Oxford English grammar course - Advanced ( PDFDrive )

€,== , , 1 We use wlll especially when we can see the future in the present. 2 Going /o is often pronounced gonna. 3 The future perfect progressive is very common in conversation. 4 Shall is not used in modern English. 5 We dont normally use the present progressive for fixed future arrangements. Rules......... arewrong, f::= Put in simple present or present progressive forms of the verbs in the box. arrive decide fall find give go out hide live light lose sing start stay tell try work write Purcini's opera La Boh&me: what happens in Act 1 It is a bitterly cold winter in l9th-century Paris. Marcello, a painter, and Rodolfo, a writer, ............ to keep warm. Their musician friend Schaunard ............ with food, firewood, wine, cigars, and money: he3....... .... lessons to an eccentricEnglishman to eat, but then 5............................ to and has just been paid. They go out and spend the money at a caf6. Rodolfo 6 behind for a momenr to finish an article that he 7 t........ \\X4rile he , there is a knock at the door. It is Mimi, who in another room in the building. Her candle has blown out, and she has no matches. Rodolfo '0 it for her. Then Mimi her key. Both candles 12 Rodolfo her key but 'a.......... . it. They ........... '. each theyother their life stories in two songs; while they 17......... in love. & Put in the verbs from the boxes. helped read started taken will have been will have tidied Sehotrl Holidays a box of unwanted toys to charity and their holiday diaries. By ten o'clock this morning my children off school for 67 Later in the week they will visit the Science Museum, go on a nature trail and have hours. During that time they a dental check-up. They will go to bed at their rooms, 8.30pm on the dot and watch only half an hour of BBC4 a day. several books, our elderly neighbour with his garden, broken up cleaned up given up have spent hidden spent unloaded will have baked Y| 7ea.h..,.r.i.g.h.t....T.h.i.s is the more likely scenario: fights, and 13............................ the several batches remote control. Like millions of other parents, lwill alsola of cupcakes, an unbelievable sum of money on plastic rubbish in a museum shop. And there are dishwasher 20 times, several more weeks of this to look forward almost three hours looking for tiny lost bits to. School holidays! of Lego, and10.......... .trying to (Sarah Vine, The Times, adapted) interest my eldest in reading a book. I will have11 several paint- related disasters, PRESENTAND FUTURE 39

English uses six different verb forms to refer to past events and situations. They are: NAME EXAMPLE I have worked (simple) present perfect present perfect progressive I have been workinq simple past I worked past progressive I was working (simple) past perfect I had worked past perfect progressive I had been working Another common name for'progressive is'continuous'. In academic grammars, a distinction is made between'tense' (present or past) and hspect' (perfective and/or progressive). Tense shows time; aspect shows, for example, whether an event is seen as ongoing or completed at a particular time. In more practical grammars such as this, it is common to use the term'tense'for all of these different forms. The uses ofthe slt past and perfect tenses are covered in the following pages. Note in particular that the English present perfect (e.g. I have seen) is constructed in the same way as a tense in some other Western European languages (e.g. jhi vu, ich habe gesehen, ho visto, jeg har sef), but that it is not used in exactly the same way (see page 42). li)r past ind perl-c.t passive tenses, sr'. pagc':8. Maxwells have been FOR OVER THIRTY For over forty years we established for over twenty YEARS WE HAVE BEEN have been designing and years. We have grown and CTEDICATED TO PRODUCI NG manufacturing test equipment expanded from a small printing THE HIGHEST QUALITY for car manufacturers. firm into an internationally GOURMET COFFEE. known organisation. For ouer half a centttry we For over sixty years we have fcr cver sevent), years ure baue sttpplied ottr custctmers been producing high quality hav* car*d {*r the needs *f u,ith the uery best in soft herbal medicines and food th* hcliday visitnr.We have supplements for dogs and cats. furnish in gs. Mor e r e cently weicomed g{,lests frcm all we haue added bed linens Over thl: wr:rld. dnd dress fabrics to oLff euer cx pn nd i ng p rod uct rtngc. Children have been treated WE HAVE BEEN TRADING FoY over a cewtwYA, we at the Nuffield Orthopaedic FOR OVER NINETY YEARS, Centre for over eighty years. AND WE HAVE NOW BECOME have btLLLt ur.p cr,tstovwer ONE OF THE LARGEST FOOD We have extensive long-term MANUFACTURERS IN CANADA. r eLatlvo wshLp s b,,tLLt o w experience in treatment of complex disorders. stvewJath. stabLLLtu. <)' LwtegrLtg, awd servLce. 40 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

simple past and past progressive: revise the basics the difierence We use the simple past for completed actions (long or short, repeated or not). Pam phoned this morning. When I was younger I playedfootball most days. I painted the kitchen yesterday. It took all day We use the past progressive to say that actions were not complete at a particular time. ,\\t ten otlock last night I was still painting the kitchen. Note the difference when we use the past progressive and the simple past together. Past progressive: longer action or situation. Simple past: complete shorter action that happened while the longer action was happening. ,\\t 1.00, when I got home from the hospital, Pete was cooking lunch. Q eut in the correct tenses. This time yesterday L.YW.Y**.ryif.g...... in a half-mar athon. (run) We..YPY?.trgY1*9........ agreattimeyesterdayevening,butthentheneighbours..?IYg...... round and ..?9YP.l?.1.*.e1......... about the noise. (have; come; complain) I I ............... ..... my girlfriend while we ... in ltaly. (meet; work) ..... to buy a 2 When I walked in they ... cards. (all play) 3 When I ... to work this morning I ............... new raincoat. (go; stop) 1 Oliver........ hisarmwhilehe ...(break;ski) ..... the news 5 I cantrememberwhatl ............... ..... when I ............... about the crash. (do; hear) ........ TV upstairs, somebody ... into the ... byhisbed. 6 While we ............ ... my mother's jewellery. (watch; break; steal) house and in a rockgroupwhen I was at school. (slng) 7 I ........... 8 He........ tofindthatthreepolicemen (wake up; stand) ... our own amusements. (make) 9 When I was a child, we Read the news report and GilcTdthe correct tenses. ;f\"j RI\\IERS ON a Chinese motorway he suddenly' ran I was runningouland t*f in Sichuan had to stop suddenly B dashed I was dashing into the streeti' hee said / was saying. The giant bird because an ostrich 1 ran I was running to kept on / was keeping orz running, along the road. It 2 turned out I was and Liu 1\\ followed I wasfollowingit on turning outto belong to a Mr Liu, his motorbike, reports Sichuan News of Meishan, who3 explained I was explainingthat the ostrich a ran I was Online. Passing drivers t2 helped I were running away when he 5 fed / was helpinghimto chase the ostrich into a feedingit. \"16 just left / was just leauing petrol station, where workers t3 caught I his pen after giving him his food when were catching it with ropes. :' PAST AND PERFECT TENSES 4\"1

present perfect and simple past: revise the basics meanings Both these tenses are used to talk about finished actions, situations and events. There is a difference. The present perfect suggests that a finished action has some connection with the present. The simple past does not suggest a connection with the present. I've made a cake. Would you like a slice? I didn't have much to do this morning, so I made a cake' \";i$\" Read the sentences and choose the best answers to the questions. know. C No. L 'I've broken my glasses.' Are the speaker's glasses broken? @ Yes. B Dont > Anna went to Londonl Is Anna in London? A Yes. @J Don't know 1 'Sam has been elected chairmanl Is Sam chairman? A Yes. B Dont know. C No. 2 'Mum has gone to church.' Is she in church? A Yes' B Dont know. C No. 3 'Dad went to the pubi Is he in the pub? A Yes. B Don't know. 4 'The cat's caught a mousel Has the cat got the mouse? A Yes. B Dont know. C No. 5 'Maggie caught a coldl Has Maggie got a cold? A Yes. B Don't know 6 'Marlowe has written a novell Is this a new novel? A Yes. B Dont know. C No. 7 'Hoimes wrote a novell Is this a new novel? A Yes. B Probably not. 8 'l've finished cutting the grass.' Is the grass short? A Yes. B Don't know. c No. g 'shet travelled all over Africa.' Is she still alive? A Yes. B Don't know. c No. time words We don't often use the present perfect with words for a finished time. ffi)I went out four evenings last week. (Nor @)Jamie phoned yesterday. (Not We often use the present perfect with words for time up to now. I've been out three evenings this week. I've never seen a fox. Have you read this before? (= 'at any time up to now') correct verb form. #ff Several government ministers were I have been involved in a big bribery scandal last year. Wu+ The people in the flat upstairs disturbed I have disturbed us every night this week. 'I've spent 25 years making a name The aid agencies distributed I have distributed for myself and now you want me 2,000 tonnes of food to the refugees since May. All ofour students ochieved I have achieved to CHANGE it?l' excellent exam results last summer. 5 I think I saw I have seenlhis film before. 6 Most of yesterday's newspapers commented I have commented crrtically on Thursday's budget. The 1944 Education Act attempted I has attempted to ensure equal educational opportunities for everyone. We're all very pleased that the Managing Director decided I has decided to retire next autumn. 42 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

news and details We often announce a piece of news with the present perfect, and then use the simple past for the details of time and place. I've found your glasses. They were in the car. The President has arrived in London. He was met by the Prime Minister ... * Read the reports and put in verbs from the box in the correct tenses. be clash dig fire have identify reach take I PoliceinFrance ...........with Police ........ ... eight suspects ::: :::::: ::::::: :::J#X?i tif ;il \"it \"1L:\"x, in last month's Birmingham car bomb attack. Six of the suspects non-British passports as 2 An oil spill the Welsh coast. The fossilised remains of a giant shark The spill place early on found in Nebraska, US. Tuesday morn Scientists ........... up a gigantic jawbone, teeth and scales Find a news report with similar tense use to the examples in Exercise 3 (for example on an internet news page). Write the first two or three sentences here. \\ F| .ll\"fe\".t;r;.llll \\ Iol I L.J ln i 'Mrs Dunne is here for your lesson, r | \\ <--,\\' Ralph. Where have you hidden the piano?' -.1 - 'I've wired his electric wheelchair to this control. . . . Wanta go?' 'I've never won an argument with her, and 'Do I like vegetables? I don't know I have the only times I thought I had, I found out never eaten them. No, that is not quite true, the argument wasn't over yet.' I once ate a pea.' (US President limmy Carter, talking about his (Beau Brummel, 17 78-1840) wife Rosalynl PAST AND PERFECT TENSES 43

present perfect progressive: revise the basics duration We can use the present perfect progressive to talk about actions and situations continuing up to now. This is common when we talk about duration: how long things have been going on. Compare: Are you waitingfor a table?' 'Yes. I've been waiting since eight oblock.' (Nor@) Mark's studying engineering. He's been doing practical work for the last six months. Remember that some verbs are not normally used in progressive form$ for example have andbe- Welve had this car for ten years. (Norl'{Mtaringfhis-ear ...) Howlonghave youbeen inEngland? (Nor@ \"'?) Don t confus e How long have you been here for? (meaning 'up to now') and How long are you here for? (meaning'until when). filling time We often use the present perfect progressive to say how we have been filling our time up to now. Sorry I haven't been to see you. I've been working very hard. 'You're all wet!' 'Yes, I've been swimming.' 'What have you been doing with yourself since I last saw you?' 'Travelling'' $I H\"r\" are some sentences from real and fictional conversations. Complete them with the verbs from the box, using the present perfect progressive. behave chase cry escape farm make sell tell talk I For some time it seems that I ......... ........ to myself. 2 I............ ..... you for eight miles. 3 L........... .'... for the last 70 years and never seen anything like it' 4 I............ .. ' '. from myself all my life. 5 I............ ..... badly for two years, and you know it, and you dont even mind. 6 I............ ..... some inquiries about nightclubs. 7 1...... ...... . ' . . . cars for some time now. 8 I'll rub my face quickly so she doesnt see I ......... 9 L........... ..... Veronica about that week we had in Scotland. fi) Complete this sentence with information about yourself (true or false). Use the present perfect pro9ressrve. T Note: permanent states We don't often use the present perfect progressive to talk about perinanent unchanging states (see page 50). Compare: 'Where have you been?' 'We'te been looking at the castlel Chedlow Castle has looked down on this peaceful valley for 800 years. 44 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

simple past and present perfect: summary sIMpLE ptsr I worked/wrote/drove etc finished actions r finished actions, no connection with present My grandfather worked for a newspaper. I hated school. r with words for a finished time, like ye sterday, in 2002, ago, then, when IsawAnnyesterday.(xol@)BilIphoneclthreedaysago. @)When did you stop smoking? (Not e stories A man walked into a cafd and sat down at a table. The waiter asked . .. r details (time, place etc) of news The cat has eaten your supper. She toak it ofthe table. Bill has had an accident. He fell of his bicycle when he was going to work. (srurra) IRESENT eERFECT: I have worked/written/driven etc A {inished actions o thinking about past and present together now.I've written to lohn, so he knows what's happening Jane has found my glasses, so I can see again. a news A plane has crashed at Heathrow airport. The Prime Minister has left for Paris. r up to now: how much/many; how often I've drunk six cups of cofee today. My father has often tried to stop smoking. r up to now: things that haven't happened; questions; ever and never lohn hasn't phoneel. Has Peter said anything to you? Have you ever seen a ghost? I've neyer seen one. e already,yetand,just yet?'Where's Peter?' 'He's already gone home.' Has the postman come 'Cofee?' 'I've just had some.' . Nor with words for a finished time @)I saw Penny yesterday. Shes getting married. (Not B unfinished actions continuing up to now (especially with be, have, know and other non-progressive verbs) r to say how long (often with since and.for) How longhave you been in this country? We've had our car for seven years. I've known lake since 2005. (Nor ++rcwMe*) IRESENT pERFEcr pRocREssrvn: I have been working/writing/driving etc unfinished actions continuing up to now (most verbs) o to say how long (often with since andfor) Have you been waiting long? I've been learning English since last summer. We've been driving for three hours - it's time for a rest, DoN'T use a present tense to say how long. @)I've been living here since lanuary. (Not r to say how we have been filling our tirne up to now Sorry I haven't written. I've been travelling. 'You look tired.' 'Yes, I've been working in the garden.' . Nor usuALLy to talk about long, unchanging states The castle has stood on this hill for 900 years. PAST AND PERFECT TENSES 45

more about the simple past and past progressive past situations that have not changed If we are talking about the past, we tend to use past tenses even for situations that have not changed. Those people we met in Paris were very nice. I got that job because I spoke French. past progressive for repetition We generally use the simple past for repeated past actions. My father travelled a lot when I was young. I ran away from school regularly. But we can use the past progressive for repeated actions around a particular time. I was playing a lot of tennis when I got to know Peter' It was hard to get a Jree half-hour in luly, because we wefe rehearsing non-stop. ,f,$ Comptete the sentences with verbs from the box. Use a past progressive (three times) or a simple past (six times). be demonstrate drink give go interpret play speak work 1 I got really tired last week. There was a big conference, and I ............... ..... for eight or ten hours a day most days. 2 I'vejust finished 'Death in the Sandl That .......... a really good book. 3 At the time of the election, people ... daily against the government's policies. 4 In Shakespeare's time, only a few children \" ' to school' 5 Jo and Carl had some lapanese friends staying at the weekend, and they invited me because I ... JaPanese. 6 Things were dilicult at home at that time. Her brother was in trouble with the police, and her father , il;r;.,^i..n\"\"rii.;.. :::l::1:]]: ...... usLatinressonsnverimesaweek.rheynever , whoiltti'l\".nl[1{\"\"r. ortnn, -u', we were talking to ..' in a garage? ' \":::l::T:iil:.::::.:TJ.TJff,\";:ill;ffi;J' see us? rhe 'ne wh. . Read the text. There are twenty expression s in italics with past verbs. 'C'.1\"1 Circle the ones that are used for situations that have certainly or probably not changed. I first got to know my friend Alex, nearly 40 years ago, when I was living in Geneva. I was working in a translation agency, and he had a job in an insurance company. We mef at a party, started chatting, and found that we had a remarkable amount in common. To start with, we were the same age - in fact, we had the same birthday. We uzere both very tal/, we both had long fair hair, and we both played hockey.We had pretty similar tastes: we both had vintage sports cars that we spent too much money on, and we also both had expensive girlfriends. We both liked classical music, we both sang in local choirs, and we both /iked parties that went on all night. lt was the beginning of a long and important friendship. 46 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

backgrounding We can make a fact seem less central, not the main'news', by using the past progressive. I was having lunch with the President yesterday. She said. . . (This makes it sound as if the lunch with the President was an everyday occurrence * not 'news'. A good way of making oneself sound important.) lohn was saying that there are going to be some important changes. (This takes the focus away from |ohn, and puts the emphasis on what he said - the changes.) progressive with always We can use a progressive form wlth always and similar words to talk about repeated but unpredictable or unplanned events. Compare My grandmother always came to see us on Tuesdays. Andy was always coming round at the most inconvenient moments. The structure is often used to make complaints and criticisms. That car was continually breaking down miles from home. lohn was forever buying one useless new gadget or another. This is also possible with present progressives (see page 26). distancing We can make requests, personal questions and so on less direct by using a past tense instead ofa present (see page 290). I thought you might like to pay now. |t'e were wondering if you needed any help. $ Complete the sentences with verbs from the box. One sentence must have a simple past; use a past progressive in the others. always bring always complain always forget always have ask hope say sing think wonder 1 The Prime Minister .............. ........ me only the other day what I thought of his economic policies. . . . . about the neighbours - they couldn t 2 My grandmother do a thing right. 3 We........ ifyoucouldgiveussomeadvice. I I ........... you might have some free time at the weekend. 5 In my last job, we ............. ........ meetings first thing on Friday mornings. 6 My maths teacher ............... ..... my name. It used to drive me crazy. 7 L.......... perhaps you and I ought to have a serious talk. 8 John ..... that he thinks Anna's in love again. 9 When my sister was at home she ............ us little presents. 10 I ............... ...... attheRoyalOperaHousetheotherevening, andthere was this gorgeous woman in the front row ... Q Correct (/) or not (X)? One sentence is not correct. 1 I used to have trouble buying football boots because I had verywide feet. ... 2 We didn t see much of Dad last month, because he was going backwards and forwards to America most of the time. ... 3 Pete wasn t studying very hard when he was at university. . . . -1 I was talking to the Governor of the Bank of England the other day, and he thinks we're in deep trouble. ... 5 When my sister was in her teens, she was always falling in love with really nasty boys. ... 6 You know I was thinking that it might be time to get a new car. ... PAST AND PERFECT TENSES 47

more about the present perfect origins We generally use the simple past, not the present perfect, to talk about the origin of something present. Who wrote that? (xorWhoffitM) Bill gave me this necklace. Did you put this here? Whose idea was it to come here on holidav? today, this week etc With definite expressions of 'time up to now' (e.g. today, this week), perfect and past tenses are often both possible. We prefer the present perfect if we are thinking of the whole period up to now (this often happens in questions and negatives). We prefer the simple past if we are thinking of a finished part of that period. Compare: Has Barbara phoned today? Barbara phoned today. She needed some advice. I haven't seen lohn this week. I saw lohn this week, and he said ... Choose the best way(s) to complete each sentence: A, B or both. I Thats a nice picture. Who ... it? A has painted B painted C both 2 ... on holiday this year? A Have you been B Did you go C both 3 ...Emma's first email today? A Have you seen B Did you see C both 4 Stop fighting, kids. Now: who ... it? A has started B started C both 5 It was a shock when the police ... today. A have turned up B turned up C both 6 I ... my appointment with the physiotherapist this week. A have missed B missed C both 7 ...those flowers? A Has Susie brought B Did Susie bring C both 8 Mark ... earlier this evening - he needs to talk to you. A has turned up B turned up C both 9 ...that glass? A Have you broken B Did you break C both L0 L.. a really terrible tirne today. A have had B had C both Write about where some of your possessions came from. lQ aa- aaq AQQ tr trec Qtn r 'That's an excellent idea, Miss Jones. Who gave it to you?' 48 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

tenses with since Different tenses are possible in sentences with since. In the main part of the sentence, a present perfect (simple or progressive) is normal: l\\e've lived here since our marriage. I've been studying French since last May. But there may be a past tense in the time expression after since. \\\\'e've lived here since we got married. \\\\'e'ye visited my parents every week since we bought the car. -{ present perfect is also possible in the time expression, to talk about continuation up to now. \\\\'e've lived here since we've been married. \\\\'e've visited my parents every week since we've had the car. \\nd a present tense is sometimes used in the main part of the sentence, especially to emphasise changes. \\ou're looking much better since your operation. : Choose the right tense. 1 The company has doubled its profits since James ... as manager. A has taken over B took over C both 2 The company has doubled its profits since James ... manager. A has been B ls C both 3 Sue ... much happier since she split up with Carl. A has been B ls C both '1 Since the new baby ..., nobody has had much sleep. A has arrived B arrived C both 5 I ve been saving a lot of money since L.. the new job. A have started B started C both 6 We've all been eating much better since the new chef ... doing the cooking. A hls been B wls C both 7 Everybody ... going around singing since the weather turned nice. A has been B is C both 8 The house has been much quieter since Helen ... out. A has moved B moved C both 1 My life has been very different since L....... (past tense) 2 My life has been very different since I've , 'What s that?' 'I don t know. And I don t know who .. .. NOTES .' present perfect + past time expression The present perfect is unusual with expressions of finished .. time (see page 42). This is because the present perfect is used when we are focusing more on the .. present than on the past details - for example when we give somebody a piece of news. But the structure is not impossible. Some real examples: Police have arrested more than 900 suspected drugs trafickers in raids throughout the country on Friday and Saturday. A 24-year-old soldier has been killeil in a road accident last night. British and American English In American English, the simple past is often used to give news. This is less common in British English. Honey, I crashed the car. (BrE: ... I've crashed . ...) And some indefinite time-adverbs are used more olten with a simple past in American English than in British English: for example yet, already, before, ever, just. Did you eat yet? / Have you eaten yet? (BrE: Have you eaten yet?) His plane just landeil / has just landeil. (BrE: His plane has just landed.) PAST AND PERFECT TENSES 49

more about the present perfect progressive progressive or simple? The present perfect progressive is normal rvhen we are talking about temporary actions and situations continuing up to now. It's been raining all week. Granny's been staying with us since Easter. The present perfect progressive can also be used for longer, more permanent situations, especially when the emphasis is on activity or change. The Dutch have been reclaiming land from the sea for centuries The universe has been expanding steadily since its origin. However, we often prefer a simple present perfect in these cases, especially when we are talking about unchanging states rather than actions' Compare: I've been living here since August. I've lived in this village all my life. Lucy's been covering cushions all afiernoon' An ice-cap has covered Greenlandfor somethinglike 5 million years' Want and mean are not normally used in the present progressive (see page 23), but they can be used in the present perfect progressive. I've been wanting to meet you for ages. I've been meaning to tell you - there's a problem with the central heating. $,ii-l. comptete the sentences with verbs from the box. analyse assume create debate design ensure predict run substitute want 1 Our statistics department has recently ... the last year's marketing performance. (pr o gre ssiv e) ... works of art based on the natural 2 Right through human history, people world. (progressive) 3 As far back as our records reach, people ... the end ofthe world. (progressive) 4 My friend Alistair ............... always ... that he is right and everybody else is wrong. (simple) 5 For the last ten years, I ............... ..... advanced computer systems. (progressive) 6 It seems that for a long time some wine producers ... cheap wines for more expensive ones - it's a very profitable business. (progressive) 7 The same family always ... this business. (simple) 8 Parliament ............... ..... the question for three days now without reaching a conclusion. (progressive) . . . its freedom from invasion. 9 For nearly 1,000 years, Britain's island situation (simple) to askherout,butl'mtoo shy.(progressive) 10 Since I firstmether, I ......... '.$ii$' Write a sentence (true or false) about yourself, using the present perfect progressive. 'sF : Use a search engine to find some sentences beginning ,All through history, people...'l Which tense is most often used? 50 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

past perfect: revise the basics use We use the past perfect when we are already talking about the past, and want to talk about an earlier past time. I tiptoed into the room and sat down. But the meetinghad already finished. He found a seat on the train, opened his newspaper and starteil to read. Then a terrible thought struck him. Had he turned off the gas? 1\\'e couldn't understand why Ellie hadn't phoned. $ Complete the sentences with the verbs in the box (past or past perfect). Use a dictionary if necessary. i affect apply check enclose obtain participate publish select 1 I........... forthe job,althoughlwasntsurelwantedit. 2 David & Davis rejected Martin's new book, although they........... three of his novels before. ... in two earlier expeditions, and was clearly the best person to 3 ]ones lead the group. ..... the wrong photograph. I I sent offthe form, and then realised I ............... 5 We did not think we would have an opportunity to see the match, but Penny told us she ... some free tickets and invited us to go with her. The committee interviewed six of us for the job, but I was sure they ........... the person they wanted already. The fire started because nobody ... the electrical wiring for years. The doctor told my father that working with chemicals all his life ............ his eyesight. G Complete these sentences in any way you like, using a past perfect. 1 I couldn't get a job, although 2 He went to prison for five years, because ............... 3 We were two hours late, because & , i Put the letters of the expressions from the box into the news reports. Use a dictionary if necessary. A had been asked B had been given C had been overcharged D had moved i e naa replied F had requested ffi\" caller to Surrey council complained gF4\" Lancaster man phoned the town hall F**%that the phone number he r... lor S*'a&.to say that the city-centre car park was haunted, because his car'... to a different their library was out of order - only to parking space while he was shopping. be told that'0900 1800' were in fact its A TOURIST RETURNING home, who wanted opening hours. to get from London to Heathrow Airport, arrived at Torquay in south-west England at A woman rang the emergency two o'c1ock in the morning. It seems that number 999 to say that she 3... she a... information at Paddington Station, in the local supermarket. s... where she wanted to go, and 6... 'Turkey'. For the past perfect in indirect speech, see page 220. PAST AND PTRFECT TENSES 5I

more about the past perfect: time conjunctions not always necessary With time conjunctions hke after, As soon as, once, a past perfect is not always necessary, because we are not going back to an earlier past, but simply moving forward from one event to the next. After the new government came in, things were very diferent. As soon as Mary arrived we all sat down to dinner. Once it stopped raining we started playing again. However, we can use the past perfect with these conjunctions if we want to emphasise that the first action was separate, finished before the second started. After the ptane had landed they discovered bullet holes in the wings. As soon as I had finished my exams I took a long holiday. Once they had checked all my bags I wos allowed into the building. use with when This 'separating'use of the past perfect is common wtlhwhen. Compare: * When I opened the window, the cat jumped out. When I had opened the windows, I sat down and had a cup of tea. t When I phoned her, she came at once. When I had made all my phone calls, I did some gardening. Rewrite the sentences using when and the past perfect. .?.qff?p.'........ p I cleaned up the kitchen, and then I sat down and had a cup ofcolfee. YY.Vpry.!.h?.4.q!p.q*g{.n.\\\\9.P.LI?tr9.ry,.1..rsY.4?.Y*.wL..49d.s..?*r.?f 1 I considered all the alternatives and then decided to sell my car. 2 We looked at eight houses and then we were completely exhausted. 3 She explained the problem, and then there was a long silence. 4 I paid for the meal, and then I didn t have enough money for the bus. 5 Everybody said what they thought, and then we voted. Choose the best way of completing each sentence. 1 After I tried I had tried to phone her six times, I gave up and went out' 2 As soon as he saw I had seen me he gave me a big smile. 3 Once the dogs went I had been for their walk, they settled down quietly. 4 When I called I had called Annie, she pretended not to hear. 5 After I painted I had painted the kitchen ceiling I decided to stop for a rest. 6 When everybody voted I had voted, the results were announced almost immediately. 7 When Lttcy came in I had come in, everybody stopped talking. 8 When I sent I had sent the email, I realised I had made a terrible mistake. 9 Once I telephoned I had telephoned everybody, I wondered what to do next. l0 When I got I had got home, I went straight to bed. 11 When I opened I had opened the door, the children ran in. 12 When they mapped I had mapped the whole territory, they returned to their headquarters. Note: We don't use the past perfect when we simply mean'some time before nowl fWl@Hello. I Ieft a suit to be cleaned. Is it ready yet? (Nor . .. '..) 52 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

past perfect prog ressive use When we are talking about a past time, we can use the past perfect progressive to talk about earlier situations which had continued up to that time. .\\ll the roads were Jlooded: it had been raining solidly for three days. Slrc got ill because she hadn't been sleeping enough. \\\\-hen I looked at the books, I saw that the frm had been losing money for years. f\" ttere are some sentences taken from books and newspapers. Complete them with verbs from the boxes, using the past perfect progressive. Use a dictionary if necessary. cry expect hold see sit think wait 1 She fetched herseif a packet of sandwiches from the counter and then came back to where she ) My next call was to the company that . . . some of my things in storage, just to warn them that I was coming round. 3 And since her birthday, she ............ ........ more of Dionne than she had for years. 4 Olive ......... so many horrors that hearing the question she almost laughed with relief. 5 It was the music that brought me in from the hall where I 6 Foralong,longtimeI............... ..... ofgettingoutofthatawfulplace. Everybody was looking at me. And I simply couldn't explain why I ......... carry carry go on knit look photograph play watch 8 Police said that the two men arrested in Ireland ... several addresses of safe houses in France. I .... '.......... ..... tennis for about five minutes when there was a very loud explosion very close at hand. .0 At the big house I met the Oficer who .......... for me earlier on. 1 Shecouldntreallyrememberanl'thing,onlythatshe............ ........ asweaterand then she had woken up in this bed with her nosy, bossy sister sitting beside her. -l The rucksack and the rifle I ......... since yesterday evening seemed like a ton weight. Their affair ... for years before she decided to tell her husband. Believe it or not, he was arrested because he ............. ....... the Houses of Parliament. When her escape was discovered, it turned out that everybody thought somebody else 2+ Put the letters of four of the expressions from the box into the news reports. Use a dictionary if necessary. A had been arriving B had been forgetting C had been hoping D had been navigating E had been trying F had been watching G had been working { n illegal immigranr has been dq man who thought he was sailing along the ADRUGRUNNERwho F4coast of southern England had to be rescued 4... to pay offhis own drug ,-€arrested inside the Houses debt with one last trip was of Parliament. He r. . . illegally for by emergency services after his motor boat ran stopped by police officers months as a cleaner in one of the at Newton Abbot station. out of fuel while repeatedly circling a small country's most secure buildings. When searched, he was He was only discovered when a island in the Thames estuary. The man, who had found to be carrying police officer based at the House only a roadmap to navigate by, 2... to sail from 016,000 worth of heroin. carried out a random check on the Police National Computer. Gillingham to Southampton. He told his rescuen he ... by keeping the coastljne to his right. PAST AND PERFECT TENSES 53

this is the first time etc firsttimeetcWeuseperfecttensesinsentenceswtththis/it/thatislwasthefirst/second/thirdl onlylbest/worsf etc' This is the Jirst time thqt I've been here' (No't -tttt This is the second time you'vebee,n.late this week flrtt *o, theffth job hehadhad that year' eaten' i, *'o', on, of the worst meals I have/had ever Complete the sentences-'-u-shin*g verbs from the box' ask be drink f\"\"l /. huu\" t\"\"t pluv * *o **b o.st time r \"\\?Y9'fl?LY well for months 1 This is the best film we'\"\"\"\"\"' for ages. and I reallY didnt like it' It was the first time I \"\"\"\"\"\"\"' chamPagne, 2 J It'sthethirdtimeshe' \"\"\"'-\"\" in love this Year' : --^; i'ilil;;rv4 ever . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' ' ' 5 6 ti* *..U in SpaIinthwianskt'hl eIube\"s1t h' oYlid\"a.y:::I,\"t\"\"*\"\"\" \" in mY life This is the first warm daY we \" \" \" this year' It was the first time she \" her boYfriend s familY' In the bath was the biggest sPider I ,. ever ... \"'7 me the same questlon' 8 9 Thals the third time you \" \" \" \" put the letters of three of the expressions from the box into the texts' Use a dictionarY if necessarY' C had been used D had danced E had ft\"\"td-a gun f huO seen tftote p\"opte C t'tad sung ilYWkwieaa:IiksI!,,cit:aht:ul7elney,idc:;us,'aplb:ifdr2otohrw?ewvn,a1n'rne:w'eo;od:'\"er?'kd'\"'o'*rnyo,:3'\"o\"T''i:f's,nttDs*Yeto:cic:ieki:i:mn\"^gbs'\",.'ea0innrld^.\"giai'4'jI3:ho:aaojtn'ktjdh,esajetjd*ncta;itnmlo;Seo;utjoi:rrvlieu:n:rna{imri;onyyrSme;csa;o!:rst'B'l-aI;un;ed:y.sk[lir't' \"olrtdw. artswthaseftihrest,t.imt,\"e\"rl'\"a'bnyrm'ryirsrei lpfirnufryo'\"nntJoifrarunaatuodsieinngc'Sei'llewnat sNfigvhety''eTahresy wpuhesnheI hd\"mo etintolrrt,h\"oef\"rtotanrt,o\" fptehoep\"le.gs;t;o;Jod't-u'\"p^\"aandurcilgaprrptelidg'\"htonme,and on'j,'T\":T\":;;:il:?:x\"\"alTlT#:;\"T:fi :ij:$1i;:TH!ii ;lrffii];*\"..i,n.ptthimeeaepsoianilnfrt\"as\"xt,t.ty'o\"\";;g.t';t;t\";tta,x,re.shthu aratx'f\"3y. .p..*Bii'wyrtati3as8ao1on,'Rtthheeicphraeaxarsrdaelnglitinssttehrroaddpauhyacde5pde' naItonwuegawhs'ttahxectahlilredd 54 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

more practice u Which is/are correct or normal: A, B, (C) or both / all three? 1 Naval search vessels have rescued the Culligan family, whose yacht ...... after hitting an ice floe off Newfoundland. (A sank B has sunk) I When Andrew came into my iife, I .. . . .. from one dead-end job to another, without much idea of what I really wanted in life. (A moved B was moving) -l I ... '.. lunch with the Prime Minister yesterday, and during our conversation he gave me some interesting information. (A had B was having) I We ...... whether you would be interested in going skiing with us next month. (A wonder B wondered C were wondering) i He wasn't a bad teacher, except that he ...... to tell jokes, and they were never funny. (A always tried B was always trying) 6 I like your hair. Where ...... it done? (A did you have B have you had C were you having) The bank manager ...... today. She'd like you to call back. (A phoned B has phoned) S Things ...... much better since Alex left. (A are B have been) 9 I've had six dift'erent jobs since ...... school. (A I left B I've left) rl The Talbot family ...... in this town since the 1lth Century. (A lived B have lived C have been living) a Correct (/) or not (I)? L I've been meaning to ask you this for ages. ... I How long were you waiting when Pam finally arrived? ... -r Is this the first time you're in Ireland? ... 1 We visit my parents every week since we've had the car. ... i Look what Alice has given me! ... t' Have you seen the match between France and Scotland? ... - When I did all the shopping I went round to see Maggie. ... S As soon as we got into the car the children started fighting. ... 9 I was hoping we could have a few minutes to talk. ... 0 Here are four examples of correct use and six rules. Four rules are bad. Look at the examples and decide which. 1 Among the people who have had the greatest influence on our quality of life, the Igth-century French scientist Pasteur stands out. 2 l've finished my exams, at last! 3 We've been waiting here for exactly four hours and twenty minutes. 4 Once upon a time there was a clever little girl called Susie. Rules -{. Use the present perfect for recent actions, and the simple past for actions that took place longer ago. good bad B. Use the present perfect for finished actions that have some present importance, and the simple past for other finished actions. good bad C. Use the present perfect for unfinished actions and the simple past for hnished actions. good bad D. Use the simple past, not the present perfect, when you talk about a definite time. good bad E. Use the present perfect, not the simple past, when you talk about an indefinite time. good bad F. Use the simple past, not the present perfect, when you talk about a finished time. good bad ) PAST AND PERFECT TENSES 55

more practice (continued) 5 put the verbs into the text: simple past or past progresslve' arrive become Ount\"- do figf't pick up play play reach say smash stare take out tear try walk a job in a tough inner-city secondary ;,*[\"rr,\" L-.on\"d.on\" 'trOuen story. A woman I know, a teacher, took her first classroom to {ind t\"-::t:\"t|;T\"t school in South day' she'\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"' at her l'#i:tili::i::::,someof,hekids them5..........thenolselevelwasincredible.Myfriend6................,..tothefrontoftheclassroom and,..,................togetthechildrensattention.Things andshehadalotofdifficultymakingherseifheard-.h.i.quiteasmallwoman,withaquietvoice. Mrtme0hxeo.te.rd.se.iymu.t.om1.e.f.lt,2y.sh..i.ez.s..etc..r.d.oh...n.i.tgle'd..al)e'rvpea.hNnsoe,a\"ni*tnoeihfffea;dtr;hicr.ewet,c,istt1tahoim.br.tyl.ehp,.e.ala.yi.nr.nwd.m.de.so.nl1.uo.ttw.1ho.lsn.y,.wo'.'ri.p.oi..tei..hun...w.y'.\"s.'h,.h.ael.e.'ti1s.tt.sh.o\"o.en\".n.\"yt.\".hg.\".ei.'t\"..f.i\"nl.So\".h.oh\".er.a'.hl.fTaa' hds(ianSinttfhosoedhihfidsueergqwrtbehuataeittsgerh'ntearrooirs1utmtab\"hta\"lteele'l\"nrww\"etio\"io.tS\"mhn\"'oat\"hWns\"a'hhtbeicualelat ss 'l]l,i Circle the correct tenses' 4 cdaisncaodviearnedYla:r'gke\"d:tX::;J:;'*ilfl;''. 1 i\"'H€,nBorittisbehenFofrrnmeudlaA$150d0riv(fe'2r8w8)csfor/ ;[i.; Tfl:'Jlff:rei6h,;xiu;iD.lv;ojee;enrst;bst;oeibaienioens.l\"ei1feA'woiv\"ueetgnornhodo,tt3stitno'n;nueniiglgtl.,thlollb'\"l;o?t\"hu^?erhi\"AoXXo.-lro1bnId;eJ\"1'r'n,t*\"oo-ns1ta,?u.u,nunn*. t performing car stunts for fans outside $} acteria taken from cliffs in Ir4elbourne's motor racing circuit' The .EGDevon showed / haue shown driver was I has been caught by police themselves to be hardy space executing \"burnout\" and \"fishtail\" travellers. The microb es were I tricks in a borrowed Mercedes' haue been put on the exterior of the D:h:eJ:teH\"citii;v\";ei;s'an\"rrecosotunend_eIfcitihiloal'?\"v'e'*[a3irl]rlesi1tle,\"d\"r, space station to see how they would survive in the hostile conditions that *:tr:', 5ffjt'.ill';r' i ni u'i\"''o exist above the Earth's atmosphere. \\Arhen scientists inspected them his left th\"igh' a year and a half late4 they found manywere still alive. THE THEFT of a Picasso Painting worth about $50m from a museum on on poor Saturday uas / has beenblamed A museum official said / has said ,..,r.iry. th\"t .ton. of the alarms and only 25 out of 43 security cameras were working' ;i.l,a Useasearchenginetofindsomesentencesbeginning \"The English have never \"'\"' Write them here' Do you think they are true? Try some other nationalities' 55 PAST AND PERFECT TENSES

@ Choose the correct forms of the cartoon captions. 'Pembroke, have you tried I been trying to make decisions again?' ^ t-- 1-g4ac,a\"e-(-I /-'a-b I RecLeM ),1 . €A .e r.5 a) ' <e4 'jv\\6'*4* - 'My luggage went I has gone to helI.' 'When did you last feed I have you last fed that goldfish?' 'Television has brought back 'l have never been hurt by what I have not saidl murder into the home - (Calvin Coolidge) *(A:l*fr.e'-dt-Hbitclh\"c\"oqck:)j 'I have never met a man so 'I have never found a ignorant that I couldn't learn companion thatwas TIis Majestydoes not know something from him.' so companionable as what the band has just played, solitude.' but it is neaer tobe played again.' (Galileo Galilei) tKing George V, after the (Henry David Thoreau) Grenadier Guards band had played a piece by Richard Strauss) PAST AND PERFECT TENSES 57

What are modalverbs? Modal verbs are a group of auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must and ought' They are used before otherverbs, and in tags and short answers' 'You can swim, can't You?' 'Yes, I can'' 'She shouldn't be late, should she?' 'No, she shouldn't\" meanings Modal verbs have two main kinds of meaning. 1. Certainty: we can use modal verbs to say for exampie that a situation is certain, probable' possible or imPossible. We might go to Russia in lune' It can't be tntt You must bi tired. Emma should be home by now. 2. Obligation and freedom: we can use modal verbs for example to tell or advise people (not) to do thinis, and to talk about freedom or ability to do things. With these meanings they are important in the expression ofinstructions, requests, suggestions and invitations. Studints must register today. Can I go now? You should take a break' Would you like to join us for a drink? Modal verbs are not generally used to report situations and events, but simply to talk about their probability, possibility etc. io, fo. .\"u-pl., we say that somethin g could happen in general, or that it could notiappen, but to say that somebody actually did something on a particular occasion, we use a differen verb (see page 60). ComPare: I could read when I was four. I couldn't read his handwriting' Imanagedtoopenthetinwithascrewdriver.(Nol@fuit.',) tense Note that could, might, shoulcl and wouldare not generally used as past forms of can, may, shall and will (though this can happen in indirect speech - see page 221). Mostly, they are used for less definite meanings. Compare: Canl go noi? (direct request) Could I go now? (Iess direct, more polite) This Section covers most uses of modal verbs, but a few uses are dealt with in other Sections (see the Index for details). This section also includes information onbe able to,have (got) to, be supposed to,had better, used fo and need (to),which are similar to modals in some ways. 'Rock journaiisrn is people 'A cucumber should be well As we journey through 1ife, rvho can't write interviewing sliced and dressed with pePPer discarding baggage along people who can't talk for and vinegar, and then thrown the way, we should keep an people who can't read.' out, as good for nothing.' iron grip, to the very end, (Frank Zappa) (Strmuel lohnson) on the capacity for silliness. It preserves the soul from 'Go and see what that child is 'There seems to be a natural dessication.' doing and tell her she mustnt.' instinct to imagine that where (Traditional) there is a wrong, there must be (H umphr ey Ly tt e lto rt) a right to balance it. Thus, if we 'This is not a novel to be condemn one act, we might 'Any fool can reinvent the whee tossed aside lightly. lt should feel inclined to praise another The trick is to relabel it as a be thrown wiih great force.' that constitutes a kind of rotary transmission devicej (Dorothy Ptuker) counterweight in some global- (Neil MocShaw) historical moral scale. ln reality 'The English n.ray not like there can often just be wrong music, but they absolutelY love as far as the eye can see.' the noise it makes.' (Thomas Beecham) (Stcvan Poole) 58 I!4ODAL VIRBs

modals: revise the basics grammar The grammar of modal verbs is special in several ways: o The third person singular present has no -s. {ffiIt must be lunchtime. (Nor ... ) o Questions and negatives are made without do. Shouldshe?(Notffi#)Itcannotbetrue'(Notethespellingofcannot,) o After modals (except ought) we use infinitives without fo. @:)I can't sing. (Nor o Modals have no infinitives or participles. Instead we use forms of other expressions such as be able to, have to or be allowed to. I want to be able to travel. (NotMffi) I've often had to lend my brother money. She\\ always been allowed to do what she wanted. o Modals have a special past form made with a perfect infinitive (see pages 89-91). me.You should have told Lucy must have missed her train. Five of sentences 1-10 are wrong. Correct the mistakes or write'Correct'. > I shouldnftuffie much difficultywith this exercise. ..9\\p*!d*'.\\.\\qyp..... > Must you go nowt ..9?.Yre.9!.............. I He's never had to work hard in his life. 2 I'm sorry to must tell you this. 3 We ought to phone William this evening. 4 Will you be able to find the place by yourself? .......... 5 Does everybody must pay now? ......... 6 They say it mights snow tomorrow. ............ 7 Do you think the children might be allowed to go camping? .......,..... 8 Would you like some more coffee? 9 I'm sorry, but I really oughtnt stay any longer. ............. t0 Dont tell me I cant have a ticket - I must to have a ticket. infinitives after modals Modals can be followed by all kinds of infinitive, including perfect (see above), progressive and passive (all without ro). I should be working, not playing computer gamel The police must be informed as soon as possible. This door must not be opened. @ eut in the right kind of infinitives of the verbs in the box. get mug open plan tidy up understand I'Incomprehensible' means tannot ............... I 'Where'sPaul?' 'Ithinkhemay........... thegaragei 3 You shouldnt go out wearing that jewellery - you could ......... { I'm afraid the management might ........ to close some branches. 5 This door should not ............ ........ except in an emergency. 6 Shall I phone Emma? She must ... worried. MODAL VERBS 59

ability: con and could pastz couldnot always possible We use couldfor general ability, to say that somebody was uble to do something at any time, whenever he/she wanted. When I was younger I could run 10km in under 40 minutes' But we do not normally use could to say that somebody did something on one occasion. Instead, we use other exPressions' Imanagedtorun10kmyesterdayin55minutes.(Not@,',) How much steakwere you ableto buy? (Nor@) After three days' climbing they succeeded in getting to the top' ' ' ') got ) MdfuI foun'd a good pair of cheap jeans in the market' (Nor However, we can tse couldn'tto say that something did not happen on one occasion. I looked everywhere, but I couldn't fnd my wallet' tiilil Correct the mistakes using managed fo or write'Correct\" > The town was crowded, but we coul4€nda room i.n a small hotel. ..W?*Igpl.!.q.{y.ry4 ts She could read when she was four. ..9?.YY9.*............ 1 I could pass my driving test at the third try. 2 Where I grew up, everybody could ride a horse. 3 I could get some really good bargains in the sale yesterday' 4 We couldnt find seats on the train. 5 Believe it or not, I could sing beautifully when I was younger' \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 6 I worked really fast, and I could finish everlthing by 4.00' 7 We had a fire in the attic on Saturday, but the firemen could put it out' \" \" \" \" 8 I couldnt understand the instructions at all. 9 The door was locked, but I could get in through a window. l0 Four centuries ago, only a few people could read. future: when can is possible We use can to talkabout future actions which depend on present ability, circnmstances, agreements, decisions etc. In other cases, we use be able to, I can come in tomorrow evening if you like. (a present decision) The doctor says I will be able to walk properly in three months. $ot' ) ''llr put in can ot can't if possible; if not, use will/won't be able to. b I ..?9k... letyouhaveachequetomorrow,if thatsOK' * I think r ..Wi.\\l.V9.q.te!.q.qe............... do some skiing next winter. 1 I ve no time today. Let me see. I ............... ..... see her on wednesday. 2 Doyouthinkonedaymachines ... readourthoughts? 3 ,The manager ... see you at eleven otlockl 'Thank you.' 4 There'snowaypeople ... traveltoMarsinmylifetime. 5 Itt no use going to Canada - you ......... get a residence permit. 6 'We need some superglue.' 'OK, I ........ get some this afternoonl 7 I'll take the car to the garage next week, but I dont think they fix the steering. 8 I'm sorry, but I ........... '.. ' ..... come to your party - I'll be away' 9 We're not free today, but we ............ ........ manage a meeting next week. 10 'what are we going to eat?' 'well, I ... do steak and chipsi 60 MODAL VERBS

utn see etc Can is often used with see, hear, feel, taste, smell, understand and remember to give a progressive kind of meaning. I can see Susan coming down the road. (Nor |1fi-seeifig ...) Through the window, I could hear a man singing. Can you smell burning? I{hat's in the soup? I can taste somethingfunny. I (can) remember when there were no houses here. Do/Can you understand why Alice left so suddenly? @ Complete the sentences, using can see etc. I I........... definitely ...... somethingburning.Whatdoyouthinkitis? 2 He opened his eyes, but to his horror he ............. ....... absolutely nothing. 3 I .. . . . . . . . . . Susan practising the piano next door; it sounds nice. -1 This isntmycoffee - I ............... distinctly ...... sugarinit. 5 He thought he ........... something crawling up his leg, but when he lookedhe............. ....... anlthing. 6 I knew he had been with another woman. I ............... ..... her perfume. 7 There was somebody in the room. She ... them breathing. 8 I ........... vaguely ...... dreaming last night that we were all living on the moon 9 When she talks fast I .......... one word in three, maximum. 'I can see why they made February the shortest month of the year.' NOTES can with speak and play We use f can sp eak/play and I speak/play wlth very litde difference. weII.I (can) speak Greek quite Can/Does anybody here play the piano? tlpical behaviour Another vse af can/could is to talk about what is typical (see page 67). A female crocodile can lay 30-40 eggs. It could get very cold in our old house. suggestions We can use both can ar'd couldta make suggestions about what to do. Couldis'softet', less definite Ihan can. 'What shall we do nt the weekend?' 'WeIl, we can go down to Brighton. And we could see if Harry wants to come - what do you think?' Note the expression can always 'I don't know what to give Alivia for her birthday.' 'You can always give her a gift token.' (=' ... ifyou cant think ofanlthing betterl) criticism We can use cauld (often with a strong stress) to criticise people for not doing things. in!You COIILD wipe yourfeet when you come You COITLD smile sometimes! You CO(JLD have phoned to say yau were coming! Might can be used in the same way (seepage 67). MODAL VERBS 6'I

permission: can, could, may and might asking for permission All four of these verbs can be used to ask for permission. Can is the least pohtJformil; could is a little more polite/formal. These two are both used between people who know each other well, or when asking strangers for small things' Can/Could I have some more tea? Excuse me - can/could I just get past? Couldiscommon in more formal situations, or when asking for more important things. Could I stop work half an hour early? Could I take your car for the afternoon? Addingpossibly or Do youthink... makes a request even more polite' Could I possibly take your car for the afternoon? Do you think I could leave my bags here for half an hour? May issimilar lo could,but less common. Might is extremely polite, and unusual. May I use your phone? May I help you? Might I make a suggestion? giving permission We give or refuse permission wllh can ot may,nol could or might. 'Could I start late tomorrow?' 'Of course you can.' (xot'Of-eotffsryoa'eodt) Sorry,youcan,thavethecartoday_Ineedit.(Nor'..@'.,) You may stroke the horses, but you may not feed them' iuE @tn\" best desciption. 1 Hi, John. Might I possibly look at your newspaper? too polite / OK / not polite enough 2 Excuse me, madam. Can you watch my luggage? too polite / OK / not polite enough 3 Can I have three tickets for tomorrow night? too polite / OK / not polite enough 4 Could I borrow your pen for a moment? too polite / OK / not polite enough 5 Hello, Mr Parker. Can I use your ofhce to work in today? too polite / OK / not polite enough 6 'Dad, can I use your computer?' 'No, you can't.' too polite / OK / not polite enough 7 'May I use your phone?' 'Yes, you mighti right / wrong 8 Sorry, Louise. but I'm afraid you couldn't go out tonight. right / wrong 9 You can get a passport application form from a post oflice. right / wrong 10 You may not make personal phone calls from the offrce. right / wrong asking about permi ssion May is not normally used to ask about permission that already exists - about what is normally allowed, or about rules and laws. Compare: May/CanIparkhere?CanyouparkhereonSundays?(Nol@) CanchiIdrengointopubsinScotland?(Nor@.,,) past permission: couldnot used We do not use couldto say that somebodywas allowed to do something on one occasion. Compare: when I was a child I could watch TV wheneyer I wanted fo. (not just one occasion) Yesterday evening the children were allowed to stay up late to watch the football. (Nor ...) d,1;;fi Correct (/)or not (r{)? 1 May people vote at age 17? ... 2 Can you download these books free, or do you have to pay? ... 3 I could do the exam late because I was ill. ... 4 At school, we could choose classics or science, but we couldnt mix them. ... 5 Everybody was allowed to go home early on Monday. ... 6 Mayanybodyjointhisclub? ... 62 MODAL VERBS

obligation: must and have (got) to inilar meanings Must and have (got) fo both express necessity and obligation. I;ust apply for a visa this week. oxl have to apply for a visa this week. }llrst you play that dreadful music? ox Do you have to play that dreadful music? 'lte must leave now. oxWe've got to leave now. e difference There is sometimes a small difference between must andhave (got) to. ftsf can be used especially to talk about the feelings and wishes of the speaker/hearer. hve (got) to canbe used especially for obligation from somewhere else. Compare: tr tust get my hair cut: it\\ too long. My wfe says I've got to get my hair cut. \\-.w have to drive on the left in Britain. (uoRe NeruRer rrnN You must drive , . .) fiInsf is common in regulations. -ltr drivers must have adequate insurance. I nead this with a dictionary; see how must reflects the hearer's wishes. 'ln a dream, Mrs Ogmore-Pritchard is talking to her two dead husbands, Mr Ogmore and Mr Pritchard.) \\tRS o-p: Tell me your tasks in order. ]tR o: I must put my pyjamas in the drawer marked pyjamas. uR p: I must take my cold bath which is good for me. \\tR o: I must wear my flannel band to ward off sciatica. \\tR p: I must dress behind the curtain and put on my apron. \\rR o: I must blow my nose in a piece of tissue-paper which I afterwards burn. \\rR p: I must take my salts which are nature's friend. \\tR o: I must boil the drinking water because of germs. ttR p: I must make my herb tea which is free from tannin. \\tR o: I must dust the blinds and then I must raise them. lrRs o-p: And before you let the sun in, mind it wipes its shoes. Dvlan Thomas: Under Milk Wood(adapted) -,.* not and. do not have fo are quite different. Compare: im pccer, players must not touch the ball with their hands. (It's not allowed.) b. rugby, players can pick up the ball, but they do not have to; they can also kick it. @ n t in expressions from the box with musf (not), have/has (got) to or don't have to, answer come round do military service / find out get go to bed go to work hityouropponent paytaxes takeoff throwout turndown vote YIILIIn som e co unt rie s, b oth me n and wom en . .1qy9; .(g g.y) . lq . 4. q. f f U, S ?W.i.o. 9,.. !I I'm really tired. I ........why. : Sophiehasntbeenintouchfordays. I ............... You ........... thequestionsifyoudontwantto. { In my country, everybody ...... in elections. -i \\bu really ...... that old coat. Please! 6 Inboxing,you ........... belowthebelt. \\\\'e havent had a talk for ages. You really one evening. S lbu .... . . a licence to watch TV. 9 \\\\tren you go through airport securityyou :0 Harry - you ........... your coat. i I \\\\'e all ........ that music. We're all going deaf! one way or another. :: Sarurdaytomorrow: I ............... thankgoodness. MODAL VERBS 63

I obligation: should and oughtto Should is used for suggestions, advice and opinions. It is less strong than must' Compare: AII drivers must have adequate insurance: it's the law. -You should insure your computer against accidental damage it's sensible. Orders and instructions can be made more polite by using should instead of must. Applications should be sent before 30 June. Visitors should report to the ffice. For other uses of.sloald, see pages 225,237 and239. Ought is similar to should,but less common' It is followed by fo. You ought to insure your computer. People ought to smile more. SFI@ahe best word or expression. I Do you think I should I must go and see Paul? 2 The house is on firel Everybody ought to I must get out at once! 3 Should I Must we take the bus or get a taxi? 4 You should I must be 18 or over to vote in a general election' 5 I'm sorry, but you ought to I must wait in the queue like everybody else. 6 I think you should I must try to take a holiday. 7 We absolutely should I must clean up the kitchen - it's filthy. 8 Everybody ought to lmustknow more than one language. 9 They say you should I must eaI five portions of fruit or vegetables a day' l0 People should I musttake regular exercise. Write a question asking for advice for yourself. , * *. . -s_h.q wh at sh o vtLl t. Lo, t\\i:. 9V*y*.q2. . !.4 . ! g ?. .o. .s.\\ 4 UL.*g . p.\". . giye . W.l . . \". , iH Writ\" a few sentences saying what you think other people should do: for example the government, pa rents, teachers, everybody. Note: Question forms of ought are I rt.r,Dil lF rather formal. In conversation people I SecvtD ISl( prefer, for example, lF t Ssrcc' Do you think I ought to . ..? or er IShould we... ? (No'r usuarrt Ought r'Ba / weto...?). 64 MODAL VERBS

ertainty: must, can't, will, should ttttst' can't We say that something must be true if we are certain, not from direct experience, hrt from deduction: from thinking about it logically. Compare: *el at home: I saw her go in. She must be at home - her car's outside and the lights are on. fte usual negative of must,with this meaning, is cannot/can't. She can't be at home: her car's gone and there are no lights on. *ould We use should (nof) when we are not certain, but think that there are good reasons to ftink that something is true or nol He left an hour ago. He should be home by now. '11-ho can I ask about the dates?' 'Try lessica - she should know.' I\"nt going to service the car myself - it shouldn't be too dfficult. Aryfut to is possible with the same meaning. 'Try' lessica - she ought to know.' I choose the best form. I If A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then C must I can't be bigger than A. I Gemma must I should be able to translate this for you - she knows some Arabic. -3 'You ve won first prize! 'lt can't I shouldn't be truet' { Look at their house. They must I ought tohave plenty of money. 5 Look at those clouds. We must I should get some rain soon. 6 I m going out for abit.I can't I shouldn'tbe home too late. I That must I can'tbe her mother - they're more or less the same age. 8 'We're offto Turkey for a weekl 'Thatmust I shouldbe nicel 9 Can I have a few words with you? It should I shouldn't take long. l0 That mustn't I can'tbe Daniel - he's in Morocco. rill We can use will and will not / won't with a similar meaning to must/can't This is most sxnmon when we are certain of something because it's what is expected, or what is normal/typical. 'There\\ somebody coming up the stairs.' 'That'll be Mary.' {dn you ring lohn?' 'Will he be there now?' 'Yes, he always starts work at 8.00.' \\hall we go and have something to eat?' 'No, the canteen won't be open yet.' @ eut inwittorwon't. I Chloe still be in the office: shet always the last to leave. I The chair isnt all that big. It ......... .. fit in the car all right. -1 It's no use phoning Alan - he ............. be at home now. -l George saw William yesterday, so he ......... .. know what's happening. 5 fenny be out of hospital yet - her operation was only yesterday. 6 'Theret a letter from you.' 'That .......... . be from the bank, I expecti I As you know from my report, we are losing money heavily. 8 Jack had a very late night. He ............ be feeling too good today, I imagine. 9 She\\Ve'd better phone Helen. be wondering where weve got to. l0 Excuse me. You remember me, but we met in Dublin last year. MODAL VERBS 65

probability and possibility: may, might, can' could probability To talk about the probability that something is true, or will happen, we can luse may' Let\\ hurry - the shop may still be open. We may go to lapan this summer' (= 'There's a chance that we'll go\") Might and, could express a smaller probability. It might/could rain later, but I don't really think it will {}i Write two things that you may dO or that may happen, in the future; and two things (a Iittle less probable) that you might/could do or that might/could happen. cannotased Can is not normally used to talk about probability' Andy may be in loe's o1frce. (lurNot@iee-.) may natused in questions We dorft use question forms of may with this meaning' @)Do you think the frm may lose money? (Not i {ffi Correct (/)or not (X)? I 'Where's |essica?' 'She may be with Lewisl ... 2 'Where's fessica?' 'She can be with Lewisl ... 3 'Where's |essica?' 'She could be with Lewis.' ... 4 'Where's Jessica?' 'She might be with Lewis.' ... 5 May you be in London next week? ... 6 Do you think you may be in London next week? ... 7 | may start Chinese lessons in the autumn. ... 8 I think it might rain. ... 9 Tomorrow could be a really busy day. ... 10 Tomorrow can be a really busy duy. ... 11 May there be an election next year, do you suppose? ... 12 'Where's Sally?' Ask her secretary. He can know' ... may notrndcar? Note the difference. Isabelle may not be at home. (= 'Perhaps she's not at homel) Isabelle can't be at home - she's in spain this week' (= 'She's certainly not at homei) $-LI . possibly win on Saturday - they havent got a chance. Put in may not or can't. I Our team .......... 2 I ........... behere tomorrow. I'll letyou knowlater. 3 That child .......... . want more food. He's just had three plates of stew. 4 There's a possibility of a strike, so the trains be running tomorrow. 5 I'll ask her, but she ............ want to see you. 6 We be out of petrol. I filled the car up last night. 7 'I never want to see you againi 'You mean thatl 'Oh, yes I doi 8 We can try the restaurant round the corner, but they have a table free. 66 MODALVERBS

can for what is gpical Can is not used to talk about probability (see page 66), but we can use can to talk about what is typically or normally possible. -1 .female crocodile can lay j0-40 eggs. Silver birch trees can grow up to 30m tall .\\ divorce cqn be a disastrous experience for children. l: can get very cold in our old house. @ Correct (/) or not (X)? I Volcanic ash can damage aeroplane engines. ... I Ann can need some help - let's ask her. ... 3 The car's running badly. It can be time for a service. ... 1 Animals can take up a lot of your time. ... -i You can get a lot of snow in the mountains in February. ... 6 'I cant find the sales report' Ask Maggie. She can know where it isl ... I Good wine can be quite cheap if you know where to shop. ... 8 Some parrots can live for over 50 years. ... 9 Emma can be really bad-tempered at times. ... 10 The baby's coughing a lot. I think she can have a cold. ... may ... but May (and sometim es might) can be used in arguing, to say that something is (not) true, but that this does not make a difference to the main point (see page265). i7e may know a lot, but he's got no common sense. She may be good with children, but she's hell to live with. iJe may not like teaching but he\\ very good at it. Q Rewrite these pairs of sentences with may . .. but. > I'm slow. r'm not stupid. ..1.W?.A.Pq.?\\qW,.k*t.!ly..ryq!.Sll,.rtid I She doesnt come to all the meetings. She knows what's going on. I You have a degree. Thats no substitute for practical experience. -3 I dont know much about art. I know rubbish when I see it. { The government makes impressive promises. Nothing is going to change. IiOTES Ilay well ts often used to say that something is quite probable. He'll certainly pass the exam, and he may well get a really good result. llay, might and could arepossible with if+ present (see page 232). If he carries on like this, he may/might/coulil find himself in deep trouble. .Uay is not possible with i/+ past. lf Ihad moretime, I might/could study Chinese. {worlflffitta7...) Hay you ,..etc May can introduce wishes. lvlay you both be very happy together. May the best man win. critical might We can use might (often STRESSED) to citicise people for not doing things. you!You MIGHT close the door behind You MIGHT help with the washing up! You MIGHT have remembered Pams birthday! C,ould can be used in the same way (see page 61). MODAL VERBS 67

may have gone, should hove told etc modal verbs with perfect infinitives are used mostly to talk about'unreal' past situations - things which are the opposite of what happened, or which did not certainly happen. You should have told me earlier. She may have gone home. theoppositeofwhathappened Shouldhave...,oughttohave...,wouldhave...,couldhave... and might haye .. . canbe used to talk about 'unreaf past situations that are the opposite of what reallyhappened. You should have been here an hour ago. (But you werent.) Alice oughtn't to have bought that car. (But she did.) I was so angry I could. have killed her. (But I didnt.) If I d known you were coming I would have stayed in. lumping out of the window like that - he could/might have broken his leg. We can use the structure to criticise people for not doing things. You could have helped me! (Why didn t you?) You might have let me know you weren't coming - I stayed in aII evening! I I ffi Complete the sentences with should have ... could have ... , might have ... or would have ... . More than one answer may be possible. > He ..9.h.Q*ld.\\q.y.g.fgyl me last week. (pay) I When he said that to me I .......... him. (hit) 2 You ... somebody, driving like that. (klD 3 I........... you,butldidnthaveyournumber. (phone) 4 If myparentshadntbeen soPoor, I \"......'...... ..... touniversity. (go) 5 It's his fault she left him; he ............. ....... nicer to her. (be) 6 I ........... more garlic in the soup. (puf) 7 Ifyouneededmoney,you,.......... me.(ask) 8 'We got lost in the mountainsl 'You fools - you .........'. a map! (take) 9 It's a good thing they got her to hospital in time. She ........ '. '. ........ (die) 10 You ........... me you were bringing your friends to supper! (fell) not certain May have ..., could have... and might hare .,. can be used to talk about possible situations, when we are not sure what (has) happened. I may have left my keys here this morning. Have you seen them? 'Why isn't he here?' 'He could have missed the train, I suppose.' They re not home. They might have gone away for the weekend. I ffi Rewrite the sentences using may/could/might have . , , , > perhapsshe'sgotrort...F.h.9.gq.A.\\qy|.aqy..tq:!'......(on..F.l:r.9.9?*ld&.L.aY.\\.\\qy9.g.qy.!9.s:'..... I Perhaps Peter forgot to lock the door. 2 Perhaps your mother sent these flowers. 3 It's possible that the builders have finished 4 There's a chance that I ve found a new job. 5 It seems possible that Alex has changed her mind. 6 Somebody has been in my room, possibly. 7 Perhaps weve come to the wrong house. ..... '.. 68 MODAL VERBS

Must/Can'thaye ... are used to talk about what we know or believe from logical deduction, from reasoning about things (see page 65). J ulie\\ cry ing. S o m ething b a d mu st hav e happ ened. Ioe isn't here. He can't have got my message. @ Rewrite the sentenc es in italics using must/can't hove . .. 'We went to Dublin for the weekend.' 'I'm sure that was a nice change.' .*tr. . 3.q!. .r**s!. gv.e.[r:p.ry..q. .ry.i v.e *Ps t:.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'The car's got a big dent in the sidel 'It looks as if Bernie\\ had an accident.' 2 There's nothing in the fridge. Obviously Luke hasn't been shopping. 3 'Lucy isnt herel 'I reminded her yesterday. Surely she hasn't forgotten.' -l 'There's a lot of water aroundl 'That means it rained in the night.' 5 He had plenty of money last week. I don't believe he\\ spent it all. 6 'I ve finished the report.' Already? I guess you worked aII weekend.' masthave... and hailta... Note the difference. Iae must have gone home. (It seems certain that he has gone home.) frce hail to go home. (It was necessary for him to go home.) colthove ,,. andmay nothave... Note the difference. They can't have arrived yef. (They certainly havent arrived.) They may not have arrived yet. (Perhaps they havent arrived.) ($ fut in must have ..., had to ..., con't have ... ot may not have .,. . I Shakespeare .............. ...... to Australia, because Europeans didnt know about it. (go) 2 King Arthur........ - nobody's sure. (erlsf) 3 Castles in the Middle Ages .......... IlS' cold in the winter. (be) ......) { Poorpeoplefivehundredyearsago '.. easylives.(have) -i Sorry I'm late. I ............... ..... for a phone call. (wait) 6 She didnt answer. She ............ ...... '. what I said. (understand) : I........... twoyears'militaryservice-acompletewasteoftime.(do) 8 You ... pleased when you heard youd won the ptize. (be) 9 'My ankle really hurtsl 'Well, you ........... it if you can still walkl (break) l0 I'mverysleepy. I ... atfourthismorning.(grt\"p) ) MODAL VERBS 69

may have gone, should have told etc (continued) I needn't have cooked so much food. Nobody was hungry. (I did it, but it was unnecessary.) We had plenty offood left over from lunch, so I didn't need to cook. (It was unnecessary, so I didnt do it.) ffi Choose the best way to complete the sentences. I We needn't have hurried / didn't need to hurry - we got there much too early. 2 I needn't have watered / didn't need to water the flowers: Emma had already done it. 3 We needn't have bought / didn't need to buy the encyclopaedia. The kids never open it. 4 fllWe had enough petrol, so I needn't have filled up / didn't need to up. 5 Luckily we had plenty of food, so I needn't have gone / didn't need to go shopping. 6 1 needn't have studied / didn't need to study Latin at school; it hasn t been any use to me. 7 I needn't have bothered / didn't need to bother to get her a birthday present. She didnt even thank me. 8 Where I grew up we needn't have locked / didn't need to lock orr doors; there was no crime. ffi Choose the right modalverbs. A DOG breeder has had may I might I must I should ll'nu\" French bulldog pups have been taken soon after stolen from her home. She I left because their food and believes she was being watched water were still there. I may I by thieves who knew the value could I should / musthave sold the female pup for as much as of her dogs, which were stolen 82,200, and the male dogs were during a short period when she worth around 11,500 eachl' * went out. She said \"The dogs NOTES Can have ... is unusual except in questions and negatives. What can have happened to Julia? She can't have forgotten. I suppose she may have missed the train. (Not ...sM+hetra*) Willhave ... and shouldhave ... are used to talk about what we can reasonably expect to have happened (see pages 36 and 65). Will have. .. is more certain than should have . . .. Dear Sir You will recently have received our new price list . .. Rebecca should haw arrived home by now. Let's phone her. present or future meaning These structures can also be used to talk about unreal or uncertain situations in the present or future. I shoulil have been on holiday this week, but they had a problem at work. She could have been in the team for the next Olympics if shed trained properly. By the enrl of this year I may have saved enoug! money to go to America. may have: a change The normal use of may have .. . is to say that things possibly happened: we are not certain. I'm not sure where she is. She may hate gone out for a walk. But in modern English, some people use may have.. . to talk about things that were possible but did not happen. You were stupid to try climbing up the clif. You may have killed yourself. This meaning is more traditionally expressed with might/could have .... ... You might/could haye killeil yourself. For will have ... (future perfect tense), see page 36. For would have ... with l, see page 239. 70 MODAL VERBS

had better Had better,like some modal verbs, is used to give strong advice to people (including ourselves). It is not past or comparative: it means'This is a good thing to do now'. \\bu'd better tidy your room before your father gets home. Six oblock - I'd better put the chicken in the oven. Had better is not used in polite requests. Compare: ..) Could you go out and buy somethingfor supper? (Nurffi@ffi \\-ou'd better go now, or the shops will be closed. \\\\re use had better for immediate advice, not to say what people should usually do' You'd better get an eye test. (BUrNor ) Compare People should get eye tests regularly.) (! Correct (/) or not (X)? > Itt getting late - wed better think about going home. / > Youd better let me use your phone. X I I'd better get my hair cut. ... 2 You'd better give me some more colIee. ... 3 Everybody had better give money to charity. ... -1 If you've got toothache again, youd better see the dentist. ... 5 Youd better start working - the exam's next Tuesday. ... 6 Wecl better hurry. fhe train leaves in ten minutes. ... 7 Youd better lend me some money. ... 8 It's getting late. I'd better get back home. ... be supposed to meanings We use be supposed fo to talk about what is expected; what should happen. 'iLllire supposed to have a licence to wQtch TV. ..lm was supposed to come at 6.00. \\\\ e can use the structure to talk about what is believed. t;te's supposedto be a singer. Is that supposedto befunny? $ tvta te sentences with be su p pose d to, usin g expressions from the box. Different answers may be possible. be efficient be good communicators be good with figures forget things go to mass on Sundays /have a lot of imagination like children make us laugh serve the PeoPle > comedians .. Lf9. 514$.?:5,4. !.q. yg9p..*S ls*sb. i Politicians I Teachers -r Business people + Artists -i Mathematicians ......... r Linguists - Catholics i Old people MODAL VERBS 7'I

will and would:willingness; typical behaviour We can ase will to talk about willingness to do something. Will you come this way, please? What will you have to drink? He'll do anythingfor money. She won't tell us anything. Would is less direct, and can be used to make a request more polite. Would you come this way, please? Rewrite these sentences using will, won't or would. .... e please wait here. . .w. y.tt/w.q*!i. uq*.y.q!!.4.qrp.2........ I The car refuses to start. 2 Please take a seat. 3 Do you want tea or coffee? 4 Please tell me your name. 5 Nobody wants to tell us the truth. ......... 6 I am ready to help you. 7 The computer refuses to recognise my password 8 The bank is not willing to lend us any more money. 9 Please sign the form at the bottom. hqbits We can use will to talk about habits and typical behaviour. The neighbours will always babysit if you have to go out. He'Il watch TV all day, but he won't spend five minutes doing housework. If we stress will it can sound critical. If you WILL eat so much, it's not surprising you feel ill. would Would is used in the same way, to talk about the past. On Sundays all the family would come to our place for lunch. They were nice people, but they WOULD play loud music all night. $iitil Choose the best ways of completing these laws of nature, using will / won't with expressions from the box. always move faster be enough get lost go off go wrong lose misunderstand it roll 1 If something can go wrong it .............. 2 However much you do, it .......... 3 The other queue 4 lf you are in charge of a group of children, one ........... 5 If you make something so clear that even an idiot will understand it, some idiot If you drop a tool or small part while working on a car, it ............... to the exact centre underneath the vehicle. Ifyou have to get up early for a very important reason, your alarm 8 If you watch your team during an important match, they ........... iit'.+.- fnint of somebody you know, and somebody you once knew. Write sentences about their typical behaviour, using will and would. 72 MODAL VERBS

used to forms (Jsed fo can have the forms of an ordinary verb (questions and negatives wlth did), or the forms of a modal verb. The forms wlth did are more common. The following infinitive always has to. Did you use to smoke? Used you to smoke? (very uncommon) We didn't use to go away on holiday. We used not to go away on holiday. meaning The structure is used to talk about past situations and habits. There is no present' I used to play tennis a lot. Now I play golf. (Nor@tygolf) We always used to have dogs. Now we have a cat. i,;ii Wrlte a few sentences about the way people used to live hundreds of years ago. ts ..ypsL39.o3.\\e.*:.q4.Y.o..lty.q1ry}.\\!..qq**y.ry,.?\\illr.e*.4v1*'L*?.q.\\?..s.?.ye..eghq.ql'.......... '=. -. Write a few sentences about things that you used to do, or didn't use to do, when you were younger. The words in the box may help. believe go to like listen to play read think watch wear €4-,1 Here are the answers to questions about somebody's schooldays. What do you think the , .'YIquestions might be? (There are different possibilities.) 'C)nlv Frenchl . gl.V rz.+q.qe:. 1.1.4. .a qv. .*: p. \\q. 9.\\* 4 a.?.'. . . . . . . . . . . . I 'Rugby and tennis. 2 'No, but I used to play the violinl J 'No, I used to do very badlyl 4 'No, I used to hate itl 5 'Yes, we did.' used to and would There is a difference. Would is only used to talk about habits - things that people did repeatedly - in particular time frames' Compare: At weekends we used to / would go camping in the mountains. IusedtoplaythevioIin.BU.I'NoT@hi(notime-frame) I usedtohave aVolkswagen. BUrNor@ (not a habit) Note: Some people write used instead of use inquestions and negatives: for example Did you used to ... and I didn't used to . . .. (There is no difference in pronunciation.) This is not considered correct. MODAL VERBS 73

need forms Need can have the forms of an ordinary verb (questions and negatives with do, third-person -s, following infinitive with fo). Do we need to book? I think Alex needs to take a break. However, modal auxiliary forms are also possible, especially in questions and negatives. Need we book? Tell her she needn't come in tomorrow. use Modal forms are most common when we are talking about things that are necessary at the time of speaking. Compare: Need I send / Do I need to send in the application now? Whendopeopleneedtosendintheapplication?(NotW@...) Note the difference between mustn't and needn't / don't need to. In bridge, you mustn't look at other people\\ cards. (It's not allowed.) You needn't play for money, but you can if you like. (lt's not necessary.) Correct (/) or not (X)? 1 Do we need to reserve a table for tonight? ... 2 Need we reserve a table for tonight? ... 3 Tell fohn he need reserve a table for tonight. ... 4 Pam needsnt work tomorrow ... 5 Need I get a visa for my trip to Hungary? ... 6 Need people get a visa if they want to go to Hungary? ... 7 |ust come when you like - you mustn't phone first. ... 8 |ust come when you like - you dont need to phone first. ... 9 In a race, you mustn t start before the gun. . . . 10 Do I need pay you now? ... For need + perfect infinitive (e.g. You needn't haw bothered), see page 70. Fot need ... ing, see page 95 Note the structures need hardly/scarcely/only + infinitive without lo. I need hardly emphasise the importance of camplete secrecy. If you have any problems, you neeil only give me a ring. 'My grandfather took a bath 'l seldom end up where lwanted l/t/hat we think determines to go, but almost always end up what happens to us, so if we every year, whether he needed where I need to be.' want to change our lives, we to or not.' (Douglas Adams) need to str€teh our,nrrind:.' : (Harry Lewis) (Wayne Dyu) 'If we reallywant liberty, then 'TheTen Commandments we need to go out and get it, we 'Even very young children need should be treated like an need to take it, because nobody to be informed about dying. examination. Only six need is going to give it to us.' Explain the concept ofdeath to be attempted.' (Michael Badnarik) very carefully to your child. (Bertrand Russel/) This will make threatening him 'You do not need to leave your with it much more effective.' 'lt's often just enough to be with room. Remain sitting at your (P.l. O'Rourke) someone. I dont need to touch ,tablE and{i$ten. Do i'}ct even , ' them. Not even talk.A feeling listen, simply wait, be quiet, 'r\\ll I really need to know... passes between you both.You're still and solitary.' I learned in kindergarten.' not alone.' (Franz Kafta) (Robert Fulghum) (Marilyn Monroe) 74 MODAL VERBS

more practice ) S Correct the mistakes, or write'Correct'. > You not-nntst park here. ..Y*r.\\.*?y. t May I ask you something? ..g?.YY!.?y..... I I had to hurry, but I could get there in time. 2 'Could I use your phone?' 'Yes, of course you couldi -3 Could you watch my bags for a minute? { May people visit the cathedral? 5 The children could stay up late last night to watch the football. 6 You mustnt paynow ifyou dontwant to - later is OK. ........... i He cant be at home - there are no lights on. ............ 8 We may go to Ireland in |uly. 9 May you be in London next week? ^0 Ask Peter - he can know. ........ I: That woman can be really bad-tempered I- I might not have time to see you tomorrow. o Choose the best explanation of the words in italics. He may be clever, but he's got no common sense. -{ 'l agree that het clever' B 'Perhaps hei clever' c 'Perhaps he'll be clever one day' o Choose the best explanation of the words in itolics. Phil may not be here tomorrow. -{ 'isn't allowed to be here' B 'will possibly not be here' C both Q Ctroose the most probable explanation of this sentence. must get myself a new suit { I *'ant a new suit. B Somebody has told me to get a new suit. o which of the'past'modal verbs have past meanings in these sentences? Could I see you tomorrow? Nobody could understand him. t I might have a problem. : \\!'e should try again. \\Vith a bit of luck, they could win. l He wouid say nothing for hours. _i Alice thought she might be ill. o If you asked me nicely, I might say'Yes'. \\\\'e really ought to ask somebody for advice @ Ctroose the most probable explanation of this sentence' - ames isn't at home - he must be working late. { ,r seems certain that fames is working late. B fames has to work late. C both MODAL VERBS 75

Choose the best answers to the questions. I NoShe should have told her mother. Did she tell her mother? YES MAYBE 2 We must have missed the turning. Did we miss the turning? YES No PRoBABLY 3 Anna cant have got my message. Did she get the message? YEs No PRoBABLY Nor 4 He neednt have rented a car. Did he rent a car? yES No MAYBD 5 Harry may have gone home. Has he gone home? YES No MAYBE 6 The meeting may not have finished. Has the meetingJinished? YES No MAYBE 7 Reallyl She might have told usl Did she tell us? YEs No MAYBE 8 NoThat was stupid - he might have caused an accident. Did he cause an accident? YES MAYBE 9 They ought to have arrived by now. Have they arrived? YEs No PRoBABLY 10 They shouldn't have opened a new branch. Did they open one? YEs No MAYBE Choose the best explanation of this use of wil/. She will sit talking to herself for hours. A It refers to habitual behaviour. B It predicts future behaviour. C It describes a wish. ... Choose the best explanation of this stressed use of wil/. She WILL buy things she can't afford. A It refers critically to habitual behaviour. B It refers neutrally to habitual behaviour. C It makes a critical prediction of future behaviour. What does this sentence mean? You WOULD tell Peter about my accident - I didn't want him to know. A You wanted to tell Peter about my accident. B You were going to tell Peter about my accident but you didnt. C It was typical of you to tell Peter about my accident. Pulin would, used to, or both if possible. 1 When we lived in France we ............. ....... go skiing every winter 2 I........... haveanoldFordcarthatkeptbreakingdown. 3 Robert ...playalotofchesswhenhewasyounger. (filcibtfre forms that are more normal or more correct. 1 What did people use / used people to do in the evenings before TV? .. . 2 I didn't used / didn't use to like opera. ... 3 Used you / Did you use to play football? ... 4 You used not / didn't use to like him, did / used you? ... Choose the best explanation of this sentence. Phil had better get his hair cut. A It was important that Phil should get his hair cut. B It was best that Phil should get his hair cut. C Phil should get his hair cut. D It's best that Phil gets his hair cut. Choose the best explanation of this sentence. You were supposed to be here this morning. A Everybody thinks you were here this morning. B You should have been here this morning. C You were defrnitely here this morning. 76 MODAL VERBS

1.\" Put the verbs into the texts. dive extend grow grow jump jump lift live reach run stay swim weigh 1 Alaskan brown bears, the world's largest meat-eating animals that live on land, can ............... as much as 1,700 pounds (771 kilograms). 2 The fastest human swimmer can ........... at just under 9 km per hour. The fastest mammal - the dolphin - can do 56 km per hour. 3 Some ants can 50 times their own body weight. 4 Elephants can't ......... 5 Frogs can ........... over 20 times their own length. 6 Ant supercolonies can for 'l00km. ? There are trees that can for 20,000 years. 8 Cheetahs can ........... at 110 km per hour. 9 ln a dive, a peregrinefalcon can ........... 320 km per hour. 10 Sequoias can ........... to be over 100m tall. 11 Sperm whales can ........... to 3000m below the surface, and can under water for 90 minutes' 12 Bamboo can ........... 1m in 24hrs. Use a search engine to find some interesting sentences containing the words \"should have said\" and \"should not have said\" (or change the verb if you prefer). Write them here. MODAL VERBS 77

active and passive verbs In many situations there are two participants: one that does something, or has an effect (the'agent') and another that something happens to, or that is affected (the 'patient'). English, like many languages, has different sets of verb forms for these situations. r If we want to focus on the agent, we make the agent the subject and use active verbs. Harry invited everybody. The volcano destroyed six villages. r If we want to focus on the patient, we make the patient the subject and use passive verbs. The agent is backgrounded or not mentioned. Everybody was invited (by Harry). Six vlllages were destroyed (by the volcano). revise the basics passivetenses Wemakepassiveverbswithforms of be+ pastparticiple(made,stolenetc). Passive verbs have the same tenses (simple present, present progressive, present perfect etc) as active verbs (see page 297 for a list). lapan.These cars are made in Your room is being cleaned now, Nobody has been told about the problems. The contract will be signed next week. Correct the mistakes or write'Correct'. *F Has my suit eleaned yet?. ..p.Q\\*.qlp:q.ry\\d....... Nobody was asked. ..9.o.fY.qc:.... 1 Tomorrow's meeting has been cancelled. 2 You will told where to go. ......... J We were taught to be polite to older people. 4 The road was closed because it was being repaired. 5 ['m afraid you have not selected for interview 6 I heard that mv friends had beins arrested. passive infinitives and. -ing forrns (to) be + past participle; being + past participle. now.I want to be paid We expect to be informed of your results. He loves being photographed. I got in without being seen. Modal verbs are often followed by passive infinitives. Something must be done. I'm afraid the date can't be changed. Correct the mistakes or write'Correct'. F She dislikes being touehirtg. ..9e*1.\\ed. e Everybody must be told. 1 I really think the whole family must to be consulted. 2 John hates being rushed J I didnt expect been stopped. 4 Do you enjoy being massage? 5 I hope to be promoted soon. ......... 6 Alice should be told immediately. use of b7 We use by ... in passive structures if we need to say who or what did something; but most often this is unnecessary. (Only about 20% of passives have b7-phrases.) by?Who was this picture painted It was painted by Rembrandt. bVsMenterYour room has been cleaned These cars are made in lapan. 78 PASSIVES

verb + preposition In passive structures, verb + preposition groups stay together. @The plan was thought about very carefully. (Nor ...) I don't like being shouted at. J':::1ji.:r;f.r.,.ir1r;::,li't,'i,..|:ir\"':.1..\"i':;,1r.r,;ri4r;::r,ir'tr.rir;.-i:i COf feCt the mistakes Of Wfite,COf fect'. I For everything will be paid at the end of the month. 2 Emma's novel has been translated into German by a translator. J I hate being spoken as ifI was a servant. 4 My mother was very well looked after in hospital. 5 I'm afraid Iohn cant be relied on to keep his promises. 6 By who was the new cathedral built? Verbs with two objects like give or send have two possible active and passive structures. ACTIVE PASSIVE They gave/sent loe a gold watch. foe was given/sent a gold watch. They gave/sent a gold watch to Joe. A golil watch was given/sent to Joe. We choose the structure which fits best with what comes before and after (see page 80). The structure with the person as subject (e.g. Ioe was given...) is very common. @ Correct (/) or not (X)? (One sentence is wrong.) 1 Peter was given a new car when he passed his exam. ... 2 The builders are being given another month to finish the work. '.. 3 You were lent a bicycle last week - where is it? ... 4 To my mother has just been sent a wonderful bouquet of flowers. . .. 5 I think Saily will be given the manager's job. ... 6 Harold was awarded a medal for long service. ... gef-passives We often make passives with gef instead of be, especially in spoken English. My suitcase got stolen at the airport. We never get invited to her parties. The gef-passive often suggests that things happen by accident, unexpectedly, or outside our control' It is not often used for longer, more deliberate, planned actions' Compare: My sister got bitten by a dog yesterday. Don't worry about the repairs; they'll get done sooner or later. The Emperor Chailemagne was crowned in 800 AD. (It would be strange to say 'Charlemagne got crowned ...') The new school will be opened by the Prime Minister on May 25th. The gef-passive is often (not always) used to talk about bad things that happen; perhaps because unexpected or unplanned events are mostly unwelcome. $ f ive of the passive verbs in sentences 1 -8 would also be natural with get. Change them. > Maggie was hit by a car this morning . ..Il!ggglp'. gS!. hi!..'..'....... . > Mount Everest was first climbed in 1953. ..N.?!.rt?.!*'!'.ql.W-Lth.Ae-t... . I We were burgled last night. 2 Our roof was damaged in the storm. 3 St Paul's Cathedral was built by Sir Christopher Wren. 4 Ifyou are caught, dont tell the police anlthing. 5 If there is one mosquito in the house, I am always bitten. ........ 6 Dr Lee was awarded the Nobel prize for physics last year. 7 We were all sent home early because of the strike. 8 These cars are manufactured by a japanese firm. PASSIVES 79

reasons for using passives There are several different reasons for using passives. This text illustrates some of them. A DRIVER has been sent to the Barton town centre. He was jailfor 90 days for sPeeding. banned for twelve months in 2004 l-r RAHAM SMITH, 29, of North for a similar offence. Lfstreet, Barton, was driving at Mr PeterJones, defending, said Smith over 60mph (lOt<ptr) near a Barton had been using the car to visit a sick primary school last November when friend. He said Smith was depressed after the visit, and was arxious to get he was stopped by Police officers, home as soon as possible. Didcot magistrates heard on Thursday' Twelve months earlier Smith had He was caught by Police during a routine speed check in Wantage been disqualified from driving for three years for driving at 70mPh in Road, Barton. ,', Look at the way these passive verbs are used in the text: has been sent; was stopped; had been disquatifiedi was banned; was caught.Then look at the following explanations for why the writer chose passives. Two of them are right - which? The other three are wrong. A The writer was most interested in what happened, not who it happened to. E B Most of the text is about what was done to somebody, not what he/she/it did. fl C It is not known, not important or obvious who did something' E D The writer was giving details of past events. E E The writer wanted to go on talking about Smith. Active verbs (magistrates have sent ..., police stopped ... etc) would mean changing the subject and taking the focus away from Smith. E Explanations ... and ... are right. same subject A passive verb can make it possible to go on talking about the same person or thing (see explanation E, above). He waited for two hours; then he was seen by a doctor; then he was sent back to the waiting room. He sat there for another two hours - by this time he was getting angry. Then he was taken upstairs \" ' Choose the best ways of continuing each sentence. 1 He lives in a small house. A Somebody built it about forty years ago. B It was built about forty years ago. 2 English is well worth learning. A People use it for international communication. B It is used for international communication. 3 He got a sports car, but he didn t like it. A So he sold it again. B So it was sold again. 4 My nephew is an artist. A He has just painted another picture. B Another picture has just been painted by him. 5 The new Virginia Meyer film is marvellous. A They are showing it at our local cinema. B It is being shown at our local cinema. 6 'How are your brothers?' A 'Fine. peter's restoring an old boat.' B 'Fine. An old boat is being restored by Peteri 80 PASSIVES

another reason: heavy subjects We dont like to begin sentences with long and heaq' subjects. One way of avoiding this is to use passive structures. Compare: lohn trying to tell everybody what he thought annoyed me. I was annoyed by Iohn trying to tell everybody what he thought. That she had not written to her parents for over two years surprised me. I was surprised that she had not written to her parents for over two years. Q Change these sentences. Can you see how this makes them better? 1 George ringing me up me up at three oilock in the morning to tell me he was in love again didnt please me. I Caroline telling me that she had always wanted to be a singer surprised me. -l That nobody was prepared to take him to hospital shocked us. We............. That Mary thought she was better than everybody else irritated everybody. tbrmality and style Passives are very common in some kinds of formal writing where the writer ieeps him/herself in the background - for example business or scientific reports. lie Department has been reorganised over the last year. (narHEn rueu We have reorganised the Department ... ) -ree dffirent compounds were investigated for their resistance to oxidation. (nerHEn rHeN I investigated :;:,ee ...) ?assives are also used to make rules and instructions seem less personally directed. 3:;r'cles may not be parked against these railings. (RerHEn rHeN You may not park bicycles ... ) :r)r some more complex formal passive structures, see pages 82-83. Q Rewrite these sentences using passive verbs. - You must send applications to the Centrai Olfice before August 1. You must attach all supporting documentation, and you must enclose a cheque in payment of the full fee. You must also enclose a stamped addressed envelope' I \\Ve selected fifty workers at random and gave them a thorough physical examination. \\\\'e took blood samples from all fifty and analysed them. We found no traces of lead poisoning. indefinite agents Passives are often used in a formal style where the person or thing that does :--t action is unknown or indefinite. In a less formal sty'e, we often prefer an active verb with a :eneral pronoun like they or you. Compare: out.:.:,id repairs are being carried They're iligging up the damned road again' .:c police are never successfully sued. You can't win a case against the police' PASSIVES 81

complex passive structures Note these passive structures.They are mostly rather formal. A Passive of verbs followed by fhot-clauses ,_Try Y\", !\"tl:rt ,br\"rd.) ft tt k\"\"r, b::!:\"4. Many verbs that are followed by that-clauses (e.g. think, believe, say) can be used in passive structures with introductory it. They are mostly rather formal, but common in news reports. It is thought that the Minister will resign. At that time, it was believed that the sky was a crystal sphere. It is expected that the company will become proftable in the New Year. It was said that the gods were angry. Another way of expressing the same ideas is with subject + passive verb + infinitive. He is known to be in Wales. They are said to own several houses. She is understood to have Ieft home. (Note the perfect infinitive.) This structure is also possible with there as a subject. There are thought to be fewer than twenty people still living in the village. There were said to be ghosts in the house, but I never heard anything. I ffi uut the sentences passive. > pe\"ople think the governmenr wll fall. (/r) ..!!.i:.p.qlygy.el.!4.q9.!Y.q.gpyp.\".*Yp\":.Y.ill.fil.l.:............. > Everybody knows he is violent. (ue) ..tje.i:..4*q.W*.yp..Y.g.y.L.q!pry1..... > They say there is bad weather on rhe way (There) ..frp:rp.yS.*q:'.4.yq.kp.9.f.dy.?$:49Y.?.ry.\\]tl1.'.Y.qb....... 1 They believed that fresh air was bad for sick people. (/r) 2 Some people claim that there are wolves in the mountains. (There) 3 They think that the man holding the hostages is heavily armed. (The man) 4 They say he is in an agitated state. (He) 5 People suggest that the rate of inflation will rise. (1t) 6 They report that she died in a plane crash. (She - perfect infnitive) 7 People believe that there are 6,000 different languages in the world. (There) 8 We understand that she left the country on Friday. (1r) 9 They think that there is oil under Windsor Castle. (There) l0 People believed that the earth was the centre ofthe universe. (The earth) l1 They know that he has been married four times. (He) 12 We expect that there will be an announcement on Friday. (1t) 82 PASSIVES

B Fassiv* *f verhs foNl*v'r*d hy *bj*ct + i*tfir\"\"lltirrs name'They asked me to give my name. -* I was asked to give my l M;\"y;;;ilrr;i ;;; i;ir.*ed by object n i,,n,,iii'\" i ,..s. ,\"i, iitit, i*i,rlt, ,t r\"i'l .\"'u. \"'.a in f u'.i'. structures with infinitives. birth.I was asked to give my name and date of We were told to take the 9.1 5 train. You are not expected to work on Sundays. Ann was chosen to represent our street' Note that see, hear and make are followed by /o-infinitives in this structure. He was seen to come out of her house at two oLlock. . word.She has neyer been heard to say a kind We were maile to lie on the Jloor. Verbs that refer to wanting and liking are not generally used in this passive structure. (xor@yox@ions:) Write true or false continuations for these sentences. 1 I have never been asked to 2 I have often been told to 3 I am not usually expected to .............. -1 I will never be chosen to .............. 5I I have never been seen to 6 I have sometimes been heard to .............. 7 I would not like to be made to .............. [. Passirre nf v*rbs with *bj*ct +\" fifi1!rl/;t*$jeetive {fflrlpi*rn*nt Ihey considered him a genius. --s He was considered a genius. \\Iany verbs that are followed by object + noun/adjective complement (e.g. consider, elect, make, call, 'egard ...as, see ... as) can be used in passive structures. :Ie was considered a genius by many people. Mrs Robins was elected Ptesident' ',\\'e wefe made very happy by the decision. He was generally regarded as stupid' Make the sentences Passive. I They appointed Mr Evans secretary' I We considered Louise a sort of clown. I People regarded Dr Hastings as an expert on criminal law' i The new owners have made the house much more attractive' j The villagers called her a witch . Thev elected Professor Martin Vice-President. \\OTES .\\ terv verbs that are followed by infinitives (most commonly decide, agree) can be used in ::ssive structures beginning with l/. It was decideil not to adyertise again. It was agreed to hold a meeting in April. I -r;msoostt@verbos xca@nno)t be used in this way. : r ::. passive structures that are possible with a particular verb, see a good dictionary' PASSIVES 83

other advanced Points prepositional structures The objects of prepositional verbs can become passive subjects. )We haye looked carefutty at the plan. The plan has been carefully looked at. But this is not usually possible ifa verb already has another object before the preposition' Theythrewstonesathim.)Stoneswerethrownathim,BUTNoTM ilti Correct (/)or not (D? i That table mustnt be put cups on. ... 2 Your brother's a lovely guy, but I'm afraid he cant be reiied on' \" ' 3 His ideas havent been talked about enough' ' \" 4 These school desks have been written names on for generations. ... 5 I think I've been told some lies about' ... 6 This househasntbeenverywelllookedafter''\" adjectival past participles Some past participles can be followed by other prepositions instead of by, especially if they are used more or less like adjectives' Compare: She was frightened by a spider. Are you very frightened of spiders? Other common examples: shocked at, surprised at, known to, Jilled with, covered with. For the structures possible with particuiar past participles, check in a good dictionary' ;ir:r Complete the sentences with words from the box. covered frightened known stuffed surprised surprised I I'm not of flying - just of crashing' 2 We're all feeling at the election result' 3 'When he was arrested, his pockets were ....... \" ' with jewellery' 4 'When l looked out of the window l saw that the garden was \" \" \" \" \" with snow' 5 We were terribly at the news of Alice's death' 6 Jones has been to the police for some time' perfective past participles With verbs that express completion, a present tense of be + past participle can have a similar meaning to a perfect tense' My suitcase is packed and I'm ready to go' (= ... has been packed') The translation is finished. Everything is washed. ,:i iril One of these is wrong. Which one? 1 The chicken is just about cooked. 2 My car is hit; it's going to cost a fortune to get it repaired 3 OK. The report is written; now you all have to read it' 4 Smiths rang to say your watch is mended. 5 I'm afraid your trousers are completely ruined. 6 The repainting's done. I hope you're happy with it. Number ... is wrong. t*K X 84 PASSIVES

NOTES verbs that can't passivise Not all verbs can be made passive - check in a good dictionary. )A high wall encloses the garden. The garden is enclosed by a high wall )Our adyisers recommendfurther inyestment. Further investment is recommended. BUT NOT: a WJohn resembles Peter. That suit doesn't ft you. + @ +The government lacks confdence. active verbs with passive meanings Some active verbs are used intransitively with a passive kind of meaning. The cup broke. Suddenly the door opened. Your book's selling well' The ice is melting. L4y new tee-shirts have all shrunk. This is common with verbs that describe things that can be done to materials. This table scratches easily. These knives don't polish well. The bulb won't unscrew. active and passive with the same meaning Some verbs can be used in both active and passive structures with Iittle difference. Common examples: worry and drown. I worry / I'm worcied when you don't phone. He fell into the lake and drowned / was drowned. They married / were married in June, and divorced / were divorced a year later. Gef-passives are common with some of these expressions: for example get drowned, get marriedldivorced, get dressed. other languages Some English passive verbs have active equivalents in other languages, and vice versa: for example be born, die. Put the numbers of the boxed expressions in the right places in the newspaper cuttings. j1 are allowed 2 get found out 3 to be published 4 to be reviewed 5 to have been hit 6 was also affected 7 was delayed 8 was found dead t held up 10 was mistakenly injected 11 was ordered 1 2 was yesterday charged 13 were affected 14 were disqualified 1 5 were relocated -{ A woman ... with the murder of a PUBLICATION of a study into- mobile la-v\"\"i-\"ra man who \"' in a hotel ohones and brain cancer was \"' for years f\".ur.rr. scientists could not agree on its bedroom' fIunfnit;et;irlpyheosntTeehrderaewypoobrertlcdwauaHsseea\"s'ltchiienonrt2gis0at0sn6ifs'rabotumiotn\"sl3' w:tLh:e:ialair,dt]oiu:nsingeleutushnsneivdiierehrruwsgiyotriare.ldds.u._acwtltoaaesrsnsceeorrduetrphsyueeetssiar,tetitorohdwneaniyy. .;;;r[. interpreted the results differently Every spending decision taken by Many parts of China ... by heavy rain Labour in the last four months before the election is ... bythe Treasury. last week. Tens of thousands of people ... due to flooding, and the province of A?an\"ha.ioe\"ssttPih*ietati\"lcnt\"reu'rsinattoP\"'aattiveoenttnP'daieYdt1w0h0e'n00a0n Jiangxi ... by some landslides after the heaviest rainfall in over 25 years. The North lsland of New Zealand is reported ... by at least 8,000 lightning strikes during last Saturday afternoon, G IT1HIRTY of the top 100 runners in an I int.rnntional marathon in lanuary \" \" *uny fo, using cars' ln the long run you n'ill...' PASSIVES 85

more practice ?lfi (h665s the best sentences to build up a continuous text. 1 @ HOWBOOKSAREMADE b. HOWPEOPLEMAKEBOOKS a. First ofall, the printers print big sheets ofpaper. b. First ofall, big sheets ofpaper are printed. a. Each sheet contains the text of a number of pages (e.g. 32). b. The text of a number ofpages (e.g. 32) is contained in each sheet. a. People fold and cut the sheets to produce sections ofthe book' b. The sheets are folded and cut to produce sections ofthe book. a. These sections are called signatures. b. We call these sections signatures. a. The printers put all the signatures together in the correct order. b. All the signatures are put together in the correct order. a. Then they are bound together and their edges are trimmed. b. Then theybind the signatures together and trim the edges. a. Finally, the cover - which has been printed separately - is attached. b. Finally, they attach the cover - which they have printed separately. a. Now the publishers can publish the book. b. Now the book can be published. ,i i' Ili This text has a bad mixture of actives and passives. Rewrite it twice, once just using passives and once just with actives. J n 1665, an experiment was split the light into a band of colours I carried out to investigate the like a rainbow - a spectrum. When Inature of colour. Newton he placed a second prism upside darkened a room and made a hole down in front of the first prism, it in the window shutter, so that a narrow ray of sunlight was allowed recombined the different colours to enter the room. A glass prism of the spectrum into white light. At last, someone had scientifically was taken and placed in the ray of demonstrated the relationship between light and colour. light. The result was that the prism ,.!*.*?kp.,..qk.e.rpp.yrwp.ryI.wtg.qgr.rvpd.g*).lp..vryy.,lligflyllu:.e.ryqY*.re.pf .?.qll*y. ^.r.q?.w............ 86 PASSIVES

Use a search engine to find five or more sentences with get-passives. Write them down. ].............. 2 .............. 3 ............. 5 .............. Write sentences about the man in the text, using was said, was thought, was believed, was reported and was understood. r' ffi'3he man was a legend. Nobody knew the truth B$ about him; everybody had a story. He had b\"\"n a bank robber in his younger days. He was immensely rich. He was a friend of the President. He advised governments. He had mistresses in three different countries. He was a mathematical genius. He spoke fourteen languages. He had climbed Everest in winter. He had a bath with gold taps. He had lived with wolves. He ran marathons to keep fit. And on top of all that, he was terribly nice. ILq.yfl:.+sid.!p..\\.qvp.hpr,*.q.Vs*.&..rq.Vher.!.*.\\.i:..^q*.ry.qqr.\\rUe,..... . ti.?.v./.4: .19.q lvpy.pd.yp. .9.e. .vrywp.ry.:pl+.r.L.qh , . . . . . . . . . . . I l ,i l .; 6 S eut in the missing word from the cartoon caption. 'All the exits have .......... ...... sealed off. He must have got out through the entrance.' PASSIVES 87

uses Infinitives like (to) break and -ing forms like breakinghave various uses. * They can help to make verb forms: I didn't break it. You\\e breaking my heart. I They can be used rather like nouns, as subjects and after verbs. To wait around makes me nervous. Talking is easier than listening' I want to see you again soon. Do you enjoy cooking? Infinitive subjects are more often put later, in a structure with if (see page 228). It makes me nervous to wait around. t Infinitives can also follow certain adjectives and nouns. I'm anxious to see the new baby. Have you any plans to move house? * -ingforms are used after prepositions, and can follow some adjectives and nouns in prepositional structures. You can't live for long without drinking. I'm tired of listening to him. I hate the thought of getting old. (Not -:tWhonghttogd*) * -ing forms can also be used rather like adjectives or adverbs. I can smell burning leaves. She ran out of the room crying. Section 7 deals mainly with infinitives and -ingforms in their more noun-like uses, as subjects and after verbs. For other uses, see the Index. terminology When ,ing forms are used like nouns, they are often called gerunds' in grammars; when they are used in other ways, they are called present participles' These are not very helpful names, and the distinction between the two kinds of use is not always completely clear. In this book we prefer the general term '-lng forms'. 'split infinitives' There is an old'rule'which says that adverbs should not be put between to and the rest of the infinitive. So for example He began slowly to get up of the Jloor is supposed to be 'more correct' than He began to slowly get up of the Jloor. This rule was invented in the 19th century by grammarians who thought English should imitate Latin (in which an infinitive is one word), and has little value. However, some people still avoid'split infinitives'of this kind in formal writing. try and etc With try, wait, come ar'd go, a structure with and can be used instead of an infinitive (e.g. I'll try and get home eaily). See pages 202 and 307 . 'To be or not to be, 'Parting is such sweet sorrow.' 'I love bcing a writer- What I that ts the question.' (Shakespeare, Romeo and luliet) can't stand is the paperwork.' (Sltokespeare, Hamlet) (Peter tle Vries) 'Programming today is a race between 'Beethouen tells you what software engineers striving to build bigger it's like to be Beethouen and better idiot-proof programmes, and the and Mozart telkyou what universe trying to produce bigger and better it's like to be human. Bach idiots. So far the universe is winning.' tells you what it's like to be the uniuerse.' (Rick Ccutk) (Douglas Adams) 88 INFINITIVES AND -IN6 FORMS