632, while returning to Medina from his last pilgrimage, the Prophet made certain statements about ,Ali that have been interpreted in very different ways by Sunnis and Shi,is. According to both traditions, Muhammad said that ,Ali was his inheritor and brother and that whoever accepted the Prophet as his mawla (“master” or “trusted friend” but also, contradictorily, “client” or “protegé”) also should accept ,Ali as his mawla. The Shi,ah regard these statements as constituting the investiture of ,Ali as the successor of the Prophet and as the first imam. The Sunnis, by contrast, take them only as an expression of the Prophet’s closeness to ,Ali and of his wish that ,Ali, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death. Many later Islamic Sufis and esoterists also interpret the episode as the transfer of the Prophet’s spiritual power and authority to ,Ali (mawla is related to wilayah or walayah, meaning “rule,” “initiation,” “spiritual authority,” or “power”), whom they regard as the wali (literally “friend,” usually translated as “saint”) par excellence. Ali and the first caliphs Upon the death of the ,Prophet S.A.W in 632, ,Ali R.A and Muhammad S.A.W’s family took charge of the arrangements for his funeral. At the same time, discussions began concerning who should succeed Muhammad S.A.W. Both the an,ar, the people of Medina who had embraced Islam, and the muhajirun, those from Mecca who had migrated to Medina, wanted the successor to come from their group. In order to avoid division, the leaders of the community assembled at saqifat Bani Sa,idah (“the room with the thatched roof of the tribe of Bani Sa,idah”) to choose a successor. After much debate, Abu Bakr R.Awas named Caliph-“successor”), the ruler of the Islamic community. By the time ,Ali R.A finished with matters pertaining to the funeral of the ,Prophet S.A.W, he was presented with a fait accompli. He did not protest but retired from public life and dedicated himself to studying and teaching the Quran. He was often consulted, however, by Abu Bakr R.A and his successor, ,Umar, in matters of state. ,Ali R.A accepted the selection of ,Umar R.A as Caliphand even gave one of his daughters, Umm Kulthum R.A, to him in marriage. After the death of ,Umar R.A in 644, ,Ali R.A was considered for the Caliphate along with five other eminent members of the community. One of them, ,Abd al-Ra,man ibn Awf,R.A withdrew but asked that he be trusted with choosing the next ShiCaliphaism, a request that was granted. He questioned both ,Uthman R.A and ,Ali R.A and decided in favour of the former. Ali R.A recognized the Caliph’sauthority, according to Shia sources, but remained neutral between ,Uthman R.A’s supporters and his opponents. Ali R.A even sent his

own sons to protect ,Uthman R.A’s house when he was in danger of being attacked. When ,Uthman R.A was murdered in 656 by those who considered him weak and who accused him of nepotism, Ali R.A admonished his children for not having defended ,Uthman R.A’s house properly. Ali R.A R.A himself was then chosen as the fourth and last of the rightly guided Caliphs. Ali R.A’s Caliphate and last years The period of the Caliphateof ,Ali R.A, from 656 until his death in 661, was the most tumultuous in his life. Many members of the Quraysh turned against him because he defended the rights of the Hashimites, a clan of the Quraysh to which Muhammad S.A.W had belonged. He was also accused of failing to pursue the murderers of his predecessor and of purging ,Uthman R.A’s supporters from office. Foremost among his opponents was Mu,awiyah, the governor of Syria and a relative of ,Uthman R.A, who claimed the right to avenge ,Uthman R.A’s death. In his confrontation with Muawiyah, Ali R.A was supported by the Ansar and the people of Iraq. Before he could act, however, he had to deal with the rebellion of two senior companions, Talah and Zubayr. Joined by ,Aishah R.A, daughter of Abu Bakr R.A and third wife of Muhammad S.A.W, the two had marched upon Basra and captured it. Ali R.A assembled an army in Kufa, which became his capital, and met the rebels in 656 at the Battle of the Camel. Although a peaceful settlement had nearly been reached before the fighting started, extremists on both sides forced the battle, in which Ali R.A’ s forces were victorious. Talah and Zubayr were killed, and ,Aishah R.A was conducted safely back to Medina. Ali R.A then turned his attention north to Muawiyah R.A,engaging him in 657 at the Battle of Siffin, the most important contest of early Islamic history after the death of the ,Prophet S.A.W. With his army on the verge of defeat, Muawiyah, R.A on the advice of one of his supporters, ,Amr ordered his soldiers to put pages of the Quran on their lances and asked Ali R.A to allow the dispute to be resolved by reference to Qur,anic rules. Ali R.A’s army, seeing chose an upright observer, Abu Musa al-Ashari,R.A and Muawiyah R.A chose ,Amr,. After Ali R.A lost the arbitration, Muawiyah R.A refused to submit to his authority; Muawiyah R.A then defeated Ali R.A’s forces in Egypt, where ,Amr ibn al Aas became governor. Matters were made even worse by the fact that a group that considered arbitration to be a violation of the teachings of the Quran rebelled against Ali R.A while also opposing Muawiyah R.A. Ali R.A’ s attempts to reason with the rebels failed, and they left Kufa and Basra and assembled at Al-Narhawan. In 658 Ali R.A As army dealt a crushing blow to the group that came to be known as the Kharijites (“Seceders”).

Although he continued to have staunch supporters, Ali R.A R.As authority was weakened in many areas during the last two years of his Caliphate. A number of prominent Muslims even met in Adruh in 659 with the thought of deposing both Ali R.A .Aand Muawiyah R.A and appointing as Caliph,Abd Allah, son of ,Umar R.A, but they did not reach a final decision. Meanwhile, some of the Kharijites decided to assassinate Ali R.A, Muawiyah R.A, and Amr ibn al-,Aas R.A Although the latter two escaped, Ali R.A R.Adid not: on the 19th of Ramadan in the year 661, he was struck in the back of the head with a poisoned sword while praying in the mosque of Kufa. He died two days later and was buried in Al-Najaf. Along with Qom in Iran, Al- Najaf became—and remains to this day—one of the most important seats of Shi,i learning and also a major pilgrimage site. The significance of Ali R.A in all aspects of the religious and intellectual life of Shi,ah Islam can hardly be overemphasized. In the daily call to prayer in Shi,i countries, and in some Shi,i mosques in Sunni countries where such an act does not cause major opposition, his name is mentioned after that of the ,Prophet S.A.W in the formula ,Ali R.Aun wAli R.A Allah (“Ali R.A R.Ais the friend of God”). In the annual religious calendar of the Shiah, the 19th through the 21st of Ramadan is a time of intense prayer and supplication, marking the last three days of Ali R.A s life. Many Shias spend the nights of this period, called a,ya,, in mosques reciting both special prayers, many of them attributed to ,Ali R.A, and canonical prayers, the latter usually at least 100 times. The devotion to ,Ali R.A, not only as the heir of the ,Prophet S.A.W but also as the first imam and the ancestor of all subsequent imams, has a central place in the religious consciousness of Shiaism. The second period of Ali R.A’s life, lasting slightly more than a decade, begins in 610, when Muhammad S.A.W SAW received the first of his revelations, and ends with the migration of the ,Prophet S.A.W SAW to Medina in 622. During this period Ali R.A was Muhammad SAW’s constant companion. Along with Zayd ibn Haritha RA, who was like a son to the ,Prophet S.A.W, Abu Bakr R.A, a

respected member of the ruling Quraysh tribe of Mecca, and Khadijah RA, he helped to form the nucleus of the earliest Meccan Islamic community. From 610 to 622 Ali R.A R. spent much of his time providing for the needs of believers in Mecca, especially the poor, by distributing what he had among them and helping them with their daily chores. Previously 'Abdallah b. Umar R.A had played a large part in military life, but after all the struggles in which he had participated since the age of eleven, he changed his life style by leaving his active military life(l) and keeping himself away from the incessant troubles at Medina, in order to devote himself to religious pursuits. When Ali b. Abi Talib R.A came to power, all the Muslim communities were in an extremely agitated state. Abdallah b.Umar R.A did not pay homage immediately (2), not because he considered '\"All R.A as undesirable, but first Of all because he disapproved of the violent way in which '^Uthman R.A had been removed from his office(3)» and secondly, he disapproved of this manner of choosing a successor, that is by means of regicide, which naturally horrified the Muslim community at that time. Later on, Umar R.A R.A paid his homage to Ali R.A , along with the whole company. According to Ibn Umar R.A, \"Ali b. Abl Talib R.A was the most suitable person for Caliphatefor many reasons (4); he was one of the six persons at the Council who were elected by ^Umar R.A to be Caliph; he was the most suitable candidate because he was the first young Muslim; he was the cousin and son- in-law of ,Prophet S.A.W Muhammad S.A.W and had been in daily contact with him SAW; and he was very religious and courageous in time of war. After a while, the first Civil War broke out. It began with the Battle of the Camel, when Talha and al-Zubayr,R.A together with Aisha, R.A wanted to go to Basra(5) in order to fight the Caliph'Ali R.A to revenge Uthman R.A . The mood' of the people arose out of feelings of confusion due to the divided loyalties which they shared between \"Uthman R.A and \"^Ali R.A's cause, together with the existence of a third faction which remained politically neutral.