Helen McGuinness anatomy & physiology therapy basics fourth edition

296 The digestive system 15 In which part of the large intestine is faeces stored 18 The digestive disorder which presents as a burning before defecation? sensation behind the sternum is: a rectum a hernia b caecum b hepatitis c descending colon c haemorrhoids d appendix d heartburn 16 The three sections of the small intestine from 19 Glucose, the end product of carbohydrate digestion beginning to end are: is used to: a ascending, transverse and descending a produce new tissues b jejunum, ileum and duodenum b repair damaged cell parts c duodenum, jejunum and ileum c provide energy for cells to function d duodenum, ileum and jejunum d all of the above 17 The colon primarily absorbs: 20 Saliva is secreted by how many pairs of salivary glands? a proteins a two b carbohydrates b three c fats and lipids c four d water d five

the urinary 12 system IN PRACTICE Introduction It is essential for therapists to have The kidneys and its associated structures are all part of the excretory system a working knowledge of the urinary along with the skin, lungs and the intestines which also contribute to the job system in order to understand how of waste elimination in the body. fluid balance is controlled in the body and the role of the kidneys in The urinary system is made up the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra detoxification. which are involved in the processing and elimination of normal metabolic waste from the body and can be likened to the body’s ‘plumbing system’. Objectives By the end of this chapter you will be able to recall and understand the following knowledge: ● the functions of the urinary system ● the structure and functions of the individual parts of the urinary system (kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra) ● the interrelationships between the urinary and other body systems ● common pathologies of the urinary system. Functions of the urinary system Maintaining homeostasis The prime function of the urinary system is to help maintain homeostasis by controlling the composition, volume and pressure of blood. It does this by removing and restoring selected amounts of water and dissolved substances. Regulation of the composition and volume of body fluids Waste products, such as urea and uric acid, along with excess water and mineral salts must be removed from the body in order to maintain good health. If these waste materials were allowed to accumulate in the body they would cause ill health. The primary function of the urinary system, therefore, is to regulate the composition and the volume of body fluids in order to provide a constant internal environment for the body.

298 The urinary system Structures of the urinary system The urinary system consists of the following parts: Part of urinary system Location Function Kidneys × 2 Ureters × 2 Posterior wall of the abdomen on either Main functional organs of the urinary Urinary bladder × 1 side of the spine (between twelfth thoracic system Urethra × 1 vertebra and third lumbar vertebra) Site where blood is filtered and urine is processed Long, thin tubes that lead from each kidney down to the bladder Transport urine from the kidneys to the Lies in the pelvic cavity behind bladder the symphysis pubis Collects and temporarily stores urine Extends from the neck of the bladder to the outside of the body Tube through which urine is discharged from the bladder and out of the body In men also acts as conducting channel for semen Student activity Kidneys Now complete Activity 12.1 in the The kidneys are bean-shaped organs lying on the posterior wall of the resources for this book on Dynamic abdomen on either side of the spine between the level of the twelfth thoracic Learning Online. vertebra and the third lumbar vertebra. Due to the presence of the liver, the kidney on the right side of the body is slightly lower than the one on the left. Structure of the kidney A kidney has an outer fibrous renal capsule and is supported by adipose tissue. It has two main parts: ● Outer cortex – this is reddish-brown and is the part where fluid is filtered from blood. ● Inner medulla – this is paler in colour and is made up of conical-shaped sections called renal pyramids. This is the area where some materials are selectively reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. Renal capsule Renal vein Pyramid Renal artery Medulla Renal pelvis Cortex Ureter Urine Fig 12.1 Structure of a kidney

Functions of the urinary system 299 STUDY TIP There is a large area in the centre of the kidney called the renal pelvis which is a funnel-shaped cavity that collects urine from the renal pyramids in When studying the functional unit the medulla and drains it into the ureter. The medial border of the kidney is of a nephron, it may be helpful to called the hilus and is the area where the renal blood vessels leave and enter liken it to a household recycling the kidney. station.The blood is like a vehicle that transports the waste to the Nephron recycling site (your kidneys). Inside The cortex and the medulla contain tiny blood filtration units called your kidneys the toxic waste is nephrons. Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney and they extend removed and any substances that from the renal capsule through the cortex and medulla to the cup-shaped the body can reuse are recycled. renal pelvis. Nephrons are approximately 2 to 4 cm long and a single kidney What is left is transported out of has more than a million nephrons. the recycling station and deposited as waste (urine). Urine production Urine is produced by three processes: BODY FACT ● filtration Each day the kidneys process and ● selective reabsorption filter gallons of blood through more ● collection. than 2 million nephrons. Due to the filtering ability of a nephron, around Filtration 99 per cent of blood is recycled by The blood that needs to be processed enters the medulla of the kidney from the body. the renal artery. Inside the kidney the renal artery splits into a network of capillaries called the glomerulus which filter the waste. Almost encasing the BODY FACT glomerulus lies a sac called the Bowman’s capsule. Urine is the body’s primary waste The blood pressure in the glomerulus is maintained at a high level, product and so the release of urine assisted by the fact that the arteriole feeding into the glomerulus has a larger is the final step of all diameter than the arteriole leaving it. This pressure forces fluid out through metabolism. the walls of the glomerulus together with some of the substances of small molecular size able to pass through the capillary walls into the Bowman’s capsule. This process constitutes simple filtration. Afferent arteriole Glomerulus Efferent arteriole Bowman’s capsule Proximal convoluted tubule Collecting duct Distal convoluted tubule Capillaries Urine collected Loop of Henle Fig 12.2 Nephron

300 The urinary system BODY FACT Selective reabsorption The filtered liquid continues through a series of twisted tubes called the How much you have of certain convoluted tubules which are surrounded by capillaries. The tubules of substances in your urine is a good the nephron that lead away from the Bowman’s capsule are known as the indication of the state of health of proximal convoluted tubules and they straighten out to form a long loop your body. Urine tests are often called the loop of Henle. There are then another series of twists called the used to diagnose a disorder. If urine distal convoluted tubules which lead to a straightened collecting duct which contains glucose it could indicate leads to the pelvis of the kidney and on to the ureter. that a person has diabetes. Protein in the urine could indicate that the The composition of the filtered liquid alters as it flows through the kidneys are failing. Urine can be convoluted tubules. Some substances contained within the waste, such as used to confirm a pregnancy. A glucose, amino acids, mineral salts and vitamins, are reabsorbed back into fertilised ovum releases a hormone the bloodstream as the body cannot afford to lose them. which the mother excretes in the urine.This can usually be This reabsorption process is selective as the amounts of these substances detected from about 14 days after which pass back in the bloodstream depend on the level already present in fertilisation and is the basis of most the bloodstream and within the body. The reabsorption of salts and water pregnancy tests. is variable and is associated with the maintenance of a stable condition of acidity/alkalinity and electrolyte (sodium and potassium) balance of body fluids. Excess water, salts and the waste product urea are all filtered and processed through the kidneys and the treated blood leaves the kidney via the renal vein. Some substances are not removed from the blood completely in the glomerular filtrate such as the residue of medicinal drugs. These substances are passed from the blood, in particular, into the distal convoluted tubule by secretion in order that they may be excreted in the urine. Collection The wastes remaining in the distal convoluted tubule (now known as urine) then flow on via a collecting tubule to the renal pelvis of the kidney. From here it passes into the ureter to be passed to the bladder and urethra to be excreted. Composition of urine Urine is the concentrated filtrate from the kidneys. Its composition is: ● 96 per cent water ● 2 per cent urea ● 2 per cent other substances such as uric acid, creatinine, sodium, potassium, phosphates, chlorides, sulphates, excess vitamins and drug residues. Urine is a pale watery fluid varying in colour according to its composition and quantity. Urine is usually acidic and its pH varies between 4.5 and 7.4 depending on the blood pH. The salts, chiefly sodium chloride, must be reabsorbed in the kidney tubules or at least removed in sufficient quantities necessary to keep the blood at its normal pH (7.4) and to maintain the water and electrolyte balance. As the pH and salt concentration are both essential to the life of the blood and tissue cells, the functions of the kidneys are of paramount importance. Functions of the kidney The function of the kidney is the: ● filtration of impurities and metabolic waste from blood and preventing poisons from fatally accumulating in the body ● regulation of water and salt balance in the body

KEY FACT Functions of the urinary system 301 This important negative ● maintenance of the normal pH balance of blood feedback mechanism between ● formation of urine the nervous and endocrine ● regulation of blood pressure and blood volume. systems maintains the blood concentration within normal Role of the kidneys in fluid balance limits and is the means The amount of fluid taken into the body must equal the amount of fluid by which fluid balance is excreted from it in order for the body to maintain a constant internal controlled in the body. environment. The balance between water intake and water output is controlled by the kidneys. Water intake Water is mainly taken into the body as liquid through the process of digestion. However, some is also released through the cells’ metabolic activities. Water output Water is lost from the body in the following ways: ● through the kidneys as urine ● through the alimentary tract as faeces ● through the skin as sweat ● through the lungs as saturated exhaled breath. The kidneys are responsible for regulating the amount of water contained within the blood. The amount of water reabsorbed into the blood is controlled by the anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) which is stored and released into the blood by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The release of ADH is triggered by dehydration. The hypothalamus detects when the water concentration of blood is low and triggers the release of ADH. An increase in the level of ADH increases the amount of water that is reabsorbed from the nephron back into the blood. The reabsorption of water reabsorbed from the nephron into the blood decreases the volume of urine expelled from the kidneys and increases the hydration level of the blood. This mechanism reduces the amount of water in the blood back to an acceptable level. Factors affecting fluid balance Factors affecting fluid balance in the body include: Body If the body temperature increases, more water is lost from temperature the body in sweat Diet A high salt intake can result in increased water reabsorption, which reduces the volume of urine Emotions produced. Diuretics, such as alcohol, tea and coffee, can also increase the volume of urine Blood pressure Nervousness can result in an increased production of urine When the blood pressure inside the kidney tubules rises, less water is reabsorbed and the volume of urine will be increased (but not decreased) When the blood pressure inside the kidney tubules falls, more water is reabsorbed into the blood and the volume of urine will be decreased

302 The urinary system Left kidney Medulla Right kidney Cortex Renal artery Renal pelvis Renal vein Ureter Fig 12.3 The urinary organs Bladder Urethra Ureters The ureters are two very fine muscular tubes which transport urine from the renal pelvis of the kidney to the urinary bladder. They consist of three layers of tissue: ● an outer layer of fibrous tissue ● a middle layer of smooth muscles ● an inner layer of mucous membrane. Function of the ureters Their function is to propel urine from the kidneys into the bladder by the peristaltic contraction of their muscular walls. Urinary bladder This is a pear-shaped sac which lies in the pelvic cavity behind the symphysis pubis. The size of the bladder varies according to the amount of urine it contains. The bladder is composed of four layers of tissue: ● a serous membrane which covers the upper surface ● a layer of smooth muscular fibres ● a layer of adipose tissue ● an inner lining of mucous membrane. Functions of the urinary bladder The urinary bladder stores urine. It expels urine out of the body assisted by the muscular wall of the bladder, the lowering of the diaphragm and the contraction of the abdominal cavity.

Common pathologies of the urinary system 303 The expelling of urine from the bladder is called micturition and is a reflex over which there is voluntary control. When the volume of urine in the bladder causes it to expand, stretch receptors in the bladder wall are stimulated to trigger urination. The micturition reflex causes the detrusor muscle in the wall of the bladder to contract and the internal urethral sphincter to relax. It is the combination of both the micturition reflex and voluntary relaxation of the urethral sphincter that allows urination to occur. Urethra This is a canal which extends from the neck of the bladder to the outside of the body. The length of the urethra differs in males and females. The female urethra is approximately only 4 cm in length, whereas the male urethra is longer at approximately 18 to 20 cm in length. The exit from the bladder is guarded by a round sphincter of muscles which must relax before urine can be expelled from the body. The urethra is composed of three layers of tissue: ● a muscular coat continuous with that of the bladder ● a thin spongy coat which contains a large number of blood vessels ● a lining of mucous membrane. Function of the urethra The urethra serves as a tube through which urine is discharged from the bladder to the exterior. As the urethra is longer in a male it also serves as a conducting channel for semen. Common pathologies of the urinary system IN PRACTICE Cancer of the bladder In the case of a client with cystitis it This usually presents with blood in the urine and urgency and pain on is important to encourage a client to passing urine. Secondary symptoms may arise if it has spread to the lungs, increase their intake of fluids (water liver, lymph nodes and neighbouring tissues. and cranberry juice). If symptoms persist, they may need GP advice Cystitis and assessment. This is an inflammation of the urinary bladder, usually caused by infection Massage over the lower abdomen of the bladder lining. Common symptoms are pain just above the pubic is better avoided to reduce chances bone, lower back or inner thigh, blood in the urine and frequent, urgent of pain and spasm induction. and painful urination with a burning sensation. This condition is very common in women due to the shorter length of the female urethra. Incontinence This is a condition in which the individual is unable to control urination voluntarily. Loss of muscle tone and problems with innervation are associated with this condition. Kidney stones These are deposits of substances found in the urine which form solid stones in the renal pelvis of the kidney, ureter or bladder. This condition can be extremely painful. Stones are usually removed by surgery.

304 The urinary system IN PRACTICE Nephritis In the case of a client with a A general non-specific term used to describe inflammation of the kidney. urinary tract infection, all forms of Glomerulonenephritis (also known as Bright’s disease) is an inflammation of therapeutic treatment should be the glomeruli in the kidneys. This condition is characterised by blood in the avoided until the infection has run its urine, fluid retention and hypertension. course. Pyelonenephritis This is a bacterial infection of the kidney. In acute pyelonenephritis there is pain in the back, high temperature and shivering fits. Treatment is usually with antibiotics. Urinary tract infection This is a bacterial infection of one or more of the structures of the urinary system. Symptoms include fever, lower back pain, frequency of urination, a burning sensation on passing urine (urine may be blood stained and cloudy). If the infection is severe there may be blood and pus in the urine. Interrelationships with other systems The urinary system links to the following body systems. Cells and tissues Transitional epithelium lines urinary organs such as the bladder which change shape when stretched. Skin Like the urinary system the skin is also an excretory organ. When the skin loses excess water through sweating, the kidneys release less water in the urine to help maintain the body’s fluid balance. Skeletal The kidneys and the bones of the skeleton help to control the amount of calcium in the blood by storing some in the bones and excreting some from the body in urine. Muscular Smooth muscle is responsible for the passage of urine through the urinary tract. Circulatory The kidneys filter the blood to avoid poisons from fatally accumulating in the body. Nervous The relaxation and contraction of the bladder and closing and opening of the sphincter muscles is under the control of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems). Digestive Water is an essential nutrient which is needed by every part of the body and is taken in through the process of digestion to aid the metabolic process. The colon absorbs most of the water from the faeces in order to conserve mositure in the body.

Revision summary of the urinary system 305 Key words associated with the urinary system kidney glomerulus collecting duct renal artery Bowman’s capsule renal pelvis renal vein proximal convoluted urine cor tex ureter medulla tubule urinary bladder nephron loop of Henle urethra distal convoluted tubule Revision summary of the urinary system ● The organs that contribute to the elimination of ● Some substances in the filtrate like glucose, amino wastes in the body are the kidneys, lungs, skin and the acids, mineral salts and vitamins are reabsorbed back digestive system. into the bloodstream via the renal vein. ● The organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, ● From the distal convoluted tubule the filtrate then ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. flows into the collecting duct (as urine) and passes to the pelvis of the kidney to be passed to the ● The kidneys are bean-shaped organs lying on the ureter and bladder. posterior wall of the abdomen. ● The composition of urine is 96 per cent water, ● The kidney has two main parts – the outer cortex 2 per cent urea and 2 per cent other substances where fluid is filtered from blood and the inner (uric acid, creatinine, sodium, potassium, medulla which is the area where some materials are phosphates, chlorides, sulphates, excess vitamins selectively reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. and drug residues). ● The cortex and the medulla contain tiny blood ● Functions of the kidneys include filtration of filtration units called nephrons. impurities and metabolic waste from blood, regulation of water and salt balance, formation of ● Urine is produced by three processes – filtration, urine and regulation of blood pressure and selective reabsorption and collection. volume. ● Blood to be processed enters the kidneys via the ● The ureters are muscular tubes that transport renal artery. urine from the pelvis of the kidney to the urinary bladder. ● Filtration takes place inside a network of capillaries in the nephron called the glomerulus. ● The urinary bladder is a pear-shaped sac which lies in the pelvic cavity behind the symphysis pubis. ● The sac encasing the glomerulus is called the Bowman’s capsule. ● It functions as a storage organ for urine. ● The urethra is a canal which extends from the neck ● The filtered liquid then continues through a series of twisted tubes called the convoluted tubules, to the of the bladder to the outside of the body. loop of Henle and the distal convoluted tubule ● The urethra serves as a tube through which urine is before passing to the collecting duct and to the renal pelvis. discharged from the bladder to the exterior and as a conducting channel for semen in men. ● The composition of the filtered liquid alters as it flows through the convoluted tubules.

The urinary system ??? Multiple-choice questions 1 The function of the kidneys is the: 8 The condition cystitis commonly affects females as: a filtering of impurities from the blood a women tend to have a weaker bladder than men b regulation of water and salt balance b women have a shorter urethra c formation of urine c women have smaller kidneys d all of the above d all of the above 2 Which of the following is not considered an 9 Which of the following factors does not affect fluid excretory organ? balance? a muscular system a diet b digestive system b body temperature c respiratory system c time of day d skin d blood pressure 3 Blood is filtered inside what section of the 10 Which of the following also serves as a conducting kidney? channel for semen in the male? a Bowman’s capsule a ureter b loop of Henle b urethra c glomerulus c bladder d proximal convoluted tubule d penis 4 The blood filtration unit inside a kidney is known 11 Inside the kidney, the renal artery splits into a as the: network of capillaries called the: a hilus a afferent arteriole b medulla b glomerulus c nephron c efferent arteriole d renal pyramid d hilus 5 The hormone responsible for controlling water 12 The part of the kidney where the fluid is filtered reabsorption in the kidneys is: from blood is the: a insulin a medulla b oxytocin b cortex c anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) c hilus d adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) d renal pyramid 6 The function of the ureter is to: 13 The composition of the filtered liquid alters as it a store urine flows through the: b filter impurities a convoluted tubules c propel urine from the bladder to the b glomerulus exterior c renal pelvis d propel urine from the kidneys to the bladder d collecting duct 7 The bladder is situated: 14 As well as being lost through the kidneys as urine, a in the pelvic cavity behind the symphysis water is also lost from the body through: pubis a faeces b in the abdominal cavity behind the intestines b skin c on the posterior of the abdominal cavity c lungs d behind the urethra d all of the above

15 Which muscle contracts to allow micturition? The urinary system 307 a detrusor b external urethral sphincter 18 Which of the following best describes the position c internal urethral sphincter of the kidneys on the posterior of the abdomen? d anal sphincter a between 12th thoracic and 3rd lumbar vertebrae b between 10th thoracic and 5th lumbar vertebrae 16 You are feeling dehydrated due to failing to c between 12th thoracic and 5th lumbar vertebrae drink enough fluids. How do your kidneys d between 10th thoracic and 3rd lumbar vertebrae respond? a release aldosterone 19 Which vessels drain the filtered blood away from the b increase urine output kidneys? c release ADH a renal arteries d inhibit the release of ADH b renal veins c hepatic arteries 17 Kidney stones may be deposited in: d hepatic veins a renal pelvis b ureter 20 Nephrons are approximately: c bladder a 2 to 4 cm long d all of the above b 12 to 14 cm long c 5 to 10 cm long d 15 to 20 cm long

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. Glossary Abdominal nodes: lymph nodes located within the Addison’s disease: condition caused by undersecretion abdominal cavity along the branches of the abdominal of corticosteroid hormones. Symptoms include loss of aorta. They drain lymph from organs within the appetite, weight loss, brown pigmentation around joints, abdominal cavity. low blood sugar, low blood pressure, tiredness and muscular weakness. Abducens nerve: mixed nerve that innervates only the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. Adduction: movement of a limb towards the midline. Abduction: movement of a limb away from Adductors: group of four muscles on the medial aspect the midline. of the thigh. Absorption: movement of soluble materials out Adipose tissue: type of tissue containing fat cells, through the walls of the small intestine to be delivered found in the subcutaneous layer of skin. to various parts of the body. ADP (adenosine diphosphate): compound that Accessory nerve: functions primarily as a motor nerve, releases the energy needed for processes such as muscle innervating muscles in the neck and upper back, as well contraction. as muscles of the palate, pharynx and larynx. Adrenal: one of two triangular-shaped glands which Acetylcholine: neurotransmitter substance which lie on top of each kidney. They consist of two parts, an diffuses across the junction and stimulates the muscles outer cortex and an inner medulla. fibre to contract. Adrenaline: hormone secreted by the medulla of the Acne vulgaris: common inflammatory disorder of the adrenal glands. It prepares the body for ‘fright, fight or sebaceous glands which leads to the overproduction flight’ response (sympathetic nervous system) having of sebum. It involves the face, back and chest and is widespread effects on the circulation, muscles and characterised by the presence of comedones, papules glucose metabolism. and, in more severe cases, cysts and scars. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): secreted Acromegaly: increase in the size of the hands, feet from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, it and face due to excessive production of the growth stimulates and controls the growth and hormonal hormone. output of the adrenal cortex. Actin: protein found in muscle that plays an important Agonist/prime mover: main activating muscle. role in muscle contraction. AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome): Active transport: energy-dependent process in which condition contracted as a result of the Human certain substances with larger molecules are able to cross Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which progressively cell membranes against a concentration gradient. destroys the immunity of the individual.

310 Glossary Albinism: inherited absence of pigmentation in the Anus: opening at the lower end of the alimentary tract skin, hair and eyes, resulting in white hair, pink skin through which faeces are discharged. and eyes. The pink colour is produced by underlying blood vessels which are normally masked by pigment. Anxiety: psychological condition which can be Other clinical signs of this condition include poor defined as fear of the unknown. As an illness it can vary eyesight and sensitivity to light. from a mild form to panic attacks and severe phobias that can be disabling socially, psychologically and at Alimentary tract: long, continuous muscular tube, times physically. extending from the mouth to the anus. Aorta: main artery of the systemic circulation. Allergic reaction: disorder in which the body becomes hypersensitive to a particular allergen. The body Apocrine gland: type of sweat gland found in the produces histamine in the skin, as part of the body’s genital and underarm regions. defence or immune system. Appendicitis: acute inflammation of the appendix. Alveoli: tiny air sacs inside the lungs. Appendicular skeleton: part of skeleton consisting of the shoulder girdle, bones of the upper and lower limbs Amenorrhea: absence or stopping of the menstrual and bones of the pelvic girdle. period. Appendix: short, thin blind-end tube that is attached Amino acids: end products of protein digestion. to the end of the caecum and has no known function in humans. Anaemia: condition where the haemoglobin level in the blood is below normal. Arteriosclerosis: circulatory disorder characterised by a thickening, narrowing, hardening and loss of elasticity Anagen: active, growing phase of hair. of the walls of the arteries. Androgens: collective term for male hormones. Artery: type of blood vessel with thick muscular and elastic walls. It carries blood away from the heart. Aneurysm: abnormal balloon-like swelling in the wall of an artery. Arthritis – gout: joint disorder due to deposition of excessive uric acid crystals accumulating in the joint Angina: pain in the left side of the chest and usually cavity. radiating to the left arm. It is caused by insufficient blood to the heart muscle and usually on exertion or Arthritis – osteoarthritis: joint disease characterised excitement. by the breakdown of articular cartilage, growth of bony spikes, swelling of the surrounding synovial membrane Ankylosing spondylitis: systemic joint disease and stiffness and tenderness of the joint. characterised by inflammation of the intervertebral disc spaces, costo-vertebral and sacroiliac joints. Anorexia nervosa: psychological illness in which clients Arthritis – rheumatoid: chronic inflammation of starve themselves or use other techniques, such as peripheral joints resulting in pain, stiffness and potential vomiting or laxatives, to induce weight loss. damage to joints. Antagonists: two muscles or sets of muscles which pull Assimilation: process by which digested food is used by in opposite directions to each other. the tissues after absorption. Antibody: specific protein produced to destroy or Asthma: attacks of shortness of breath and difficulty suppress antigens. in breathing due to spasm or swelling of the bronchial tubes. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): hormone secreted from the posterior lobe of the pituitary. It increases Atony: state in which the muscles are floppy and lacking water reabsorption in the renal tubules of the kidneys. their normal degree of elasticity. Antigen: any substance that the body regards as foreign ATP (adenosine triphosphate): compound that or potentially dangerous and against which it produces stores the energy needed for processes such as muscle an antibody. contraction.

Glossary 311 Atrium: upper chamber of heart. Bowman’s capsule: cup-shaped end of a nephron and site of primary filtration of the blood into the kidney Atrophy: wasting of muscle tissue due to tubule. undernourishment or lack of use. Brachialis: muscle attaching to the distal half of the Autonomic nervous system: part of the nervous anterior surface of the humerus at one end and the ulna system which supplies impulses to smooth at the other. muscles, cardiac muscle, skin, special senses and proprioceptors. It consists of a sympathetic and Brachial plexuses: spinal nerves at the top of the parasympathetic division. shoulder supplying the skin and muscles of the arm, shoulder and upper chest. Axial skeleton: forms the main axis or central core of the body and consists of the skull, vertebral column, Brachioradialis: anterior muscle of the forearm, sternum and ribs. connecting the humerus to the radius. Axillary nodes: lymph nodes located in the underarm Brain: highly developed mass of nervous tissue region. They drain lymph from the upper limbs, wall of that forms the upper part of the central nervous the thorax, breasts and upper wall of the abdomen. system. Axon: long single nerve fibre extending from the cell Brain stem: enlarged extension upwards within the body. Its function is to transmit impulses away from the skull of the spinal cord, consisting of the medulla cell body. oblongata, the pons and the midbrain. Ball-and-socket joint: type of synovial joint formed Breast/mammary gland: accessory female sex gland when the rounded head of one bone fits into a cup- that produces milk following childbirth. shaped cavity of another bone. Movement is possible in several directions. Bronchi: two short tubes which lead to and carry air into each lung. Basal cell layer (stratum germinativum): deepest and innermost of the five layers of epidermis. Bronchiole: subdivision of the bronchial tree. Basilar artery: artery in the base of the brain, formed Bronchitis: chronic or acute inflammation of the by the joining together of the two vertebral arteries. bronchial tubes. Bell’s palsy: disorder of the seventh cranial nerve (facial Buccinator: main muscle of the cheek. It is attached to nerve) that results in paralysis on one side of the face. both the upper and lower jaw.. Benign: term used to describe a tumour that does not Bulimia: psychological illness which is characterised invade and destroy the tissue in which it originates or by overeating (bingeing), followed by self-induced spread to distant sites in the body. vomiting. Biceps: muscle on the anterior of the upper arm. Bunion: swelling of the joint between the big toe and the first metatarsal. Bile: green alkaline liquid, produced in the liver and Bursitis: inflammation of a bursa (small sac of fibrous stored in the gall bladder. tissue that is lined with synovial membrane and filled with synovial fluid). Blood: fluid tissue or medium in which all materials are transported to and from individual cells in the body. Caecum: small pouch to which the appendix is attached and into which the ileum opens. Blood pressure: amount of pressure exerted by blood on an arterial wall due to the contraction of the left Calcaneum: bone at the end of the metatarsals. ventricle. Calcitonin: hormone secreted by the thyroid gland Boil: begins as a small inflamed nodule which forms a which controls the level of calcium in the blood. pocket of bacteria around the base of a hair follicle, or a break in the skin. Cancellous bone: open spongy bone tissue found at the ends of long bones or at the centre of other Bone: hardest type of connective tissue in the body. bones.

312 Glossary Cancer: any malignant tumour. It arises from the Centrosome: area of clear cytoplasm found next to the abnormal and uncontrolled division of cells that invade nucleus, containing the centrioles. and destroy the surrounding tissues. Cerebellum: cauliflower-shaped structure located at the Capillary: smallest blood vessels with a single layer of posterior of the cranium and below the cerebrum. cells. It is responsible for supplying the cells and tissues with nutrients. Cerebral palsy: condition caused by damage to the central nervous system of a baby during pregnancy, Carcinoma: malignant tumour that arises from delivery or soon after birth. The damage could be due to epithelial cells. bleeding, lack of oxygen or other injuries to the brain. Cardiac cycle: sequence of events between one Cerebrum: largest portion of the brain which makes up heartbeat and the next, normally less than a second in the front and top part of the brain. duration. Cervical plexuses: spinal nerves supplying the skin Cardiac muscle: special type of involuntary muscle and muscles of the head, neck and upper region of the found only in the heart. shoulders. Carotid artery: either of the two main arteries of the Cervical vertebrae: seven vertebrae of the neck. neck whose branches supply the head and neck. Chloasma: pigmentation disorder which presents with Carpal tunnel syndrome: condition characterised by irregular areas of increased pigmentation, usually on the pain and numbness in the thumb or hand, resulting face. from pressure on the median nerve of the wrist. Cholesterol: fat-like material present in the blood and Carpals: eight small bones forming the wrist. most tissues. Cartilage: dense connective tissue that consists of Chondrocyte: cartilage-forming cell. collagen and elastin fibres embedded in a strong gel-like substance. Chromatid: pair of identical strands that are joined at the centromere and separate during cell division. Cartilaginous joint: slightly movable joints which have a pad of fibrocartilage between the end of the bones Chromatin: substance inside the nucleus that contains making the joint. the genetic material. Catagen: transitional stage of hair growth from active Chromosome: thread-like structure in the cell nucleus to resting. that carries the genetic information. Cell: basic unit of all living organisms. Chyme: semi-liquid, acid mass in which food passes from the stomach to the small intestine. Cell membrane: fine membrane that encloses the cell and protects its contents. Cilia: microscopic hair-like processes on the exposed surfaces of certain epithelial tissue. Cell regeneration: process by which the cells of the epidermis regenerate themselves by the process of Circumduction: circular movement of a joint (360 mitosis. degrees). Cell respiration: controlled exchange of nutrients for Cirrhosis of the liver: distorted or scarred liver as a waste by the cell to activate the energy needed for the result of chronic inflammation. cell to function. Clavicle: bone forming anterior of shoulder girdle. Central nervous system (CNS): part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. Clear layer (stratum lucidum): epidermal layer below the most superficial layer (horny), consisting of small, Centrioles: small spherical structures associated with tightly packed transparent cells which permit light to cell division, contained within the centrosome. pass through. Centromere: portion of a chromosome where the two Coccygeal plexus: supplies the skin in the area of the chromatids are joined. coccyx and the muscles of the pelvic floor.

Glossary 313 Coccygeal vertebrae (coccyx): four fused vertebrae at Coracobrachialis: muscle that extends from the the base of spine forming the tail bone. scapula to the middle of the humerus along its medial surface. Coccygeus: muscle forming the pelvic floor. Corrugator: muscle located on the inner edge of the Colitis: inflammation of the colon. eyebrow. Collagen: protein in the dermis which gives the skin its Cortex: middle layer of hair; outer reddish-brown part strength and resilience. of kidney where fluid is filtered from blood. Collecting duct: vessel that leads to the pelvis of the Cowper’s glands: pair of small glands that open into kidney and on to the ureter. the urethra at the base of the penis. Their secretion contributes to the seminal fluid. Colon: main part of the large intestine, consisting of four sections – ascending, transverse, descending and Cramp: prolonged painful contraction of a muscle. sigmoid colons. Cranial nerves: set of 12 pairs of nerves originating Comedone: collection of sebum, keratinised cells from the brain. and wastes which accumulate in the entrance of a hair follicle. It may be open or closed. Cretinism: syndrome of dwarfism, mental retardation and coarseness of skin and facial features due to lack of Comminuted fracture: where a bone has splintered thyroid hormones. at the site of impact and smaller fragments of bone lie between the two main fragments. Crow’s feet: fine lines around the eyes caused by habitual facial expressions and daily movement. Compact bone: hard portion of bone that makes up the main shaft of the long bones and the outer layer of Cushing’s syndrome: caused by the hypersecretion other bones. of the glucocorticoids. Symptoms include weight gain, reddening of the face and neck, excess growth Complicated fracture: when a broken bone damages of facial and body hair, raised blood pressure, tissues and/or organs around it. loss of mineral from bone and sometimes mental disturbances. Compound fracture: open fracture where the broken ends of the bone protrude through the skin. Cuticle: fold of overlapping skin that surrounds the base of the nail, providing a protective seal against Concentric contraction: type of contraction when a bacteria; outer layer of hair. muscle shortens to move the attachments closer. Cyst: abnormal sac containing liquid or a semi-solid Condyloid joint: type of synovial joint that is shaped so substance. that the concave surface of one bone can slide over the convex surface of another bone in two directions. Cystitis: inflammation of the urinary bladder, usually caused by infection of the bladder lining. Congenital heart disease: defect in the formation of the heart which usually decreases its efficiency. Cytoplasm: gel-like substance enclosed by the cell membrane. Conjunctivitis: bacterial infection following irritation of the conjunctiva of the eye. The inner eyelid and Deep cervical nodes: lymph nodes located deep within eyeball appear red and sore and there may be a pus-like the neck, they drain lymph from the larynx, oesophagus, discharge from the eye. posterior of the scalp and neck, and superficial part of chest and arm. Connective tissue sheath: surrounds both the follicle and sebaceous gland. Its function is to supply the follicle Defecation: elimination of faeces through the anal with nerves and blood. canal. Constipation: difficulty in passing stools or infrequent Deltoid: thick triangular muscle that caps the top of the evacuation of the bowel. humerus and shoulder. Contact dermatitis: inflammation of the skin caused Dendrites: highly branched extensions of the nerve cell by a primary irritant which causes the skin to become that receive and transmit stimuli towards the cell body. red, dry and inflamed.

314 Glossary Depression: psychological condition which combines Dupuytren’s contracture: forward curvature of symptoms of lowered mood, loss of appetite, poor the fingers (usually the ring and little fingers) caused sleep, lack of concentration and interest, lack of sense by contracture of the fibrous tissue in the palm and of enjoyment, occasional constipation and loss of libido. fingers. Depressor anguli oris: muscle extending from the Dwarfism: hyposecretion of the growth hormone mandible (lower jaw) to the angle of the mouth. during childhood. Depressor labii inferioris: muscle extending from the Dysmenorrhoea: painful and difficult menstruation. mandible to the midline of the lower lip. Eccentric contraction: type of contraction when a Dermal papilla: elevation at the base of the bulb which muscle is stretched as it tries to resist a force pulling the contains a rich blood supply to provide the hair with bones of attachment away from one another. food and oxygen. Eccrine gland: simple coiled tubular sweat gland that Dermatosis papulosa nigra (DPN): benign opens directly onto the surface of the skin. cutaneous condition that is common among black skins. It is characterised by multiple, small, hyperpigmented, Ectopic pregnancy: development of a foetus asymptomatic papules. at a site other than in the uterus. The most common type of ectopic pregnancy occurs in the Dermis: deeper layer of the skin found below the fallopian tube. epidermis. Eczema: mild-to-chronic inflammatory skin Desquamation: shedding of dead skin cells from the condition characterised by itchiness, redness and the horny layer (stratum corneum). presence of small blisters that may be dry or weep if the surface is scratched. Eczema is non contagious but Diabetes insipidus: rare metabolic disorder in which its cause may be genetic or due to internal and external a person produces large quantities of dilute urine and is influences. constantly thirsty. Ejaculation: discharge of semen from the erect penis at Diabetes mellitus: carbohydrate metabolism disorder the moment of sexual climax in the male. in which sugars are not oxidised to produce enough energy due to lack of the pancreatic hormone insulin. Ejaculatory ducts: short tubes which join the seminal vesicles to the urethra. Diaphragm: dome-shaped muscle of respiration that separates the thorax from the abdomen. Elastin: protein in the dermis which gives the skin its elasticity. Diarrhoea: condition where there is frequent bowel evacuation or the passage of abnormally soft or liquid Emphysema: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease faeces. in which the alveoli of the lungs become enlarged and damaged, reducing the surface area for the exchange of Diastolic: static pressure against the arterial wall during oxygen and carbon dioxide. rest or pause between heart contractions. Diffusion: process in which small molecules move Emulsification: process by which fat globules are broken from areas of high concentration to those of lower up into smaller droplets by the action of bile salts. concentration. Endocardium: inner layer of the heart. Digestion: process of breaking down food. Endocrine gland: ductless gland that manufactures one Distal convoluted tubule: tube with a series of twists or more hormones and secretes them directly into the leading to a straightened collecting duct which leads to bloodstream. the pelvis of the kidney and onto the ureter. Endometriosis: condition in which tissue resembling Dorsiflexion: upward movement of the foot so that the lining of the uterus (endometrium) is abnormally feet point upwards. present in the pelvic cavity. Duodenum: first of the three parts of the small Endomysium: fine connective tissue sheath that surrounds intestine. a single muscle fibre.

Glossary 315 Endoplasmic reticulum: series of membranes Extensor hallicus longus: long muscle of the lower leg continuous with the cell membrane. Cell’s intracellular that extends the big toe. transport system, allowing movement of materials from one part of the cell to another. Facial nerve: mixed nerve that conducts impulses to and from several areas in the face and neck. The sensory Enzyme: chemical catalyst. branches are associated with the taste receptors on the tongue and the motor fibres transmit impulses to the Ephelides: also known as freckles, these present as muscles of facial expression. small pigmented areas of skin and appear where there is excessive production of the pigment melanin (after Faeces: solid or semi-solid mass of undigested food exposure to sunlight). that is eliminated through the anus. Epidermis: outermost, superficial layer of the skin. Fallopian tubes: tubes extending on the sides of the uterus, passing upwards and outwards to end near each Epidydmides: highly convoluted tubes that connect the ovary. Their function is to convey the ovum from the testes to the vasa deferentia. ovary to the uterus. Epilepsy: neurological disorder which makes the Fascia: fibrous connective tissue that envelops muscles individual susceptible to recurrent and temporary and organs. seizures. Fasciculi: bundle of muscle fibres. Epimysium: fibrous elastic tissue surrounding a muscle. Fatty acids: end product of fat digestion. Erector pili muscle: small, smooth, weak muscle Femur: long bone of the thigh. attached at an angle to the base of a hair follicle which makes the hair stand erect in response to cold. Fertilisation: fusion of a spermatozoon and an ovum. Erector spinae: long postural muscle in three bands Fibrin: insoluble fibrous protein formed from either side of spine, attaching to the spine, ribcage and fibrinogen during blood coagulation. head. Fibrinogen: plasma protein that is converted into fibrin Erythema: deadening of the skin due to the dilation of during blood cogulation. blood capillaries just below the epidermis. Fibroblast: cell found in reticular layer of dermis that Erythrocyte: red blood cells that transport the gases of forms new fibrous tissue. respiration. Fibroid: abnormal growth of fibrous and muscular Ethmoid: skull bone forming part of the wall of the tissue, one or more of which may develop in the orbit, roof of the nasal cavity and part of the nasal muscular wall of the uterus. septum. Fibromyalgia: chronic condition that produces Eversion: soles of the feet face outwards. musculo-skeletal pain. Expiration: act of breathing out air from the lungs. Fibrositis: inflammatory condition of the fibrous connective tissues, especially in the muscle fascia (also Extension: straightening of a body part at a joint so known as muscular rheumatism). that the angle between the bones is increased. Fibrous joint: immovable joint with tough fibrous Extensor carpi radialis: muscle extending along the tissue between the bones. radial side of the posterior of the forearm. Fibrous joint capsule: part of synovial joint reinforced Extensor carpi ulnaris: muscle extending along the by connective tissue to hold the bones together and ulnar side of the posterior of the forearm. enclose the joint. Extensor digitorum: muscle extending along the lateral Fibula: long bone situated on lateral side of tibia in side of the posterior of the forearm. lower leg. Extensor digitorum longus: long muscle of the lower Filtration: movement of water and dissolved substances leg that extends the toes. across the cell membrane due to differences in pressure.

316 Glossary Fissure: crack in the epidermis exposing the dermis. Gastrin: hormone released by endocrine cells in the stomach wall and stimulated by the presence Fixator: muscles that stabilise a bone to give a steady of food. base from which the agonist works. Gastrocnemius: large superficial calf muscle with two Flexion: bending of a body part at a joint so that the bellies. angle between the bones is decreased. Genitalia: external reproductive organs. Flexor carpi digitorum: anterior muscle of the forearm extending from the medial end of the humerus, Gigantism: abnormal growth causing excessive height, the anterior of the ulna and radius to the anterior most commonly due to oversecretion of the growth surfaces of the second to fifth fingers. hormone during childhood. Flexor carpi radialis: muscle of the forearm extending Gliding joint: type of synovial joint where two flat along the radial side of the anterior of the forearm. bones slide over one another. Flexor carpi ulnaris: anterior muscle of the forearm Glomerulus: network of blood capillaries contained extending along the ulnar side of the anterior of the within the cuplike end (Bowman’s capsule) of a nephron. forearm. Glossopharyngeal nerve: mixed nerve that innervates Flexor digitorum longus: long muscle of the lower leg structures in the mouth and throat. that flexes the toes. Glucocorticoids: group of steroid hormones Flexor hallicus longus: long muscle of the lower leg synthesised by the adrenal cortex, essential for the that flexes the big toe. utilisation of carbohydrate, fat and protein by the body and for a normal response to stress. Follicle-stimulating hormone: in women stimulates the development of the graafian follicle in the ovary Glucose: single sugar that serves as the primary source which secretes the hormone oestrogen. In men it of cellular energy, the end product of carbohydrate stimulates the testes to produce sperm. digestion. Folliculitis: bacterial infection which occurs in the hair Gluteus maximus: large muscle covering the buttock. follicles of the skin and appears as a small pustule at the Gluteus medius: medium-sized muscle of the buttock. base of a hair follicle. There is redness, swelling and pain Gluteus mimimus: smallest of the buttock muscles. around the hair follicle. Fracture: breakage of a bone, either complete or Glycerol: clear viscous liquid obtained by the incomplete. breakdown of fats, and the end product of fat digestion. Free edge: part of the nail plate that extends beyond the nail bed. Glycogen: carbohydrate consisting of branched chains of glucose units, the principal form in which Frontal: skull bone forming the forehead. carbohydrate is stored in the body. Frontalis: muscle that extends over the front of the Golgi body: collection of flattened sacs within skull and the width of the forehead. the cytoplasm near the nucleus and attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. It is the ‘packaging and storage’ Frozen shoulder (adhesive capsulitis): chronic department of the cell. condition in which there is pain and stiffness and reduced mobility, or locking, of the shoulder joint. Gonadotrophic hormones: secreted from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, these hormones Gall bladder: pear-shaped sac lying underneath the control the development and growth of the ovaries right lobe of the liver, where bile is stored. and testes. Gallstone: hard pebble-like mass which is formed Gracilis: long strap-like muscle that adducts the thigh. within the gall bladder. Gastric juice: liquid secreted by the gastric glands of Granular layer: (stratum granulosum) layer of the stomach (main constituents are hydrochloric acid, epidermis linking the living cells of the epidermis (basal mucus, rennin and pepsinogen). and prickle cell layers) to the dead cells above.

Glossary 317 Greenstick fracture: partial fracture in which one side Hepatitis: inflammation of the liver caused by viruses, of the bone is broken and the other side bends (only toxic substances or immunological abnormalities. occurs in children). Hepatitis A: highly contagious and transmitted by Growth hormone: secreted from the anterior lobe of the faecal-oral route. It is transmitted by ingestion of the pituitary gland, controls the growth of long bones contaminated food, water or milk. and muscles. Hepatitis B: also known as serum hepatitis. It lasts Gynaecomastia: enlargement of the breasts in the male longer and is more serious than hepatitis A and can lead due to either a hormone imbalance or hormone to cirrhosis, cancer of the liver and a carrier state. therapy. Hepatitis C: can cause acute or chronic hepatitis. It Haemophilia: hereditary disorder in which the blood can also lead to a carrier state and liver cancer. It is clots very slowly due to deficiency of either of two transmitted through blood transfusions or exposure to coagulation factors – Factor VIII (the antihaemophiliac blood products. factor) or Factor IX (the Christmas factor). Hernia: abnormal protrusion of an organ or part of Haemorrhoids: condition with abnormal dilatation an organ through the wall of the body cavity in which it of veins in the rectum. normally lies. Hair: appendage of the skin which grows from a sac- Herpes simplex (cold sores): normally found on like depression in the epidermis, called a hair follicle. the face and around the lips. It begins as an itching sensation, followed by erythema and a group of small Hair bulb: enlarged part of hair at the base of the hair root. blisters which then weep and form crusts. Hair root: part of hair found below the surface of the Herpes zoster (shingles): painful infection along the skin. sensory nerves by the virus that causes chickenpox. Hair shaft: part of hair lying above the surface of the skin. Hiatus hernia: most common type of hernia, occuring when part of the stomach is protruding into the chest. Hamstrings: group of three muscles situated on the posterior of the thigh. High blood pressure: when the resting blood pressure is above normal, as consistently exceeding 160 mmHg Hay fever: allergic reaction involving the mucous systolic and 95 mmHg diastolic. passages of the upper respiratory tract and the conjunctiva of the eyes, caused by pollen or other Hilus: medial border of the kidney where the renal allergens. blood vessels leave and enter the kidney. Headache: pain felt deep within the skull but excluding Hinge joint: type of synovial joint where the rounded facial pain. surface of one bone fits the hollow surface of another bone. Movement is only possible in one direction. Heart: hollow organ made up of cardiac muscle tissue which lies in the thorax above the diaphragm and Hirsutism: presence of coarse, pigmented hair on the between the lungs. Its function is to maintain a constant face, chest and upper back or abdomen in a female due circulation of blood throughout the body. to excessive production of androgens. Heart attack (myocardial infarction): damage to Hodgkin’s disease: malignant disease of the lymphatic the heart muscles which results from blockage of the tissues, usually characterised by painless enlargement of coronary arteries. one or more groups of lymph nodes in the neck, armpit, groin, chest, or abdomen. Heartburn: burning sensation felt behind the sternum and often appearing to rise from the abdomen, up the Homeostasis: process by which the body maintains a oesophagus, towards or into the throat. stable internal environment for its cells and tissues. Hepatic arteries: blood vessels supplying blood to the Hormone: chemical messenger or regulator, secreted liver. by an endocrine gland, which reaches its destination by the bloodstream and has the power of influencing the Hepatic portal vein: blood vessels that drain blood activity of other organs. from the liver.

318 Glossary Horny layer (stratum corneum): most superficial, Infertility: inability in a woman to conceive or in a man outer layer of the skin consisting of dead, flattened, to induce conception. keratinised cells. Infraspinatus: muscle that attaches to the middle Humerus: long bone of the upper arm. two-thirds of the scapula, below the spine of the scapula at one end and the top of the humerus at Hydrochloric acid: strong acid present in a very dilute the other. form in gastric juice. Ingestion: act of taking food into the alimentary canal Hyperhidrosis: excessive production of sweat affecting through the mouth. the hands, feet and underarms. Inginual nodes: lymph nodes located in the groin. Hypertrophic disorders: refer to conditions which have They drain lymph from the lower limbs, the external resulted in an increase of size of a tissue or organ. This is genitalia and the lower abdominal wall. caused by an enlargement of the cells. Inner root sheath: originates from the dermal papilla at Hypoglossal nerve: motor nerve that innervates the the base of the follicle and grows upwards with the hair, muscles of the tongue. shaping and contouring. Hypoglycaemia: deficiency of glucose in the Innominate artery (brachiocephalic): short artery bloodstream, causing muscular weakness and originating as the first large branch of the aortic arch. incoordination, mental confusion and sweating. If severe it can lead to a hypoglycaemic coma. Innominate vein (brachiocephalic): either of the two veins, one on each side of the neck, formed by the Hypothalamus: small structure lying beneath the junction of the external jugular and subclavian veins. thalamus which governs many important homeostatic functions. Insertion: most movable part of a muscle. Hypothenar eminence: projection of soft tissue located Inspiration: act of breathing air into the lungs through on the ulnar side of the palm of the hand. It consists of the mouth and nose. three muscles – abductor digiti minimi manus, flexor digiti minimi manus and opponens digiti minimi. Insulin: hormone produced in the pancreas by the islets of Langerhans cells. It is important for regulating the Ileum: lowest part of the three portions of the small amount of glucose in the blood. intestine. Intercostal muscles: muscles that occupy the spaces Iliacus large, fan-shaped muscle deeply situated in the between the ribs and are responsible for controlling pelvic girdle. some of the movements of the ribs. Ilium: largest and most superior pelvic bone. Intestinal juice: released by the glands of the small intestine and completes the final breakdown of Immunisation: artificial stimulation of the body into nutrients, including simple sugars to glucose and protein producing antibodies. to amino acids. Immunity: body’s ability to resist infection. Inversion: soles of the feet face inwards. Impacted fracture: where one fragment of bone is Irritable bowel syndrome: common condition driven into the other. in which there is recurrent abdominal pain with constipation and/or diarrhoea and bloating. Impetigo: superficial, contagious inflammatory disease caused by streptococcal and staphylococcal bacteria. It Ischium: bone forming the posterior part of the pelvic is commonly seen on the face and around the ears and girdle. features include weeping blisters which dry to form honey-coloured crusts. Islets of Langerhans: small groups of cells scattered through the pancreas. They secrete the hormones insulin Incontinence: condition in which the individual is and glucagon. unable to control urination voluntarily. Isometric contraction: when a muscle works without Inferior vena cava: main vein receiving blood from the actual movements or changing length. lower parts of the body, below the diaphragm.

Glossary 319 Isotonic contraction: when a muscles force is Latissimus dorsi: wide muscle of the back extending considered to be constant but the muscle length across the back of the thorax. changes. Lentigo: also known as ‘liver spots’, these are flat dark Jaundice: yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes, patches of pigmentation which are found mainly in the caused by excessive bilirubin (bile pigment) in elderly, on skin exposed to light. the blood. Lesion: zone of tissue with impaired function as a Jejunum: middle part of the small intestine, connecting result of damage by disease or wounding. the duodenum to the ileum. Leucocyte: white blood cells that aid the body’s defence Joint: point where two or more bones or cartilage meet. mechanism. Jugular vein: major vein draining blood from the head Leukaemia: cancer of blood-forming organs and neck (divides into internal and external branches). characterised by rapid growth and distorted development of leucocytes; refers to any of a group of malignant Keloid: overgrowth of an existing scar which grows diseases in which the bone marrow and other much larger than the original wound. blood-forming organs produce an increased number of certain types of white blood cells. Keratin: tough fibrous protein found in the epidermis, hair and nails. Levator anguli oris: muscle extending from the maxilla (upper jaw) to the angle of the mouth. Keratinisation: process that cells undergo when they change from living cells with a nucleus to dead, horny Levator ani: muscle forming the pelvic floor. cells without a nucleus. Levator labii superioris: muscle located towards the Kidney: pair of organs responsible for excretion of inner cheek beside the nose and extending from the waste from blood, situated at the back of abdomen, one upper jaw to the skin of the corners of the mouth and on each side of spine. the upper lip. Kidney stones: deposits of substances found in the Levator scapula: strap-like muscle that runs almost urine which form solid stones with the renal pelvis of vertically through the neck, connecting the cervical the kidney, the ureter or the bladder. vertebrae to the scapula. Kyphosis: abnormally increased outward curvature of Ligament: tough band of white fibrous connective the thoracic spine. tissue that links tow bone together at a joint. Lacrimal: smallest of the facial bones located close to Liver: largest gland in the body, occupying the top the medial part of the orbital cavity. right portion of the abdominal cavity. It is concerned with regulation of blood sugar and amino acid Lacteal: intestinal lymphatic vessel. levels, secretion of bile and detoxification of waste. Lactic acid: compound that forms in the cells as an Loop of Henle: part of the kidney tubule that forms end product of glucose metabolism in the absence of a loop extending towards the centre of the kidney. It oxygen. absorbs water and selected soluble substances back into the bloodstream. Lanugo hair: fine, soft hair found on a foetus. Lordosis: abnormally increased inward curvature of the Large intestine: part of the digestive system concerned lumbar spine. with absorption of water from the material passed from the small intestine. It consists of the caecum, appendix, Low blood pressure: when the blood pressure is below colon and rectum. normal, a systolic blood pressure of 99 mmHg or less and a diastolic of less than 59 mmHg. Larynx (voice box): short passage connecting the pharynx to the trachea. Lateral longitudinal arch: arch of the foot which runs Lower limb: part of the skeleton containing the along the lateral side of the foot from the calcaneum femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and bone to the end of the metatarsals. phalanges.

320 Glossary Lumbar plexuses: spinal nerves located between the Mandible: only moveable bone of the skull forming the waist and the hip. They supply the front and sides of lower jaw. the abdominal wall and part of the thigh. Masseter: thick muscle in the cheek extending from the Lumbar vertebrae: five vertebrae of the lower back. zygomatic arch to the outer corner of the mandible. Lungs: cone-shaped spongy organs situated in the Mast cells: cells found in reticular layer of dermis thoracic cavity on either side of the heart. Their which secrete histamine during an allergic reaction. function is to facilitate the exchange of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide. Mastication: process of chewing food. Lunula: light-coloured semicircular area of the nail, Mastoid nodes: lymph nodes located behind the ear; commonly called the half moon, lying between the they drain lymph from the skin of the ear and the matrix and the nail plate. temporal region of the scalp. Lupus erythematosus: chronic inflammatory disease Matrix: substance of a tissue or organ in which of connective tissue affecting the skin and various specialised structures are embedded. internal organs. It is an auto-immune disease and can be diagnosed by the presence of abnormal antibodies in the Matrix (hair): area of mitotic activity of the hair cells bloodstream. located at the lower part of the hair bulb. Luteinizing hormone: in women it helps to prepare Matrix (nail): area of nail situated immediately below the uterus for the fertilised ovum. In men it acts on the the cuticle, the area where the living cells are produced. testes to produce testosterone. Maxilla: largest bone of the face forming the upper Lymph: transparent, colourless, watery liquid derived jaw. from tissue fluid. Medial longitudinal arch: arch of the foot running Lymphatic capillaries: minute, blind-end tubes that along the medial side of the foot from the calcaneum commence in the tissue spaces of the body. bone to the end of the metatarsals. Lymphatic node: oval or bean-shaped structure that Medulla: inner layer of hair; inner part of kidney filters lymph. made up of conical-shaped sections called renal pyramids. Lymphatic vessels: tubes similar in structure to veins, with thin collapsible walls and valves; responsible for Meiosis: type of cell division that produces four transporting lymph through its circulatory pathway. daughter cells, each having half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. Lymphoma: malignant tumour of the lymph nodes. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): hormone Lysosome: round sacs present in the cytoplasm, synthesised and released by the pituitary gland. It containing powerful enzymes to destroy any part of the stimulates the production of melanin in the basal cell cell that is worn out. layer of the skin. Macule: small flat patch of increased pigmentation or Melanoma: cancerous growth of melanocytes. discolouration such as a freckle. Melatonin: hormone produced by the pineal gland. Malignant: term used to describe a tumour that invades It is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms, and destroys the tissue in which it originates and can sleep/wake rhythms and is thought to influence spread to other sites in the body via the bloodstream the mood. and lymphatic system. Meninges: special type of connective tissue with three Malignant melanoma: deeply pigmented mole which layers that protects the brain and spinal cord. is life-threatening if it is not recognised and treated promptly. Its main characteristic is a blue-black module Meningitis: inflammation of the meninges due to which increases in size, shape and colour and is most infection by viruses or bacteria. commonly found on the head, neck and trunk. Menopause: time when a women ceases to menstruate and is no longer able to bear children.

Glossary 321 Menstrual cycle: periodic sequence of events in Motor neurone disease: progressive degenerative women in which an egg cell (ovum) is released from the disease of the motor neurones of the nervous system. ovary at four weekly intervals until the change of life. It tends to occur in middle age and causes muscle weakness and wasting. Mentalis: muscle radiating from the lower lip over the centre of the chin. Motor point: point where the nerve supply enters the muscle. Metabolism: physiological processes to convert the food we eat and the air we breathe into the energy the Mucus: viscous fluid secreted by mucous membrane, body needs to function. acting as a protective barrier and lubricant. Metacarpals: five long bones in the palm of the hand. Multiple sclerosis: disease of the central nervous system in which the myelin (fatty) sheath covering the Metastasis: spread of cancerous cells to other parts of nerve fibres is destroyed and various functions become the body. impaired, including movement and sensations. Metatarsals: five long bones forming the dorsal surface Muscle cramp: acute painful contraction of a single of the foot. muscle or group of muscles. Migraine: specific form of headache, usually unilateral Muscle fatigue: loss of the ability of a muscle (one side of the head), associated with nausea or to contract efficiently due to insufficient oxygen, vomiting and visual disturbances such as scintillating or exhaustion of energy supply and the accumulation of zigzag light waves. lactic acid. Milia: sebum trapped in a blind duct with no surface Muscle spasm: increase in muscle tension due to opening. They appear as pearly, white, hard nodules excessive motor nerve activity, resulting in a knot in the under the skin. muscle. Mineral corticoid: hormone secreted by the adrenal Muscle tone: state of partial contraction of a muscle. cortex, acting on the kidney tubules, retaining salts in the body, excreting excess potassium and maintaining the Muscular atrophy: wasting away of muscles due to water and electrolyte balance. poor nutrition, lack of use or a dysfunction of the motor nerve impulses. Mitochondria: oval shaped organelles that lie within the cytoplasm. It is the site of the cell’s energy production. Muscular dystrophy: progressively crippling disease in which the muscles gradually weaken and atrophy. Mitosis: type of cell division when a single cell produces two genetically identical daughter cells. Myelin sheath: fatty insulating sheath that covers the axon. Its function is to insulate the nerve and accelerate Mixed/association neurone: type of nerve cell that the conduction of nerve impulses along the length of links sensory and motor neurones, helping to form the the axon. complex pathways that enable the brain to interpret incoming sensory messages, decide on what should be Myocardium: middle layer of heart. done and send out instructions along motor pathways in response. Myofibrils: contractile filaments found within skeletal/voluntary muscle cells. Mole: also known as a pigmented naevus. They appear as round, smooth lumps on the surface of the skin. Myosin: most abundant protein found in muscle, plays They may be flat or raised and vary in size and colour an important role in muscle contraction. from pink to brown or black. Myositis: inflammation of a skeletal muscle. Motor/efferent neurone: type of nerve cell that conducts impulses away from the brain and spinal cord Myxoedema: hypothyroidism in adult life, symptoms to muscles and glands. include coarsening of the skin, intolerance to cold, weight gain and mental dullness. Motor nerve: type of nerve that carries impulses outwards from the central nervous system to bring about Naevus: birthmark and clearly defined malformation an activity in a muscle or gland. of the skin; mass of dilated capillaries.

322 Glossary Nail bed: area of the nail below the nail plate that Nucleus: control centre of the cell. It regulates provides nourishment and protection for the nail. the cell’s functions and contains genetic information (DNA). Nail groove: deep ridges under the sides of the nail which guide it and help it to grow straight. Obliques (external and internal): muscles located at the sides of the waist (external obliques are superficial to Nail plate: main visible part of the nail which rests on the internal obliques). the nail bed and ends at the free edge. Occipital: skull bone forming the back of the skull. Nail wall: fold of skin overlapping the sides of the nails to protect the edges of the nail plate from Occipitalis: muscle found at the back of the head. It is external damage. attached to the occipital bone and the skin of the scalp. Nasal: small facial bone forming bridge of nose. Occipital nodes: lymph nodes located at the base of the skull. They drain lymph from the back of scalp and Nasalis: muscle located at the sides of the nose. the upper part of the neck. Naso-pharynx: upper part of the nasal cavity behind Oculomotor nerve: mixed nerve that innervates both the nose. internal and external muscles of the eye and a muscle of the upper eyelid. Neoplasm: any new or abnormal growth (any benign or malignant tumour). Oedema: abnormal swelling of body tissues due to an accumulation of tissue fluid. Nephritis: general non-specific term used to describe inflammation of the kidney. Oestrogen: hormone controlling female sexual development. Nephron: tiny blood filtration unit inside kidney. Olfactory: pertaining to the sense of smell. Neuralgia: attacks of pain along the entire course or branch of a peripheral sensory nerve. A common Olfactory nerve: sensory nerve of olfaction (smell). example is trigeminal neuralgia affecting the trigeminal nerve in the face. Oncologist: physician who specialises in the study and practice of treating tumours. Neuritis: inflammation/disease of a single or several nerves, caused by infection, injury or poison. Oncology: study and practice of treating tumours. Neuroglia: also known as glial cells, a special type of Optic nerve: sensory nerve of vision. connective tissue of the central nervous system designed to support, nourish and protect the neurones. Orbicularis oculi: circular muscle that surrounds the eye. Neurone: specialised nerve cell, designed to receive Orbicularis oris: circular muscle that surrounds the stimuli and conduct impulses. mouth. Neurotransmitter: chemical substance released from Organ: part of the body, composed of more than one nerve endings across synapses to other nerves. tissue that forms a structural unit responsible for a particular function. Noradrenaline: hormone secreted by the medulla of the adrenal glands. It is closely related to adrenalin and Origin: most fixed point of a muscle. helps the body create the conditions needed for rest through the parasympathetic nervous system. Osmosis: process of the movement of water through the cell membrane from areas of low chemical Nose: organ which moistens, warms and filters the air concentration to areas of high chemical concentration. and senses smell. Ossification: process of bone formation. Nuclear membrane: perforated outer membrane enclosing the nucleus. Osteoblast: bone-building cell. Nucleolus: dense, spherical structure inside nucleus, Osteoclast: cartilage-destroying cell. containing ribonucleic acid (RNA) to form of ribosomes. Osteocyte: mature bone cells.

Glossary 323 Osteoporosis: brittle bones due to ageing and the lack Parotid nodes: lymph nodes located at the angle of the of the hormone oestrogen which affects the ability to jaw. They drain lymph from the nose, eyelids and ear. deposit calcium in the matrix of bone. Patella: kneecap. Outer root sheath: forms the follicle wall and provides a permanent source of growing cells (hair germ cells). Pectoralis major: thick, fan-shaped muscle covering the anterior surface of the upper chest. Ova: egg cells (plural of ovum). Pectoralis minor: thin muscle that lies beneath the Ovarian follicle: cavity in which an ovum is formed. pectoralis major. Ovaries: female sex glands lying on the lateral walls of Pediculosis (lice): a contagious parasitic infection the pelvis. They are concerned with the production of where the lice live off the blood sucked from the ova (eggs). skin. With head lice, nits may be found in the hair. They are pearl-grey or brown, oval structures found Ovum: egg cell. on the hair shaft close to the scalp. The scalp may appear red and raw due to scratching. Oxytocin: hormone secreted from the posterior lobe of pituitary. It stimulates the uterus during labour and Pelvic girdle: bony structure to which bones of lower stimulates the breasts to produce milk. limb are attached (consists of ilium, ischium and pubis bones). Palatine: L-shaped bones which form the anterior part of the roof of the mouth. Pelvic nodes: lymph nodes located within the pelvic cavity, along the paths of the iliac blood vessels. They Pancreas: gland extending from the loop of the drain lymph from organs within the pelvic cavity. duodenum to behind the stomach and secretes pancreatic juice. Penis: male organ made of erectile tissue that carries the urethra, through which urine and semen are Pancreatic amylase: enzyme that continues the discharged. breakdown of starch and has the same effects as salivary amylase. Pepsin: enzyme in the stomach that begins the digestion of proteins. Pancreatic juice: secretes by the pancreas into the duodenum and contains enzymes that continue the Peptidases: group of digestive enzymes that split digestion of protein, carbohydrates and fats. proteins in the stomach and intestine into their constituent amino acids. Pancreatic lipase: enzyme that breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Pericardium: outer layer of heart. Papillary layer: most superficial layer of the dermis, Perimysium: fibrous sheath that surrounds each bundle situated above reticular layer. of muscle fibres. Papule: small raised elevation on the skin, less than Periosteum: thin membrane of connective tissue 1 cm in diameter, which may be red in colour. It often covering bone. develops into a pustule. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): part of the nervous Parasympathetic nervous system: one of the two system containing all the nerves outside of the central divisions of the autonomic nervous system. It balances nervous system. It consists of cable-like nerves that link the action of the sympathetic division by working to the central nervous system to the rest of the body. conserve energy and create the conditions needed for rest and sleep. Peristalsis: coordinated, rhythmical contractions of the circular and oblique muscles in the wall of the Parietal: forms the upper sides of the skull and the alimentary tract to break down food and move it along back of the roof of the skull. the alimentary canal. Parkinson’s disease: damage to grey matter of brain Peroneus longus/brevis: muscles situated on the known as basal ganglia. It causes involuntary tremors of lateral aspect of the lower leg. They attach to the fibula limbs, with stiffness, rigidity and shuffling gait. and are plantar flexors of the foot.

324 Glossary Phalanges: finger and toes bones. Port wine stain: also known as a ‘deep capillary naevus’. It is present at birth and may vary in colour Pharynx: throat, serving as an air and food passage. from pale pink to deep purple. It has an irregular shape but is not raised above the skin’s surface and is usually Phlebitis: inflammation of the wall of a vein, most found on the face but may also appear on other areas of commonly seen in the legs as a complication of varicose the body. veins. Pineal gland: pea-sized mass of nerve tissue attached Pregnancy: period in which a woman carries a by a stalk in the central part of the brain. It secretes developing foetus. a hormone called melatonin and is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms. Pre-menstrual syndrome: term for the physical and psychological symptoms experienced from three to Piriformis: deeply seated, pelvic girdle muscle that is a 14 days prior to the onset of menstruation. deep lateral rotator of the thigh. Prickle cell layer (stratum spinosum): binding and Pituitary: lobed structure attached by a stalk to the transitional layer between the stratum granulosum and hypothalamus of the brain. the stratum germinativum. Pivot joint: type of synovial joint where a process of Procerus: muscle located in between the eyebrows. bone rotates in a socket. Progesterone: hormone responsible for preparing the Plantar flexion: downward movement of the foot so uterus for pregnancy. that feet face downwards towards the ground. Prolactin: hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of Platysma: superficial neck muscle that extends from the the pituitary. It stimulates the secretion of milk from chest up either side of the neck to the chin. the breasts following birth. Pleurisy: inflammation of the pleura of the lung. It Pronation: turning the hand so that the palm is facing presents as an intense stabbing pain over the chest on downwards. breathing deeply. Pronator teres: anterior muscle of the forearm, Plexuses: network of nerves or blood vessels. crossing the anterior aspect of the elbow. Pneumonia: inflammation of the lung caused by Proprioceptors: sensory nerve endings located bacteria, in which the alveoli become filled with in muscles and tendons that transmit information to inflammatory cells and the lung becomes solid. Symptoms coordinate muscular activity, organs and glands. include fever, malaise and headache together with a cough and chest pain. Prostate: male accessory sex gland situated just below the bladder. During ejaculation it secretes an alkaline Polycystic ovary syndrome: condition caused fluid that forms part of semen. by hyposecretion of the hormones oestrogen and progesterone in the female. It is characterised by cysts Prostatitis: inflammation of the prostate gland which is on the ovaries, cessation of periods, obesity, atrophy of usually caused by bacteria. the breasts, hirsutism and sterility. Proximal convoluted tubule: highly coiled, twisted Polypeptide: molecule consisting of three or more tube that leads away from the Bowman’s capsule of a amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. nephron and into the loop of Henle. Popliteal nodes: lymph nodes located behind the knee. Psoas: long, thick, deep pelvic muscle. They drain lymph from the lower limbs through deep and superficial nodes. Psoriasis: chronic, inflammatory skin condition. Psoriasis may be recognised as the development of Portal circulation: special branch of the systemic well-defined red plaques, varying in size and shape and circulation which collects blood from the digestive covered by white or silvery scales. organs and delivers it to the liver for processing, via the hepatic portal vein. Pterygoids: facial muscles extending from the sphenoid bone in the skull to the mandible in the jaw.

Glossary 325 Puberty: time at which the onset of sexual maturity Rhinitis: inflammation of the mucous membrane of occurs and the reproductive organs become functional. the nose, causing a blocked, runny and stuffy nose. Pubis: bone forming anterior of pelvic girdle. Rhomboids: either of the two muscles situated in the upper part of the back between the thoracic vertebrae Pulmonary arteries: two blood vessels (right and left) and the scapula. carrying deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs. Ribosome: tiny organelles made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein. Its function is to manufacture Pulmonary circulation: circulatory system between the proteins for use within the cell. heart and lungs. Right lymphatic duct: short duct that lies in the root Pulmonary embolism: blood clot carried into the of the neck and collects lymph from the right. lungs. Ringworm: fungal infection of the skin which begins as Pulmonary veins: four blood vessels that carry small red papules that gradually increase in size to form oxygenated blood from the lungs and returns it to the a ring. Affected areas on the body vary in severity from left atrium of the heart. mild scaling to inflamed itchy areas. Pulse: pressure wave that can be felt in the arteries, Risorius: triangular-shaped muscle that lies horizontally which corresponds to the beating of the heart. on the cheek, joining at the corners of the mouth. Pustule: small raised elevation on the skin containing Rodent ulcer: malignant tumour which starts off as pus. a slow-growing pearly nodule, often at the site of a previous skin injury. Quadratus lumborum: muscle located in the lower back/lumbar region. Rosacea: chronic inflammatory disease of the face in which the skin appears abnormally red. The condition Quadriceps: group of four muscles on the anterior is gradual, and begins with flushing of the cheeks aspect of the thigh. and nose. As the condition progresses it can become pustular. Radius: long bone of the forearm (on thumb side of forearm). Rotation: movement of a bone around an axis (180 degrees). Rectum: end part of large intestine where faeces are stored before defecation. Rectus abdominis: long, flat muscle that extends Rupture: tearing of a muscle fascia or tendon. bilaterally along the entire length of the front of the abdomen. Sacral plexuses: spinal nerves located at the base of the abdomen supplying the skin and muscles and organs Reflex action/arc: rapid and automatic response to a of the pelvis. stimulus without any conscious thought of the brain. Sacral vertebrae (sacrum): five fused vertebrae Renal artery: either of the two large arteries arising forming a flat, triangular-shaped bone between the from the abdominal aorta and supplying the kidneys. pelvic bones. Renal pelvis: funnel-shaped cavity that collects urine Saddle joint: type of synovial joint where the from the renal pyramids in the medulla and drains it into articulating surfaces of bone have both rounded and the ureter. hollow surfaces so that the surface of one bone fits the complementary surface of the other. Renal vein: blood vessels via which treated blood leaves the kidney. Saliva: alkaline liquid secreted by the salivary glands and by mucous membrane of the mouth. Reticular fibres: fibres found in the reticular layer of dermis which help to maintain the skin’s tone, strength Salivary amylase: enzyme that commences the and elasticity. digestion of starch or carbohydrates in the mouth. Reticular layer: deepest layer of the dermis situated Sarcoma: general term for any cancer arising from below the papillary layer. muscle cells or connective tissues.

326 Glossary Sarcomere: basic contractile unit of which Serratus anterior: broad curved muscle located on the skeletal/voluntary muscle fibres are composed. side of the chest/rib cage below the axilla. Sartorius: narrow ribbon-like muscles which cross the Sex corticoids: hormones secreted by the adrenal anterior of the thigh. cortex, controlling the development of the secondary sex characteristics and the function Scabies: contagious parasitic skin condition caused by of the reproductive organs, including testosterone, the female mite who burrows into the horny layer of the oestrogen and progesterone. skin where she lays her eggs. Shin splints: soreness in the front of the lower leg due Scapula: bone forming posterior of shoulder girdle. to straining of the flexor muscles used in walking. Scar: mark left on the skin after a wound has healed. Shoulder girdle: part of skeleton that connects the upper limbs with the thorax and consists of two Sciatica: lower back pain which can affect the buttock scapulae and clavicles. and thigh. Scoliosis: lateral curvature of the vertebral column Simple fracture: clean break with little damage to which may be to the left or right side. surrounding tissues and no break in the overlying skin (also known as a closed fracture). Scrotum: paired sac that holds the testes and epididymides. Sinoatrial (SA) node: built-in electrical system which sets the pace of the heart rate. Sebaceous cyst: round, nodular lesion with a smooth shiny surface which develops from a sebaceous gland. Sinusitis: condition involving inflammation of the paranasal sinuses. It is usually caused by a viral or Sebaceous gland: small sac-like pouches found all over bacterial infection or may be associated with a common the body, except for the soles of the feet and the palms cold or allergy. of the hands. They produce an oily substance called sebum. Skeletal/voluntary muscle: striped in appearance, this type of muscle tissue is attached to the skeleton. It is Seborrhoea: excessive secretion of sebum by the responsible for the movement of bones. sebaceous glands. The glands are enlarged and the skin appears greasy, especially on the nose and the centre Skin tag: small growths of fibrous tissue which stand zone of the face. The condition may develop into acne up from the skin and sometimes are pigmented. vulgaris and is common at puberty, lasting for a few years. Small intestine: part of the digestive system where most of the processes of digestion and absorption of Seborrhoeic dermatitis: mild-to-chronic inflammatory food take place. It consists of three parts – duodenum, disease of hairy areas well supplied with sebaceous jejunum and ileum. glands. Common sites are the scalp, face, axilla and in the groin. Smooth/involuntary muscle: type of muscle tissue found in the walls of hollow organs such as the Semen: fluid ejaculated from the penis at sexual climax. stomach, intestines, bladder, uterus and blood vessels. Seminal vesicles: pair of male accessory sex glands that Soleus: large, flat calf muscle situated deep in open into the vas deferens before it joins the urethra. gastrocnemius. They secrete most of the liquid component of semen. Somatic nervous system: division of the peripheral Seminiferous tubules: long convoluted tubules that nervous system that consists of 31 pairs of spinal nerves make up the bulk of the testes. and 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Sensory/afferent neurone: type of nerve cell that Spasticity: increase in muscle tone and stiffness. receives stimuli from sensory organs and receptors and transmits the impulse to the spinal cord and brain. Specific immunity: type of immunity programmed genetically in the human body from birth. It includes Septum: partition dividing an anatomical structure such mechanical barriers, chemicals, inflammation, as the heart. phagocytosis and fever.

Glossary 327 Sperm (spermatozoa): mature, male sex cells. Strawberry naevus: raised, red lump usually appearing on the face and growing rapidly in the first month of Sphenoid: skull bone located in front of the temporal life. It usually disappears spontaneously before the child bone. reaches the age of ten. Sphygmomanometer: instrument used to measure Stress: factor which affects physical or emotional health. blood pressure. Stroke: blocking of blood flow to the brain by an Spider naevi: collection of dilated capillaries which embolus in a cerebral blood vessel. radiate from a central papule. Stye: acute inflammation of a gland at the base of an Spina bifida: congenital defect of the vertebral column eyelash caused by bacterial infection. The gland becomes in which the halves of the neural arch of a vertebra fail hard and tender and a pus-filled cyst develops at the to fuse in the midline. centre. Spinal cord: portion of the central nervous system Subclavian artery: either of the two arteries supplying enclosed in the vertebral column which extends from blood to the neck and arms. an opening at the base of the skull down to the second lumbar vertebra. Its function is to relay impulses to and Subclavian veins: two main veins at the base of the from the brain. neck into which the jugular veins empty blood. Spinal nerves: set of 12 pairs of nerves originating Subcutaneous layer: thick layer of connective and from the spinal cord. adipose tissue found below the dermis. Spleen: largest of the lymphatic organs, located in Submandibular nodes: lymph nodes located beneath left hand side of the abdominal cavity between the the jaw. They drain lymph from the chin, lips, nose, diaphragm and the stomach. It is concerned with cheeks and tongue. protection from disease and the manufacture of antibodies. Subscapularis: muscle that attaches the inside surface of the scapula to the anterior of the top of the Splenius capitis: long, posterior neck muscle that humerus. extends from the spinous processes of C7–T3 to the mastoid process of the temporal bone and the occipital Superficial cervical nodes: lymph nodes located at the bone. side of the neck, they drain lymph from the lower part of the ear and the cheek region. Splenius cervicus: long, posterior neck muscle that extends from the spinous processes of T3–T6 to the Superior vena cava: main vein draining blood from the transverse processes of C1–C3. upper parts of the body (head, neck, thorax and arms). Sprain: injury to a ligament caused by overstretching or Supination: turning the hand so that the palm is facing tearing. upwards. Squamous cell carcinoma: malignant tumour which Supinator: muscle that attaches to the lateral aspect arises from the prickle cell layer of the epidermis. of the lower humerus and the radius and supinates the forearm. Sternocleidomastoid: long muscle that lies obliquely across each side of the neck. Its fibres extend upwards Supraspinatus: muscle located in the depression above from the sternum and clavicle at one end to the mastoid the spine of the scapula. process of the temporal bone (at the back of the ear). Suptratrochlear nodes: lymph nodes located in the Stomach: muscular, J-shaped organ located between the elbow region. They drain lymph from the upper limbs oesophagus and the small intestine. It is concerned with and pass through to the axillary nodes. the mechanical breakdown of food. Sympathetic nervous system: one of the two divisions Strain: injury caused by excessive stretching or working of the autonomic nervous system. It prepares the body of a muscle or tendon that results in a partial or for expending energy and dealing with emergency complete tear. situations.

328 Glossary Synapse: minute gap across which nerve impulses pass fascia lata tendon to the lateral aspect of the top of the from one neurone to the next at the end of a nerve fibre. tibia. Synergyst: muscles on the same side of a joint, that Teres major: muscle that attaches to the bottom lateral work together to perform the same movements. edge of the scapula at one end and the back of the humerus (just below the shoulder joint) at the other. Synovial cavity: space between the articulating bones of a synovial joint. Teres minor: muscle that attaches to the lateral edge of the scapula, above teres major at one end and into the Synovial fluid: thick lubricating fluid secreted by the top of the posterior of the humerus at the other. synovial membrane. Terminal hair: longer, coarser hairs, mostly pigmented Synovial joint: freely moveable joint. hairs found on the scalp, under the arms, eyebrows, pubic regions, arms and legs. Synovial membrane: membrane that forms the sac enclosing a freely movable joint. Testes: pair of male sex organs that produce sperm. Synovitis: inflammation of a synovial membrane in a Testosterone: principal male sex hormone. joint. Tetany: condition caused by a reduction in the blood System: group of organs that work together to perform calcium level. It presents as spasm and twitching of the a specific function. muscles, particularly those of the face, hands and feet. Systemic circulation: largest circulatory system that Thalamus: positioned on each side of the forebrain, carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the the thalami are relay and interpretation stations for the heart through to the aorta. sensory messages (except olfaction) that enter the brain before they are transmitted to the cortex. Systolic: pressure exerted on the arterial wall during active ventricular contraction. Thenar eminence: eminence of soft tissue located on the radial side of the palm of the hand. Tarsals: seven irregular bones in the foot. Telangiecstasia: term for dilated capillaries where there Thoracic cavity: collective group of body parts is persistent vasodilation of capillaries in the skin. (sternum, ribs and thoracic vertebrae) which offer protection for the heart and lungs. Telogen: short, resting stage of hair. Thoracic duct: main collecting duct of the lymphatic Temporal: skull bone forming the sides of the skull system that collects lymph from the left side of the below the parietal bones and above and around the ears. head and neck, left arm, lower limbs and abdomen. It drains into the left subclavian vein to return it to the Temporalis: fan-shaped muscle situated on the side of bloodstream. the skull above and in front of the ear. Temporomandibular joint tension (TMJ syndrome): Thoracic nodes: lymph nodes located within the collection of symptoms and signs produced by disorders thoracic cavity and along the trachea and bronchi. They of the temporomandibular joint (hinge joint between drain lymph from the organs of the thoracic cavity and the mandible of the jaw and the temporal bone of the from the internal wall of the thorax. skull). Thoracic vertebrae: 12 vertebrae of the mid spine. Tendinitis: inflammation of a tendon accompanied by pain and swelling. Thrombocyte: smallest cellular elements of blood cells, significant in the blood clotting process, otherwise Tendon: white fibrous cords of connective tissue that known as platelets. attach muscles to a bone. Thrombosis: condition in which the blood changes Tennis elbow: inflammation of the tendons that attach from a liquid to a solid state and produces a blood the extensor muscles of the forearm at the elbow joint. clot. Tensor fascia lata: leg muscle attached to the outer Thymus: gland composed of lymphatic tissue located edge of the ilium of the pelvis which runs via the long in the upper chest. It is important in the newborn

Glossary 329 baby in promoting the development and maturation of by the navicular, three cuneiforms and the bases of the lymphocytes. five metatarsals. Thyroid: gland in the neck situated on either side Transversus abdominus: deep abdominal muscle that of the trachea. The principal role is in regulating runs transversely across the abdomen. metabolism. Trapezius: large triangular-shaped muscle in the upper Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): secreted back that extends horizontally from the base of the skull from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, it (occipital bone) and the cervical and thoracic vertebrae controls the growth and activity of the thyroid gland. to the scapula. Thyrotoxicosis: excessive amounts of thyroid Triangularis: triangular-shaped muscle located below the hormones in the bloodstream, causing rapid heartbeat, corners of the mouth. sweating, tremors, anxiety, increased appetite, loss of weight and intolerance to heat. Triceps: muscle on the posterior of the upper arm. Thyroxine (T4): one of the hormones synthesised and Trigemenal nerve: mixed nerve (containing motor and secreted by the thyroid gland. sensory nerves). Tibia: long bone situated on anterior and medial side of Trimester: any one of the three successive three-month lower leg. periods (first, second and third) into which a pregnancy may be divided. Tibialis anterior: muscle on the anterior and lateral side of the lower leg extending from the tibia to the Triodothyronine (T3): one of the hormones metatarsals. synthesised and secreted by the thyroid gland. Tibialis posterior: muscle on the posterior of the lower Trochlear nerve: smallest of the cranial nerves. It leg extending from the tibia to the metatarsals. is a motor nerve that innervates the superior oblique muscle of the eyeball which helps you look upwards. Tinea capitis: type of ringworm and a fungal infection of the scalp. It appears as painless, round, hairless Trypsin: enzyme that continues the digestion of patches on the scalp. Itching may be present and the proteins by breaking down peptones into smaller lesion may appear red and scaly. peptide chains and is secreted by the pancreas. Tinea pedis (athlete’s foot): highly contagious fungal Tuberculosis (TB): infectious disease caused by condition which is easily transmitted in damp, moist the bacillus (bacteria) Mycobacterium tuberculosis. conditions such as swimming pools, saunas and showers. Main transportation is via droplet infection and most It appears as flaking skin between the toes which becomes common site for the bacilli to be spread to is soft and soggy. the lungs. Tissue: group of similar cells that perform a certain Tumour: abnormal growth of tissue which may be function. benign or malignant. Tumours may be cancerous and sometimes fatal or they may be quite harmless. Tissue (interstitial) fluid: intercellular fluid located between cells other than blood cells. Turbinate: layers of bone located either side of the outer walls of the nasal cavities. Tonsils: lymphatic tissue located in the oral cavity and the pharynx. Ulcer: break or open sore in the skin extending to all its layers. Torticollis: condition in which the neck muscles (sternomastoids) contract involuntarily. It is commonly Ulcer (peptic, duodenal or gastric): break in the called ‘wryneck’. lining of the alimentary tract which fails to heal and is accompanied by inflammation. This condition can Trachea: windpipe that passes down into the thorax present with increased acidity, epigastric pain and and connects the larynx with the bronchi. heartburn. Transverse arch: arch of the foot which runs between Ulna: long bone of the forearm on little finger side of the medial and lateral aspect of the foot and is formed forearm.

330 Glossary Upper limb: part of the skeleton containing the Ventricle: lower chamber of heart. humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. Vertebral arteries: main division of the subclavian Ureter: either of a pair of muscular tubes that convey artery, arising from the subclavian arteries in the base of urine from the pelvis of kidney to the bladder. the neck and pass upwards where they unite to form a single basilar artery. Urethra: tube that conducts urine from the bladder to the exterior. In the male it also serves as a conducting Vertebral veins: main veins descending from the channel for semen. transverse openings (or foramina) of the cervical vertebrae and entering deep structures of the neck such Urinary bladder: pear-shaped sac which lies in the as the vertebrae and muscles. pelvic cavity where urine is collected and temporarily stored. Vesicle: small, sac-like blister. Urinary tract infection: bacterial infection of one or Vestibulocochlear nerve: sensory nerve that transmits more of the structures of the urinary system. impulses generated by auditory stimuli and stimuli related to equilibrium, balance and movement. Urine: fluid excreted by the kidneys containing water, urea, uric acid and creatinine. Villi: short finger-like processes that project from membranous surfaces such as from the wall of the small Urticaria: also known as ‘hives’. It is an itchy rash intestine. resulting from the release of histamine by mast cells. Virilism: masculinisation in the female from the Uterus: small, hollow, pear-shaped organ situated development of a combination of increased body behind the bladder and in front of the rectum. It is the hair, muscle bulk, deepening of the voice and male area in which an embryo grows and develops into a psychological characteristics. foetus. Vitiligo: areas of the skin lacking pigmentation due to Vacuole: empty space within the cytoplasm containing the basal cell layer of the epidermis no longer producing waste materials or secretions formed by the cytoplasm. melanin. The cause of vitiligo is unknown. Vagina: lower part of female reproductive tract. It is a Vomer: single bone at the back of the nasal septum. muscular tube lined with mucous membrane connecting the cervix of uterus to the exterior. Vulva: female external genitalia. Vagus nerve: unlike the other cranial nerves, it has Wart: benign growth on the skin caused by infection branches to numerous organs in the thorax and with the human papilloma virus. abdomen as well as the neck. Weal: raised area of skin containing fluid, which is white Varicose veins: veins which have become distended, in the centre with a red edge. lengthened and swollen. Whiplash: condition produced by damage to the Vasa deferentia: pair of ducts that conduct sperm from muscles, ligaments, intervertebral discs or nerve tissues the epididymis to the urethra on ejaculation. of the cervical region by sudden hyperextension and/or flexion of the neck. Vein: type of blood vessels with thinner muscular, elastic walls and valves. They carry blood towards the heart. Zygomatic: facial bone forming the cheeks. Vellus hair: soft, downy hair found all over the face and Zygomatic major and minor/zygomaticus: muscles body, except for the palms of the hands, soles of the lying in the cheek area, extending from the zygomatic feet, eyelids and lips. bone to the angle of the mouth.

. Index abdominal aorta 163 AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) 188–9 abdominal muscles 134, 202 albinism 69 abducens nerve 222 alcohol intake 50 abduction 96, 98 aldosterone 242 absorption alimentary canal 273 digestive 176, 190, 274, 281 alkalines 10 skin and 32 alkalosis 10 accessory nerve 223 allergens 58 accidents 46 allergies 58, 188 acetylcholine 115, 216 alveoli 198–200, 205 acid mantle 32 amenorrhoea 266 acidosis 10 amino acids 280, 281, 284 acids 10 anabolism 10 acne vulgaris 61–3 anaemia 166 acromegaly 248 anaphase 16 actin 111, 114, 115 anaphylactic shock 58, 188 active transport 17, 18 anatomical planes of the body 3 Addison’s disease 247 frontal plane 3 adduction 98 sagittal plane 3 adductor(s) 130 transverse plane 3 adenosine diphosphate (ADP) 116 anatomical position 1–2 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 14, 116 anatomical regions 3–5 ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) 240, 248, 250, 301 anatomical terminology 1–2, 4–5 adhesive capsulitis 102 anatomy (definition) 1 adipose tissue 22, 23, 32 androgens 264 adrenal gland(s) 239, 241–2 aneurysm 166 cortex 241–2 angina 166–7 medulla 242 ankylosing spondylitis 101 adrenaline 207, 225, 238, 242, 249–50 anorexia nervosa 288 adrenocorticotrophic hormone 239 anterior (anatomical term) 2, 3 ageing anterior tibial artery 165 and antioxidants 49 anterior tibial vein 165 and the female reproductive system 261 anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) 240, 248, 250, 301 and the male reproductive system 265 antibodies 175–6, 183, 186–8 and nail growth 46 antigens 186–8 photoageing 51 antioxidant enzyme systems 49 premature 50 anus 275, 282 of the skin 49–51, 54–61 anxiety 227

332 Index aorta 159, 160, 164 clotting 150, 152, 168 abdominal 163 composition 149–50 coarctation 167 and defence 150 thoracic 163 deoxygenated 153, 156, 158–9, 161–3 aortic valve 155, 156, 158 functions 150, 207 apocrine glands 44 as liquid connective tissue 22, 23, 26 appendicitis 288 oxygenated 152, 154, 158–60 appendicular skeleton 88 pH 300 appendix 281 regulatory function 150 areola (nipple) 261, 263 transport function 17, 150, 154 areolar connective tissue 23 blood cells 150–2 arteries 38–9, 152, 161–2 formation 80, 151 main 160 functions 151–2 see also specific arteries red 81, 150, 151 arterioles 38–9, 152–3 see also white blood cells arteriosclerosis 167 blood plasma 149–50, 176–7, 284 arthritis 101 blood pressure 165–6, 171, 301 assimilation (digestion) 274, 281 diastolic 165, 166 association areas (brain) 218 factors affecting 165–6 asthma 205 high 167 athlete’s foot 67–8 low 167 atoms 8 measurement 166 atony 142 systolic 165, 166 ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 14, 116 blood shunting 165 atrial septal defect 167 blood sugar regulation 284 atrioventricular node 157 blood vessels 149, 152–4, 160–5 atrium 156, 157, 159 of the arm and hand 162–3, 164 atrophy 142 arteries 38–9, 152, 160–2 auto-immune disorders 74, 189 arterioles 38–9, 152–3 autonomic nervous system 115, 212, 221, 223–6 capillaries 32, 39, 152–4, 176, 185, 198 parasympathetic nervous system 223–6, 232, 273 dilatation 185 sympathetic nervous system 223–6, 232, 242 of the head and neck 161–2 and the urinary system 304 of the leg and foot 164–5 axillary vein 163 of the thoracic and abdominal walls 163–4 axons 203, 212–13 veins 152, 153, 161–2 see also specific blood vessels B-lymphocytes 187–8 blood volume 114–16, 165, 185 bacteria, and acne 62 bacterial infections blood–brain barrier 219 basal cell carcinoma 64–5, 185, 206 basement membrane 71 body basilar artery 19 basilic vein 162 anatomical planes 3 Bell’s palsy 163 biceps 227 anatomical regions 3–5 bicuspid (mitral) valve bile 119, 126 central line 1–2 bilirubin 155, 156, 158 birthmarks 280, 283–4, 290 chemical make-up 11 bladder bladder cancer 284 levels of structural organisation 7–8, 9 blastocyst 70 blastomere 298, 302–3, 304 lymphatic drainage 181 blisters 303 blood 260 see also systems of the body 259 61 body cavities 5–6 149–50 abdominopelvic 5, 6 cranial 5, 6 dorsal 5, 6 thoracic 5 ventral 5, 6 vertebral/spinal 5, 6 body fluids 297, 300, 301 body odour 44

Index 333 body temperature calcium of fever heat generation 186 absorption 103, 292 regulation 110, 284 32, 117, 150, 301 blood levels 250, 304 body weight boils 33 of the bones 81, 82, 103 bone 64 22, 23, 26 dietary sources 287 brittle 102 cancellous 80 functions 287 compact 80 development (ossification) 81–2 and tetany 249 flat 82, 83 irregular 82, 83 calf muscles 131 long 80, 81, 82, 83 sesamoid 82, 83 cancer 25–6 short 82, 83 structure 80–2 bladder 303 types of 82–93 bone marrow 81, 170, 189 breast 266 red 81 yellow 81 cervical 266 Botox 64 Bowman’s capsule 299, 300 colon 288 brachial artery 162 brachial nerve 221 gall bladder 289 brachial vein 163 brachialis 119, 127 liver 289 brachiocephalic artery 161 brachiocephalic vein 161, 164 lung 205 brachioradialis 127 brain 202–4, 212, 216–19 oral 289 functional areas 218 principal parts 216–19 ovarian 266 see also specific structures 217, 219 pancreatic 289 brain stem 266 breast cancer prostate 267 breasts 256, 261–3 breathing 195, 201–2, 207 skin 70–2 control of 202 stomach 289 correct 204 rate 202, 204 testicular 267 regulation 202 bronchioles 198, 199 see also tumour bronchitis 205 bronchus 197, 198, 199 capillaries 39, 176 buccinator 122 buffer substances characteristics 152–4 bulimia 10 bulla 288 contraction/dilatation 32 bunion bursitis 61 and inflammation 185 101 caecum 101 key functions 154 calcaneum calcitonin 281, 282 and the lungs 198 91 see also lymphatic capillaries 241, 250 capillary networks 39, 163 carbohydrates 11, 276, 280–1, 286 carbon 11 carbon dioxide 199–202, 207 blood transport 150, 154, 158 as cellular waste product 15, 17 gaseous exchange 199–201 carcinoma 25 cardiac cycle 156–8 cardiac muscle 24, 26, 110–11, 113–15, 154 cardiac sphincter 277 cardiovascular system 149–69 blood 149–50 blood cells 150–2 blood pressure 165–6 blood shunting 165 blood vessels 152–4, 160–5 and the breasts 262 and the dermis 38–9 heart 154–61 interrelationships with 26, 74, 104, 144, 170–1, 177, other systems 179–80, 190, 207, 232, 250, 268, 292, 304 key words 171

334 Index cardiovascular system (continued ) cerebrospinal fluid 216, 219 and the lymphatic system 177, 179–80, 190 cerebrum 217–18 multiple-choice questions 173–4 cervical cancer 266 and muscle tissue 116 cervical nerve 221 pathologies 166–70 cervicalgia 229 pulse 166 cervix 258, 261 revision summary 172 chemical level 8, 11 carpal(s) 89, 90 chemoreceptors 202, 226 carpal tunnel syndrome 142 childbirth 133, 246, 260–1 carrier molecules 18 chloasma 69 cartilage 22, 23–4, 82 chlorine 288 hyaline 22, 24, 82–3, 94–5 cholesterol, high 168 white fibrous 22, 24, 82 chondrocytes 24, 81 yellow elastic 22, 24, 82 chromatids 13, 16 catabolism 10 chromatin 12 cell body 212 chromosomes 12, 16, 17 cell division (meiosis) 16–17, 250, 259 chronic fatigue syndrome 230–1 cell division (mitosis) 12–13, 15–17, 35, 259 chyme 278, 286 abnormal 25–6 cilia 203 cell membrane 12 circadian rhythms 219, 241 cell organelles 12–14 circulatory system see cardiovascular system cells 7–9, 11–18 circumduction 96, 98 chemical make-up 11 clavicle 88–9 definition 11 cleft palate 86 functions 11–12, 15 clitoris 256, 268 interrelationships with 26, 144, 189, 206, 231, clotting 150, 152, 168 other systems 250, 268, 292, 304 coccygeal nerve 221 key words 27 coccygeus 133 life cycle 16–17 coccyx 87 multiple-choice questions 29–30 cold sores (herpes simplex) 66 pathologies 25–6 colitis 290 revision summary 27–8 collagen structure 12–15 cartilage 82 cellular regeneration 19 skin 38, 40, 51, 55 and inflammation 185 colon 281, 282, 304 of the skin 15, 35, 36–7, 49, 54–5 colon cancer 288 cellular respiration 15, 17–18 comedone 58, 62 cellular wastes 150, 154, 199 common carotid artery 161, 162 central nervous system 212, 216–20 complements (immune system) 185 blood–brain barrier 219 congenital disorders 103, 167–8, 247 brain 216–19 congenital heart disease 167–8 cerebrospinal fluid 216, 219 conjunctivitis 65 spinal cord 212, 216, 219–20 connective tissue 18, 19, 21–4 centre of gravity line 99 constipation 290 centriole 13, 16 Cooper’s ligament(s) 261–2, 263 centromere 13, 16 coraco-brachialis 126 centrosome 13 corneocyte 36, 37 cephalic vein 163 coronary artery 155 ceramides 35 corpus callosum 217–18 cerebellum 217, 219 corpus luteum 244, 245, 246 cerebral artery 162 corrugator 121 cerebral cortex 218 corticosteroids 247 cerebral haemorrhage 169–70 cortisone 242 cerebral hemispheres 217–18 Cowper’s gland(s) 265 cerebral palsy 227–8 cramp 117, 143

Index 335 cranial nerve(s) 221–3, 226–7 multiple-choice questions 295–6 cretinism 247 nutrition 286–8 crows feet 59 pathologies 288–92 cuboid 91 revision summary 293–4 cuneiform bone 91 see also digestion; digestive organs Cushing’s syndrome 247 discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE) 74 cyst distal (anatomical term) 2 59, 62 distal convoluted tubule 300 sebaceous 63–4 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 12 cystitis dorsal metatarsal artery 165 cytoplasm 303 dorsal venous arch 165 12–14, 16 dorsiflexion 97 DPN (dermatosis papulosa nigra) 58, 69 deep arch 163 duodenum 278–9 Dupuytren’s contracture 101 deep vein thrombosis (DVT) 169, 170 DVT (deep vein thrombosis) 169, 170 dwarfism 248 defecation 274 dysmenorrhoea 266 dehydration 35, 301 deltoid 125 dendrites 212 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 12 depression 228 depressor anguli oris 121 ears 226 eating disorders 288 depressor labii inferioris 121 eccrine glands 32, 44 eczema 73 dermal papillae 38, 39, 41 eggs eggshell nail 17 dermatitis ejaculatory ducts 49 elastin 265 contact 72, 73 cartilage 82 seborrhoeic 73 ligament 118 skin 38, 40, 51 dermatologists 63 eleidin 36 embolus 169 dermatosis papulosa nigra (DPN) 58, 69 embryo 260 emotions 203–4, 301 dermis 34, 37–40 emphysema 205 emulsification 280 blood supply 38–9 endocardium 155 endocrine glands 238–47, 255 functions 37 changes 243–7 types 238–43 lymphatic vessels 39 endocrine system 237–54 functions 237–43 nerves 39–40 interrelationships with other 26, 75, 104, 171, 207, 232, 250, 268, 292 papillary layer 38 systems 251 key words 253–4 reticular layer 38 multiple-choice questions 247–9 pathologies 251–2 desmosomes 35, 36 revision summary see also endocrine glands 267 desquamation 36 endometriosis 244–5, 258, 260 endometrium detoxification 284 endomysium 111 endoplasmic reticulum 13, 15 diabetes insipidus 248, 290 energy 11, 116 environmental factors diabetes mellitus 248, 290 51 diaphragm 135, 198–9, 201–2, 207 diaphysis 83 diarrhoea 290 diet 46, 50, 301 diffusion 17 digestion 273 chemical 274, 279–81 mechanical 274 digestive enzymes 242, 274, 276, 278, 280–1, 286 digestive organs 273–86 digestive system 273–96 circulation 159–60 functions 273–86 interrelationships with 26, 75, 104, 144, 171, 190, other systems 207, 232, 250, 292, 304 key words 293

336 Index enzymes 13, 14 faeces 273, 282, 284 antioxidant 49 fallopian tube(s) 256, 257–8, 266 digestive 242, 274, 276, 278, 280–1, 286 fascia 118 ephelides (freckles) 69 fascia epimysium 111 epidermis 31, 33–7 fasciculi 111 basal cell (innermost) layer 33, 34, 35, 37, 39 fat cells 40 cell life span 36–7 fats clear layer 33, 36, 37, 44 absorption 176, 190 functions 35 cellular composition 11 granular layer 33, 35–6, 37 dietary 176, 190, 280–1, 284, 286 horny (outermost) layer 33, 36–7 intercellular lipids 35–6, 51 prickle cell layer 33, 35, 37 fatty acids 280, 281 epididymis 264, 265 femoral artery 164–5 epiglottis 197 femoral vein 165 epilepsy 228–9 femur 90 focal 229 fertilisation 17, 259 generalised 228 fever 186 partial 228 fibre 286 psychomotor 229 fibrin 152 epiphysis 83 fibrinogen 152, 185 epithelial tissue 18, 19–21, 292 fibroblast 21, 38 ciliated 20, 21, 26 fibrocyte 23 columnar 20, 21, 26 fibroid(s) 267 compound 19–21 fibromyalgia 142 cuboidal 20, 21 fibrositis 142 simple 19, 21 fibula 90, 91 squamous 20, 21 filtration 17, 18, 299 stratified 19, 20–1 fingerprints 38 stratified keratinised 20, 21, 26 finger(s) 101, 128 stratified non-keratinised 21 fissures 59 transitional 20, 21, 26 flexion 96, 97 urinary system 304 flexor carpi digitorum 128 erector pili muscles 32, 40, 44 flexor carpi radialis 127, 128 erector spinae 136 flexor carpi ulnaris 127 erythema 59, 149 flexor digitorum longus 131 erythrocyte (red blood cell) 81, 150, 151 flexor hallicus longus 131 Eustachian tube 197 foetus 246, 260–1 eversion 99 folic acid 287 excretion 15, 32, 274 follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 240, 243–4, exhalation 201–2 246–7, 257 extension 96, 97 folliculitis 65 extensor carpi ulnaris 128 foot extensor digitorum 128 arches 92 extensor digitorum longus 132 bones 91–2 extensor hallicus longus 132 foramen magnum 85 external carotid artery 161 fracture 102 external jugular vein 162 freckles (ephelides) 69 external obliques 134 free radicals 49 eye(s) 226 frontal lobe 217 infections 65 frontalis 120 frozen shoulder 102 facial bones 85–6 FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) 240, 243–4, facial nerve(s) 222, 231 Factor VIII/Factor IX 246–7, 257 168 fungal infections 67–8

Index 337 gall bladder 283, 284–5 medulla 41 gall bladder cancer 289 multiple-choice questions 77–8 gallstones 290 protective function 40 ganglion/ganglia 212 revision summary 76 gaseous exchange 195, 199–201 structure 40–2 gases 11 telogen 42, 43 gastric juice 278 terminal 42 gastrin 278 types 42 gastrocnemius 131 vellus 42 genes 12 hair bulb 40, 41, 42 genetic inheritance 17 hair follicle 31, 40–1, 43, 62 gigantism 248 hair removal treatments 43 glomerulonephritis 304 hair root 40 glomerulus 299, 300 hair shaft 40 glossopharyngeal nerve 223 hamstring 130 glottis 197 hand glucocorticoids 242, 247 blood vessels 162–3, 164 glucose 17, 113, 116–17, 144, 281, 284 muscles 128–9 gluteus maximus 137 hang nail 48 gluteus medius 137 hay fever 205 gluteus minimus 137 head and neck glycerol 280, 281 anatomical regions 3, 4 glycogen 113, 116, 144, 284, 286, 292 blood vessels 161–2 glycoproteins 38 lymphatic drainage 180 Golgi body/apparatus 14–15 muscles 120–4 gonadotrophic hormones 240, 244 headache 229, 230 gonadotrophin 240 hearing 226 gout 101 heart 149, 154–61 gracilis 130 arteries 160 great saphenous vein 165 blood flow through 155–6 ground substance see matrix cardiac muscle 24, 26, 110–11, 113–15, 154 growth composition 155 cellular 15 function 156–8 spurts 83 and muscle contraction 116 growth hormone 104, 238, 239, 248 and the portal circulation 159–60 gynaecomastia 248 and the pulmonary circulation 158 structure 154 H zones 115 and the systemic circulation 158, 159 haemoglobin 116, 150–1, 154, 166 veins 161 haemophilia 168 heart attack (myocardial infarction) 155, 168, 170 haemorrhage, cerebral 169–70 heart block 169 haemorrhoids (piles) 168, 290 heart disease, congenital 167–8 hair 31, 40–4 heart rate 114, 116, 157, 232 anagen 42, 43 heart sounds 157–8 catagen 42, 43 heart valves 155, 156, 158 colour 41 heartbeat 165 cortex 41 heartburn 290 cuticle 41 heat production 110, 284 functions 40 heel 91 growth 42–4 hepatic artery 283 interrelationships with other systems 170, 206, 292 hepatic portal system 159–60, 164, 281, 283 key words 75 hepatic portal vein 281, 283 lanugo 42 hepatic vein 164 matrix 40, 42 hepatitis 168, 291

338 Index hernia 291 mechanical barriers 184 herpes simplex (cold sores) 66 multiple-choice questions 192–3 herpes zoster (shingles) 66, 229 non-specific 184–6 hiatus hernia 291 phagocytosis 185–6 hilus 299 revision summary 191 hip bones 92–3 and the skin 35, 58 hirsutism 248 specific 186–8 histamine 38, 58, 185, 188 immunoglobulin 187 histology 18 impetigo 65 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) 188–9 incontinence 303 hives (urticaria) 61 inferior (anatomical term) 2, 3 Hodgkin’s disease 189 infertility 267, 268 homeostasis 8–10, 195, 218, 297 infestations 68 hormone replacement therapy (HRT) 247 inflammation 185 hormones 237, 239–54 inflammatory skin disorders 72–3 blood transport 150 infraspinatus 125 and breast development 262 ingestion 274 definition 238 inhalation 201–2 and the skin 49–50, 54, 61–2 inhibin 243, 246 see also specific hormones innominate vein 161 hot flushes 247 insulin 242, 248, 250, 280, 283, 285–6, 292 human chorionic gonadotrophic hormone 246 intercalated discs 114 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 188–9 intercellular lipids 35–6, 51 humerus 89 intercostals 201–2, 207 hyaluronic acid 38 external 136 hydrochloric acid 278 internal 136 hydrocortisone 242 interferons 185 hydrogen 10, 11 internal (anatomical term) 2 hymen 256 internal carotid artery 161 hyperhidrosis 64 internal jugular vein 162 hyperkeratosis 70 internal obliques 134 hyperthyroidism 249 internal transport systems 13, 17–18 hypertrophic skin disorders 70–2 interstitial (tissue) fluid 17, 175–6 hypoglossal nerve 223 intestinal juice 280 hypoglycaemia 248 intestinal villi 279, 281 hypothalamus 10, 204, 217–18, 239 intervertebral disc 87, 94 hypothenar muscle(s) 128 inversion 99 ions 215 ileum 278–9, 281 iron 287 iliac vein 161 iliacus irritability, cellular 15 ilium 138, 139 ill-health 92 irritable bowel syndrome 291 immunisation 46 immunity 188 ischaemic heart disease 167 and allergies 188 ischium 92 cell-mediated 187 chemical 184–5 Islets of Langerhans 285, 286, 292 and fever 186 humoral 187 jaundice 291 and the immune response 187–8 jaw problems 103 and inflammation 185 jejunum 278–9, 281 key words 190 joint capsule 94–5 and the lymphatic system 175–6, 179, 183–8 joint disorders 101 joints 93–9 95, 96 ball and socket 93–4 cartilaginous 95, 96 condyloid

Index 339 fibrous 93 intercellular 35–6, 51 gliding 95, 96 see also fats hinge 95, 96 liquids 11 movement 96–9 liver 159–60, 281, 283–4 pivot 95, 96 liver cancer saddle 95, 96 liver cirrhosis 289 synovial 93, 94–6 loop of Henle 289–90 synovial membranes of 25, 95 lordosis types of 93–6 lower limbs 300 anatomical regions 100 keratin 35, 36, 42, 44 bones keratinisation 35, 36, 37, 44 muscles 3, 5 keratinocytes 35, 36, 37, 70 lumbar nerve(s) 90–1 keratohyalin lung(s) 130–2 kidney stones 36 lung cancer kidney(s) 303 lunula 221 297–302 luteinising hormone (LH) 197, 198, 199 cortex 298, 299 lymph function 300–1 and the blood 205 and homeostasis definition 45 medulla 10 formation 240, 244, 246 structure 298, 299 lymphatic capillaries 175–83 knee lymphatic drainage 176–7 koilonychia 298–9 lymphatic ducts 176 kyphosis 90 right lymphatic 176–7 49 thoracic 177, 178, 180 labia major/minor lymphatic flow 175, 180–2, 262 labour 100, 101 lymphatic networks 177, 178, 179–80 lactase lymphatic nodes 178, 179, 180 lactation 256 abdominal 178, 179 lacteals 133, 246, 260–1 axillary 178 lactic acid of the body 178 lamellar bodies 281 cervical 175–9 Langerhan cells 261, 262, 263 deep 181–2 large intestine 176, 279, 281, 292 of the head and neck 181–2 larynx inguinal 181 lateral (anatomical term) 116–17 mastoid 180–2 lateral pterygoid 36 occipital 180, 182 latissimus dorsi 35 parotid 180 leg and foot, blood vessels pelvic 181–2 lentigo (liver spots) 275, 281–3 popliteal 180 lesions 196, 197, 199 submandibular 180 leucocyte see white blood cell superficial 180 leuconychia 2 supratrochlear 181–2 leukaemia 122 thoracic 181–2 levator anguli oris 137 lymphatic organs 180 levator ani 164–5 lymphatic system 180, 182 levator labii superioris 69 and the cardiovascular system 181–2 levator scapula 59 circulatory pathway 181–2 LH see luteinising hormone functions 183–4 lice 48 and immunity 175–93 lifestyle factors 26, 168–9 interrelationships with other 177, 179–80, 190 ligaments 183 limbic area 121 systems 175–6 lipids 133 intestinal 175, 176, 179, 183–8 121 170, 177, 179–80, 124 189–90, 292 281 68 49 22, 82, 95, 118 204

340 Index lymphatic system (continued ) dura mater 216 key words 190 pia mater 216 multiple-choice questions 192–3 meningitis 229–30 pathologies 188–9 menopause 50, 247, 255, 261, 263 revision summary 191 menstrual cycle 244–5, 257–8, 263 as secondary circulatory system 177 menstruation 50, 245, 266 structure 177–80 mentalis 122 see also lymph Merkel discs 35 lymphatic tissue 189 metabolic rate 10 lymphatic vessels 39, 177, 178 basal 10 lymphocytes 151, 176, 179, 183–4, 187–8 metabolism 10, 273 lymphoedema 189 metacarpal(s) 89, 90 lymphoid tissue 23 metaphase 16 lymphoma 26 metastases 25 lysis 14 metatarsal(s) 92 lysosomes 14 micro-organisms, invasive 175–6, 179, 184–8 microfilaments 111 macules 59 micturition 303 magnesium 288 mid-brain 219 malignancy 25 migraine 229, 230 malignant melanoma 71–2 milia 59 maltase 281 mineral corticoids 242 mammary plexus 178 minerals 281, 284, 287–8 manicures 46 skeletal reservoir 80 manubrium 88 mitochondria 14 masseter 122 mitosis 12–13, 15–17, 25–6, 35, 259 mast cell 38 mole 60, 71–2 mastication 274, 276 molecules 8 matrix (ground substance) morula 259–60 cartilage 23, 24 motor areas (brain) 218 connective tissue 21 motor nerves 40, 113, 115, 220–1, 223 epithelial 19 motor neurone disease 230 hair 40, 42 motor neurones 214 nail 45, 46 motor points 215–16 skin 38 mouth 274, 276 mechanoreceptors 226 movement medial (anatomical term) 2 and bones 80 medial plantar artery 165 and cells 15 medial pterygoid 122 and joints 96–9 median vein 163 and muscle 80, 109, 110, 119–20 medication 50 MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone) 75, 240 medulla oblongata 202, 219 mucous membranes 24, 25, 203 meiosis 16, 17, 250, 259 mucus 25, 197, 277, 278 melanin 32, 35, 41, 56–7, 69, 75, 250 multiple sclerosis 230 melanocyte 35, 41, 56 muscle attachments 117–19 melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) 75, 240 insertions 118–19 melanoma 25, 71–2 origins 118–19 melatonin 219, 241, 249 types 118 membranes 24–5 muscle cramp 117, 143 mucous 24, 25, 203 muscle fatigue 116, 142 semi-permeable 12, 219 muscle spasm 142 serous 24, 25 muscle tension 175, 180 synovial 24, 25, 95 muscle tissue 18–19, 22–4, 110–20 meninges 216, 219 actin 111, 114, 115 arachnoid mater 216 cardiac 24, 26, 110–11, 113–14, 154

Index 341 contraction 114–17, 119–20, 215–16 myalgic encephalomyelitis 230–1 myelin sheath 213, 230 concentric 119, 120 myocardial infarction (heart attack) 155, 168, 170 myocardium eccentric 119, 120 myofibrils 155 myoglobin 111, 115 effects of temperature on 117 myosin myositis 116 energy requirements 116 myxoedema 111, 114, 115 and increased circulation 116 142 249 isometric 119, 120 isotonic 119, 120 and respiratory changes 116–17 enlargement 112, 117 flaccid/rigid 117 naevus 60, 70 involuntary (smooth) 24, 26, 110, 111, 114–15 nail 31, 40, 44–9 movement 119–20 diseases/disorders 46–9 myosin 111, 114, 115 functions 44 nerve supply 113, 115, 215–16 growth 45, 46 skeletal/voluntary 24, 26, 110, 111–14 interrelationships with other systems 170, 206, 292 contraction 215–16 key words 75 convergent 113 matrix 45, 46 fast twitch (white) 112 multiple-choice questions 77–8 muscle attachments 117–19 revision summary 76 muscle fibre arrangements 112–13 structure 45 parallel 113 nail bed 45, 47 pennate 113 nail biting (onychophagy) 48 slow twitch (red) 112–13 nail cuticle 45, 48–9 tone 117 nail ridges/corrugations 48 muscular atrophy 142 nasalis 121 muscular dystrophy 143 naso-pharynx 196, 197 muscular hypertrophy 117 natural killer (NK) cells 187 muscular system 109–48 navicular bone 91 agonists/prime movers 119 neck see head and neck antagonists 119 neoplasm 25 anterior muscles 134–5, 140–1 nephritis 304 deep pelvic muscles 138–9 nephron(s) 299–300, 301 fixators 119 nerve pathways 214 functions 110 nerves 237 hand muscles 128–9 of the breast 262 head/neck muscles 120–4 and breathing 202 and heat production 110 motor 113, 115, 220–1, 223 interrelationships with 26, 74, 80, 104, 144, 170, 190, olfactory 203–4, 222 other systems 207, 232, 250, 268, 292, 304 pain receptors 39 key words 144 pressure receptors 39 lower limb muscles 130–2 sensory 39–40, 220–1 and movement 80, 109, 110, 119–20 in the skin 39–40 multiple-choice questions 147–8 temperature receptors 40 pathologies 142–3 touch receptors 39 pelvic floor muscles 133 see also specific nerves posterior muscles 136–8, 141 nervous system 211–36 and posture 110 central nervous system 212, 216–20 respiratory muscles 135–6 and the endocrine system 301 revision summary 145–6 functions 211–12 shoulder muscles 124–6 integration 211 synergysts 119 interrelationships with 26, 74, 104, 144, 171, 207, trunk muscles 134–8 other systems 231–2, 250, 268, 292, 304 upper limb muscles 126–8, 129 key words 232 see also muscle tissue multiple-choice questions 235–6

342 Index nervous system (continued ) olfactory bulb 203–4 pathologies 227–31 olfactory cells 203–4, 222 peripheral nervous system 212, 221–6 olfactory nerve(s) 203–4, 222 reflex action 220–1 oncologists 25 revision summary 233–4 oncology 25 sense organs 226 onychia 47 see also nerves; nervous tissue onychogryphosis (ingrown nails) 48 nervous tissue 18–19, 22, 24, 26, 212–16 onycholysis 47 nerve impulse transmission 214–16 onychomycosis (ringworm) 47, 67 neurones 24, 26, 212–16 onychophagy (nail biting) 48 neuralgia 231 onychorrhexis 49 neurilemma 213 optic nerve 222 neuritis 231 oral cancer 289 neuroglia (glial cells) 26, 212 orbicularis oculi 120 neuromuscular junction 115 orbicularis oris 121 neurones 24, 26, 212–16 organs association (mixed) 214 definition 8 conductibility 212 see also specific organs excitability 212 orgasm 268 motor/efferent 214 osmosis 17, 18 neurotransmission 214–16 ossification 81–2 sensory/afferent 214 osteoarthritis 101 structure 212–13 osteoblast 80, 81–2 neurotransmission 214–16 osteoclast 81–2 nipple 261, 263 osteocyte 82 nitrogen 11 osteoporosis 102 NK (natural killer) cells 187 ovarian cancer 266 nodes of Ranvier 213 ovary 239, 242–3, 247, 256–8, 261, 268 noradrenaline 242 ovum 243, 244–5, 256–9, 268 nose 196, 197, 203, 226 oxidation 17, 116 nuclear membrane 13, 16 oxygen 199–202, 204, 207 nucleic acids 11 blood transport 150, 154 nucleolus 13 and cellular respiration 15, 17 nucleus 12, 13, 16 and the digestive system 292 nutrients 150, 171 gaseous exchange 199–201 nutrition 286–8 and muscle contraction 116 and nerve cells 232 occipital lobes 217 significance to the body 11 occipitalis 120 occupational factors oxygen debt 117 oculomotor nerve 51 oedema 222 oxyhaemoglobin 150 oesophagus 178, 189 oestrogen 198, 274, 276–7 oxytocin 240, 246, 262 and bone growth 83 pacemakers 169 and breast development 262 pain and chloasma 69 166–7 disorders involving 248, 249 of angina 101 general functions 242, 243 back 142 and the menopause 55, 247, 261 musculo-skeletal 100 and the menstrual cycle 244, 257 and poor posture 39 and pregnancy 246 pain receptors 86 production 243, 257 palatine bones 163 and the skin 55 palmar arch olfaction 195, 203–4, 226 palmar plexus 163, 178 pancreas 239, 242, 283, 285–6, 292 pancreatic amylase pancreatic cancer 280 289

Index 343 pancreatic juice 280, 283, 286 plantar arch 165 pancreatic lipase 280 plantar flexion 97 papillae (dermal) 38, 39, 41 plantar plexus 178 papillae (tongue) 226 platelets see thrombocytes papule 60, 62, 63, 69 platysma 122 parasympathetic nervous system 223–6, 232, 273 pleura 198 parathormone 241, 250 pleural cavity 198 parathyroid gland(s) 239, 241 pleurisy 205 parietal lobe 217 pneumonia 205 Parkinson’s disease 231 polycystic ovary syndrome 249, 267 paronychia 46–7 polypeptides 281 patella 90 pons 202, 219 patent ductus arteriosus 167 popliteal artery 165 pathogens 175, 184–8 popliteal vein 165 pathology, definition 1 port wine stain 70 pectoralis major 134 portal circulation 159–60, 164 pectoralis minor 134 post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation/ pediculosis (lice) 68 hypopigmentation 57–8 pelvic floor muscles 133 posterior (anatomical term) 2, 3 pelvic girdle 92–3 posterior tibial artery 165 pelvic muscles, deep 138–9 posterior tibial vein 165 penis 264, 265, 268 posture 99–100 pepsin 278 defective 100 perception 204 and the muscular system 110 pericardium 155 potassium ions 215 perimysium 111 pre-menstrual syndrome 267 periosteum 81 pregnancy 245–7, 258–61 peripheral nervous system 212, 221–6 and the breasts 263 somatic nervous system 212, 221–3 ectopic 266 see also autonomic nervous system and the skin 50 peristalsis 274, 277, 279, 292 trimesters of 246 peroneus longus/brevis 131 and water retention 189 pH pregnancy tests 300 balance 10 pressure receptors 39 blood 300 procerus 121 skin 32 products, allergies to 58 urine 300 progesterone phagocytic cells (macrophages) 38, 179, 183, 185–6 and the breasts 262, 263 phagocytosis 185–6 disorders involving 248, 249 phalanx (fingers) 89, 90 general functions 242, 243 phalanx (toes) 92 and the menopause 247, 261 pharynx 196, 197, 274, 276–7 and the menstrual cycle 244, 245, 257 phlebitis 169 and pregnancy 246 phosphorus 288 production 243, 257 photoageing 51 prolactin 240 photoreceptors 226 pronation 90, 99 physical exercise 50, 112, 116–17, 204 pronator teres 127 physiology, definition 1 prone 2 pigmentation disorders 69–70 prophase 16 pineal gland 217, 219, 241 Proprionbacterium acnes 62 piriformis 137 prostate cancer 267 pituitary gland 239–40, 246 prostate gland 265 anterior lobe 239–40 prostatitis 268 posterior lobe 240 protein 11, 278, 280, 281, 286 placenta 246, 261 see also amino acids

344 Index proximal (anatomical term) 2 mechanisms of 201–2 and muscle contraction 116–17 psoas 138, 139 respiratory centre respiratory muscles 202 psoriasis 73 respiratory system 135–6 functions 195–210 pterygium 48–9 gaseous exchange 195–201 interrelationships with 195, 199–201 puberty 49, 83, 197, 243–4, 255, 263 26, 74, 144, 171, 190, other systems 206–7, 232, 250, 292 pubis 92 key words mechanisms of respiration 208 pulmonary artery 156, 158 multiple-choice questions 201–2 olfaction 209–10 pulmonary circulation 158 pathologies 203–4 and the pulmonary circulation 205–6 pulmonary embolism 169 revision summary structures of the 158 pulmonary stenosis 167 see also respiration 208 rheumatoid arthritis 196–201 pulmonary valve 155, 158 rhinitis rhinophyma 101 pulmonary vein 156, 158 rhomboids 206 ribonucleic acid (RNA) 63 pulse 166 ribosomes 124 rib(s) 13 pus 185 ringworm 13 risorius 87, 88 pustules 60, 62, 63 rosacea 47, 67 rotation 121 pyelonenephritis 304 rupture 63 96, 98 pyruvic acid 116 143 quadratus lumborum 137 quadriceps 120 quadriceps extensor 130 radial artery 162–3 radial vein 163 radius 89–90 rashes 58 meningococcal 230 Raynaud’s syndrome 169 receptors 10, 39–40, 203 rectum 281, 282 rectus abdominis 134 red blood cell (erythrocyte) 81, 150, 151 sacral nerve(s) 221 sacrum 87, 92 reflex action 220–1, 303 SAD (seasonal affective disorder) saliva 249 relaxin 243 salivary amylase 276 salivary glands 276 renal artery 299 sarcoma 276 26 renal pelvis 299 osteogenic 26 sarcomere 115 renal pyramid 298–9 sartorius 130 scabies 68 rennin 278 scabs 74 scapula 88–9 reproduction, cellular 15, 16–17 scars 60, 62 57, 59, 60 reproductive system 255–72 keloid 213 Schwann cells 231 female 255, 256–63, 266–7 sciatica 100 scoliosis 249 functions 255 seasonal affective disorder (SAD) 40, 44, 51–2, 55 sebaceous glands 61–2 interrelationships with other systems 268 64 disorders of 73 key words 269 seborrhoea seborrhoeic dermatitis male 255, 263–6, 267–8 multiple-choice questions 271–2 pathologies 266–8 revision summary 269–70 respiration aerobic 116 anaerobic 116 cellular 15, 17–18 external 200 internal/tissue 17, 201

Index 345 sebum 44, 52–3, 62, 64 and the cardiovascular system 159 seizures 228–9 cell regeneration 15, 35, 36–7, 49, 54–5 selective reabsorption 300 conditions/pathologies 61–75 semen 265 auto-immune disorders 74 semi-lunar valves 155 fungal infections 67–8 semi-permeable membranes 12, 219 hypertrophic disorders 70–2 seminal vesicles 265 infestations 68 sense organs 226 inflammatory disorders 72–3 sensitivity 32 pigmentation disorders 69–70 sensory areas (brain) 218 sebaceous gland disorders 61–2 sensory information 211, 214, 219, 222–3 sweat gland disorders 64–5 sensory nerves 39–40, 220–1 viral infections 66–7 sensory neurones 214 dermis 34, 37–40 serous fluid 25 dry/dehydrated 35 serous membranes 24, 25 elasticity 38 serratus anterior 134 epidermis 31, 33–7, 39, 44 sex glands 243 ethnic skin types 56–8 sex hormones 242, 243, 255–6, 264 excretion 32, 304 see also specific hormones factors affecting 49–51 shin splints 143 functions 31–3, 35, 37 shingles (herpes zoster) 66, 229 general terms associated with 58–61 shivering 117 and heat regulation 32 shoulder girdle 88–9 interrelationships with 26, 74–5, 103, 170, 189, shoulder muscles 124–6 other systems 206, 231, 250, 292, 304 sinoatrial node 114, 157 key words 75 sinuses 86, 197 male 54 ethomoidal 86 multiple-choice questions 77–8 frontal 86 pH 32 maxillary 86 protective function 32, 35, 36 sphenoidal 86 revision summary 76 sinusitis 206 sense of touch 226 skeletal system 79–107 sensitivity 32 appendicular skeleton 83 storage function 32 axial skeleton 83 structure 33, 34 bone structure 80–2 subcutaneous layer 34, 40, 55 bone types 82–93 T-zone 53 cartilage 82 types 51–4 functions 79–80 combination 51, 53, 56 interrelationships with 26, 74, 103, 144, 170, 189, dry 51, 52, 56 other systems 206, 231, 250, 268, 292, 304 normal 51, 52, 56 joints 93–9 oily 51, 52–3, 56 key words 104 sensitive 51, 53–4, 56 ligaments 82 vitamin D production 33, 74, 103, 292 multiple-choice questions 106–7 water content 33 pathologies 101–3 water loss 35, 36 posture 99–100 skin cancer 70–2 protective function 80 skin care 51 revision summary 105 skin tags 60 tendons 82 skull 84–5 skin 31–44, 49–78 SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus) 74, 189 absorption 32 sleep 50 ageing 49–51, 54–61 small intestine 275, 278–81 appearance 33 small saphenous vein 165 appendages 40–9 smell, sense of 203–4