Pearson - Physics Class 9

Trishna’s Pearson IIT Foundation Series Physics 9C L A S S > Provides student-friendly content, application- based problems and hints and solutions to master the art of problem solving > Uses a graded approach to generate, build and retain interest in concepts and their applications

About Pearson Pearson is the world’s learning company, with presence across 70 countries worldwide. Our unique insights and world-class expertise comes from a long history of working closely with renowned teachers, authors and thought leaders, as a result of which, we have emerged as the preferred choice for millions of teachers and learners across the world. We believe learning opens up opportunities, creates fulfilling careers and hence better lives. We hence collaborate with the best of minds to deliver you class-leading products, spread across the Higher Education and K12 spectrum. Superior learning experience and improved outcomes are at the heart of everything we do. This product is the result of one such effort. Your feedback plays a critical role in the evolution of our products and you can contact us - [email protected]. We look forward to it. AA0011__GGAATTEE__997788--9933--332255--77660066--33__PPRREELLIIMM..iinndddd 11 66//1166//22001177 66::0066::4400 PPMM

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CLASS 9 Pearson IIT Foundation Series Physics Seventh Edition

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CLASS 9 Pearson IIT Foundation Series Physics Seventh Edition Trishna Knowledge Systems

Photo Credits Chapter 1 Opener: Wilm Ihlenfeld. Shutterstock Chapter 2 Opener: Aleks vF. Shutterstock Chapter 3 Opener: Anton Balazh. Shutterstock Chapter 4 Opener: MilanB. Shutterstock Chapter 5 Opener: rudall30. Shutterstock Chapter 6 Opener: Valentyn Volkov. Shutterstock Chapter 7 Opener: DDCoral. Shutterstock Chapter 8 Opener: Mohd Suhail. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd Chapter 9 Opener: Peshkova. Shutterstock Chapter 10 Opener: pavant. Shutterstock Chapter 11 Opener: Mohammed Ali. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd Chapter 12 Opener: udaix. Shutterstock Icons of Practice Questions: graphixmania. Shutterstock Icons of Answer Keys: Viktor88. Shutterstock Icons of Hints and Explanation: graphixmania. Shutterstock Senior Editor—Acquisitions: Nandini Basu Senior Editor—Production: Vipin Kumar The aim of this publication is to supply information taken from sources believed to be valid and reliable. This is not an attempt to render any type of professional advice or analysis, nor is it to be treated as such. While much care has been taken to ensure the veracity and currency of the information presented within, neither the publisher nor its authors bear any responsibility for any damage arising from inadvertent omissions, negligence or inaccuracies (typographical or factual) that may have found their way into this book. Copyright © 2018 Trishna Knowledge Systems Copyright © 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 Trishna Knowledge Systems This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the publisher of this book. No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher's prior written consent. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time. ISBN 978-93-528-6679-3 eISBN 978-93-530-6114-2 First Impression Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128. Head Office: 15th Floor, Tower-B, World Trade Tower, Plot No. 1, Block-C, Sector-16, Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India. Registered Office: 4th Floor, Software Block, Elnet Software City, TS-140, Block 2 & 9, Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Taramani, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India. Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060 Website: in.pearson.com, Email: [email protected] Compositor: Saksham Printographics, Delhi Printer in India at

Brief Contents Prefacexvii Chapter Insights xviii Series Chapter Flow xx Chapter 1 Measurements 1.1 Chapter 2 Kinematics 2.1 Chapter 3 Dynamics 3.1 Chapter 4 Simple Machines 4.1 Chapter 5 Gravitation 5.1 Chapter 6 Hydrostatics 6.1 Chapter 7 Heat 7.1 Chapter 8 Wave Motion and Sound 8.1 Chapter 9 Light 9.1 Chapter 10 Electricity 10.1 Chapter 11 Magnetism 11.1 Chapter 12 Modern Physics 12.1

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Contents Prefacexvii Measurement of Density 1.19 Chapter Insights xviii Determination of the Density of Solids 1.19 Series Chapter Flow xx Determination of the Density of Liquids 1.19 1.20 Using a Specific Gravity Bottle Determination of the Density of Air CHAPTER 1  MEASUREMENTS 1.1 Graph1.20 Introduction1.2 Uses of Straight Line Graph 1.21 Physical Quantity 1.2 Scientific Notation 1.22 Measurement of Physical Quantities and 1.2 Standard Prefixes Used with the S.I. Their Units 1.2 1.3 System of Units 1.22 Types of Physical Quantity and Its Unit 1.3 Rules—Writing Units 1.4 Errors and Accuracy 1.22 Systems of Units 1.5 Definitions of Units Effect of Combining Errors 1.23 Dimensions of Physical Quantities Significant Figures 1.23 Rounding off the Digits 1.23 Practice Questions 1.25 Measuring Devices 1.5 Hints and Explanation 1.33 Least Count  1.6 CHAPTER 2  KINEMATICS 2.1 Metre Scale 1.6 Vernier Callipers 1.7 Introduction2.2 Zero Error 1.8 2.2 Screw Gauge 1.9 Types of Motion Principle of a Screw Gauge 1.10 Scalars and Vectors 2.3 Measurement of Mass 1.12 Displacement2.3 Physical Balance 1.12 Speed2.5 Measurement of Mass by a 1.14 Average Speed 2.5 Common Balance 1.14 Spring Balance Uniform Speed 2.5 Variable Speed 2.5 Measurement of Time 1.15 Velocity2.5 Time1.15 Uniform Velocity 2.6 Solar Day 1.15 Variable Velocity 2.6 Mean Solar Day 1.15 Instantaneous Velocity 2.6 Simple Pendulum 1.15 Average Velocity 2.7 Pendulum Clock 1.16 Acceleration2.7 Stop Watch 1.16 Uniform Acceleration 2.7 Measurement of Volume 1.16 Problem Solving Tactics  2.10 Volume of Liquids 1.17 Acceleration Due to Gravity 2.13 Instruments for Measuring the Volume 1.17 Time of Descent 2.15 of Liquids 1.18 Determine the Volume of Irregular Solids Time of Flight (tf)2.15 Velocity on Reaching the Ground 2.15

x Contents Projectile2.16 Unit of Impulse 3.8 Dimensional Formula of Impulse 3.9 Range (R) 2.18 Mass and Weight 3.11 Uniform Circular Motion 2.19 Mass  3.11 Graphical Representation of Motion Weight  3.11 Along a Straight Line 2.19 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 3.11 Displacement–Time Graphs 2.19 Statement3.11 Velocity–Time Graph 2.22 Applications of Newton’s Third Law Acceleration–Time Graph 2.25 of Motion 3.12 Graphical Method–Solutions 2.26 Law of Conservation of Momentum 3.12 Practice Questions 2.28 Verification of Law of Conservation Hints and Explanation 2.36 of Momentum 3.12 Normal Force 3.13 Normal Reaction on a Body Placed on an CHAPTER 3  DYNAMICS 3.1 Inclined Surface 3.14 Normal Reaction Under the Action of an Introduction3.2 Applied Force 3.14 Force in Nature 3.2 Friction3.15 3.2 Effects of Forces Types of Friction 3.15 Contact Force 3.2 Non-contact Force 3.2 Static Friction 3.16 Gravitational Force 3.2 Electrostatic Force 3.3 Laws of Limiting Friction 3.16 Force Field 3.3 Centripetal Force 3.3 Sliding or Dynamic or Kinetic Friction 3.17 Centrifugal Force 3.3 Rigid Body 3.3 Rolling Friction 3.17 Friction in Fluids 3.18 Viscous Force 3.18 Methods to Reduce Friction 3.19 Work3.20 Momentum (p) 3.4 Units of Work 3.21 Units of Momentum 3.4 Dimensional Formula of Work 3.21 Unbalanced External Force 3.5 Power3.21 Newton’s Laws of Motion— Unit of Power 3.22 Observations of Galileo 3.5 Dimensional Formula of Power 3.22 Newton’s First Law of Motion 3.6 Energy3.22 Inertia3.6 Kilowatt Hour 3.23 Inertia of Rest 3.6 Mechanical Energy 3.24 Inertia of Motion 3.6 Potential Energy 3.24 Inertia of Direction 3.6 Examples of Potential Energy 3.24 Gravitational Potential Energy 3.24 Mass and Inertia 3.6 Derivation of an Expression for 3.25 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 3.7 Gravitational Potential Energy 3.25 Elastic Potential Energy Derivation of F = ma 3.7 3.8 Hooke’s Law 3.25 Units of Force 3.8 Derivation of Expression of Elastic 3.26 Relation between Newton and Dyne Potential Energy Dimensional Formula of Force Impulsive Force and Impulse 3.8

Contents xi Kinetic Energy 3.26 Equilibrium4.13 Derivation of Expression for Kinetic Energy 3.27 Principle of Moments 4.13 Work Energy Theorem 3.28 Couple4.14 Relation between Kinetic Energy 3.28 Moment of a Couple 4.14 and Momentum Units of Couple 4.14 Law of Conservation of Energy 3.28 Properties of Moment of a Couple 4.14 Law of Conservation of Energy in the Roman Steelyard 4.16 Case of a Simple Pendulum 3.29 Wheel and Axle 4.17 Transformation of Energy 3.29 Sources of Energy 3.32 Screw Jack 4.18 Fossil Fuels 3.33 Tidal Energy 3.34 Gears4.19 Geo-thermal Energy 3.34 Functions of Gears 4.20 Ocean Thermal Energy 3.34 Types of Gears 4.21 Hydro Energy 3.34 Practice Questions 4.22 Wind Energy 3.34 Hints and Explanation 4.30 Biogas3.35 Nuclear Energy 3.35 Energy Crisis 3.35 CHAPTER 5  GRAVITATION 5.1 Periodic Motion 3.36 Introduction5.2 Oscillatory Motion (Vibratory Motion) 3.36 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) 3.36 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion 5.2 Simple Pendulum 3.36 Laws of Simple Pendulum 3.37 Newton’s Law of Gravitation 5.3 Practice Questions 3.40 Inverse Square Law—Its Deduction 5.5 Hints and Explanation 3.47 CHAPTER 4  SIMPLE MACHINES 4.1 Mass and Weight 5.6 Introduction4.2 Centre of Mass 5.6 G and g—The Relation between Them 5.7 Parallel Forces 4.2 Acceleration Due to Gravity on other 4.2 5.7 Resultant of Parallel Forces Celestial Bodies 4.3 Acceleration Due to Gravity— 5.8 Resultant of Unlike Parallel Forces Factors Affecting It Simple Machines 4.4 Free Fall 5.11 Levers4.5 Weightlessness5.11 Types of Levers  4.5 Centre of Gravity 5.12 Inclined Plane 4.9 Centre of Gravity of Regular Bodies 5.12 Mechanical Advantage of an Inclined Plane 4.9 Centre of Gravity of Irregular Bodies 5.13 Moment of Force 4.10 Equilibrium  5.13 Applications of Turning Effect of Force 4.11 Stable Equilibrium 5.14 Factors Affecting the Turning of a Body 4.11 Unstable Equilibrium 5.15 Units of Moment of Force 4.11 Neutral Equilibrium 5.15 Clockwise and Anti-clockwise Moments 4.11 Gravitation—Applications5.16

xii Contents Artificial Satellites 5.17 Surface Tension 6.30 Practice Questions 5.18 Capillarity6.31 Hints and Explanation 5.25 Practice Questions 6.32 Hints and Explanation 6.40 CHAPTER 6  HYDROSTATICS 6.1 Introduction6.2 CHAPTER 7  HEAT 7.1 Differences between Liquids and Gases 6.2 Introduction7.2 Thrust  6.3 Heat7.2 Pressure  6.3 Heat as a Form of Energy 7.2 Fluid Pressure 6.3 Temperature7.3 Atmospheric Pressure  6.5 Thermal Equilibrium 7.3 Fortin’s Barometer  6.9 Measurement of Temperature 7.3 Aneroid Barometer 6.9 Liquid Thermometers 7.3 Manometer6.11 Construction of a Mercury Thermometer 7.5 Boyle’s Law 6.12 Calibration of a Thermometer 7.5 Pascal Law—Transmission of Fluid Calibration of the Stem 7.6 Pressure6.13 Relation between Different Scales 7.6 Bramah Press 6.13 Absolute Scale (Kelvin scale) of Temperature 7.7 Hydraulic Press 6.14 Clinical Thermometer 7.7 Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer 7.8 Hydraulic Brakes 6.17 Thermal Expansion of Solids 7.10 Upthrust or Buoyant Force 6.18 Coefficient of Linear Expansion 7.11 Upthrust—The Cause  6.18 Coefficient of Superficial Expansion 7.12 Coefficient of Cubical Expansion 7.12 Archimedes’ Principle 6.19 Derivation of the Relation between a, b and g7.12 Archimedes’ Principle—Verification 6.19 Expansion of Liquids 7.14 Density6.20 Real and Apparent Expansions of a Liquid 7.14 Relative Density 6.20 Definition of ga and gr7.15 Floatation6.22 Anomalous Expansion of Water 7.15 Laws of Floatation 6.23 Hope’s Experiment 7.15 Characteristics of a Floating Body 6.23 Floating Body—It’s Relative Density 6.24 Expansion of Gases 7.16 Meta-centre and Equilibrium of Floating Air Thermometer 7.16 Bodies6.25 Differential Air Thermometer 7.17 Laws of Floatation—Applications 6.27 Hydrometer6.27 Kinetic Theory of Gases 7.17 Common Hydrometer 6.27 Molecular Motion and Temperature 7.18 Hydrometer—Its Calibration  6.28 Absolute Zero 7.18 Lactometer6.29 Boyle’s Law 7.18 Acid Battery Hydrometer 6.29 Verification of Boyle’s Law Using 7.18 Quill’s Tube Viscosity6.30 Charles’ Law 7.19

Contents xiii Gas Equation 7.20 Diesel Engine 7.42 Explanation for Pressure of a Gas 7.20 Practice Questions 7.43 Hints and Explanation 7.50 Calorimetry7.22 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 7.22 Calorimeter7.22 CHAPTER 8 WAVE MOTION 8.1 AND SOUND Principle of Calorimetry 7.23 Specific Heat 7.23 Introduction8.2 Determination of Specific Heat of Solids 7.23 Periodic Motion of Particles 8.2 by the Method of Mixtures 7.24 Graphical Representation of Simple Harmonic Determination of Specific Heat of Liquids by the Method of Mixtures Motion—Its Characteristics and Relations 8.2 Joule’s Experiment to Find the Wave Motion 8.3 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 7.24 Phase8.4 Thermal Capacity 7.25 Transmission of Energy 8.4 Water Equivalent 7.25 Classification of Waves 8.4 Change of State 7.26 Longitudinal Wave 8.5 Melting of a Substance 7.26 Transverse Wave 8.6 Evaporation7.27 Latent Heat 7.27 Sound8.9 Humidity7.29 Frequency (An Important Characteristic Calorific Value of a Fuel 7.30 of Sound) 8.9 Bomb Calorimeter 7.30 Uses of Ultrasonics 8.10 Thermal Efficiency of a Heating Device 7.31 Transmission of Sound 8.10 Transmission of Heat 7.31 Velocity of Sound 8.10 Conduction7.31 Velocity of Sound in a Gas 8.12 Good and Bad Conductors of Heat 7.31 Factors that Affect Velocity of Sound in Air 8.13 Thermal Conductivity 7.32 Factors that do not Affect the Velocity of Sound in Air 8.13 Convection7.33 Doppler Effect 8.14 Convection in Gases 7.34 Radiation7.35 Mach Number and Sonic Boom 8.15 Properties of Thermal Radiations 7.36 Vibrations8.16 Applications of Heat Radiation 7.36 Natural Vibrations 8.16 Detection of Heat Radiations 7.36 Forced Oscillations 8.17 Reflection and Absorption of Thermal Reflection of Sound Waves to Form Stationary Radiations7.37 Waves8.18 Reflecting Power and Absorbing Power Reflection at Rigid (Denser) End 8.18 of a Body 7.38 Reflection at Rarer Boundary 8.18 Thermos Flask 7.38 Organ Pipe 8.18 Construction7.38 Stationary Waves in an Open 8.18 end Pipe 8.19 Heat Engines 7.39 8.20 Frequency of Fundamental Mode 8.20 Types of Heat Engines 7.40 First Overtone (or) Second Harmonic Second Overtone (or) Third Harmonic Petrol Engine 7.41

xiv Contents Stationary Waves Formed in Closed End Shadow9.5 Organ Pipe 8.20 Formation of a Shadow by a Point Source 9.5 8.21 Formation of Shadows Using an Extended Fundamental Frequency First Overtone or Second Harmonic 8.21 Source9.5 Second Overtone or Third Harmonic Formation of Stationary Waves Along 8.21 Reflection of Light 9.6 a Stretched String 8.22 Definitions Related to Reflection of Light 9.7 Fundamental Note 8.22 Laws of Reflection 9.8 First Overtone (or) Second Harmonic 8.23 Mirror9.8 Third Harmonic (or) Second Overtone 8.23 Reflection of a Point Object in a Laws of Vibrations of a Stretched Plane Mirror 9.8 String8.23 Reflection of an Extended Object in a Law of Tension 8.23 Plane Mirror 9.8 Law of Linear Mass Density 8.23 Verification of the Laws of Reflection 9.9 Law of length 8.24 Effect on the Reflected Ray Due to the Rotation Sonometer8.24 of a Plane Mirror 9.10 Lateral Inversion and Inversion 9.10 Law of Length 8.25 Formation of Images by Two Mirrors 9.11 Law of Tension 8.25 Minimum Length of a Plane Mirror Required to View Full Image 9.12 Law of Mass 8.26 Reflecting Periscope 9.13 Reflection of Sound 8.26 Spherical Mirrors 9.14 General Terms Related to a Spherical Some Practical Applications of Mirror9.14 Reflection of Sound 8.27 Relation between Focal Length and Radius Mega Phone or Loud Speaker 8.27 of Curvature 9.15 Hearing Aid 8.27 Rules for the Construction of Ray Diagrams Sound Boards 8.27 Formed in Spherical Mirrors 9.16 Whispering Gallery 8.27 Geometrical Construction of the Formation Sonar8.27 of an Image in a Spherical Mirror 9.17 Echo8.28 Formation of Images by a Convex Mirror 9.19 Reverberation8.29 Mirror Formula and Cartesian Sign Recording and Reproduction of Sound 8.30 Convention9.19 Magnetic Tapes 8.30 Relation Between Object Distance, Image Human Ear 8.32 Distance and Focal Length of a Spherical Mirror : Mirror Formula 9.20 Practice Questions 8.36 Magnification  9.21 Hints and Explanation 8.43 Determine the Focal Length of a Concave Mirror 9.23 Refraction of Light 9.27 CHAPTER 9  LIGHT 9.1 Refractive Index 9.27 Introduction9.2 Snell’s Law 9.29 Point Source of Light 9.2 Laws of Refraction 9.30 Rectilinear Propogation of Light 9.3 Atmospheric Refraction 9.30 Pinhole Camera 9.3 Twinkling of Stars 9.31 Critical Angle 9.31 The Factors that Affect the Image Formed in a Total Internal Reflection 9.32 Pinhole Camera 9.4

Contents xv Condition Required for Total Internal 9.32 Practice Questions 9.59 Reflection to Occur 9.33 Hints and Explanation 9.66 9.36 Refraction Through a Prism 9.37 CHAPTER 10  ELECTRICITY 10.1 Dispersion of White Light by a Glass Prism Recombination of Light Using Two Prisms 9.37 Introduction10.2 Recombination of Colours Using Newton’s Colour Disk Colours9.38 Static Electricity 10.2 Primary Colours of Light 9.38 Electric Charges 10.2 Colours of Opaque Objects  9.38 Charge10.2 Properties of Charges 10.3 Pigments9.39 Conductors and Insulators 10.4 Primary Pigments 9.39 Flow of Electric Charges 10.4 Secondary Pigments 9.39 Scattering of Light 9.40 Charging a Conductor 10.5 Blue Colour of the Sky 9.40 Charging by Friction 10.5 The Sun Appearing Red at Sunrise 9.40 Charging by Conduction 10.6 and Sunset Charging by Induction  10.6 Electromagnetic Spectrum 9.40 Detection of Charge on a Body 10.7 Infrared Rays (IR) 9.41 Electroscope10.7 Ultra Violet Rays (U.V) 9.41 Pith Ball Electroscope 10.7 Fluorescence9.42 Gold Leaf Electroscope 10.7 Proof Plane 10.9 Lenses9.42 Biot’s Experiment 10.9 Refraction Through a Lens 9.43 Refraction Through Thin Lens 9.43 Faraday’s Experiment 10.10 General Terms Related to a Spherical Lens 9.44 Atmospheric Electricity 10.10 Refraction by Spherical Lenses 9.45 Formation of Images by a Convex Lens 9.46 Coulomb’s Law 10.11 Nature of Images Formed by a Convex Lens 9.46 Electric Field and Electric Field Strength10.13 Formation of Image by a Concave Lens 9.47 Nature of Images Formed by a Concave Lens 9.47 Sign Convention for Lenses 9.47 Electric Potential 10.15 Lens Formula 9.48 Potential Difference 10.16 1.  By Distant Object Method 9.48 Capacitance and Capacitors 10.18 2. By u – v Method 9.49 Uses of Capacitors 10.18 Optical Instruments 9.50 Electric Current 10.19 Human Eye 9.50 The major defects of the eye 9.51 Electric Cell 10.22 Dioptric Power of Lens 9.52 Electro Motive Force (emf) 10.23 Camera9.52 Simple Microscope  9.53 Ohm’s Law 10.23 Compound Microscope 9.54 Electrical Resistance 10.24 Telescope9.54 Electric Resistance—Factors 10.24 10.25 Terrestrial Telescope 9.55 Affecting it Resistors—Their Combinations

xvi Contents Electric Circuits and 10.26 Magnetic Effect of Electricity 11.15 Circuit Diagrams Experiment I 11.15 10.28 Open Circuit Electromagnetic Field—Its Direction 10.28 11.16 Closed Circuit Electrical Power 10.28 Maxwell’s Right-Hand Grip Rule 11.16 Calculation of Electrical Energy Consumed and Magnetic Field Due to Current in Electrical Billing 10.29 a Straight Conductor 11.16 Domestic Wiring 10.32 Magnetic Field Around a Circular Conductor Electrical Hazards and Safety Measures 10.33 (Coil)11.16 Precautions in the Use of Electricity 10.33 Galvanoscope  11.17 Practice Questions 10.34 Instruments Using Magnetic 11.18 Hints and Explanation 10.40 Effect of Electric Current Solenoid11.18 Electromagnet  11.18 CHAPTER 11  MAGNETISM 11.1 Magnetic Crane 11.18 Introduction11.2 An Electric Bell 11.18 Important Properties of a Magnet 11.2 Electromagnetic Relay  11.19 Practice Questions 11.21 Artificial Magnets 11.2 Hints and Explanation 11.28 Bar magnet 11.3 CHAPTER 12  MODERN PHYSICS 12.1 Locating the Actual Position of the 11.4 Introduction12.2 Magnetic Poles of a Bar Magnet Methods of Magnetization 11.5 Atomic Structure 12.2 Methods of Demagnetization 11.7 Discharge of Electricity Through Gases Magnetic Induction 11.8 12.3 Classification of Substances 11.9 Millikan’s Experiment 12.5 Ewing’s Molecular Theory of Goldstein’s Experiment 12.5 Magnetism11.9 Failures of Ewing’s theory 11.10 Mass Spectrometry 12.6 Magnetic Field 11.10 X-rays12.6 Properties of Lines of Force 11.10 Radioactivity12.7 Patterns of Lines of Force 11.11 Terrestrial Magnetism 11.11 a, b, g Radiations 12.7 Elements of the Earth’s Magnetic Field 11.12 Properties of a, b, g-rays12.8 Cause and Variation of Dip  11.13 Practice Questions 12.9 Magnetic Field Due to a Bar Magnet in the Earth’s Hints and Explanation 12.13 Magnetic Field 11.14

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DWhen the bimaDlpl iaissct atcn aicnuecg rhiest a tsbheyes. mlAenos gvati nhreg os utfh ltteh, ehth apena dtrha it nefr otohmf ec hdthairene gcinetiT iotooinfat l am olp foto immmsitoeeiotn =intou n3tmo os ftd hetehc erfe ibnasaaelll s,p, toahnseidt i dotuhnru,a stt,ri oatchnee do f fob tryhc ee manner tEhexxeae Apmrntaepr adtliet ch:bllyeCe twtoehn hetsai ilbkdeai enilrlng o t mwan ol oot thnpioelga n hcj.uea Insmt d Api s i aosa n rrs edcad a Bhulai.crg eO hqd un.juaenm ctapitn yb ,r eaennadcdhs i hsB ips fakrtonhme-de sAe pb ebenyfod treAhenr vletea.enr addgiienff gev.re elBonyct i wdtyoa =iyns g:4 s53oms, =15 m s-1 along AD arNedtrhheleo1T23ddaeA ...it ut-hnte ecioebcAAAmed lrnlbasllleeeooo caontt knnnhisoogxensgggeftmsp e hf cAtAitois hmiohotCOcehnreafps D Bm t srathtatheicBrcometaat l,i stdoeg poias fhaoon mttffdhha n ll f eileivan. nolarelcor. f riAdTee saBih.ns iiH sna gden ne tacchnreeev, aiitlsmh ewesp hutdhililsseeit v arsenat rtcfe1ioek N. roitcnrofwA ee agqtcv.vhe uheeiiatrlale allnw e gtrgdeouie t nivh zsone enalfiron oomhcg.ti a toFatmyhlmo oeomrne fgse neaa xrtam aum tmcmheio repiv crnlaiueenn ,lb agdytr A h bttdehro eaidasccvy kCrge e mrriaseas agaziyetnel rgybvo13 ee, ltoehqcoiutuaygl D hoto fh aizsne Ba rovate hbraluegtte ea vscpeoermaegdpe il ess ptnienoegtd z oecnraoen. nrootu nbde thineSc T.rtIheh. aruuesesne,d ictf roaoosrfem dsd etitshchtroaeenu aacgsbeeho d ivt,sh e rm eef saeipnctertiestc,i t a(iimlvt eai)nls.y d,u bnfiydn eadrle sptcoroeosaidtsi iotnhngas 2t o a.trrh eA vie nevt lcherorareceat iegatsy aseo.im nvf geec l.hot hcaeint ygt iem= o efv om+2f oucmo inentn actcauts.me tchaen b boed 2yO is moving with uniform rate of change of C.G.S. unit of distance is centimetre (cm). Here, v is the final velocity and uF I Gis UthReE in2it.i1al velocity Examples given topic- EXAMPLE wise to apply the DIACS aPclocLunAlsatatCen tEt hfMoer cmEe aNagcntTsi tound ea obfo dfoyr coef macatsins g1 0o kng t hAane Cdb poCrdoEyd.LuEcRes AinT itI Oan Nacceleration of 0.2 m s−2. concepts learned in a Ibdtoi ridesS cytOt hiioneLn Uml.e nTDogItiOitsohpnN loa icfn et mha eeg nidvtie riensc attie mvde ecs ttironarti egqrhuvtaa llni.n tIietty rc,e oafnnerdnsaA e ictcscoc tcii enntelhedlgeere ra tpacthtieheoinoa nidnnn egi isinet sic taod mlo efa f fp snit–nohd2es e iidtn th pi oaeaCsn t f.ht iGhwn. e.aiS lt. rh pas toyreess tfioeteifmro ecnn hascn aeond fgt moea os–f 2v ienlo Sc.iIt.y .s yIstt eism a.p vaercttoicr uqluaarntcithy. aTphtee runit of Given By definition, acceleration, a = Change in velocity = v - u Time t Mass = 10 kg a = 0.2 m s−2 The direction of acceleration is along the direction of change in velocity of the body. ∴ F o r c Fe == m(1a0s sk ×g) a×c c(e0l.eE2r xamtaimo sn−p2 l()eF := A= 2 o mNvae)rtaking bus increases its velocity that means it iIs lalcucsetlrearattiivnge. examples ∴ solved in a logical and Thus, the magnitude of force acting on the bUondyif ios r2m N.Acceleration If the change in velocity of the body is equal in an equal intersvtaelsp o-f wtimisee, tmhena nthnee brody is said to move with uniform acceleration. EXAMPLE Example: A cricket ball of mass 100 g is moving with a velocity of 10 m s−11 0anAmds –is1 hit 2b0ym Ba sb–a1t so that3 0 C s –1 40 D s –1 m m

Chapter Insights xix 3.40 Chapter 3 TEST YOUR CONCEPTS Dynamics 3.41 Very Short Answer Type Questions Different levels 1. IGSthft iaenvt eeoc o ttewlhlxieodt e lieanrwxngaa bmlo of_p d_clieo_esn_s os_iesf_ rr cveaoanctntiessow,en rta vhboeelfde m. tsoootuamlr cemens44ot uo01mmf.. ee.nnDoWteunirmhs gmcay u.toa sfsws s w.il111li t879th...h aeFWaWnn rw idhhec aetoxditnoria s ikmnisps l maatdphlcwoeleeean ma nwtyetoeso nb barstykche? t oads wnow_ n_uh e_tneh _mbna_a at la atxio ninbm cteuehurdletml i efsao tu w rdrocfieeatfhpc? e measn gaidnisvss ec no nf44ota34rcc..te. 2SA0t a btmeo .dNye woft omn’ass sLoib an5ewf ekstq ghnou fei esmi nsTdotcrteioiolsoputnnpd.eYsdeo hdufraorvme a height of 2. 3. 4. What is normal reaction or normal force? 10 g at rest is accelerated to a velocity of 20 m s−1 in (i) b Wohdya,t warhee nth Ciet pfoaonlltsce enthptirtaolu aagsnhd wa kdeiinlsetlatnicc ee noef r1g5y mof? a 10 s? Cal2c0u.laTteh et hime ppuolswe oefr ad beovdeylo isp eeqdu abl yt ot h__e_ _b_u.llet (ii) Find the kainsetoicn enCerogny ceopf tthe body at the 5. Give two examples of non-renewable soudrcuersi nogf 102 1s. (i) Define inertia of motion. ground levelA. Tpapkeli gc a=t i1o0n mw s–h2 ich energy. 42. Define sim ple(i ih) aDrmefoinnei cin mertoiat ioofn d.irection. 6. A person getting down from a fast moving bus falls 22. 1 kgwt is equal to ________N. will help students to develop the 7. oDne ftihnee gfororcuen dfi.e lTdh. is can be explained byE _s_s_a_y_. Type23Q. uDeefsitnieo thnes S.I. unit of force. 24. What is the relation between momentum and kinetic 45. Describe an eenxepregryi?ment to find ‘g’ using a simple 48. State the law of pcornosebrlveatmion- soof levneinrggy and verify it 8. Define viscous force. 9. State Hooke’s Law. pendulum2.5. The time period of a seconds pendulum is _____ in the case of a fsrekeilyll falling body. 10. Name the force which is responsible4 f6o.r Scitractuel ar and vseercoifnyd s.the law of conservation of 49. Derive F = ma from Newton’s second law of motion. momentu2m6.. (i) Give the dimensional formula of force motion. 11. Define the S.I. unit of work. 47. Define an d d(iei)r ivGei vea nth ee dxipmreensssiioonna l ffoorr mgurlaav oitf amtioomnaeln tum 12. A change in the state of rest or of uniform mpootitoenn itsi al ener(giiyi). Write the dimensional formula of impulse ‘Test Yourproduced by _____. 27. A body ‘A’ of mass m1 on collision exerts a force on Concepts’ at13. What are lubricants? another body B of mass m2. If the acceleration pro- the end of14. 1 newton = _____ dyne. CONCEPT Adouf PcAe dPis in_L_ BI_C _is_ Aa_2., TthIeOn thNe acceleration (in magnitude) 11ft65oh.. reWCacchnla hata ltsaly sbpproeotd oeieofr se mhnaevreg ye qduoaels ma oflmyienngt ubmird? pLosesevsse?l 1 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 28. State work energy theorem. 29. Define impulse. preparations Direction for questions 1 to 7 11. The total momentum of two bodieDs ybnefaomre icosllisio3n.4 9 State whether the following statements are true or is equal to their _____ after collision. Short Answer Type Questions false. 3333dLscAp‘3102Ce....oirepcvom0DraoEsDcAmvooentpo.ifxb 0aiio euiddnnssfp1cl2vottpro ltltlii0icet eacaeionnhsce osclni.1tggdm neseem tn wa uu. bo;sp fxtiitw.iosahfssatsi− hhlhLtrieelo1cs t ni eaobceyhten b pafeevirhv ue:ttgxe’mswetsey elweo.aearr l ectseopeseinf tdon y 0f l r ro.eoe5i ncnnf a t uken2itowchgd0ln e, ea mm batbbhrlo aee eslv t−l wf aib1inin.sfea gs dleFtil oh n iwtnnne ut odi wrft nohnta215364o-rh snc......r aedebbe n ovaitSWFIFsAamiu55ecmedtcrraflwklr43uriotiiploleep fs cc s..aurc afsaeitttubf okoinlcciinoitsl(WWCf((r(loonnr dhyeeeors4312eeac nn eseaarr))))ne.hh gdncmasddc3333aety ftc F R na seiiet.6875nsoαeroopt nd px....h iosn=nrnft cei oicwbmifesmt1ADctWcoA0 t snn hhtoifrioomer0 fe° n ooodeu eeogmgcllsb ih np1llr im nrmrθns=a gymiiorabia8heeco sdc rv t odin? tocaedrepca htooeie1 fkyigronse. sosoo( dusannaft ma , tT ymn f rwi ovtihsp,cmctt cra ec?hθatem uefheerimseikibnh osedneot .admme eahrod–atsoa r,lepe sh1en e t ragabns r.l9awhonqet aet shergn y2 =hsI0 tru ev ebn ayhfio0i semt°5e o aiynrvpaie r1te t l g kon heheom oo=rkoig0nerygd seng evcgnr lebf s rmie oiey aa a0ielietst crcm a mnutlo by hrteo S om.twwgnso r bltoii-.–tidenyenvoddIeiehl2veesr taa.e)t yfge ticha te fasrn ti n aurig i es m choccsgsifl untd sut ihonft eth0ied onhwoi serma brn.et?ietf1win dnmsi setbtia at.,s eoussgctht ecsooa. owtsaenew oemf dlran d3 vs,nfet hrf . e vte raekaopkato iegsnonitcigorv l n gnd toim etiiaecnatt ecsoel dowdth o itadn nty iit rcelaiyotc he- nsi?tmbo tt rse e3fyateaet .r..n i hta mmsicwAcccp11DM1aeFaei e--efrip234lns tne ei−oea...iprndd-1rfte rccTWb_teowthne_oipo eo_h _rndr_ e_gibtopfATAFBmohn_afohy_oo oifi ytthtgnro t_efd raietct homethndt_hh ihhlqie reaet bo.oees ceau .wseustc osnenn.h thebnialm d srogieepmoogitcotywess riodphuof osevi iayepe lfifen naatclsr ss owwolsK rtattoou1 s .dt popnamem.e i5rEoyttross gosh koesi.oi tnp i ern_ htCavcfivitp t_nenoo,ela,oe os_ p d nnntprkdlwlio_e .useeoi Ptlt_nese.mfanaesErs iednt n eotnitt. ntovtniim p iocmaefaefo tfo Bl reC m eeieaagrnnt.,n n ohy opetaeht.e el rthoirurebig sggeosi byomiygey nt o,pdqih w w ondoybuttni,h ywieal le l eltlii e x wAbta bntrsettoee e oct s _methumhtthn_wahetoaelia_ a xnutic xt_heti igllimhnr_aodem ctw e uu uurtnmelhgmaisye-rt. 324.; EeaxxnapmldapinleL . Neevwetoln3’s third law of motion wMithas sa tWonio f hna 3e ab9nl o. faod(( irilyi)co) egi s D D aoaceef tf mfiswin nbeeoea e opostuedwscr rieiieolsel adodntiorfc at rimhygts egom eitbniodooet niudro.tpiniea .sa..n inclined plan1e5, . Ans: 7 ms−1 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 7. Use, Direction kfoirneqtuice sftriiocntiso8natlo fo1r4ce acts in between the log and the 60. Fill in ctrhieptbchkleabeetnw ltwa eeb.ne eaTkinlglsh ,h.t ihtds euof rrfiin icntcthgiloei n nitbeasdl lo f flcpoikglra hcnaetne iadasf ntdtedhirr eetb hcceetoli ynshi gnop errhoi ziopto,fo nrptthtaoielos. -naanlg tloeBA .. Column A F = am. (v − uC) olumn B 8. A Inertia vt ariable velocity. AAcntido nfi anndd v by using b. time period Reaction changes with sesses I_f _th_e_ _a_n gelnee (rθg)y oafn idn c_l_in_a_t_io_n e onfe rtghye. plane increases, v = 2 gchhange in length _T_h_e_ _ctfrhh iaeacs nt ictgohoenas t( i aθnol)s f om vf oadolreumcceere enadaptesupecmslri.ee ados efo s,na abinto.dd yh ehnacse t, hteh es afmorec e of 9. C. 61. ULWAunbneirt s ik:oc naf1 no3f0rtwisc,Hf5 t5Foio rin×n ktt se=y amn(qvd u–dc. e.Eus)x tdubsitpianormneiltntdaelcenhnsssseia adoqt nlurioluaoenbnsntsbi gteaynr. d The changwe iitnh thhe imgohmliegnthutms ios ncontshtaent when he 10. A5 5c.arI natit iraels tS tcaaten: bP.eE m. =o vmedg ho, rK a. Em. o=v in12gm cua2r can be D. stoppFedin baly Satpaptely: iPn.Eg ._ =_ _m__gH_., K.E. = 0 According to Law of conservation of energy, Tjtuhhmee ipnns,i teFiia tl×h csae tnotru d=om dn fci enmothannles ot vtrsaeonnlaoutdcms iotuirie asos ltnalar ytekh seema smsaanetk hdsea bted because AND EXPLANATION (P.E. + K.E.) initial = (P.E. + K.E.) final If the impiunlsivteh teimee xisa imncrienasaetdi, othnesn the impact of Ans: 2 g(H −h) impulse force decrease and vice versa. When Raju jumped on the road, the impulsive time is less and 56. Use m( v - u) impulsive force is more and this is the reason for the F = ma = t Ans: −90N 57. The acceleration in the ball is due to force exerted by pain in the joint. spring on the balls. 62. The mass of the body mL = 20,000kg The initial velocity of the lorry u = 54 km h–1 The potential energy of the compressed spring is = 54 × 5/18 = 15 m s–1, converted into kinetic energy of the balls. Ans: 20 m s−2 the final velocity of lorry = 0 58. In case of pulling the cylindrical roller with a force The time of impact, t = 0.1s ‘F’ (say) The force exerted by the rock on the lorry is equal to Find whether the component of this force increases or the rate of change of momentum in the lorry decreases the normal reaction on the cylindrical roller.

Series Chapter Flow Class 7 Kinematics 3 Light 2 Heat 4 1 Measurements 6 Sound Electricity 5 8 Machines and Tools Our Universe 7 Class 8 Kinematics 3 Hydrostatics 5 2 Dynamics 4 1 Wave Motion and Measurements Sound Sources of Energy 10 Magnetism 8 Light 6 11 Electromagnetism 9 Electricity 7 Heat

Series Chapter Flow xxi Class 9 1 Kinematics 3 Simple Machines 5 Hydrostatics Measurements 2 Dynamics 4 Gravitation 6 Modern Physics 11 Electricity 9 Wave Motion and 7 12 Magnetism 10 Light Sound Heat 8 Class 10 Dynamics 3 Light 5 Wave Motion 2 Heat 4 Hydrostatics and Sound 1 Kinematics 6 11 Sources of Eneergy 9 Electromagnetism 7 Electronics 10 Modern Physics 8 Electricity

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1Chapter Measurements REMEMBER Before beginning this chapter you should be able to: • Define the measuring quantities like length, width, height, volume, density, etc • Use the decimal system • Know the different unit systems and conversion of higher value to lower value KEY IDEAS After completing this chapter you should be able to: • Know the types of physical quantities, different systems of units and their importance • Use the measuring devices in practical examples • Understand the method of determination of error in the measurements • Recognize the importance of accuracy and also the working principle of different instruments used for taking measurements accurately

1.2 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Physics is a branch of science in which we study the laws of nature. In this branch, the nature and its laws are described quantitatively and qualitatively. The quantitative study of nature involves the estimation and measurement of various physical quantities like distance, weight, temperature, etc. In our daily life, measurement of various quantities has become an inevitable part. To understand its importance, let us take few examples. Motion of a body can be changed by applying force. The acceleration produced can be known only if the applied force and the mass of the body are measured. Alternatively, the change in velocity in a given interval of time should be measured, from which the acceleration can be determined. PHYSICAL QUANTITY The quantities which can be defined and measured are called physical quantities. Example: Force, distance, time, current, etc. The laws of physics can be described in terms of these physical quantities. Measurement of Physical Quantities and Their Units Measurement is a method of comparison of an unknown quantity with a standard quantity. This fixed or definite quantity which we take as a standard and by the help of which we can measure other quantities of the same kind is defined as the unit. The measure of a physical quantity is expressed in two parts, namely the magnitude and the unit. For example, when we say force is 12 newton. In fact, we can now measure speed of light also. 12 is the magnitude and newton is the unit of force. Scalar Quantity The physical quantities which can be described completely by their magnitude only are called scalar quantities. There is no need to know or specify their directions. Example: Distance, mass, time, speed, density, etc. These quantities can be added according to ordinary algebraic rules. Vector Quantity The physical quantities which can be described completely giving/stating by both their magnitude and direction are called vectors. If we state only magnitude or only direction, then their significance is not clear. Example: Force, velocity, acceleration, etc. Addition of these quantities can be done by special methods of addition—Law of polygon or law of vector. Types of Physical Quantity and Its Unit The physical quantities are classified into two categories—fundamental quantities and derived quantities.

Measurements 1.3 Fundamental Quantities The physical quantities that do not depend on any other physical quantity for their measurement are called fundamental quantities. Mass, length, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance are the fundamental quantities. Derived Quantities The physical quantities that are derived from the fundamental quantities are called derived quantities. Area, volume, density, force, velocity, etc., are some examples of derived quantities. Rules—Writing Units 1. T he symbol for a unit, which is named after a scientist, should start with an upper case letter. Example: Newton-N, Joule-J, Pascal-Pa, Kelvin-K, etc. 2. T he symbol for a unit, which is not named after a person, is written in lower case. Example: Metre-m, mole-mol, second-s 3. In their full form, the units should start with a lower case letter. Example: Newton, metre, joule, second, hertz, etc. 4. Symbol of a unit should not be in plural form. Example: 500 metres should be written as 500 m and not 500 ms. Wrong notation Correct notation Ns N Ks K mols mol 5. A compound unit (obtained from units of two or more physical quantities) is written either by putting a dot or leaving a space between symbols of two units. Example: Unit of torque—N m (or) N.m Unit of impulse—N s (or) N.s Pole strength of magnet—A m (or) A.m Unit of electric charge—As or A.s 6. The denominators in a compound unit should be written with negative powers. Example: Unit of density is kg m–3, not kg/m3 Unit of acceleration is m s–2 not m/s2 Systems of Units The following systems of units are in common use 1. F .P.S. system: In this system, the units of mass, length and time are pound, foot and second, respectively. 2. C .G.S. system: In this system, the units of mass, length and time are gram, centimetre and second, respectively.

1.4 Chapter 1 3. M.K.S. system: In this system, the units of mass, length and time are kilogram, metre and second, respectively. 4. S .I.–(Systeme International d’ unites): This system is an improved and extended version of M.K.S system. This system defines seven fundamental quantities and two supplementary quantities. Quantity S.I. Units Symbol 1. Length metre m 2. Mass kilogram kg 3. Time second s 4. Electric current ampere A 5. Temperature kelvin K 6. Luminous intensity candela cd 7. Amount of substance mole mol 8. Angle radian rad 9. Solid angle steradian sr Some derived quantities S.I. units Symbol 1. Force newton N 2. Work joule J 3. Frequency hertz Hz 4. Charge coulomb C Definitions of Units 1. M etre: One metre is 1,650,763.73 times the wavelength of orange light emitted by a krypton atom at normal pressure. 2. K ilogram: One kilogram is the mass of a certain cylinder made from an alloy of platinum-iridium, maintained at 0ºC, in the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Paris, France. 3. S econd: One second is the time taken by a cesium atom (Cs133) to complete 9,192,631,770 vibrations. 4. A mpere: One ampere is that current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length between them. 5. K elvin: Kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. 6. M ole: Mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. 7. C andela: Candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

Measurements 1.5 Dimensions of Physical Quantities The nature of any physical quantity can be described by mentioning the powers to which the fundamental units are raised to give the unit of the given quantity. The quantities of the three fundamental quantities mass, length and time are denoted by M, L and T, respectively. Definition: The powers to which the units of fundamental quantities mass, length and time are raised to obtain the unit of a physical quantity is known as dimensions of the given quantity. Example: unit of density of a body = unit of mass = kg m–3 unit of volume Here, mass appears once in the numerator and length appears thrice in the denominator. Thus, the dimensional formula of density is [M1 L-3 T0]. Since the physical quantity time is not involved in the density, its exponent is shown as zero. Thus, in density the dimension of mass = 1, the dimension of length = –3 and the dimension of time = 0. EXAMPLE Write the dimensional formula of speed. SOLUTION distance length time time Speed = = In the unit of speed the unit of mass does not appear, thus, its dimension is zero. ∴ [Speed] = [M0L1T–1] EXAMPLE What is the dimensional formula of force? SOLUTION Force = mass × acceleration Unit of force = unit of mass × unit of acceleration = unit of mass × unit of length (unit of time)2 Dimensional formula = [M L T–2] MEASURING DEVICES Many devices and instruments are used to measure various physical quantities. For example the length of an object can be measured by using scale, measuring tape, vernier callipers, etc., and the mass of an object can be measured by using a common balance, spring balance, etc. Every measuring device has its own accuracy, it can be represented in terms of least count.

1.6 Chapter 1 Least Count The least count of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be made accurately with that instrument. For example the least count of a metre scale is 0.1 cm and the least count of a table clock is 1 second. Metre Scale It is graduated in cm. Therefore, each centimetres (cm) is further devided in ten equal parts, called division. So, 1 division is 1/10th of a cm, i.e., 1 mm. Its least count is 1 mm. While measuring the length of any object using a scale, the observation should be made without any parallax error. The length of a rod can be measured by keeping the scale in contact with the object as shown in the Fig. 1.1. x y 34 01 2 5 6 FIGURE 1.1 x and y are the readings corresponding to the edges of the object. Length of object = y − x = 3.0 cm − 1.0 cm = 2.0 cm Using a scale the length of a rod having uneven ends or the diameter of a sphere can be measured with the help of two wooden blocks A and B as shown in the Fig. 1.2. The length of a rod () or the diameter of a sphere (d) is equal to the difference between the readings y and x corresponding to the positions of the two edges of the objects. xy xy 0 1 2 34 5 6 01 2 34 5 6 AB AB FIGURE 1.2 Length of the rod,  = y − x = 3.0 − 1.0 = 2.0 cm Diameter of the sphere, d = y − x = 3 − 1.4 = 1.6 cm In Fig. 1.3, the edge B of object is not exactly coinciding with any division of scale. x zy 01 234 P Q A B FIGURE 1.3

Measurements 1.7 In the above case, to measure the length of the rod AB, more accurately, the distance between the 18th division of the scale and the edge Q should be measured. Length of the rod PQ = y − x = (z − x) + (y − z) The difference between the readings y and z can be measured by engraving a graduated scale on the wooden block B. The metre scale used is referred to as the main scale and the scale drawn on the block B is called vernier scale. Vernier Callipers It is an instrument which uses a combination of two scales (main scale and vernier scale) sliding over each other such that the least count of the instrument is less than the least count of the main scale. J3 Internal J4 Jaws 0 12 Main scale (fixed) Tail Object 4 56 S Vernier scale (movable) J1 External J2 Jaws FIGURE 1.4 Principle of vernier: The principle of a vernier is to make ‘N’ vernier scale divisions equal to (N – 1) main scale divisions. Generally the standard vernier scale is provided with 10 graduations to coincide with 9 main scale divisions, i.e., the 10 divisions of the vernier scale measure 9 mm. Procedure for Taking a Measurement Using Vernier Callipers 1. Determine the least count of the Vernier Callipers: Least count (L.C.) = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = 1 mm – 0.9 mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm or Least count (L.C.) = 1M.S.D. = 1mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm No of V.S.D.’s 10 2. To measure the external dimensions of an object, it should be held tightly between the external jaws J1 and J2 and to measure the inner dimensions, it should be held with internal jaws J3 and J4. 3. Note the main scale reading (M.S.R.). The main scale reading is always the smaller of the two values, between which the zero of the vernier scale lies. 4. Note the vernier scale division (V.S.D.) which coincides with any main scale division.

1.8 Chapter 1  5. x zy w 01 2 3 4 01 AB FIGURE 1.5 The length of rod AB = y = (z) + (y − z) = (z) + (w − z) − (w − y) = M.S.R. + V.S.D. × M.S.D. − V.S.D. × V.S.D. = M.S.R. + V.S.D. (M.S.D. − V.S.D.) ∴ Total reading = M.S.R. + (V.S.D. × L.C.) EXAMPLE While measuring the diameter of a sphere with a vernier callipers, M.S.R. and V.S.D. are 35 mm and 5, respectively. If the vernier scale coinciding with 19 divisions of main scale, what is the diameter of the sphere? SOLUTION M.S.R. = 35 mm V.C.D. = 5 Diameter of the sphere = M.S.R. + V.C.D. × L.C. Given that 20 divisions of the vernier scale is equal to 19 division of the main scale, L.C. = 1 M.S.D./no. of divisions on V.S. = 1 mm/20 = 0.05 mm Total reading = M.S.R. + n × L.C. = 35 mm + 5 × 0.05 mm = 35.25 mm Zero Error When the fixed and the movable jaws of a vernier callipers are made to come in contact, if the zeroes of both the main scale and the vernier scale are not coinciding with each other, the instrument is said to have a zero error. Positive Zero Error If the zeroth division of the Vernier scale is to the ‘right’ of the zeroth division of the main scale when the two jaws are brought in contact with each other, the error is said to be positive and the correction is negative. If the nth division of the vernier scale coincides with some division on the main scale, then the zero error is (+n × Least count) and the correction is (–n × Least Count) cm.

Measurements 1.9 Negative Zero Error 0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10 No zero error Positive zero error 0 5 10 0 5 10 Negative zero error FIGURE 1.6 If the zeroth division of the vernier scale is to the ‘left’ of the zeroth division of the main scale, the error is said to be negative and the correction is positive. If the nth division of the vernier scale coincides with some division on the main scale, then the zero error = − (N – n) × Least Count and the correction = + (N – n) × Least Count cm, where N is the number of divisions on the vernier scale. In case of any zero error in the instrument, the corresponding correction is to be added to the measurement calculated in step 5, on page 1.7. EXAMPLE When the jaws of a vernier callipers are closed, the 0th division of its vernier scale is to the right of the zero of the main scale and the V.C.D. is 6. Find the correction to be made to the observed measurement (take its least count as 0.1 mm) SOLUTION The vernier coincidence, n = 6 Zero error = V.C.D. × L.C. = 6 × 0.1 mm = 0.6 mm and the error is positive. Thus, the correction = –0.6 mm Screw Gauge It is an instrument used for measuring the dimensions of a very small magnitude, like the diameter of thin wires or thickness of thin laminations, etc., which require accuracy up to 0.001 cm.

1.10 Chapter 1 Principle of a Screw Gauge The screw gauge works on the principle of a screw in a nut. When the head of a screw rotates once completely, the tip of the screw moves by a distance equal to the distance between the threads on it. This distance is called pitch of the screw. Screw Main scale Thimble Circular scale (circular cylinder) Nut Stud Ratchet A 25 20 0 5 15 B 10 5 U-frame Sleeve cylinder Base line Screw Pitch FIGURE 1.7 Description of a Screw Gauge A typical screw gauge consists of a jaw (U-shaped frame) with a fixed stud at one end and a nut (a hollow cylinder with internal threading) incorporated on the other end. Graduations (divisions of 1mm or 0.5 mm) are provided on an index line on the outer surface of the cylinder. This forms the pitch scale (or main scale). A long screw, with threading identical to that in the hollow cylinder, runs through the cylinder. At the other end of the screw a barrel with a milled head is attached. The end of the barrel opposite to the milled head is tapered with equal divisions (0–50 or 0–100) marked on it. This forms the head scale (circular scale). When the flat end of the screw comes in contact with the fixed stud of the jaw, the tapered edge of the barrel coincides with the zero on the index line and the zero of the circular scale coincides with the index line of the main scale. Pitch of a Screw Gauge It is defined as the distance between the two consecutive threads of the screw, measured along the axis of the screw, i.e., it is the distance travelled by the tip of the screw for one complete rotation of the head of the screw. Pitch = Distance moved by the timble on the main scale Number of rations of the timble Generally, it is 1 mm.

Measurements 1.11 Least Count of a Screw Gauge It is the smallest distance moved by the tip when the screw turns through the one division marked on it. Least count = Pitch Number of Circular Scale Divisions Observed measurement = Main scale reading + Circular Scale Reading × L.C. Procedure for Taking a Measurement Using a Screw Gauge  1. Determine the least count (L.C.) of the screw gauge.  2. H old the object, whose measurement is to be made, tightly between the stud and tip of the screw.  3. The value of the main scale division just preceding the edge of the circular scale is noted as M.S.R.  4. The value of the circular scale division coinciding with the reference line of the main scale is noted as C.S.R.  5. T he measurement of the object = M.S.R. + (C.S.R. × L.C.)  6. In case any z\\ ero error is present in the instrument, the corresponding correction is to be added to the observed measurement calculated in step 5. When the stud and the tip of the screw of a screw gauge are made to come in contact, if the zeroes of both the main scale and the circular scale are not coinciding with each other, the instrument is said to have a zero error. Positive Zero Error When the stud and the tip of the screw of a screw gauge are made to come in contact, if the zeroth division of the circular scale is ‘below’ the reference or base line of the main scale, the error is said to be positive and the correction is negative. If n is the circular scale division coinciding with the index line of the main scale, then Zero error = +n × least count and Correction = –n × least count Negative Zero Error When the stud and the tip of the screw of a screw gauge are made to come in contact, if the zeroth division of the circular scale is ‘above’ the reference line of the main scale, the error is said to be negative and the correction is positive. If n is the circular scale division coinciding with the index line of the main scale, then Zero error = –(N – n) × least count and the Correction = +(N – n) × least count where N is the total number of divisions on the circular scale.

1.12 Chapter 1 0 10 0 5 95 0 90 Reference line Reference line Negative error Positive error FIGURE 1.8 True measurement = Observed measurement + Correction for zero error Observed measurement = (M.S.R.) + (C.S.R. × L.C.) MEASUREMENT OF MASS Physical Balance Physical balance is an instrument, working on the principle of moments, and is used in laboratories to determine the mass of substances/bodies more accurately than a common balance. The smallest mass that can be determined using a physical balance is 1 mg. N1 A B N2 K1 K2 P1 P2 P I P S1 S S2 H L1 L2 F I G U R E 1 . 9   Physical Balance P – Pans P1 – Pointer P2 – Plumb line K1, K2 – Supports N1, N2 – Balancing screws L1, L2 – Levelling screws, I-index H – Handle

Measurements 1.13 Description of a Physical Balance A physical balance consists of a balancing beam AB, balanced on a knife-edge in the middle, the knife-edge is mounted on a pillar fixed to a wooden base. Two stirrups for the pans are supported on two knife-edges on either side of the beam, equidistant from the centre. The pans are hung from the stirrups. A long metallic pointer p is attached perpendicular to the beam at the centre. The free end (pointed tip) of the pointer moves over a scales with graduations to indicate the equilibrium of the beam. The beam is allowed to rest on two metal supports fixed to the central pillar, when not in use. By turning the handle (H), provided at the bottom of the pillar, the beam may be raised from the supports or rested on them. Two screws N1, N2 with nuts are provided on either end of the beam to balance the beam when raised on ‘no-load’. The entire arrangement is enclosed in a glass box with a wooden frame. A plumb line is suspended from the central metal support and by adjusting the levelling screws L1, L2 provided at the bottom of the enclosure, the base of the instrument may be made perfectly horizontal the central pillar being vertical. Precautions to be Observed Before Using the Balance 1. Raising and lowering of the beam must be done gently by turning the handle without any jerks. 2. A rrest the beam when not in use. 3. H andle the weights using the forceps only and do not touch them with hands. 4. K eep the doors of the balance box closed during weighing so that air current does not disturb balance. 5. W hile weighing chemicals which may damage the pans, appropriate containers or vessels must be used. If necessary, they should be placed in air-tight vessels. 6. Very hot or very cold substances should be avoided as they would affect the weighing due to the air currents that they would cause. Determination of Mass of a Body Using Physical Balance  1. W hen handle ‘H’ is turned gently, oscillations of the pointer on either side of the extreme points known as turning points are observed.   2. T he point on the scale at which the pointer comes to rest is known as the resting point (RP).  3. If the resting point with equal empty pans is observed, that point is known as the zero, resting point (ZRP).  4. To find the ZRP, release the beam using the handle with equal empty pans. As the pointer starts oscillating note the successive turning points, three on the left and two on the right of the pointer after 2 or 3 swings.   5. F ind the average of the left and right turning points separately and then find the average of these values, to arrive at the ZRP.   6. P lace the substance of unknown mass in the left pan and place the standard weights in the right pan, in descending order, till it counter balances.  7. O n releasing the beam, the pointer swings to an extent of zero point. Note the weight and find the RP.

1.14 Chapter 1   8. If RP > ZRP, it is called HRP.   9. If RP < ZRP, it is called LRP.  If HRP is obtained, add 10 mg (lowest mass) to get LRP and when LRP is obtained remove 10 mg to get HRP. 10. Mass of the body = Mass at HRP or LRP ± P g If HRP is obtained, P = HRP-ZRP × 0.01 g HRP-LRP If LRP is obtained, P = LRP-ZRP × 0.01 g LRP-HRP NOTE If RP = ZRP, then mass at RP = correct mass.   Measurement of Mass by a Common Balance Level the balance by adjusting the levelling screws L1, L2, the plumb-line P2 is made to coincide with the line of the index I. Adjust the balancing screws N1, N2 on either side of the central beam such that the pointer swings equally on either side of the zero mark. Arrest the beam gently by lowering the central rod (turning the central handle) and then gently place the article, to be weighed, on the left pan. Place the standard weights, in the descending order of magnitude, check for the oscillation of the pointer equally on either side of the central zero mark. This checking is done by raising the central rod. The mass of the article is given by the total of the weights placed on the right pan. Spring Balance The spring balance works on the principle of Hooke’s law−‘the elongation in a 1 spring is directly proportional to the force applied to it within its elastic limit’. 2 3 0 4 111111216987453543210 Description A spring balance consists of a spring enclosed in a metallic case. One end of the 12 spring is attached to the metal casing and the other end is free with a hook attached 13 to it. A pointer is fixed on to the spring to indicate the elongation. 14 15 This pointer can slide along a scale attached to the metallic case. Generally each division of scale represent 1 gf (or) 100 gf. This scale is graduated from top to bottom. When no load is suspended from Outside view Inside view the hook, the pointer coincides with the zero on the scale and when some load FIGURE 1.10 is suspended the pointer slides down along the scale and gives the measure of the mass of load.

Measurements 1.15 MEASUREMENT OF TIME Time It is defined as the interval between two events. It is a fundamental quantity. The unit of time in S.I. system is second. Solar Day The time taken by the Earth to complete one rotation about its own axis, is called ‘Solar Day’. Mean Solar Day The average of all the solar days that occur during one full revolution of the Earth around the sun, is called ‘Mean Solar Day’. 1 mean solar day = 24 hours 1 hour = 1/24th part of the mean solar day 1 minute = 1/1440th part of the mean solar day 1 second = 1/86400 of the mean solar day 1 year is the time in which the Earth completes one complete revolution around the sun. It can be measured with the help of a stop clocks or a stop watch explained below. Simple Pendulum It consists of a heavy sphere, called bob, suspended freely from a fixed point by a light, inextensible string enabling it to oscillate freely about the mean position. Point of suspension O Effective length ( ) C• B Bob A Centre of gravity of bob F I G U R E 1 . 1 1   A simple pendulum The pendulum with a time period of 2 seconds is called seconds pendulum’.

1.16 Chapter 1 Pendulum Clock Some wall clocks work on the principle of seconds pendulum. These clocks contain a seconds pendulum made up of invar steel rod and have a metal bob at its end. Stop Watch We use a stop watch and a stop clock to measure short intervals of time of the order of a few seconds. A stop watch consists of two dials one is divided in seconds and provided with a seconds needle and the other (smaller one) divided in minutes; it is also provided with a minutes hand. For each complete rotation of the seconds hand, the minute hand moves through 1 minute division. The seconds divisions on a big dial are further divided to measure 1/2 a second or 1/5th of a second. Every stop watch is provided with a dual purpose knob, which is used to start and stop the watch. FIGURE 1.12 MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME The space occupied by an object is called its volume. Units:   S.I. unit: m3 C.G.S. unit: cm3 Other units are ml, litre, etc. 1 ml = 1 cm3 1 ml = 10–6 m3 1l = 1000 cm3 = 1000 ml 1l = 10–3 m3 Volume of a regular shaped body can be calculated using a standard formulae, after measuring the required dimensions. Example: Volume of a cube = (side)3 Volume of a cuboid = l × b × h Volume of a cylinder = pr2h Volume of a sphere = 4 π (radius)3 3

Measurements 1.17 Volume of Liquids Volume of liquids can be measured using some measuring devices described below: 1. Measuring jar: It is a cylindrical jar graduated in ml from the bottom to the top. It is available with various capacities. It is used to measure the desired amount of a liquid. 2. Measuring flask: It is a round bottomed flask with a long neck. It has only one mark etched on the neck. The liquid taken up to this mark will have a volume equal to that mentioned on its body. 3. Pipette: It is a long narrow glass tube with a spherical or cylindrical bulb in the middle. It can be filled by sucking up the liquid into it. A mark is etched on it. When the pipette is filled up to this mark, the liquid will have a volume shown on its surface. It is used to take a constant amount of liquid. 4. Burette: Burette is similar to a measuring jar but it is provided with a pitch cock at the bottom and by using which the desired amount of liquid can be taken. Instruments for Measuring the Volume of Liquids 80 20cc M 80 70 Measuring flask 20cc 70 60 60 50 Pipette 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 Burette Measuring Jar FIGURE 1.13 Lower meniscus Upper meniscus FIGURE 1.14 Normally, the surface of a liquid is slightly curved near the walls of the container due to a phenomenon known as surface tension. This is particularly prominent in narrow tubes like the burette and pipette. This curved surface of the liquid is known as meniscus.

1.18 Chapter 1 For liquids like water and alcohol the curvature is concave, whereas for liquids like mercury the curvature is convex. While reading the liquid level in a burette, pipette, etc., the lower meniscus is taken into consideration for liquids like water and the upper meniscus for liquids like mercury. Determine the Volume of Irregular Solids Solids Heavier than Water and Insoluble in Water • Take some water in a measuring jar and note the level of water, V1 cm3. • Immerse a solid by suspending from a string. Note the new level of water, V2 cm3. • Volume of the solid = (V2 − V1) cm3. Solids Lighter than Water and Insoluble in Water • Immerse a sinker (a heavy solid, like a stone) in a measuring jar containing some water and note the level of water, V1 cm3. • Tie the light solid, whose volume is to be determined, to the sinker and lower the combina-tion into the water. • Note the new level of water, V2 cm3. • Volume of the solid = (V2 − V1) cm3. Determine the Average Volume of Lead Shots • Take some water in a measuring jar and note the level of water V1 cm3. • Drop n lead shots gently into the water. • Note the new level of water V2 cm3. V2 −V1 • Average volume of a lead shot = n cm3 Determine the Volume of a Solid by Using the Overflow Jar • Fill the overflow jar with water till the water just starts overflowing through the spout. • Keep a graduated measuring jar under the spout. • Lower gently the solid whose volume is to be determined. • Note the volume, V cm3 of the water that overflows into the measuring jar. • The volume of the solid = volume of the water displaced = V cm3. Determine the Volume of a Single Drop of Water • Fix a clean burette upright to a stand. • Fill it with water. • Remove any air bubbles by opening the tap for some time. • Note the level, V1, of water in the burette, say V1 = 60 cm3. • Allow the water to trickle slowly, drop by drop, counting the number of drops (n) at the same time.

Measurements 1.19 • Close the tap when water level touches V2 = 40 cm3 mark. • It means V1 – V2 = 60 – 40 = 20 cm3 of water has drained out. • The average volume of a drop of water = 20/n cm3. MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY Density of a substance is mass per unit volume. It is a derived quantity. The unit of density in S.I. System is kilogram per metre3 (kg m–3) and in CGs system, it is gcm–3 e.g., density of water = 1 × 103 kgm–3 e.g., density of steal = 7.8 × 103 kgm–3 e.g., density of air = 1.3 × 10–3 kgm–3 Relative Density (or specific gravity) of a substance is the ratio of density of the substance to the density of water. Since this is a ratio of densities, it is a mere number without any units. It gives us an idea as to how dense or heavy the substance is, in comparison with water. R.D. of steal is 7.8 means steal is 7.8 dencer than water. Determination of the Density of Solids The mass of the given body is determined using a physical balance and it’s volume is determined by displacement method. (Point 4 on pg 1.17) The density of the solid is calculated using the expression Density = Mass Volume Example: Suppose mass is 80g and volume is 10 cm3. Then Density, p = M = 80 × 10−3 kg = 8 × 103 kgm−3. V 10 × 10−6 m3 Determination of the Density of Liquids Using a Specific Gravity Bottle Density bottle or specific gravity bottle is a glass bottle with a long narrow neck and a glass stopper with a hole fitted in to the neck, designed to hold a specific volume of liquid indicated on the bottle. The specific gravity bottle is washed and dried. The mass of the empty bottle (m1) is determined using a physical balance. The bottle is filled with water and the stopper is replaced. The bottle is wiped dry from outside and the mass (m2) is determined. Now the bottle is emptied, dried and again filled with the given liquid. The bottle is again wiped dry from outside and the mass (m3) is determined. Taking the density of water as 1 g cm–3, the volume of the bottle = mass of the water filled in it = (m2 – m1) cm3.

1.20 Chapter 1 Density of the liquid is calculated from the expression, Density = Mass = m3 − m1 g cm−3 Volume m2 − m1 Determination of the Density of Air A round bottom flask, fitted with a rubber bung at its neck, is taken. A glass tube is passed through the bung and a rubber tube with clamp is fitted to the glass tube. The air from the flask is removed by connecting it to a vacuum pump and the clamp on the tube is closed. The mass of the flask (m1) along with the bung, etc., is then determined. Maintaining the temperature of the flask constant (room temperature) throughout, the clamp is opened and the flask is once again filled with dry air (by allowing it to pass through calcium chloride). The mass of the flask (m2) is determined. The volume of air (V = volume of the flask) is determined by filling it with water and measuring the volume of water by pouring it into a measuring jar. The density of air is calculated from the expression, Density of air = m2 − m1 g cm−3 V Care should be taken that the atmospheric pressure and the temperature are maintained constant throughout the experiment. The density of air at S.T.P. is about 0.00129 g cm−3 (1.29 kg m−3) Y GRAPH Graph is a pictorial presentation of the variation of one quantity with respect to X ' O(0, 0) X another quantity. Generally a graph sheet is divided into four quadrants by using two mutually perpendicular lines, X1X and Y1Y named as X-axis and Y-axis, respectively. The Y ' X-axis moves from left to right and the Y-axis from bottom to top. The point of intersection O is the origin and is always assigned with co-ordinates (0, 0). FIGURE 1.15 Two axes are labelled with two quantities. Generally X-axis is assigned with an independent quantity and Y-axis with a dependent quantity. Scale should be selected such that the maximum portion of the graph sheet (more than half) can be used. Scale should be such that the graph sheet can be further divided easily for subdivisions. Example: 2, 5, 10, 20 are preferable to 3, 6, etc. In the case of very large or small values, some multiplying factor can be used. Before plotting a graph the measurements made in an experiment are recorded in a tabular form. For example, let us take the plotting of s – t (distance-time) graph for a body moving with uniform velocity.

Measurements 1.21 The displacement of the body at the end of equal time intervals are recorded as shown in the table. Since distance depends on time, distance is dependent variable. So, we will take it on Y-axis. Now, we select a convenient scale for each axis. On X-axis, it is 2 cm = 1 s and on Y-axis, it is 2 cm = 5 cm. Y t(s) s(m) 30 • 00 25 15 • 2 10 ↑ 20 • s (in m) • 15 10 3 15 5• 4 20 X1 O 1 34 5 6 X (0, 0) → t (in s) 5 25 2 Y1 FIGURE 1.16 Then, we have to mark each data on the graph with a sharp marker. This is called ‘Plotting’. Maximum number of marks (points) should be joined such that a smooth curve, called best fit curve or smooth line, called best fit line is obtained. Uses of Straight Line Graph 1. T he slope of a straight line graph gives us the variation of the quantity taken on the Y-axis with respect to the quantity taken on the X-axis. Example: Slope of s – t graph gives the velocity of the body. Y Slope of the straight line can be determined by taking two reference ↑ y2 B points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2). s (in m) y1 A Slope = y2 - y1 unit X’ x1 x2 X x1 - x1 → t (in s) Y’ 2. F rom a graph it is also possible to determine the value of one quantity for a given value of another quantity. FIGURE 1.17 F rom the above graph, the displacement of the body at the end of 10 s can be determined. 3. A straight line graph gives us the information about the proportionality between the two plotted quantities. From the above graph, it can be understood that s ∝ t.

1.22 Chapter 1 4. A graph drawn between the velocity of a uniformly accelerating body starting with a non-zero velocity makes an intercept on Y-axis. This intercept gives us the initial velocity of body. Scientific Notation Bigger objects like the Earth, the sun and the universe constitute the macrocosm, whereas smaller objects like the atoms, cells and bacteria constitute the microcosm. The magnitude of any quantity can be written as a product of a number between 1 and 10 and a number which is a power of 10 (exponential part). Example: 13540 = 1.354 × 104 0.000125 = 1.25 × 10–4 The exponential part in such a representation is known as the order of magnitude. Standard Prefixes Used with the S.I. System of Units Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol 1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci- D 1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi- c 1018 exa E 10-3 milli- M 1015 peta P 10-6 micro- µ 1012 tera T 10-9 nano n 109 giga G 10-12 pico p 106 mega- M 10-15 femto F 103 kilo- k 10-18 atto a 102 hecta- h 10-21 zepto z Errors and Accuracy Degree of accuracy is the extent to which one can measure a quantity without any error. There are two types of errors, considered, in general. They are: 1. A bsolute error = Measured value – True value 2. Relative error = Absolute Error . If the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is Actual Value called percentage error. Percentage errors: The percentage error is defined as Percentage error = Absolute Error × 100 Actual Value

Measurements 1.23 Effect of Combining Errors It is not possible to produce greater accuracy by mathematical manipulations, like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. When a number of values are added or subtracted, the result cannot be more accurate than the least accurate value. When a number of values are multiplied or divided, percentage error in the result is the sum of the percentage errors of separate values used. Significant Figures The digits, whose values are accurately known in a particular measurement, are called its significant figures. The digit on the extreme right known as the doubtful digit. It is also called least significant digit. The digit on the extreme left is called most significant digit. Rules for Determining Significant Figures All non-zero digits are significant figures. Example: 1234 m has 4 significant figures, 1, 2, 3 and 4. All zeroes occurring between non-zero digits are significant figures. Example: 10234 kg has 5 significant figures, 1, 0, 2, 3 and 4. All zeroes to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant. Example: 1230 has only 3 significant figures, 1, 2 and 3. Zero is not significant All zeroes to the right of the decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant. Example: 0.00123 m has only 3 significant figures, 1, 2 and 3. All zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are significant. Example: 0.2300 has 4 significant figures, 2, 3, 0 and 0. Zero to the left of decimal point is not significant. Rounding off the Digits If the digit next to the one to be rounded off is greater than 5, the digit to be rounded off is increased by 1. Example: 12.47 = 12.5 If the digit next to the one to be rounded off is less than 5, the digit to be rounded off is left unchanged. Example: 12.43 = 12.4 If the digit next to the one to be rounded off is equal to 5, the digit is increased by one if it is odd, e.g., 12.35 = 12.4 and it is left unchanged if the digit is even, e.g., 12.85 = 12.8.

1.24 Chapter 1 While adding or subtracting the measured numbers, write the numbers one below the other with all the decimal points in one line. After adding (or subtracting as the case may be) locate the first column from the left, that has a doubtful digit. All the digits to the right of this column are dropped after rounding off that digit. Example: 32.76 + 0.0811 + 282.5 = ? 32.76 0.0811 282.5 ------------------------ 315.3411 ⇒ 315.3 ------------------------ While multiplying or dividing, the number of the significant digits in the answer is equal to the least number of significant figures in the numbers multiplied (or divided as the case may be). The insignificant digits are dropped from the result, after rounding off, if they appear after the decimal point. The insignificant digits are replaced by a zero if they appear before the decimal point. Example: 2014 × 31.5 = 5331.1764… = 5330, 11.9 since 11.9 and 31.5 have only three significant digits each. ∴ Result should also have these significant figures.

Measurements 1.25 TEST YOUR CONCEPTS Very Short Answer Type Questions 1. D efine relative density. 18. Area and volume are not _____ quantities. 2. The value of G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2 and 19. If the length of a vernier scale having 25 divisions PRACTICE QUESTIONS g = 9.8 m s−2. The unit of g/G in C.G.S system is correspond to 23 main scale divisions, and given that ______. 1 M.S.D. = 1 mm, the least count of the vernier cali- pers is _________. 3. T he number of significant figures in 10.02 is _________. 2 0. T he diameter of a wire was measured as 1.65 mm with a certain faulty screw gauge, when the correct 4. W hat is the principle of working of a physical diameter was 1.60 mm. What type of error does the balance? faulty screw gauge have? 5. W hat are the C.G.S. and S.I. units of area? Give the 21. D efine the least count of a vernier callipers. relationship between them. 22. If surface tension is defined as force per unit length, 6. The smallest measurement that can be made accu- then the dimensional formula of surface tension is rately by an instrument is called ___________. ___________. 7. A rectangular metal sheet of area 2 m2 is 2 3. Define density. rolled to a cylinder of volume (4/p) m3. The radius of the cylinder, thus, formed 2 4. Define resting point and zero-resting point. is __________ m. 2 5. The time periods of two simple pendula, having dif- 8. What is the least count of a standard screw gauge? ferent lengths, is the same on two different planets. If the lengths of the two pendula are in ratio of 1 : 9, 9. Define significant figures. then the ratio of the accelerations due to gravity on the two planets is __________. 1 0. In a standard vernier callipers, ‘N’ vernier scale divi- sions are equal to __________ main scale divisions. 26. What is the principle of vernier callipers? 11. N ame the different parts of a screw gauge. 27. T he diameter of a rod as measured by a screw gauge 12. If the energy of a photon is given by, E = hc , where of pitch 0.5 mm is 8.3 mm. The pitch scale reading is _________. λ h is the Planck’s constant, c is the velocity of light and 2 8. D efine λ is the wavelength of the radiation, then the unit of (a) Solar day. Planck’s constant is ________. (b) Mean solar day. 1 3. The distance between the two consecutive threads of a screw is known as the ______ of the screw. 1 4. What is the principle of a screw gauge? 2 9. If the length of a seconds pendulum on a planet is 2 m, then the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of 1 5. Define light year. that planet is ___________ (Take the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth = 9.8 m s-2) 1 6. T he time taken by a seconds pendulum to go from one extreme end to the other is _________. 3 0. W hat is meant by degree of accuracy? 1 7. D efine the pitch of a screw. Short Answer Type Questions 3 3. Discuss the zero error of a vernier callipers and state how it can be corrected. 31. S tate the rules used for significant figures while rounding off the digits. 34. D escribe a method to find the density of an object that is lighter than water. 3 2. What are the precautions that should be taken while using a physical balance?

1.26 Chapter 1 35. A vernier calliper has 20 divisions on vernier scale 38. A displacement-time graph of a body moving with and its M.S.D. is 0.5 mm. When a hollow cylinder uniform velocity is shown in the figure. Find out its is held by its internal jaws the M.S.R. and V.C.D. velocity and its displacement at the end of 5 seconds. of callipers are 1.2 cm and 10, respectively. Find the radius of cross section of the cylinder. 39. Write the expressions for pitch and least count of a screw gauge. 36. If the callipers used in the above problem is faulty and the positive zero error coinciding division is 2, then 40. Discuss the types of zero errors in vernier callipers find out the actual radius of the cylinder. and state how they are corrected? 37. D efine least count. Describe the method to find the 41. The head scale of a screw gauge has 200 divisions. Its least count of a screw gauge. head advances by 1 mm for 2 complete rotations of its head. Find its pitch and least count. Y 42. Describe briefly the method to determine the den- 15 sity of an irregular body. ↑ 12 • 43. A screw gauge has a positive error of 4 divisions. When s (in m) 9 • this screw gauge holds a sphere, the main scale reading • is 4 mm and the head scale coinciding division is 24. If 6 its least count is 0.01 mm, find out the volume of the sphere. 3 44. Draw a neat sketch of a screw gauge. Discuss the pos- X itive and negative zero errors in a screw gauge and their corrections. 0 12 34 56 → t (in s) 45. W hat is the effect of combining errors? Essay Type Questions PRACTICE QUESTIONS 46. E xplain the principle of a screw gauge and explain 48. D escribe an experiment to find the volume of a the method of determining the diameter of a wire. sphere using vernier callipers. 47. S tate the rules for determining the number of sig- 49. D escribe a method to determine the mass of a body nificant digits for addition and multiplication. Give using a physical balance. examples? 50. Draw a neat sketch of a physical balance and name the various parts. *For Answer Keys, Hints and Explanations, please visit: www.pearsoned.co.in/IITFoundationSeries CONCEPT APPLICATION Level 1 3. If p is the pitch of a screw, then the distance by Direction for questions 1 to 7 which the screw advances, when given n rotations, State whether the following statements are true or false. is p . n 1. A simple pendulum can be used to determine accel- eration due to gravity at a given place. 4. If the percentage errors in the measurement of length and breadth of a rectangle are 2% and 3%, 2. If the zeroth division on the vernier scale and the main scale do not coincide, when the jaws are in respectively, then the percentage error in the deter- contact, then there exists an error. mination of the area is 5%.

Measurements 1.27 5. Velocity gradient is \\ defined as ‘change in velocity H. Negative zero ( ) h. Kg m-3 per unit distance’. Then its unit in F.P.S. system is s−1. error ( ) i. [M1L-3To] 6. 106 µm are equal to one metre. I. 2200 ( ) j. [M1L1T-1] 7. T he least count (the minimum weight that can be J. Least count of a weighed) of a physical balance is one gram. screw gauge Direction for questions 8 to 14 Direction for questions 16 to 45 Fill in the blanks. For each of the questions, four choices have been 8. In a spring balance, the extent of a pull of spring is _____ to the magnitude of the weight (force) applied provided. Select the correct alternative. on it. 1 6. If the conductance of a conductor (G) is I 2t , where 9. If N divisions on the vernier scale are equal to (N – 2) divisions on the main scale, then the least W count is _____. I is current, t is time and W is work done, then the 10. T he order of magnitude of 0.00045726 m s−1 is unit of conductance expressed in terms of funda- ______. mental units is _______. 1 1. When the jaws of a standard vernier calipers are closed, if the nth division of the vernier scale coin- (a) A2s3 (b) A2s3 cides with the nth M.S.D., the zero error is ______. kg 2m kg−2m 12. T he least count of a Screw gauge having 1 mm pitch (c) A2s3 (d) A2s3 and 100 circular scale divisions is _______ µm. kgm2 kg 2m-2 1 3. T he least count of a vernier calipers having 20 ver- 1 7. T he length of one main scale division of a given ver- nier divisions when 1 M.S.D. = 0.1 cm is _____ cm. nier calipers is 1 cm. When the jaws are in contact, 1 4. Given the specific gravity of gold as ‘19’, the mass of 100 cm volume of gold is _____ kg. the last division of the vernier scale coincides with Direction for question 15 99th mark of the main scale. Then the least count of Match the entries given in Column A with appropriateones from Column B. the calipers is ______. 1 5. Match items in Column A with these in Column B. (a) 0.01 mm (b) 0.01 cm (c) 0.1 cm (d) 0 .1 mm 1 8. The sensitivity of a physical balance is increased by PRACTICE QUESTIONS the use of ________. (a) knife edges (b) leveling screws (c) plumb line (d) light pans Column A Column B 1 9. In a simple pendulum experiment, the percentage errors in the measurement of g and l are α% and β%, A. Positive zero Ratio respectively, then the maximum error in measuring error Significant figures T will be _____. B. Density =2 ( ) a. Pitch per C.S.D. (a) 1 (α + β)% (b) 1 (α − β)% C. Least count of ( ) b. 2 2 vernier calipers ( ) c. (V.C.D.) x (L. C.) ( ) d. Zero of the circular (c) 1 (β − α )% (d) 2 (β – α)% D. Density ( ) e. scale above the 2 E. 2.200 index line ( ) f. 1 M.S.D. per 20. The least count of a vernier calipers is 0.025 mm. If F. Momentum ( ) g. vernier division the 12th division of the vernier scale coincides with Significant figures a main scale division and the zero of the vernier scale G. Relative Density =4 is to the right of the zero of the main scale, then the zero error is _________. (a) +0.3 cm (b) +0.03 mm (c) +0.12 mm (d) None of the above