["AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 101 Keep your infants, your When anyone of you enters building technologies mean there insane, and your evil ones the mosque, let him send are many more options available away from your mosque. peace upon the Prophet. to architects than the dome with Prophet Muhammad Prophet Muhammad which to roof large spaces. The modern mosque can be as humble It is also essential that people which stands at 870 ft (265 m). as a repurposed apartment with a should never enter the mosque A familiar sight across the Muslim loudspeaker on the roof or it can be with shoes and defile the prayer world, the dome is simply an as dazzling as Abu Dhabi\u2019s Sheikh area, so there is always an area for architectural choice. Dating back Zayed Mosque, which combines worshippers to leave their footwear. to ancient Mesopotamia and Rome, the traditional and modern, and took it is used not only for its structural 11 years to build (it was completed Minarets and domes strength but because to stand in 2007) at a cost of around $545 Asked to define what a mosque is, under it is to be reminded of the million. However, this is not even most people\u2019s answer might include soaring heavens. close to the most expensive a minaret and a dome, but neither mosque ever built\u2014this is the of these is obligatory, certainly not Modern mosques Great Mosque of Mecca in Saudi in modern times. The minaret The technology of microphones Arabia, also known as the Masjid evolved from the raised platform on and loudspeakers has made the al-Haram, which was reconstructed which the muezzin, who calls the minaret redundant, while modern in 2016 at a cost estimated at more faithful to prayer, would stand to than $100 billion. better project his voice. Over time, these platforms turned into towers, Although not as essential to or minarets, which the muezzin Islamic worship as many might could climb in order to make his assume, the mosque serves an voice carry even further. important role as the focus and public face of any Muslim As the most visible element of community, however small or large. the mosque, the minaret became Accordingly, mosques can range a sort of flagpost marking the from lavish statements of national physical presence of Islam. They pride to humble but welcoming were often beautifully decorated neighborhood centers. \u25a0 with tiling or carved stonework, and climbed ever higher. Currently the world\u2019s tallest minaret belongs to the Djemaa al-Djaza\u00efr in Algiers, Abu Dhabi\u2019s Sheikh Zayed Mosque holds more than 50,000 worshippers. It boasts the world\u2019s largest handwoven carpet, as well as one of the world\u2019s largest chandeliers.","102 HTOE WUSASASSUAPMEURSIOLRIM TARIKH AL-TABARI BY AL-TABARI (c. 915) IN CONTEXT W ith the death of the mankind until the end of time. But Prophet after a short who was to succeed Muhammad THEME illness in 632, the as leader of the community and A successor to the Prophet Muslim community was plunged how was this person to be selected? into crisis. Muhammad was gone Just as significantly, what would be WHEN AND WHERE forever and the Quran made it clear the nature of their authority? 632\u201334, Arabia that no other messenger would come after him. As God\u2019s final Most of his followers believed BEFORE revelation, the Quran was to suffice that Muhammad, like the Quran, c. 570\u2013632 Muhammad had remained silent on the subject, establishes Islam and is the first leader of the Muslims. Abu Bakr is elected leader of the early Muslim community He dies in 632 leaving no following Muhammad\u2019s death. named successor. He believed that religious and political leadership of Muslims AFTER was the right of the Meccan Companions of Muhammad, 634 Abu Bakr is succeeded as rather than Muhammad\u2019s family. caliph by Umar ibn al-Khattab, who rules for 10 years, followed He warred against the Muslims who refused to pay zakat \u2026 by Uthman and Ali ibn Abi Talib. Together, these four are known as the Rashidun (\u201cRightly Guided\u201d) caliphs. 661 The Umayyads of Syria emerge victorious from a war of succession. They establish a new caliphate in Damascus and the position of caliph becomes hereditary. \u2026 and returned peace and stability to the Arabian Peninsula.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 103 See also: The umma: the community of Islam 32\u201333 \u25a0 The death of the Prophet 56\u201357 \u25a0 The rightly guided caliphs 104\u201307 \u25a0 The emergence of Shia Islam 108\u201315 \u25a0 Sunni and Shia in the modern Middle East 270\u201371 neither appointing a successor nor public positions apart from leading Abu Bakr proposing any particular election the annual pilgrimage to Mecca in process. Some, however, claimed 631 and deputizing for Muhammad Abu Bakr, also called al-Siddiq that the Prophet had chosen his as prayer leader at public prayers (\u201cthe Upright\u201d), was born in son-in-law, cousin, and closest male in Medina during the Prophet\u2019s 573 in Mecca into a minor clan relative Ali to succeed him: Ali\u2019s final illness. of the ruling Quraysh tribe. He supporters were known as the shia was a fabric merchant, often or \u201cparty\u201d of Ali. They evolved into The Persian historian al-Tabari visiting Yemen and Syria, and the Shia\u2014the schism that emerged (839\u2013923) quotes a Companion of was relatively wealthy. When between the Shia and the majority the Prophet named Muhammad he heard of a man called of the Muslims, later to be known bin Saad bin Abi Waqqas, as Muhammad preaching a new as the Sunnis (those who adhere saying, \u201cI asked my father if Abu faith, he paid him a visit and to the Prophet\u2019s path, or sunna) has Bakr was the first Muslim. He said, became an early convert. continued until today. \u2018No, more than fifty embraced Islam before Abu Bakr; but he Abu Bakr is said to have The first caliph was superior to us as a Muslim.\u2019\u201d worked hard proselytizing on Despite the claims in his support, behalf of Islam, and bought Ali was not to succeed Muhammad The wars of Ridda a number of slaves who had and become the new leader of the converted to Islam and freed Muslim community. The title of On becoming caliph, Abu Bakr\u2019s them. He acted as treasurer caliph (from the Arabic khalifa, immediate challenge was to put and advised Muhammad on meaning \u201csuccessor\u201d) went instead down tribal insurrections that his relations with the various to Muhammad\u2019s father-in-law and sprang up after the death of the clans. His prominence among close companion, Abu Bakr. He Prophet. During Muhammad\u2019s early Muslims was also was nominated and elected by a lifetime, many of the Bedouin tribes enhanced by Muhammad\u2019s small committee of elders, who had pledged allegiance to him as marriage to Abu Bakr\u2019s considered Ali too inexperienced the Messenger of God, and most daughter Aisha. for the responsibility of leadership. had agreed to pay an alms tax (zakat). With the Prophet\u2019s death, In Muhammad\u2019s last days, During the 10 years leading many of them repudiated the he asked Abu Bakr to lead the up to the Prophet\u2019s death, Abu agreements made, arguing that prayers at the mosque, which Bakr had been Muhammad\u2019s chief their allegiance was to Muhammad, was considered a signal for his adviser, but had held no prominent not to his successors. Some said succeeding the Prophet. He they would continue as Muslims was only caliph for two years, I have been given the but not pay taxes, while others two months, and 15 days authority over you. claimed prophets and Quranic-style before he succumbed to revelations of their own. illness and died in 634. If I do well, help me; and if I do wrong, set me right. Fearing a collapse of the umma and a return to the fragmentation Abu Bakr that existed before the coming of Islam, Abu Bakr launched a series of military campaigns against the tribes. Known as the wars of ridda (apostasy), they were largely executed on behalf of the caliphate by the general Khalid ibn al-Walid (585\u2013642). By the time Abu Bakr died, peacefully in his sleep, the tribes were back under the control of Medina. \u25a0","104 IN CONTEXT ITATAHSHMEAMTEPYSALDHRAEATCPLHINULOGTRNYUOELNE THEME The rightly guided caliphs THE QURAN, 2:30 WHEN AND WHERE 634\u201361, Arabia and Iraq BEFORE c. 570\u2013634 Prophet Muhammad is the first leader of the Islamic community. On his death, he is succeeded by Abu Bakr, the first of the Islamic caliphs. AFTER 661 The governor of Syria, Muawiya, succeeds Ali as caliph and makes the position hereditary. His Umayyad dynasty will rule the Islamic world for 89 years before making way for the Abbasids. 1258 The last ruling Abbasid caliph is killed when the Mongols sack Baghdad, bringing to an end the rule of the caliphs. A bu Bakr was succeeded as caliph by Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634\u201344), Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644\u201356), and Ali ibn Abi Talib (r. 656\u201361). Together these four are described in Arabic sources as the Rashidun, or \u201cRightly Guided\u201d caliphs. After Muhammad, they are viewed as the four caliphs who were guided by God and justly led the umma, or Islamic community. Their rule was brought to an end by civil war, with the caliphate going to the victor. Commander of the Faithful Abu Bakr designated Umar as caliph-in-waiting shortly before his death. Although Umar was a close","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 105 See also: The death of the Prophet 56\u201357 \u25a0 Compiling the Quran 64\u201369 \u25a0 A successor to the Prophet 102\u201303 \u25a0 The emergence of Shia Islam 108\u201315 \u25a0 The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates 136\u201339 Over every dishonest man add the epithet amir al-muminin The first four caliphs of Islam (Abu there are two watchmen: (\u201cCommander of the Faithful\u201d) to Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali, depicted one is his possessions and his title, highlighting the fact that in this Turkish miniature) were all the other is his way of life. his leadership was spiritual as well personally known to Muhammad, Umar ibn al-Khattab as political. Umar made no claims which gave them an exalted status. of emulating the prophetic role of Companion of the Prophet, his Muhammad\u2019s original mission, but accession to the caliphate was he was emphasizing the caliph\u2019s opposed by the supporters of Ali, status as the overall leader of the who were dismayed that their Muslim people. candidate had been passed over again, as he had been when Abu It was during Umar\u2019s reign Bakr became caliph. Yet Umar, to that the first great Arab conquests whom Ali would act as advisor, were carried out. They began as a faced minimal internal resistance continuation of the wars of Ridda during his eventful ten-year reign. waged against the rebel tribes in Arabia by Abu Bakr. From their One of the first things Umar homelands in Arabia Muslim did on becoming caliph was to armies then rapidly swept north: most of the territory that is now Iraq fell in 633, and the city of Damascus followed in 634. At the Battle of Yarmuk in 636, the Arabs defeated a Byzantine army, bringing to an end 1,000 years of Greek-speaking rule in the eastern Mediterranean. That same year, the Muslims also defeated the Persian Sasanians at the Battle of Qadisiyya, near the Euphrates. The vicegerent Caliph A political leader Continued conquests of God on Earth and and warrior who can In 638, the Muslims captured the highest religious Jerusalem. Caliph Umar personally protect the Islamic received the city\u2019s submission. The authority in Islam. peoples and extend following year the Muslims crossed their rule in the world. into Egypt. In 640, they captured the Byzantine fortress of Babylon, on the site of what would later become Cairo; in 641, they captured Egypt\u2019s capital of Alexandria. This marked the end of the first wave of Muslim conquests. In just seven years, Umar\u2019s armies had amassed a vast swath of territories, to bring into being what was at the time an empire second only in size to that of the Chinese. \u276f\u276f","106 THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS Another of Umar\u2019s triumphs Absorption in worldly affairs again, his appointment caused was in the area of administration. breeds darkness in the heart, resentment among the supporters Realizing that the loyalty of the and absorption in affairs of of Ali ibn Abi Talib. vanquished was crucial to the the world to come enkindles growing Islamic empire\u2019s success, Under Uthman, the empire Umar made sure that those whose light in the heart. continued to expand, but at a lands had been taken should not Uthman ibn Affan slower pace. Uthman\u2019s military suffer too much social upheaval. To campaigns added Cyprus to this end, he left the administrative by a reputation for modesty in his the Muslim domains in 649 and structure of his new territories very personal habits; he is reputed to brought about the end of the much as it had been prior to their have regularly slept in the corner Sasanians and the death of their conquest. A good example is of a mosque wrapped in his cloak. last shah. His main legacy was his Syria, where the old civil service The caliphate passed to Uthman, project to establish the definitive of the Byzantines was left intact. who was chosen by an advisory version of the Quran. A similar situation occurred in council, or shura, made up of the Persia, where Persian remained Prophet\u2019s Companions. Uthman Uthman\u2019s reign was blighted as the main language and the old was a pious man, and one of by fiscal problems\u2014a result, critics structures were kept as they had Muhammad\u2019s first followers, but, said, of lavish overspending. More been. The conquered populations injurious to his reputation were were also free to continue to accusations of nepotism, with practice their own religions, with Uthman promoting members of his no forced imposition of Islam. own Umayyad clan to positions of power and influence. There were Seeds of discontent revolts in Egypt and Iraq, and one Umar died in 644, assassinated by party of complainants made their a Persian slave. His legacy as the way to the capital of the caliphate, great Arab conqueror is bolstered Medina. There they found Uthman abandoned by his former colleagues and they assassinated him. He was reputedly reading the Quran when he was killed and it was splattered with his blood. Centuries later, the \u201cQuran of Uthman,\u201d a copy of the Holy Book allegedly stained with the martyred caliph\u2019s blood, was displayed on ceremonial occasions by the Abbasid caliphs. The first Muslim civil war With Uthman dead, the caliphate finally passed to Ali, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, and one of the earliest converts to Islam. Despite his credentials, and the time he had spent in waiting, he was not a universally popular choice. His appointment was The Battle of the Camel saw Ali ibn Abi Talib defeat an army that was partially led by Aisha, a widow of the Prophet Muhammad, who directed the action while riding a camel.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 107 challenged by a group of prominent The Great Mosque of Kufa is said by dealt these secessionists a heavy Muslims, who included a close some to have been built by the Caliph blow at the battle of Nahrawan in Companion named Zubeir ibn Umar, but the city is most closely 658, but the Kharijites would have al-Awwam, and Aisha, a widow of connected with Ali, who is believed the last word. Three years later, a the Prophet. Ali also found himself to have been killed on this site in 661. Kharijite broke into the caliph\u2019s under pressure from the Umayyads, private apartment, found Ali at clan of the martyred Uthman. 656, Ali met the armies of Zubeir prayer, and assassinated him. While nobody accused Ali of being near Basra, in what is now Iraq, involved in the assassination, the in the Battle of the Camel, named Despite the problems that beset Umayyads demanded that he for Aisha\u2019s mount, from which she the reigns of Uthman and Ali, punish the killers of their kinsman. directed her forces. Ali won the the period of the Rashidun caliphs Until Ali dispatched this duty, the day; Zubeir was killed, and Aisha is still seen by most Muslims as Syrian-based leader of the large retreated to Medina. the purest expression of Islamic and powerful Umayyad clan, society. It was the era in which Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, refused The end of the Rashidun God\u2019s final revelation to mankind to take an oath of allegiance to the was given outward expression new caliph. Ali did not return to Medina, but in the construction of an empire instead made his capital in Kufa, bound by the glue of religious faith. In the very first year of Ali\u2019s rule, Iraq, among his allies. For the first It was also a 30-year period in the Muslims became embroiled in time since Muhammad\u2019s death, which the definite form of the their first civil war. In December the seat of the caliphate moved Quran was established, ensuring away from Arabia. Zubeir was that the revelation would be Never explain yourself to defeated but the threat from recorded for future generations. \u25a0 anyone because those who Muawiya remained. Muawiya ruled like you will not need it, and Syria as an autonomous province The Kharijites those who don\u2019t like you will and commanded a large army. He made no claims to the caliphate After the Kharijites killed never believe it. but still insisted Ali punish the Ali, they remained a minor Ali ibn Abi Talib murderers of Uthman\u2014who but disruptive force, leading happened to be Ali\u2019s allies in Iraq. rebellions against the Umayyad regime that followed In 657, Ali led his Iraqi army up the Rashidun. Known for their the Euphrates Valley, where he met puritanism and fanaticism, Muawiya\u2019s Syrian army. The two the Kharijites considered any forces faced each other at Siffin, Muslim who committed a near modern-day Raqqa. For weeks major sin to be an apostate. they only skirmished, but when They abhorred intermarriage an all-out battle seemed likely, the and relations with other Syrian forces tore leaves from their Muslims, and insisted on a Qurans and impaled them on the literal interpretation of the tips of their spears, demanding that Quran. One 14th-century there be an arbitration according scholar wrote of the Kharijites, to the book of God. Ali agreed and \u201cIf they ever gained strength, it was decided that representatives they would surely corrupt the of the opposing factions would whole of the Earth \u2026 they meet the next year. would not leave a baby, male or female, neither a man nor Many of Ali\u2019s supporters were a woman, because as far as dismayed by his decision and they are concerned the people believed he had made a mistake. have caused a corruption that These dissenters became known as cannot be rectified except by the Kharijites (\u201cthose who secede\u201d), mass killing.\u201d and had their own theology and distinct political strategy. Ali later","LEADERCHOSENTHE IMAM IS GOD\u2019S ALI IBN ABI TALIB (601\u201361)","","110 THE EMERGENCE OF SHIA ISLAM IN CONTEXT R oughly 12 to 15 percent It is the law of nature of all Muslims belong to that the trees with THEME Shia Islam, which is often The emergence of described as either a sect or a the sweetest fruits are Shia Islam denomination. It is neither: the beaten the most. Shia tradition of Islam, or Shiism, WHEN AND WHERE is a doctrinal, theological, and Ali ibn Abi Talib c. 680, Iraq juridical subset of Islam. consensus aligned best with the BEFORE The term Shia comes from the ideas of the sunna, the example of 632 Prophet Muhammad dies Arabic shia, meaning \u201cgroup\u201d or the Prophet\u2019s life and teachings. leaving no named successor. \u201cparty.\u201d The party in this case was made up of those who supported There was, however, a group AFTER the candidacy of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who believed that Muhammad 909\u20131171 The Fatimids, the Prophet\u2019s cousin and son-in- had chosen the man who would who claim descent from the law, to be the leader of the Muslims continue his role as leader and Prophet\u2019s daughter Fatima, after the death of Muhammad. guide to the Islamic community. become the first major Shia The succession crisis that was an This was Ali ibn Abi Talib, who, dynasty. They establish a ongoing feature of the era of the in addition to being the Prophet\u2019s new capital at al-Qahira (later Rashidun caliphs eventually gave cousin (and one of the first converts known as Cairo) from where birth to Shiism as a distinct, if to Islam) was married to his they rule large parts of North minority, interpretation of Islam. daughter, Fatima. Ali and Fatima Africa and western Arabia. Nothing has created a more were frequently in the company profound division among Muslims of Muhammad, and they were c. 1501 The Persian Safavid than this long-standing schism, collectively refered to as the ahl dynasty converts the empire and Muslims all over the world are al-beit (\u201cPeople of the House\u201d), in from Sunni to Shia. To this still living this unresolved quarrel day, Iran (formerly Persia) in the 21st century. remains the main bastion of Shiism in an Islamic world The claims of Ali that is predominantly Sunni. When Muhammad died without\u2014 as many claimed\u2014nominating a successor, the majority of Muslims believed that choosing a leader by Following the death of Muhammad, many Following the death of Muhammad, followers believe that electing a leader is in the party of Ali (the shia) believe that God has accordance with the Sunna\u2014the teachings indicated a line of rightful succession and sayings of the Prophet. within the Family of the Prophet. Sunni Islam is therefore Shia Islam is therefore headed by a leader headed by an Imam who has been chosen by God. chosen by consensus.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 111 See also: The rightly guided caliphs 104\u201307 \u25a0 The Safavid Empire 192\u201393 \u25a0 The rise of Islamic modernism 222\u201323 \u25a0 The Iranian revolution 248\u201351 \u25a0 Sunni and Shia in the modern Middle East 270\u201371 other words the people of the that Muawiya never use the title Shia pilgrims at the Imam Hussein Prophet\u2019s household. Ali was also of amir al-muminin (\u201cCommander Shrine in Kerbala, Iraq, commemorate widely regarded as trustworthy, of the Faithful\u201d) and that he not the martyrdom of the grandson of the loyal, and fearless. At the time of nominate any successor. Hassan Prophet Muhammad, who was killed the Prophet\u2019s death, however, he then retired to Medina, where, on the 10th of Muharram, 680. was 28, and the elders charged in 669 or 670, he was reputedly with appointing the caliph poisoned by his wife, most likely successor, and wrote letters to the considered him too young to lead. at the instigation of Muawiya. regional governors ordering them to give allegiance to the new caliph. Ali\u2019s supporters pointed to From his power base in certain Quranic verses which, Damascus, Muawiya ruled as Many balked, particularly in they insisted, supported their claim caliph for 20 years. When he Iraq, where support for the family that it was only members of the became seriously ill in 680, rather of the Prophet was strong. Letters Prophet\u2019s family who should lead than honor his pledge to Hassan, were sent to Medina, urging the Muslim community. They also he declared his son Yazid as his Hassan\u2019s younger brother cited a sermon Muhammad gave Hussein to come to Iraq, where his as he was returning from his last supporters promised to drive out pilgrimage to Mecca, shortly before the Syrians and \u201creclaim the soul of he died. He halted the caravan at a Islam.\u201d Hussein left Medina with 18 place called Ghadir Khumm, where members of his family in a group he addressed his followers. He is that totaled just over 70 people. claimed to have taken Ali by the Three weeks later, they were hand and declared, \u201cHe of whom I approaching Kufa, in Iraq, when am the master, of him Ali is also they were met by an Umayyad the master.\u201d army, which ordered them to return to Medina. Instead, Hussein led his Ali was eventually elected to party to the Euphrates river, where lead the Islamic community in 656, they camped on a plain called after the death of the third caliph, Kerbala (now a major Iraqi city). Uthman, but Muslims remained Here, they were overtaken and \u276f\u276f divided. Ali was forced to take military action in defense of his rule, and he was assassinated after just five years as caliph. Ironically, his killers were not his enemies but former supporters who felt he had failed to act decisively enough to punish Uthman\u2019s killers and protect his own position as caliph. Massacre at Kerbala A single tear shed for Upon Ali\u2019s death, many expected Hussein washes away that the caliphate would pass to his eldest son, Hassan. However, a hundred sins. Muawiya, the powerful governor Popular Shia saying of Syria, challenged Hassan and advised him to avoid bloodshed by giving up any claims to the caliphate. Hassan agreed, on certain conditions: these included","112 THE EMERGENCE OF SHIA ISLAM Sunni All Muslims Shia follow the The Prophet Muhammad did Quran, the The Prophet Muhammad not appoint a successor. chose Ali as his successor. Leaders of the Islamic community sunna, and the Direct descendants of the (caliphs) are chosen by council based Five Pillars Prophet are the only true leaders on a number of criteria, including of Islam. (Imams) of Islam. suitability to rule and piety. Imams are political and spiritual Caliphs are political and spiritual leaders leaders, and infallible guides. but they are not prophets. No statues or paintings are permitted Representations of Ali and other Imams are to be involved in worship. objects of veneration. Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem are the centers of faith. Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Najaf, and The only place of pilgrimage Kerbala are the centers of faith. is Mecca. The Imams are revered as saints About 85 percent of the world\u2019s and Shia perform pilgrimages to Muslims are Sunnis. their shrines, as well as Mecca. About 15 percent of the world\u2019s Muslims are Shia. Differences between Sunni and Shia are few; both believe in the same fundamentals of Islam. They diverge on the matter of the succession of leadership following the death of the Prophet, and their different historical experiences since that time. encircled by an army of 4,000, who Twelvers Ali\u2019s sons Hassan and Hussein? attempted to starve Hussein and The fundamental idea to which And what of their children? Very his followers into submission. On all Shia subscribe was that the quickly there could be a huge the seventh day, Hussein and a family of the Prophet had a special number of candidates for the small band of his warriors charged status within Islam. Sunni Muslims position of Imam. Should it only the enemy and were cut down. The also venerated the Prophet\u2019s family, be the eldest? Such questions had Prophet\u2019s grandson was reputedly but what distinguished the Shia major implications for the Shia the last to die. His head was cut was that they believed only the leadership and, unsurprisingly, off, impaled on a spear, and sent family of the Prophet were properly there was disagreement and Shia to Yazid. qualified to lead the umma (Islamic Islam rapidly splintered into a community) and to be the caliph, number of different strands. Referred to by Shia Muslims as or in the Shia\u2019s chosen terminology, the Massacre of Kerbala, this battle the Imam. After Hussein was killed, his became a symbol for the supporters son Ali Zayn al-Abidin became of Ali to rally around. It galvanized Even this basic tenet, however, Imam (spiritual leader) of the Shia. their development into a distinct led to many questions. For example, The title continued to pass from religious community with its own who belonged to the family of the father to son until the 12th Imam. rituals and account of events. Prophet? Was it all the offspring of This last Imam, Muhammad ibn","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 113 Hassan, did not actually die but To God we belong and was the last Imam, hence their later went into a hidden existence in to God is our return. designation as the \u201cSeveners.\u201d 874, known as occultation, and Other Ismailis believe that the line he will eventually return as the Imam Hussein of Imamate in hereditary succession messianic figure known as the has continued from Muhammad Imam al-Mahdi. His reappearance Spoken at Kerbala, 680ce ibn Ismail to their present, 49th will signal the beginning of the Imam, who maintains direct lineal ultimate struggle for good that in his second son Ismail, who was descent from Prophet Muhammad. Islam marks the end of the world. designated Imam but who died Since the 19th century, the Ismaili Shia who subscribe to this belief before his father. They do not Imam has been known by the are known as Twelvers, or Imamis. recognize the legitimacy of Ismail\u2019s honorific of Aga Khan\u2014the current They represent the majority of Shia. younger half-brother, Musa al-Kazim, Imam, Prince Shah Karim Al Most of the population of modern as the Twelvers do. Instead they Husseini, is Aga Khan IV. Ismailis Iran are Twelvers; former president recognize Muhammad ibn Ismail exist today in a worldwide diaspora of Iran Mahmud Ahmadinejad would (\u201cson of Ismail\u201d) as their Seventh guided by the Aga Khan. keep an empty chair in cabinet Imam. Some Ismailis believe he meetings for the Imam al-Mahdi. For another subgroup of the Shia, the line of Imams passes from Ismailis and Zaydis Ali Zayn al-Abidin, not to the \u276f\u276f The second major branch of the Shia, which emerged in the 8th Recently, the Ismailis have become century, is the Ismailis, also known known for the cultural, philanthropic, as the Seveners. They trace the and educational efforts of their leader, Imamate line from Jafar al-Sadiq to exemplified in the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, Canada.","114 THE EMERGENCE OF SHIA ISLAM elder son Muhammad al-Baqir, but justice, both believe that humans infallible, God-given knowledge. to the younger Zayd\u2014hence their know the difference between good Sunnis find this particular element name, the Zaydis. The Zaydis only and evil, and that we have complete of Shia belief not just questionable, exist today in northern Yemen. free will. Sunnis, however, believe but doctrinally unacceptable. that God already has knowledge of What Shia believe our decisions before we make them, Devotionally, too, there are The different Shia traditions all and that fate is predestined. significant differences between share with Sunnis a belief in divine Sunni and Shia. Shia often make unity (tawhid), prophethood, and The most marked difference in pilgrimages to the shrines of the resurrection and the hereafter. To belief between Sunni and Shia Imams and their descendants, these strands all Shia add two extra relates to the Imamate. For the known in Persian as imamzadeh. principles, which are divine justice Shia, the Imams of the \u201cHouse of At these shrines they appeal to the (adl) and the Imamate (imama), to Ali\u201d continue the prophetic mission Imams to intercede with God on make up their five\u201carticles of faith.\u201d of Muhammad. They believe the their behalf, a practice known as On the first three elements, Sunni Imams to be divinely inspired tawassul. Sunnis view this as and Shia hardly differ. On divine spiritual and political successors highly unorthodox. Shia also to the Prophet, possessed of place emphasis on celebrating the traditions of the Imams and events Prophet Muhammad (d.632) = 1. Ali ibn Abi Talib (d.661) related to them, such as Ashura, Fatima (d.632) which commemorates the death of Hussein at Kerbala. 2. Hassan ibn Ali (d.669) 3. Hussein ibn Ali (d.680) Zaydis (Fivers) 4. Ali Zayn al-Abidin (d.714) In terms of law and everyday 5. Muhammed al-Baqir (d.731) practice, there is very little that The Imamate passes from Ali separates Shia from Sunni. Zayn al-Abidin to his son Zayd. 6. Jafar al-Sadiq (d.765) However, while Sunnis depend 7. Musa al-Kazim (d.799) on the sunna of the Prophet, the Ismailis (Seveners) Shia include the Twelve Imams as The Imamate passes from 8. Ali al-Rida (d.818) sources of spiritual inspiration, and Jafar al-Sadiq to his son Ismail. 9. Muhammad al-Jawad (d.835) of social and political guidance. Shiism is a highly structured Splits within Shia Islam largely 10. Ali al-Hadi (d.868) tradition, unlike Sunnism, which come down to exactly how many 11. Hassan al-Askari (d.874) has no organized clergy. Shiism and which Imams (successors to 12. Muhammad ibn Hassan also places a greater emphasis the Prophet) are recognized by a on the esoteric meanings and given branch. For the majority of interpretations of the Quran. Shia Muslims it is 12 Imams, but other branches differ in their views This religion [Islam] will on the line of succession. remain standing until 12 caliphs, all of them Qurayshi, rule over you. Prophet Muhammad","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 115 Shia and Sunni can coexist and cooperate, true to their own interpretations of Islam but confederates in faith. Shah Karim al-Husseini Current Aga Khan (b.1936) Rise to power Shia nation\u2014and Shiism has Imam Ali, the first Shia Imam, After Ali, none of the Shia Imams remained the official religion of is a popular subject for portraiture, attained any significant political the Iranian state ever since. particularly in Muharram, the month power. The most notable of them of his son Hussein\u2019s martyrdom, as was the Sixth Imam, Jafar al-Sadiq A modern Shia state seen here in Kashan, a city in Iran. (702\u2013765), who distinguished The Shias\u2019 reputation for radicalism himself as a dispenser of legal is a modern phenomenon. The \u201cguardianship of the jurist,\u201d with rulings and was a significant figure politicization of the Shia clergy, a Supreme Leader \u201cdeputizing\u201d for in the formulation of Shia doctrine. for example, was caused largely by the Imam al-Mahdi. The Eighth Imam, Ali al-Rida, also a new generation of Shia theorists known as Imam Reza, came close of the 19th century. This culminated The example of Khomeini and to power when he was adopted as in the 1979 revolution in Iran, when Iran serves to highlight the critical heir by Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun, supporters of Ayatollah Khomeini difference between Sunni and Shia, as a way of reuniting Islam, but he brought to an end to the monarchical which is not about theology, but the died before the caliph\u2014possibly regime of Muhammad Reza Shah issue of leadership. Remove the from poisoning. His tomb at Pahlavi, ushering in the world\u2019s first almost 1,400-year-old dispute over Mashhad in Iran remains a major modern Islamic republic. Since succession and there are arguably pilgrimage site. then, Iran has been ruled in more differences, in respect to accordance with a specific Shia Islamic law, at least, between the The first occasion on which theory of government known as the different Sunni groups than there the Shia were able to establish are between Sunni and Shia. \u25a0 themselves in power anywhere in the Islamic world came in the 10th century, when Shia refugees from the Abbasid caliphate founded a new political dynasty in Tunisia. Known as the Fatimids (after Fatima, daughter of the Prophet and wife of Ali), they took control of Egypt, founding a new capital, Cairo, where they ruled for more than 200 years. Shiism next rose to prominence with the creation of the Safavid empire in the 16th century. Its rulers transformed Iran into a","116 AND FOR THE MORODOANI,NWEDE PHHAAVSEES THE QURAN, 36:39 IN CONTEXT I n 638 ce, six years after the on official correspondence. This Prophet Muhammad\u2019s death, made it impossible, he said, to THEME an administrator in the civil determine which instructions were The Islamic calendar service of the caliph Umar made a the most recent. Court officials complaint about the lack of dates decided that the Muslims should WHEN AND WHERE c. 638 ce, Arabia \u201cThe moDnhthuoaflr-eQsta\u201dda \u201cDThhpueilmaglro-iHnmtiahjjgaoef\u201d \u201cmoTMnhtuehh\u201dsaarnrcatifimed Sawfahric\u201chTihsevmoido\u201dnth BEFORE 12 1 8000 bce Prehistoric people in Scotland create the oldest \u201cTheShmuhnoantwitnhwgo\u201dafl 11 2 3 R\u201cTabhei afilr-sAt wspwrinagl \u201d known lunar calendar in the The Islamic calendar form of 12 pits that correlate 10 with phases of the Moon. follows a lunar system 46 bce Julius Caesar but the Arabic names of proposes the Julian calendar, the 12 months reflect the a revised lunar calendar that \u201cTsheReaarmminogandhthaenaotf\u201d 9 seasons of the solar year. 4 \u201cRThaebiseacl-oTnhdasnpiring\u201d predominates in the Roman 85 world and most of Europe. \u201cThe monthSohfadaivbiasnion\u201d \u201cThJeumfirastddaryalm-Aowntwh\u201dal 76 c. 442 ce The Meccan calendar changes from a lunar calendar \u201cThe rmeovRnetarjhe\u201dadb Ja\u201cudlT-mrThyheamdasoneanciytohna\u201dd to a lunisolar calendar, with an additional month added from time to time to regulate pilgrimage trade. AFTER 1582 The Catholic countries of Europe adopt the Gregorian calendar, which corrects the Julian calendar with a new calculation of leap years.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 117 See also: Hijra, the flight from Mecca 28\u201331 \u25a0 The Five Pillars of Islam: sawm 46\u201349 \u25a0 The Five Pillars of Islam: Hajj 50\u201355 \u25a0 The uses of astronomy 162\u201363 have a calendar system of their God ordained the months 12 Because of this disparity, the Islamic own. They determined that the in number when He created year cannot be calculated by simply year of Muhammad\u2019s arrival at the heavens and the earth. subtracting 622 from the Gregorian Medina and the subsequent year, because every 33 years the founding of the umma\u2014622 ce 9:36 Hijra calendar gains a year on the in the Gregorian, or Western, Gregorian. The position of the calendar\u2014should be year 1. Islamic months relative to those of As the foundation of the umma the Gregorian calendar also moves stems from the Prophet\u2019s Hijra, \u201cbackward\u201d by 11 days a year. For or migration to Mecca, the new example, if Ramadan starts on or calendar was known as the Hijra around April 12 one year, it will calendar. Its dates carry the suffix start on or around April 1 the next. ah, Latin for anno Hegirae, or \u201cin the year of the Hijra.\u201d Years before the first day of Ramadan, which Everyday use the Hijra are indicated by bh, for is traditionally based on the Most Muslim countries use two \u201cbefore the Hijra.\u201d sighting of the new crescent moon. or more calendar systems. Iran, This is why the exact starting for example, uses three: the Hijra A difference of 11 days date of Ramadan is often not calendar to identify Islamic feast The Hijra is a lunar calendar, known until shortly beforehand. and fast days; a solar calendar, based on the monthly cycles of which also calculates its year 1 the moon. Although in theory a The months of the year alternate from the date of the Prophet\u2019s lunar month runs from the physical between 29 and 30 days so the migration to Medina (the official sighting of one new crescent moon monthly average is 29.5 days, calendar in Iran); and the to the next, in practice sighting adding up to a 12-month lunar year Gregorian calendar. In fact, the is no longer used as a method. that is only 354 or 355 days long. Gregorian calendar is arguably Instead, calendar days run in In contrast, the Gregorian calendar the system most in use among accordance with astronomy\u2019s more follows a solar year, lasting 365 or Muslim communities, particularly precise calculations based on the 366 days. The Islamic calendar in businesses where frequent orbit of the moon. Some schools of does not have leap years. contact with overseas clients Muslim law make an exception for and partners occurs. \u25a0 Key dates in the In addition to Ramadan and the the Islamic world, except in Islamic calendar major feasts of Eid al-Fitr and Eid Qatar and Saudi Arabia, where al-Adha (when communal meals the interpretation of Islam are cooked, see left) there are a forbids mawlids, celebrations of number of other calendar dates of the birthdays of holy figures. importance to Muslims. The first of Muharram is Islamic New Year The 12th of Rajab marks (Ras as-Sana al-Hijriya) and is a Leilat al-Miraj, the Night Journey worldwide holiday in Muslim of the Prophet to Jerusalem countries. The 10th of Muharram and Heaven. Some Muslims is Ashura, when Shia communities make special prayers on this commemorate the martyrdom of night and light candles or display Hussein, the Prophet\u2019s grandson, illuminations. The 15th of at the Battle of Kerbala. The 12th Shaaban is Leilat al-Baraat (Night of Rabi al-Awwal is the Mawlid of Salvation), a night on which al-Nabi, or Prophet Muhammad\u2019s God may forgive sinners. Twelver Birthday. This is celebrated across Shia also celebrate the birthday of the 12th Imam on this date.","WHOEVER FWTURRANYOSIMFSRONMMOMETY PROPHET MUHAMMAD","","120 SAYINGS AND ACTIONS OF THE PROPHET IN CONTEXT Followers of the \u2026 provide context Prophet record his for understanding THEME words and actions Sayings and actions of the Quran \u2026 the Prophet as hadith in order to \u2026 WHEN AND WHERE 9th century, Arabia The word of God \u2026 as a primary is revealed to source for Islamic BEFORE teachings that \u2026 c. 570\u2013632 During the Muhammad and Prophet\u2019s life, his words and is recorded as actions are observed by his the Quran. followers and taken as an example of a correct way of \u2026 serve as a Muslim living. model for Muslims to emulate the life AFTER of Muhammad. c. 767\u2013820 Islamic jurist al-Shafii rules on the authority \u2026 supply detailed of a hadith of Muhammad, so instruction on that even the Quran is \u201cto be interpreted in the light of Islamic practice hadith, and not vice versa.\u201d and \u2026 19th century So-called Quranists reject the authority of the hadith, believing that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran. I slam is based on two bodies The precise number of hadith Uses of hadith of scripture. The core of the is debated but, excluding those religion is the Quran, which of uncertain authenticity, they Much of the everyday practice Muslims believe to be the word run into the thousands. From the of Islam comes not from the Quran of God as revealed to the Prophet hadith, Muslims know about almost but from the hadith. Many of the Muhammad. Supplementing this every facet of Muhammad\u2019s verses in the Quran are very general are the teachings of Muhammad. personal life and his prophetic in their nature, and the hadith are Known as hadith, these are oral mission. If an answer to a question used to add detail. For example, anecdotes recalling the words and about Islam and Muslim life the Quran tells Muslims to pray, deeds of the Prophet, and the cannot be found in the Quran, then but it is the hadith that describe actions of his Companions that he guidance will be found in a hadith. the exact words to be recited and endorsed. The distinction is that the actions to be followed when a while the Quran is the word of God, Taken as whole, the hadith Muslim prays. Similarly, the hadith hadith are the words and actions of constitute the sunna (\u201cthe way\u201d), explain how to correctly observe Muhammad and do not have the which is the example provided by other pillars of Islam, such as the status of divine revelations. the life of Muhammad that every amount of alms to be given, how Muslim attempts to emulate. and when to fast, and rituals","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 121 See also: The early life of Muhammad 22\u201327 \u25a0 The Five Pillars of Islam: Shahada 36\u201341 \u25a0 The death of the Prophet 56\u201357 \u25a0 God\u2019s guidance through Sharia 128\u201333 involved in completing the Hajj. God Almighty said There are several possible Covering almost every conceivable busy yourself with my explanations for this. One is that subject\u2014from legal proclamations worship and I will fill your while the accounts were recorded (on apostasy, usury, and criminal during the Prophet\u2019s lifetime, they punishments) to the treatment heart with riches. were not collated until much later. of women\u2014hadith were a prime Prophet Muhammad Another is that the accounts were source for the formulation of Sharia, initially transmitted orally from one or Islamic law. Other hadith Collecting the hadith generation to the next, and it was instruct Muslims on etiquette only when there was a risk of them (how to receive guests, what to do As far as historians can ascertain, being forgotten that they were if a fly lands in your drink), while the main collections of these committed to paper. Some some are more esoteric: one hadith, sayings and actions of the Prophet historians suggest that the hadith for example, gives the height of did not emerge until about 200 may not have been written down Adam as 60 arms, while another years after his death. It was only until later because the early caliphs promises the often-quoted figure in the 9th century that books forbade it, fearing that Muslims of 72 houris (virgins) that await a of hadith were known to be in would equate the Prophet with martyr in heaven. circulation. This presents a big God and the hadith with the gap between when the Prophet revelations of the Quran. Often, statements that have spoke and acted, and when his been attributed to the Quran turn words and actions were recorded. The long gap between out to actually be hadith. Then Muhammad\u2019s death and the there are other alleged hadith\u2014 writing down of the hadith allowed for example, those condemning an almost limitless number to Jews, Christians, or homosexuality; proliferate throughout the Muslim or those that prescribe stoning as world. Many of these had probably the punishment for adultery, or been fabricated by individuals death as the penalty for apostasy looking to advance their own \u2014for which the authenticity is particular beliefs or interests. considered somewhat questionable By the 9th century, the situation by some scholars. had become so out of hand that a group of legal scholars, working independently of each other, began compiling the most reliable hadith into authoritative collections. Key compilations As far as Sunni Islam is concerned, the two main collections of hadith are the Sahih al-Bukhari and the Sahih Muslim, compiled by Muhammad al-Bukhari (810\u201370) and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (c. 815\u2013 74) respectively\u2014sahih means \u276f\u276f Shia Muslims pray in Karachi, Pakistan. According to a hadith, all Muslims will be held accountable on the Day of Resurrection for how well they observed daily prayers.","122 SAYINGS AND ACTIONS OF THE PROPHET A couple marries in Shkodra, Albania. A hadith says that a woman is married for her wealth, lineage, beauty, or piety \u2014the hadith advises the latter as the best reason for marrying. \u201cauthentic.\u201d Al-Bukhari\u2019s work is, Chains of authenticity expert in Islamic law al-Shafii for most Sunnis, the single most In any book of hadith, each entry explained it, \u201cIf a trustworthy authoritative religious text after is presented in two parts: a main person transmits [a hadith] from the Quran. It contains no fewer body of text, known as the matn, another trustworthy person until than 7,275 hadith, spread over which includes the actual record of the chain ends with the Messenger several volumes. It is arranged what the Prophet said or did, and of God, then it is established as thematically, with 93 chapters an isnad, or \u201cchain of transmission.\u201d being from the Messenger of God.\u201d covering topics such as belief, The isnad takes the form of a long prayer, ablution, alms, fasting, line of attribution that ideally links At the time the main collections commerce, inheritance, crime, the hadith back to the Prophet. As of hadith were collated, which punishment, wills, oaths, war, food the 9th-century Islamic scholar and was the mid-9th century, these and drink, marriage, hunting, and chains usually stretched five or bathroom etiquette. Muslim\u2019s collection contains 4,000 hadith, and is also arranged by theme. Both al-Bukhari and Muslim were known for their meticulousness in attempting to ascertain the authenticity of the hadith by documenting the chain of transmission. Al-Bukhari, in particular, is regarded as the founder of a discipline known as ilm al-rijal (\u201cthe science of learned men\u201d), or the detailed study of the individuals who passed along the hadith. Not one of you can Sunni and Shia hadith many of the same hadith but truly believe if you do not there are differences of opinion Hadith have frequently proven and interpretation among them. want for your brother divisive within Islam. What believer what you want one camp considers authentic, Shia Muslims have their another may claim is a forgery. own distinct body of hadith for yourself. Among Sunni Muslims, there material, with their own four Prophet Muhammad are six books of hadith held canonical books of hadith, to contain the most authentic which they refer to as the \u201cFour texts. In addition to the Sahih Principles\u201d\u2014none of which are al-Bukhari and the Sahih used by the Sunnis. In general, Muslim, Sunnis also regard Shia Muslims give priority to collections by Abu Dawud hadith that were transmitted (c. 817\u201389), Tirmidhi (824\u201392), from the Prophet through the Ibn Maja (824\u2013c. 887), and ahl al-beit (the 12 Imams and al-Nasai (c. 829\u2013915) in high the Prophet\u2019s daughter Fatima). esteem. These collections share","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 123 He who has not Quran Only movement He that obeys the thanked humans has While hadith remain extremely Messenger has assuredly popular with many Muslims, and not thanked God. are used widely as citations in obeyed God. Prophet Muhammad books, sermons, and other religious 4:80 material, there is a minority of six people, or more, back to Muslims who reject all hadith as the hadith are rejected, much of Muhammad. A typical hadith fabrications. Emerging in the 19th Islam goes with them\u2014the sunna, would read as follows: \u201cX said that century and known as Quranists which guides the lives of most of Y said that W said that V said that or the \u201cQuran Only\u201d movement, the world\u2019s Muslims, the Sunnis, is he heard the Prophet say \u2026\u201d. In the adherents claim that the Holy derived from the hadith. The fact is case of an action of the Prophet, a Book alone is sufficient for human that the Quran, like the hadith, was hadith would read: \u201cX said that Y guidance and that the body of transmitted orally, and if the Quran said that W said that V said that hadith is fatally unreliable. This is authentic, they say, we should at the Prophet was seen to \u2026\u201d. A was one of the platforms of the least give the hadith the benefit of break in the chain, such as a Partisans of the Quran (ahl-e the doubt. \u25a0 person not remembering who told Quran), a group of Indian Muslim them a hadith, or quoting someone intellectuals that formed in the they had never met, would make Punjab region of India in the 1890s. the hadith unreliable. Specialists This line of thinking has also had in the study of hadith\u2014known as a strong influence in Turkey. al-muhadithun \u2014recognize more than 40 classifications of hadith, The majority of Muslims from the completely authenticated acknowledge the problems that (sahih), to the weak (daif) but still beset the hadith on the issue of acceptable to some, and the authenticity, but point out that if outright forgeries (mawdu). In addition to verifying the chain of transmission, specialists also studied the relation of each hadith to the Quran. This two-tier approach led to differences in the content of the compilations, in their classifications of which hadith were authentic and which not, and in their interpretation. The hijab, or headscarf, like the one worn by this woman reading the Quran in a Damascus mosque, is not described by the Quran but comes from a hadith on modesty.","124 OHYOFEUSH.W.A.STINHFEEORFBLIEDSDHEN THE QURAN, 16:115 IN CONTEXT All foods are halal (lawful) unless specifically forbidden. THEME The Quran names a handful of foodstuffs Muslim dietary laws as haram (unlawful), notably pork. WHEN AND WHERE Certain other foodstuffs are considered makruh (\u201cdetestable 7th century ce, Arabia but not forbidden absolutely\u201d), including horsemeat, shrimp, and other shellfish. BEFORE Pre-Islamic era The Torah F or Muslim believers, in their own familial or cultural and the Bible both include food and drink are seen tradition. There are, however, prohibitions on foodstuffs, as gifts from God and strict dietary laws that determine characterizing certain foods prime examples of His compassion, what an observant Muslim may as either \u201cclean\u201d or \u201cunclean.\u201d provision, and generosity. It is for and may not eat and drink. this reason that many observant AFTER Muslims preface all meals with Halal and haram 8th century ce As Islam the words, Bismillah wa barakati spreads beyond Arabia and Allah (\u201cIn the name of God, and The Quran says surprisingly Muslims incorporate different with the blessing of God\u201d). little on the issue of food and drink; peoples into their fold, scholars there is nothing in the text, for systematize food rules beyond Strictly speaking, there is no example, like the very detailed the instructions in the Quran. such thing as Islamic cuisine; dietary code that we find in the Muslims eat whatever is customary Old Testament of the Bible. The Today Since the late 20th century, manufacturers and marketers have targeted a booming Muslim population with halal products that extend beyond food to embrace cosmetics, clothing, finance, and travel.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 125 See also: The Six Pillars of Faith 86\u201387 \u25a0 Islam and alcohol, gambling, and drugs 126 \u25a0 The global business of halal 292 Quran says that Muslim believers Eat of the good and windpipe must be severed in one are allowed to consume what is lawful things which God stroke, before the blood is drained \u201cgood and pure\u201d\u2014food that, out of the carcass. presumably, is clean, fresh, and bestowed on you\u2026 wholesome. The general rule of 16:114 A more detailed treatment of thumb is that everything is lawful prohibited foods can be found in (halal) unless specifically forbidden Making meat halal the many hadith, which broaden as unlawful (haram), and even While the word halal simply means the base of forbidden foods to then one may, in extenuating \u201clawful,\u201d when used in the phrase include items not mentioned in circumstances, consume that \u201chalal meat,\u201d it refers to meat taken the Quran. Among the prohibited which is unlawful if there is from animals that have been items in the haram category are absolutely no other option. slaughtered in accordance with predatory animals with fangs, for doctrinally prescribed methods. example cats, dogs, lions, bears, The Quran also says little on This entails slitting the animal\u2019s and so on; birds with talons, for the issue of outlawed food and throat as swiftly and mercifully as example owls; mice and rats; drink. There is a clear ban on all possible while reciting the name snakes, scorpions, and other intoxicating drinks, and foods that of God to acknowledge that an animals that are traditionally contain alcohol are also prohibited animal can only be killed with considered to be vermin. by default. Also deemed haram God\u2019s permission. The knife must are the following: carrion, which be as sharp as possible and the A third legal category, makruh, is understood to mean the meat carotid artery, jugular vein, and which means \u201cdetestable but not of an animal not slaughtered by forbidden\u201d, covers things such as the Islamically prescribed method; horsemeat and shellfish. There are blood; the meat of an animal further gradations, including sacrificed to idols; the meat of mubah (neutral) and mustahab an animal that has died from (recommended), that lie in between strangulation or blunt force; meat halal and haram, although these are from which wild animals have not necessarily applied to food. already eaten; and the flesh of Schools of law are unanimous on swine, in other words pork and what is halal and haram, but there other meats from pigs. are many differences of opinion with regard to what is makruh. \u25a0 Dining etiquette with \u201ca third of the stomach All meat sold in Muslim countries for food; a third for drink; and a is halal. Increasingly, many shops and While the Quran is silent on the third for air\u201d. Eating etiquette food outlets in Muslim-minority specific issue of table manners includes eating in company countries also cater to Muslim and etiquette, many hadith rather than alone, thus sharing consumers with halal offerings. outline what is praiseworthy the bounties God has provided. and blameworthy when it comes And if you do not like a food to eating. When eating with you have been given, then you your hands, for example, food should refrain from eating rather should be taken with the right than criticizing it. hand rather than the left\u2014the left being used traditionally to Most Muslims fast during clean oneself after using the the month of Ramadan, but they bathroom. Overeating is are also encouraged to do so for discouraged; a hadith advises six days of the following month, that Muslims should finish for two days around the 10th of eating before they feel full, Muharram, and on the ninth day of the month of Hajj.","126 WINE AND GAMES OF CHANCE... ARE ABOMINATIONS THE QURAN, 5:90 IN CONTEXT A ll intoxicating drinks Say: \u2018There is great harm in both\u2019\u201d are forbidden by Islamic (2:219). Both are seen as addictions THEME law, together with all with the potential to destroy lives Islam and alcohol, other substances that impact and place strain on the social gambling, and drugs negatively upon consciousness fabric. Betting on sports is also and are taken recreationally. The forbidden, as are any forms of WHEN AND WHERE medicinal use of drugs such as lottery or games of chance played 7th century, Arabia opioids is conditionally permitted. for money. The various schools of The Quran makes three specific law disagree on whether or not BEFORE references to alcohol, two of which raffles should be included in the Pre-Islamic era Although seem only slightly censorious, definition of gambling. Similarly, both Christians and Jews use with just one, sura 5:90, outright games of chance, even when wine in their ceremonies, the condemning it. According to not played for money\u2014cards, for holy scriptures of both religions traditionalist scholars, this reflects instance\u2014are also the subject include warnings on the the pragmatic nature of Islamic law. of continued debate. \u25a0 destructive nature of alcohol The desert Arabs were so used to and intoxication. For example, inebriation that prohibition could Believers, do not \u201cWine is a mocker, strong not have been brought in overnight. approach your prayers drink a brawler, and whoever Instead, alcohol was abolished when you are drunk \u2026 is led astray by it is not wise\u201d gradually, with two warnings about \u2014Proverbs 20:1. its ill effects followed later by an 4:43 outright ban. Despite the prohibition, AFTER in all Muslim-majority countries The modern era Alcohol is today there are some Muslims who completely banned in some drink alcohol and indulge in drug Muslim countries. Other use\u2014even though it is forbidden. Muslim countries permit it to some degree, to sell to Gambling is often condemned non-Muslims for example, by the Quran in the same verses but ban it completely for the that outlaw alcohol\u2014\u201cThey ask duration of Ramadan. you about drinking and gambling. See also: Muslim dietary laws 124\u201325","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 127 UGHSIOSUDCRHUYARSSLEAOIDN THE QURAN, 2:276 IN CONTEXT T he Arabic word riba is a Those that devour usury noun derived from a root shall rise up before God like THEME meaning an \u201cincrease\u201d or him that Satan has demented Moneylending in Islam a \u201cgrowth.\u201d It is usually translated as \u201cusury\u201d\u2014charging excessive by his touch\u2026 WHEN AND WHERE interest (or any interest at all) when 2:275 7th century, Arabia lending money. In several different verses, the Quran cautions have seen that through usury the BEFORE believers not to deal in usury in any rich were being rewarded for being 2000\u20131400 bce The Vedic shape or form, and claims that God wealthy and the poor penalized texts of ancient India mention will act against those who do: for being poor. This ran counter usury but express no opinion. \u201cBelievers, fear God and waive to the spirit of brotherhood that The later Buddhist Jatakas what is still due to you from usury, formed part of the Prophet\u2019s (600\u2013400 bce) specifically if your faith be true; or war shall be message of Islam. condemn its practice. declared against you by God and His Messenger\u201d (2:278\u201379). In most Muslim-majority c.600 bce In Judaism, several countries, there is disagreement biblical passages scorn the Muslim scholars offer various over what exactly constitutes charging of interest. The suggestions as to why usury has riba, and institutions still deal in Hebrew word for interest is been declared haram, or unlawful, interest, often through the use of neshekh, meaning \u201ca bite.\u201d so forcefully. The answer lies with legal loopholes that turn interest the merchants of Mecca. Some into \u201ccommission.\u201d \u25a0 AFTER verses that mention usury date 634\u201344ce Under the caliph from early in the Prophet\u2019s career, Umar the charging of interest when he was addressing his is prohibited by law. message to the citizens of Mecca, urging them to change their ways. 19th century Indian Islamic We know that there was great reformist Sayyid Ahmad Khan inequality of wealth between argues for a differentiation the city\u2019s merchants and the between usury and interest underclasses. Muhammad would on commercial investment. See also: God\u2019s guidance through Sharia 128\u201333 \u25a0 Islamic banking 293","L AWWE HAVE ORDAINED A AND ASSIGNED A PATH THE QURAN, 5:49","","130 GOD\u2019S GUIDANCE THROUGH SHARIA IN CONTEXT T he Arabic word sharia We then set for you a law to means \u201cpath.\u201d More the right path. Follow it and THEME specifically, in a historical do not yield to the desires of God\u2019s guidance through context, it means \u201cthe path to the those devoid of knowledge\u2026 Sharia watering place.\u201d In the Arabian Peninsula, which is largely desert, 45:18 WHEN AND WHERE a path to water is a route to 8th century, Arabia survival. Similarly, in the Islamic could rule on public and private sense, Sharia is the pathway, by concerns, there was a call for a BEFORE God\u2019s law, to spiritual salvation. It more uniform and clearly defined c. 1500 bce The Torah records is a system of ethics and law (fiqh) form of guidance\u2014Sharia. the Ten Commandments\u2014 that is meant to govern humankind religious and ethical laws and guide everything people do. Defining Islamic law given to Moses by God. As is often said, Islam is not just a Scholars eager to standardize Islamic statement of faith; it is one\u2019s whole jurisprudence emerged in many 610\u2013632 ce The Prophet way of life. Muslim communities, leading to Muhammad receives the disagreements over how to apply the revelation of the Quran, and At first, Muslims relied on God\u2019s law. Should its scope be restricted to his followers begin to circulate revelations (the Quran) and the the teachings of the Quran and the his words and actions. example of the Prophet\u2019s life sunna, or could jurists incorporate (sunna) for direction. With their own analysis and reason? AFTER Muhammad\u2019s death, however, this c. 14th century Ibn guidance ceased. Over the next By the 8th century, Muslims Taymiyya, an Islamic scholar, 100 years, the Islamic community differed widely on the application of issues a fatwa (legal ruling) rapidly expanded from a following Sharia. One scholar, Abu Abdullah against the Mongols for not limited to the cities of Medina and Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafii, basing their laws on Sharia. Mecca to an empire stretching from came to the fore to offer unifying Spain to Central Asia. The question thought on the legal concerns of the 1997 The European Council for of how to apply the Quranic day. According to al-Shafii, there Fatwa and Research is founded revelations to everyday life, across were four sources of law: the Quran, to assist European Muslims in the various cultures of the growing the sunna, the consensus of the interpreting Sharia. Muslim community, was becoming community (ijma), and \u201canalogical\u201d ever more complex. Despite the reasoning (qiyas). emergence of Islamic judges, who The main source of Sharia is Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafii the Quran itself. In many passages, it directly addresses matters such The life of the great scholar He served as a governor as exploitation of the poor, usury, al-Shafii is rich in legends. in Yemen, taught in Baghdad, theft, and adultery\u2014all of which it Details of his early life are and finally settled in Egypt. explicitly condemns. The Quran unclear, but according to the also guides Muslims in personal oldest surviving accounts he From his travels, al-Shafii and community affairs. It has was born into a Qurayshi family could see that the application plenty to say on issues related to in Gaza in 767. When he was of Islamic law across the Muslim women\u2019s rights, including on young, his family moved to world was highly idiosyncratic. Mecca, where he studied hadith. He resolved to \u201ctake law from He is said to have memorized the source\u201d by which he meant the Quran by the time he was a return to the Quran and 10 years old. He later moved to hadith. Through his teachings Medina, where he studied under and writings he is credited with Malik ibn Anas, the founder of creating the essentials of fiqh the Maliki school of Islamic law. (Islamic jurisprudence). He died in 820 and was buried in Cairo.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 131 See also: The early life of Muhammad 22\u201327 \u25a0 Sayings and actions of the Prophet 118\u201323 \u25a0 The quest to make God\u2019s word supreme 134\u201335 How do we live a life By looking for We can consult the that pleases God? His guidance in Quran for His word. every matter. We can use the We can ask for We can look to the mind God gave us to guidance from Prophet for example. reason His will. scholars. All of these things All of these things God guides us form Sharia, the path come from God. with Sharia. to good living. divorce, custody of children, and fine in a theological sense, but it \u201cThe path to the watering place\u201d rights of inheritance. However, offers no advice on the murderer\u2019s (the literal translation of \u201cSharia\u201d) much of its treatment of legal punishment on Earth. For this was a concept that had resonance for concerns is generic. For example, reason, the word of the Quran is believers who came from the harsh \u201cHe that kills a believer by design supplemented by the example desert lands of the Arabian Peninsula. shall burn in Hell for ever\u201d (4:93) is of Muhammad, derived from the sunna\u2014the scholarly collections of Do not live in a land in the reported sayings and actions which there is neither a of the Prophet known as hadith. scholar to inform you about your religion, nor a doctor to The third source of law is the tell you about your body. consensus of the community, or ijma. Muhammad is reported to Al-Shafii have said that his community would never agree on an error. Al-Shafii therefore gave authority to legal rulings reached by consensus among the Muslims. Over time \u201cthe community\u201d came to be defined in legal terms as a body of legal scholars and religious authorities whose decisions would be made on behalf of wider Muslim society. \u276f\u276f","132 GOD\u2019S GUIDANCE THROUGH SHARIA Analogical reasoning can be used to determine acceptable behavior. Opioids and drugs are However, the Quran \u2026 therefore, other intoxicants, not specifically forbidden does forbid alcohol, such as drugs and opioids are which is an intoxicant \u2026 in the Quran. forbidden, too. Intellectual striving \u201cAnd if there is no precedent for that might be made during the call Muadh ibn Jabal was a Companion your question?\u201d asked Muhammad. to prayer? Should a marriage, for of the Prophet. He was sent to example, be arranged during this Yemen to teach its people about \u201cThen I will exercise my own time? The Quran is silent on the Islam. Before he set off, Muhammad reason and judgement,\u201d responded matter, but analogical reasoning asked him how he would settle any Ibn Jabal. can be used to derive a legal disputes among the Yemenis. \u201cBy opinion. If the aim of the Quran is referring to the Quran,\u201d Ibn Jabal In situations where the Quran to discourage actions preventing replied. and sunna provided no answers, Muslims from worship, then, and where no consensus could be likewise, restrictions on business \u201cAnd what if the answer is not reached, jurists would follow Ibn can be applied to other contracts, in the Quran?\u201d Muhammad asked. Jabal\u2019s example and use their own such as a marriage. judgment to arbitrate new legal \u201cBy following your ways,\u201d concerns. This was known as Closing the gate replied Ibn Jabal. ijtihad, a word that means \u201cstriving From the 10th century, some intellectually.\u201d scholars began to criticize the A light has surely come to use of independent judgement you from God and a veritable Al-Shafii restricted the role of to derive new rulings, believing this personal reasoning in ijtihad to the encouraged the placing of too much Book, with which God analogical, or qiyas. This involves confidence in the power of human will guide to the paths deriving a conclusion from one\u2019s reason. The principle of consensus of peace those who seek experience in one or more similar of the community was also situations. This, the fourth base jettisoned. The idea evolved that to please Him \u2026 source of Sharia law, involved the \u201cgate of independent reasoning\u201d 5:15\u201316 finding analogous situations in was now closed, and that jurists the Quran or sunna from which should busy themselves with the new legal rulings could be derived. study and reinterpretation of old For example, the Quran prohibits laws, imitating their predecessors making a sale or a purchase during rather than forging ahead with the call to Friday prayers: Muslims legal innovations of their own. are instead urged to cease trading so that they may gather for worship (62:9\u201310). What about other contracts","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 133 Islamic scholars continue to play a major role in Muslim political life, like here, where religious leaders attend a peace conference in Baghdad, Iraq. Four schools Hanbalism is the official school of traditional laws in much of the In time, a number of distinct law in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Shia Islamic world. However, most schools of law emerged in different Islam has its own schools, notably Muslim-majority countries parts of the empire. From the 13th the Jaafari, which is recognized incorporate Sharia at some level century, four schools in particular as the fifth school of Islamic law within their legal framework, came to predominate in Sunni alongside the four Sunni schools. mainly in regard to civil laws, Islam. Each is named for the covering things like marriage individual who framed its main Sharia today and inheritance. Muslims with concerns: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, In the modern era, statutes, many questions on the best way to live and Shafii. of which come from European legal according to Islam will often systems introduced during the address them to a learned sheikh The most widespread of the four colonial period, have replaced for authoritative advice. is the Hanafi school, named after the legal expert Abu Hanifa (699\u2013 rulings, which run to tens The rise of modern Islamism 767), a native of Kufa in Iraq. Both it of thousands of entries. If a in the late 20th century has seen and the Maliki school, founded by specific fatwa cannot be found Sharia become associated with an Malik ibn Anas (711\u201395), encourage in the database, the website extreme form of prohibitive law that use of all four sources of law. The can connect the user to a cuts off the hands of thieves, stones Shafii and Hanbali schools focus \u201ccyber-mufti\u201d who will issue a adulterers, and engages in public on the Quran and sunna alone\u2014 fatwa in less than 24 hours. beheadings. Most Muslims view al-Shafii rejected rulings based this with horror. They are more on juristic discretion and public Fatwas sometimes spark inclined to the vision of Sharia interest altogether. Adherents of controversy. For example, in the described by the Syrian jurist the Shafii school predominate in aftermath of the 9\/11 attacks, al-Jawzi (d. 1350), who wrote, \u201cThe India and Southeast Asia. The Saudi Arabia\u2019s highest religious foundation of the Sharia is wisdom fourth and smallest Sunni school authorities issued a fatwa and the safeguarding of people\u2019s of law, named after Ahmed ibn sanctioning a holy war against welfare in this life and the next\u2026 Hanbal (780\u2013855), is seen as the Saddam Hussein by all Muslims Every ruling that replaces justice most conservative of the schools. to evict his forces from Kuwait. with injustice, mercy with its opposite \u2026 is a ruling that does The issuing of fatwas not belong to the Sharia.\u201d \u25a0 A fatwa is simply a religious edict, or judgement. It can only be pronounced by a qualified scholar of Islam, known as a mufti, who has reached his (only occasionally her) ruling by considering the four sources of Sharia law. In the modern era, fatwas serve to expand on and update aspects of Sharia law to keep pace with changing social and economic circumstances. Fatwas are issued on every topic imaginable. There are websites that provide databases of","134 OJTIHNHEEASSDEUILSPFRAEGMAEINST THE HISTORY OF BAGHDAD BY AL-KHATIB AL-BAGHDADI (11th CENTURY) IN CONTEXT The word \u201cjihad\u201d is derived from a root shared with words that relate to striving, struggle, and resistance. THEME The quest to make God\u2019s According to the The \u201clesser jihad\u201d word supreme Prophet, the \u201cgreater relates to the struggle jihad\u201d is the struggle with others, which can take WHEN AND WHERE that all Muslims wage 7th\u20138th century, Arabia within and against the form of war. BEFORE themselves. 7th century Muhammad and his followers suffer persecution Jihadism is a modern term wrongly used in the West by the Meccans and are forced to denote a violent and extremist Islamist worldview to take up arms. that has nothing to do with the Quranic jihad. 661\u2013750 The Umayyad Many Muslims regard the term as Islamophobic. caliphate undertakes expansion of the Islamic T he word \u201cjihad\u201d is typically narrowing down and reduction of empire by conquest. mistranslated as \u201choly the meaning of this word has led war,\u201d either through lack to misconceptions and negative AFTER of understanding or, in some cases, reactions on the part of Muslims 12th century Muslim deliberate misinterpretation. The and non-Muslims alike. Andalusian philosopher Ibn Rushd divides jihad into four types: jihad by the heart, by the tongue, by the hand, and by the sword. c. 1964 Egyptian thinker Sayyid Qutb argues for jihad as the mission to make Islam dominant in the world.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 135 See also: Hijra: the flight from Mecca 28\u201331 \u25a0 The rightly guided caliphs 104\u2013107 \u25a0 The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates 136\u201339 \u25a0 The rise of political Islam 238\u201341 \u25a0 The new extremists 272\u201377 The meaning of jihad Permission to take up arms himself and his followers from Jihad is one of a number of words is hereby granted to those the Meccans, who first persecuted sharing the same root letters j\u2013h\u2013d, who are attacked, because the Muslims and then tried to all of which pertain to striving, they have been wronged. eliminate them altogether. But struggle, and resistance. The in taking up arms, Muhammad concept of ijtihad, which refers to 22:39 adhered to the lessons of the Quran: intellectual reasoning, comes from \u201cIf you punish, let your punishment the same root. In the Quran, the inner, spiritual struggle to remain be commensurate with the wrong term \u201cjihad\u201d is used in the general on the straight path of correct belief that has been done you. But it shall sense of the exertion of willpower and practice, the lesser jihad is be best for you to endure with and energy for a particular cause, temporary and a response to a patience\u201d (16:126). Armed jihad and always \u201cin the name of God\u201d specific set of circumstances. occurred under the Umayyads (fi sabil Allah). The struggle against when the caliphate\u2014and, by the whims and demands of the Jihad through the ages extension, Islam\u2014was expanding lower self, or nafs, is said to have How jihad has been interpreted and its territory. In the more peaceable been referred to by the Prophet implemented has been influenced Abbasid period that followed, Muhammad as the \u201cgreater jihad\u201d to a large extent by the politics of jihad became more linked to (jihad al-akbar). The Quran is quite the time. In the early days of Islam, personal inner struggle. explicit that the most fulfilling form jihad often took the form of armed of jihad is the struggle that all struggle. From the outset, the In the recent era, the almost Muslims wage within and against Prophet was forced to defend exclusive use of jihad to mean \u201choly themselves: \u201cBlessed shall be he war\u201d has been employed by critics that has kept [himself] pure, and to suggest Muslims are on a ruined he that has corrupted mission to Islamicize the world. [himself]\u201d (91:7). Conversely, some Muslims have reacted by denying any connection Jihad may also take the form of between jihad and warfare. Both armed struggle. This is known as positions are flawed. The Quran is the \u201clesser jihad\u201d and it has its own clear that the meaning of jihad is Arabic term, qital (\u201ccombat\u201d). While far broader than\u2014but does not the greater jihad is a continuous exclude\u2014fighting an enemy. \u25a0 What is jihadism? and defending the Muslim You have come from community, or umma, against the Lesser Jihad to the The word \u201cjihad,\u201d as found in infidels. Such groups believe that Greater Jihad\u2014the striving the Quran, can have a variety of jihad is a collective obligation meanings, the purest of which is that must be fulfilled by every of a servant (of God) an internal struggle of the spirit. able Muslim. Those Muslims who against his desires. \u201cJihadism\u201d (and the related do not share this world view are Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi \u201cjihadi\u201d and \u201cjihadist\u201d) is a typically labeled \u201cdeviants\u201d and relatively recent term used are considered legitimate targets. Islamic scholar 1002\u201371 mostly in the West to describe extreme Islamist militant In the modern era, the term movements who employ jihadism is particularly linked violence to achieve their ends. with militant groups such as al-Qaeda and Islamic State. Jihadists are defined as those The word is not used by most who consider violent struggle Muslims because they see it as necessary to eradicate obstacles associating a noble concept with to restoring God\u2019s rule on Earth, illegitimate violence.","136 IN CONTEXT OPCAFORMITSPLOLAEFMTTIOHNE THEME The Umayyad and Abbasid CALIPH WALID II (r. 743\u201344) caliphates WHEN AND WHERE 661\u20131258, Damascus and Baghdad BEFORE 634 Ali ibn Abi Talib becomes the fourth caliph to be elected following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. AFTER 1258 With the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols, there is no longer a single dominant power in the Islamic world. Rival dynasties carve up the territories that were once ruled by the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates. 1517 After seizing Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, the Turkish Ottoman dynasty proclaims itself the new caliphate, which lasts until 1924. W ith the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib in 661, his rival Muawiya, the governor of Syria, became the first caliph who was not chosen by a council of the Companions of the Prophet, but relied on his military might to seize power. Muawiya was the first of what would be known as the Umayyad caliphs, named for the Umayya tribe of Mecca, to which he belonged. Their caliphate was to last for less than 90 years, but in that time the boundaries of the Islamic world were extended to create an empire that would not be equaled in size until the peak of the Ottoman Empire some 900 years later.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 137 See also: An Islamic place of worship 98\u201399 \u25a0 The rightly guided caliphs 104\u201307 \u25a0 The House of Wisdom 150\u201351 \u25a0 The caliphate of the Ottoman Empire 186\u201389 \u25a0 Islamic art and architecture 194\u2013201 After the death of the considered to be hereditary, Prophet Muhammad, the many clans refused to pay their Rashidun caliphs rule respects. Instead, some of the old the Islamic community families of Medina rallied around Abdullah ibn Zubeir, son of one of from Medina. Muhammad\u2019s closest Companions, who called for a council to choose After the death of the a new caliph. From the Prophet\u2019s last of the Rashidun caliphs, family, Ali\u2019s younger son Hussein gave his support to the dissenters. the Umayyad caliphate Yazid dealt brutally with the threat, assumes power from a base sending 4,000 soldiers to massacre Hussein\u2019s group of 70 followers and in Damascus. family on the plains of Kerbala in Iraq in 680. Seljuks in Turkey The Abbasids defeat Empire building Buyids in Iran the Umayyads and rule from Yazid left no natural successor and Baghdad. The Mongols crush the position of caliph was filled by Mamluks in Egypt the Abbasids, the caliphate a candidate from another branch ends, and power devolves to of the Umayyad clan. On taking Even more significantly, when power, Abd al-Malik (r. 685\u2013705) Muawiya named his own son as regional centers. was obliged to quash an attempted his successor, it marked the coup in Damascus, conquer rivals beginning of a new era of rule in To govern these far-flung lands, in Iraq, and eliminate the threat of Islam, based not on suitability he returned to a more tribal style Abdullah ibn Zubeir in Mecca, all or piety, but on lineage. of leadership, reviving the old in the cause of reuniting the Hereditary rule practices such as wufud, which caliphate. Once that was achieved Under the Rashidun caliphs, involved tribes sending delegations he took the war to the Byzantine faith had been the chief social to keep the caliph informed of their Empire, advancing into Turkey and unifier. For the Damascus-based interests. The reintroduction of the Caucasus, and sweeping across Umayyads, however, faith often such practices led many of North Africa. \u276f\u276f appeared to count for little. Blood Muawiya\u2019s critics to describe him and tribal relations now became not as a caliph but as a malik, or He [Muawiya] placed his the chief motivating principle. secular king, in the style of the throne in Damascus and Under Muawiya\u2019s rule, the army pre-Islamic rulers of Arabia. refused to go to Muhammad\u2019s was modernized and the empire continued to expand outward. Evidence that Muawiya throne [Medina]. saw himself more as king than The Maronite Chronicle caliph came when he named his ineffectual son, Yazid, as heir to 7th-century Syrian manuscript the caliphate. Offended by the idea that the caliphate was now","138 THE UMAYYAD AND ABBASID CALIPHATES Under Abd al-Malik, Arabic was Walid\u2019s reign, the caliphate was reestablishing themselves as the landholding elite. The caliphate made the language of government expanded to its largest territorial was beleaguered by bloody power struggles. Just as pernicious was administration. New coins were extent, although in 732 Arab the emergence of Arabism. Being an Arab was frequently given more minted and the old Byzantine and armies pushed up through Spain significance than being a Muslim. This gave rise to a stratified Persian currencies were replaced into the Loire in France, until they society, with Arab Muslims at the top, then the non-Arab converts to by a single, centralized system of were halted at the Battle of Tours by Islam, with Jews and Christians next, and slaves at the bottom. gold dinars and silver dirhams the Frankish king Charles Martel. The discontent of the non-Arab Muslims would be the undoing of across the entire expanding empire. By this time, the practice of the Umayyads. The latter part of the Umayyad era the caliph nominating his heir was Claiming descent from the Prophet\u2019s uncle, Abbas ibn Abd was also marked by impressive the accepted way of things. A letter al-Muttalib, the Abbasids of northern Arabia had long been building projects. These included written by a later Umayyad caliph rivals of the Umayyads. They shrewdly cultivated the support of desert palaces constructed for the illustrates the entitlement that the disaffected non-Arabs on the fringes of the Umayyad empire to wealthy elite, but also places came with the position: in it, foment rebellion. With their help, Abbasid agents seized power first of worship, most notably the Walid II (r. 743\u201344) states that the in north-east Iran, after which their armies engaged the Umayyads in magnificent Dome of the Rock in caliphate is \u201cpart of the completion a series of battles that ended with the death of the last Umayyad Jerusalem (688\u201392). of Islam and the perfection of those caliph at the Battle of the Great Zab River (750). Abd al-Malik was succeeded mighty favors by which God makes Damascus to Baghdad by his son Walid I (r. 705\u201315), under His people obliged to Him.\u201d At his inauguration, the first Abbasid caliph, al-Saffa (r. 750\u201354), whose leadership a second wave of gave a sermon to justify the new expansionist conquests took place, Festering inequality caliphate. In it, he established that with Muslim rule crossing the Beneath all this progress festered the Abbasids were \u201cthe kin of God\u2019s messenger\u201d and created Mediterranean into the Iberian serious ills. Under the Umayyads, \u201cfrom the ancestors of the Prophet, causing us to grow from his tree.\u201d Peninsula and spreading to the many pre-Islamic traditions were The second Abbasid caliph, Indian subcontinent. During revived, with old Arab clans Mansur (r. 754\u201375), began the construction of a new dynastic capital in central Iraq, on the site of The Great Mosque at Damascus was built during the reign of Walid I. Byzantine artisans were used to create the mosaics, shown here, that cover the facades around the courtyard.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 139 The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was, for a while, the largest mosque in the world. Built by the Abbasids in the ninth century, it has a highly unusual spiraling cone for a minaret. a small village called Baghdad, on Decline and fall establish power bases in return for the banks of the Tigris River. He The remaining 300 years of the money. When the Mongol armies created a magnificent round city, Abbasid era were less successful. swept in from the east to attack wrapped with high walls, and Of the dozen caliphs who ruled Baghdad in 1258, the empire had pierced by four great gates. It between 860 and 934, half were already been splintered. Even so, symbolized the centralization of murdered. One of the later caliphs, the demise of the Abbasids was power in the hands of the caliph. Mustaqfi (r. 944\u201346), was forced vicious. Baghdad was ransacked Enthroned in their new citadel, to cede control of Baghdad to a and its palaces and places of the early Abbasids were firmly dynasty of military leaders, the learning razed to the ground. autocratic, keeping power within Buyids, in order to hold onto the Almost a million people were the family, and always quick to caliphate. Meanwhile, other power- slaughtered. The 37th and last dispatch potential rivals into the hungry dynasties took advantage Abbasid caliph was rolled in a hands of the executioner. of a weak caliphate to proclaim carpet and trampled to death. The themselves as governors or sultans caliphate, which had been the most The fifth Abbasid caliph, Harun in other parts of the empire. The important Islamic political and al-Rashid (r. 786\u2013809), grandson of Abbasids were frequently forced spiritual institution since the time Mansur, is often regarded as the to allow these regional rulers to of Muhammad, was extinguished. \u25a0 greatest of the caliphs. His reign launched a golden age of Islamic culture and science, which was continued by his son Mamun. Father and son also did a lot to promote Islamic scholarship, with their caliphal patronage resulting in advances in the fields of Muslim jurisprudence, philosophy, and theology, as well as in mathematics, medicine, and the sciences. The lives of the Abbasid caliphs These people [the Muhammad ibn Ali al-Abdi was for Harun al-Rashid. This caliph Umayyads] have acted a caliphal courtier. In 932, he was \u201cscrupulous in fulfilling as unbelievers, by God, was asked to write a chronicle his role as a pilgrim in waging in the most blatant fashion. of the Abbasid caliphs. His holy wars.\u201d He was also said to sketches of the rulers were have undertaken many public So curse them, may not always flattering. On the works on the road to Mecca God curse them! contrary, he tells us that the and at Mina and Arafat, both first Abbasid caliph, al-Saffa, important stops on the Hajj. Abu Hamza the Kharijite was \u201cquick to spill blood.\u201d His He scattered his wealth and successor, Mansur, was \u201cthe the treasure of his justice on 8th century first to sow discord between the all his subjects. \u201cError,\u201d wrote family of Abbas and the family al-Abdi, \u201cwas repressed, the of Ali who until then had made truth reappeared and Islam, common cause.\u201d In contrast, shining with new splendor, al-Abdi has nothing but praise eclipsed all.\u201d","BEAUTYGRANT ME THEN THE OF YOUR FACE RABIA AL-ADAWIYYA (c. 714\u2013801)","","142 SUFISM AND THE MYSTIC TRADITION IN CONTEXT T he origins of Sufism\u2014 Exist in this world as if you or Muslim mysticism as had never set foot here, and in THEME some prefer to call it\u2014date Sufism and the mystic back to the earliest days of Islam. the next world as if you had tradition Under the rule of the Umayyad never left it. caliphate, which began less than WHEN AND WHERE 30 years after the death of the Hassan al-Basri 8th\u20139th century, Syria and Prophet, some Muslims had already Iraq grown disenchanted with the self- known as suf, from which the indulgence of the ruling elite. They garments of the early mystics BEFORE wanted to return to what they felt were woven. Early or classical c.610\u201332Prophet Muhammad was the simplicity of Islam during Sufism, which spans the first three establishes Islam and sets an the time of Muhammad. There was centuries of the Islamic era, centered example by living a life of also an aversion to the ongoing on the individual\u2019s sincere attempt piety, simplicity, and charity. codification of Islamic law, which to commune with God directly. seemed to be reducing the faith to Sufi teachings are diverse but the AFTER the minutiae of rules and rituals. ultimate goal is to attain the state 13th century Some Sufi While the scholars of the Sharia of ihsan\u2014worshipping God as if practices, such as reciting were concerned about where you could see Him. God\u2019s names, are incorporated Muslims prayed and the correct into Jewish worship. sequence of actions to be Achieving this involves erasing performed, certain other Muslims any bad character traits in order to 1830\u201347 Emir Abdelkader, a were concerned with the state of attain a state of \u201cunification.\u201d There Sufi scholar, leads the struggle the worshipper\u2019s heart and mind. are further stages beyond this, all against the French invasion They wanted to reproduce within of which have the goal of shedding of Algeria. themselves the state of mind that the self until nothing remains made it possible for Muhammad to except God. The process is often 1925 Turkey\u2019s new republic receive the revelations of the Quran. presented as a journey, similar to abolishes Sufi orders. an act of pilgrimage. 21st century Thought and practice In order to make this journey, More than 100 Sufi orders The term \u201cSufi\u201d came into use Sufis broke ties to the material exist worldwide. in the mid-9th century, and comes world through poverty, fasting, from the coarse woollen cloth, silence, or celibacy. Over time, they developed various techniques to concentrate their minds, such as night vigils, the chanted repetition of the divine names of God, or meditative breathing exercises. The tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti (d. 1572) at Fatehpur Sikri in India. Chishti was the founder of a Sufi order. The tomb was built by Emperor Akbar as a sign of his respect for the sheikh.","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 143 See also: The Five Pillars of Islam: Shahada 36\u201341 \u25a0 God\u2019s guidance through Sharia 128\u201333 \u25a0 The writings of Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi 174\u201375 \u25a0 Spreading Islam through trade 182\u201385 Later, groups of Sufis would add God cannot fill a vessel that is already filled. music and ecstatic dancing to help induce a trancelike state. Founding figures We must empty We must cleanse We must free Despite the emphasis on personal our lives of our minds of our hearts of dialogue with God, there were earthly desires. several major figures of influence material concerns. selfish distractions. in early Sufism. Hassan al-Basri (642\u2013728) was one of those who We must let ourselves be filled by nothing but God. preached against worldliness and materialism during the early days Thus we will find God within ourselves. of the Umayyad caliphate. He taught generations of students and that love. An example of this The way because of this some historians outlook is revealed in a saying that The early Sufis were highly mobile, refer to him as the \u201cgreat patriarch\u201d is attributed to her: \u201cO my Lord, traveling throughout the Islamic of early Sufism. Al-Basri is said to if I worship You from fear of hell, lands. Lodges were established in have gained much of his own burn me in hell. If I worship You major cities where the Sufis could knowledge from Ali ibn Abi Talib, from hope of Paradise, bar me from stay and exchange knowledge. which is why many of the Sufi its gates. But if I worship You for In time, these lodges grew into orders trace their spiritual descent Yourself alone, grant me then the schools or orders of Sufic thought, back to this fourth caliph. beauty of Your face.\u201d known as tarika\u2014from the Arabic word meaning \u201cpath\u201d or \u201croad,\u201d A rare example of a woman Hussein al-Mansur, also known signifying the spiritual journeying recorded in early Islamic history, as al-Hallaj (858\u2013922), once spent a toward God. The orders would Rabia al-Adawiyya (c. 714\u2013801) whole year in the courtyard of the center on a Sufi master, or sheikh, lived a life of seclusion in the Kaaba in Mecca fasting and in total who would act as spiritual guide or deserts of Iraq, where she practiced silence. He is known for his saying guru to the lodge\u2019s disciples (murid). intense self-denial and devotion to \u201cI am the truth,\u201d which caused Each tarika developed its own God. She is credited with being the outrage because it seemed to claim methodology, with its own set of person who introduced the doctrine divinity. He was jailed but refused stages and levels of attainment on of divine love, which is the belief to repent. However, ultimately it the path to a purified soul. Most that only God is worth loving and was his claim that it was possible generally emphasized traits such as He is the only one who can return to make a valid spiritual Hajj while generosity, humility, and oneness staying at home that brought about with God. When a sheikh died, \u276f\u276f He that knoweth God loveth his reincarceration and execution. Him, and he that knoweth the world abstaineth from it. Hassan al-Basri","144 SUFISM AND THE MYSTIC TRADITION Whirling is a form of meditation and India, and east and west visible piety of its devotees all practiced by the Mevlevi order of Sufis in Africa by the end of the 15th helped the spread of Islam into Turkey. It takes place within the sema, or century. Sufis often traveled in new lands. worship ceremony, during which Sufis response to dreams in which they aim to reach oneness with God. saw the Prophet instructing them Qadiri devotees are known to call people to God in far-flung for focusing their devotional acts one of his disciples would take places. Sufism\u2019s message of love, its (dhikr) on repetitive chanting of the charge of the tarika, leading the esoteric teachings, and the highly Shahada, faster and faster until the next generation. In this way, each phrase breaks down. Disciples of tarika claimed legitimacy through Yesterday I was the Naqshbandi Order, which has a chain (silsila) of spiritual authority clever, so I wanted its origins in the early 14th century, that inevitably would be traced to change the world. in Bukhara in Central Asia, employ all the way back to the Prophet. Today I am wise, so what is known as the \u201csilent dhikr,\u201d Some of the more influential tarika I am changing myself. in which the names of God are developed multiple branches, some repeated inwardly in an act of of them spreading across the Rumi meditation rather than spoken Islamic world. aloud in an invocation. The order spread across the Indian Sufi orders and devotions subcontinent in the 16th century One of the earliest and most and it remains hugely influential, influential of the orders dates with a reported 60 million disciples back to 12th-century Baghdad. in countries all over the world. Named for the respected preacher Abdul Qadir Jilani (1077\u20131166), The best known of all Sufi the Qadiri Order had extended orders is undoubtedly the Mevlevi. to Morocco and Spain, Turkey It was founded in Konya, Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) by the followers of 13th-century mystic","AN ISLAMIC IDENTITY 145 and poet Jalal al-Din Muhammad Drink wine and authorities. Islam is a communal Rumi. The Mevlevis\u2019 unique form look at the moon, religion and it does not encourage of dhikr is a slowly spinning dance, and think of all the radicalism or individualism. For hence their alternative name of the civilizations the moon has a Muslim, or group of Muslims, to \u201cWhirling Dervishes.\u201d seen passing by. withdraw from the community in Omar Khayyam pursuit of a personal relationship The Chishti Order, which is with God is counter to the spirit popular on the Indian sub-continent, something that the Quran forbids, of Islam. Throughout history, Sufis employs music and poetry, but other although the very fact Khayyam have regularly been persecuted\u2014 Sufi orders have more esoteric writes so much about wine suggests including in Safavid Iran in the forms of dhikr. The Rifai Order of drinking alcohol was anything but 16th century, 19th-century Mecca Macedonia is famous for disciples uncommon in 12th-century Persia. and Medina, Turkey following the who pierce themselves with spikes He remains widely read in Persian, founding of the republic in 1923, while in a trancelike state, while and in English, thanks to a highly and Pakistan today. in parts of Morocco there are Sufis interpretative translation by who practice dhikr through great English poet Edward FitzGerald, Nevertheless, Sufism has feats of strength. issued in 1868. hundreds of millions of followers around the world, and many of its Omar Khayyam Sufism today ideas and forms have entered In the view of many Muslims, Although the Sufis have rarely mainstream global culture. Sufis have always pressed the been interested in political power, Examples range from the poetry boundaries of Islamic orthodoxy. they have often drawn the ire of of Rumi and the Qawwali music This is certainly an accusation of Pakistan\u2014which became that could be leveled at one of the internationally popular thanks to best known Sufis, Persian Omar artists such as Nusrat Fateh Ali Khayyam (1048\u20131131). The son of Khan\u2014to pop videos by Madonna a tentmaker (the meaning of the and the best-selling novels by Arabic word khayyam), he grew Brazilian author Paulo Coelho. up to be a brilliant astronomer, mathematician, and, most notably, Whether directly or indirectly, a poet. His Rubaiyat\u2014quatrains, Sufism\u2019s missionary work continues or poems of four lines\u2014are still in to this day, following\u2014in the words print today. Many of these verses of Andalusian scholar and mystic are odes to wine and drunkenness, poet Ibn Arabi\u2014\u201cthe religion of love wherever its camels turn.\u201d \u25a0 The Conference of the Birds The Sufi tradition has produced way. At the end of the journey, Qawwali is a form of Sufi devotional some of the most memorable only after the birds have learned music popular in parts of Pakistan. poetry and prose in Islamic to \u201cdestroy the mountain of It gained international exposure history. One of the masterpieces the self\u201d are they allowed to through the concerts and recordings is The Conference of the Birds approach the throne of the of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan. by Persian Sufi poet Farid al-Din simurgh. Of the thousands of Attar (c. 1145\u2013c. 1221 or 1230). In birds who began the journey, it, the birds of the world gather only 30 make it to the end. Yet around the hoopoe, who has when they finally lay their eyes been chosen to lead them on a on him, they see not the King of journey to see the simurgh, or Birds but themselves. Although King of the Birds. To reach their the birds have traveled far and goal the birds have to traverse overcome many struggles, it seven treacherous valleys, each is themselves they sought all representing a station on the along. It is the essence of Sufism.","ATGHEE GOOFLI 756\u20131526","IDSELNAM","148 INTRODUCTION A Muslim Umayyad prince Persian physician- Ayyubid sultan army conquers the Abdul Rahman I philosopher Ibn Sina Salah al-Din takes Visigothic kingdom of establishes a court (Avicenna) completes Jerusalem from the Spain, which becomes his five-volume encyclopedic Christian Crusaders. known to the Arabs as at Cordoba The Canon of Medicine. in Spain. al-Andalus. 711 756 1025 1187 750 813\u2013833 1138\u201354 The Abbasid The Abbasid caliph Muslim scholar dynasty comes al-Mamun establishes al-Idrisi compiles to power. It founds the House of Wisdom a new capital at as a repository of all the a world map for Baghdad in 762. Roger II of Sicily. world\u2019s knowledge. I n 762, the second ruler of the development of algebra in order was necessary to read the Quran. Abbasid dynasty moved the to solve Islamic inheritance laws, Rulers at the courts of the great capital of the Islamic caliphate and developments in astronomy Muslim cities competed to attract from Damascus to the newly and geometry in order to determine the best scholars for the prestige founded city of Baghdad. The the direction of Mecca. they would bring. As far afield as move is often seen as marking the Cordoba, for example, in Islamic beginning of a golden age in which In 802, when Caliph Harun Spain, a court established by a science, art, and culture flourished. al-Rashid dispatched an embassy refugee Umayyad prince became a to the Frankish ruler Charlemagne, magnet for scholars from the East. Islamic civilization now it included the gift of a water clock encompassed many diverse that chimed the hours by dropping Historians point to the 10th cultures and intellectual traditions. brass balls onto cymbals. This and 11th centuries ce as the height Abbasid nobles sponsored scholars sophisticated timepiece was just of this golden age, when a pantheon to explore the knowledge gained one example of Arab advances that of Muslim scholars and scientists from foreign territories. These were far ahead of their European made significant advances in a scholars translated the works of counterparts. multitude of fields. Ibn al-Haytham other civilizations, particularly the experimented with light and vision, Greeks, and used this knowledge A golden age laying the foundation for modern to further their own discoveries. With Arabic as the lingua franca, optics. Al-Biruni toyed with a Certain advances made by Muslim learning spread across the Islamic heliocentric system that had the astronomers, geographers, and world\u2014even if a person\u2019s mother sun at the center of the universe. mathematicians were motivated tongue were Persian, Syriac, or Al-Razi produced the earliest by problems presented in Islamic Berber, if they were a Muslim, a descriptions of smallpox and traditions, such as al-Khwarizmi\u2019s rudimentary knowledge of Arabic measles, while Ibn Sina (known in","THE GOLDEN AGE OF ISLAM 149 Mongol armies Orhan, son of Osman I, Shah Ismail founds the plunder Baghdad, captures the Anatolian city Safavid Empire, which ending the Abbasid of Bursa, making it the new will rule Iran for more than caliphate. capital of the Ottoman two centuries. Empire and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. 1258 1324 1326 1501 1250 1492 1526 The Mamluks seize Ruler of the West African The Arabs surrender Granada Babur occupies much power in Cairo to Mali Empire, Musa I, to Queen Isabella I of Castile, of northern India after rule Egypt, Syria, victory at the Battle of and the Levant. makes the pilgrimage to completing the Christian Panipat and establishes Mecca, taking with him reconquest of the the Mughal Empire. vast amounts of gold. Iberian Peninsula. the West as Avicenna) compiled a travelers, backed by observations and Crusaders invaded the Eastern million-word medical encyclopedia from scientists, enabled Muslims to Mediterranean. Power shifted from that was used as a textbook in become for a time the world\u2019s the Abbasids to other dynasties\u2014 Europe until the 17th century. greatest cartographers, and some including the Mamluks who, from of its first ethnographers and travel a stronghold in Cairo, presided The global spread of Islam writers. The far-reaching influence over a 250-year flourishing of the While the Abbasids were less of Muslim trade and commerce can arts and architecture. By this expansion-minded than their be seen in the number of related time, Europeans had rediscovered predecessors, the religion spread Arabic words that have passed into classical Greek learning through nevertheless. It was carried along European languages, including the medium of Arabic texts. Their with goods on camel caravans al-kohl (alcohol), laymun (lemon), interest in these manuscripts across deserts into East and West naranj (orange), qahwa (coffee), would spark the Renaissance in Africa, and through Central Asia as qairawan (caravan), sukkar (sugar), Italy and beyond. far as China. It traveled aboard and qutun (cotton). ships to ports on Indian Ocean Meanwhile, Islam would revive islands and archipelagos in the Three great empires and expand once more in the shape Southeast Asian seas. When the From the 10th to the 13th centuries, of three powerful empires. These great Arab traveler Ibn Battuta the Arab Muslim world was under new empires would not be Arab: spent almost 30 years traveling in almost constant attack. Mongols the Ottomans were Turks, the the first half of the 14th century, from the East stormed through Safavids were Persians, and the most of the lands he visited were the Abbasid Empire, plundering Mughals were Indians descended Islamic. The knowledge that was Baghdad. Christian armies were in from the Mongols. Between them, gained from merchants and the process of reconquering Spain, these empires would control half of the known world. \u25a0","150 ISESVEEEORKBYILNIMGGUAKTSNOLORIMWY LFEODRGE PROPHET MUHAMMAD IN CONTEXT Greek texts by Aristotle, The Abbasids conquer the Euclid, Galen, Plato, Sasanians and their texts THEME The House of Wisdom Ptolemy, and others are are translated into translated into Persian Arabic in Baghdad. WHEN AND WHERE 9th century, Baghdad by the Sasanians. BEFORE The Latin texts are Arab manuscripts are 5th and 4th centuries bce translated into European seized when the Christians Learned figures of classical languages, spreading the expel the Arabs from Spain Greece, including Aristotle, lost classical texts throughout and translated into Latin. Euclid, and Plato, produce great works on many subjects. the Western world. 224 ce The Persian Sasanian T he search for knowledge changed under the Abbasids, Empire becomes one of the and enlightenment is who sponsored scholars to explore leading world powers and a enshrined in Islam. \u201cRead\u201d knowledge gained from foreign rival to the Byzantine Empire. was the first word God spoke to works rather than relying solely on Muhammad in the cave of Hira, the guidance found in the Quran. AFTER commencing the revelation of the The Abbasids occupied lands 1258 The ransack of Baghdad Quran. Compilers of hadith credit formerly ruled by the Sasanians by the Mongols marks the end Muhammad with saying, \u201cSeeking (an empire that ruled from 224\u2013651) of the Abbasid caliphate and knowledge is obligatory for every and translators undertook to destroys the House of Wisdom. Muslim\u201d and \u201cWhoever follows a transfer Sasanian texts into Arabic. path seeking knowledge, God will The translation project was then 14th century Arabic texts make his path to paradise easy.\u201d extended to the learned texts of containing classical works are earlier civilizations, notably the translated into Latin, sparking Translation project Greeks and Indians. Scholars took an intellectual and cultural The earliest Islamic scholars the works of philosophers such as revolution known as the Italian devoted themselves to transcribing Aristotle and Plato, medical tomes Renaissance. and interpreting the Quran. This by Galen, and treatises on geometry"]
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