["GOLDEN AGE OF ISLAM 201 If one had but a single glance to give the world, one should gaze on Istanbul. Alphonse de Lamartine French writer (1790\u20131869) centerpiece is the great Maydan-e public. The Masjid-e Shah (Royal The S\u00fcleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul Naqsh-e Jahan (\u201cImage of the World Mosque) was conceived by Abbas is one of the most famous works of the Square\u201d), which is flanked by to be \u201cwithout equal in Iran and architect Sinan, and was commissioned mosques, palaces, and pavilions. quite possibly in the entire world.\u201d by Sultan S\u00fcleyman I in the 1550s. Its ambition is expressed in its Among these is the Sheikh foundation inscription, which reads in history. The one great exception Lutfullah Mosque, named for the \u201cA second Kaaba has been built.\u201d to this is Mimar Sinan (c. 1488\u2013 shah\u2019s father-in-law, a venerated 1588), whose title \u201cMimar\u201d is preacher. It is unusual in having no The great Sinan Turkish for \u201carchitect.\u201d courtyard or minaret (it was a private The great artistic works of Islam mosque for the exclusive use of the tend to be credited to their patrons, Sinan was appointed chief royal court, so had no need for either), the emperors, shahs, and sultans, architect to the Ottoman court but its tiling is some of the most while the names of their actual by S\u00fcleyman I in 1539, and over a beautiful anywhere in the world. creators are generally passed over 50-year career he designed and oversaw the construction of more Where the Sheikh Lutfullah than 370 works, from aqueducts, Mosque is intimate and royal, the baths, and fountains to palaces, other mosque Shah Abbas had tombs, schools, hospitals, kitchens, built on the square is immense and granaries, caravanserai, and (most famously) a number of imperial Keeping the arts alive mosques. These feature huge central domes that are surrounded Completed in 1993, the Mosque tallest minarets (689 ft, 210 m), by cascades of smaller domes and of Hassan II in Casablanca, which is topped with a laser pencil-sharp minarets. Despite their Morocco, could fit Rome\u2019s St. whose beam, it is said, can be size, they are buildings of superb Peter\u2019s basilica in its prayer hall. seen 30 miles (48 km) away. lightness, externally and within. It is an extraordinary building, set on a platform of reclaimed However, it is not just Sinan\u2019s distinctive architecture land jutting into the Atlantic the size of the mosque that left its imprint not only on the Ocean. Glass panels in the floor impresses but the beauty of Ottoman capital at Istanbul, where allow visitors to see the waves the craftsmanship. The mosque his creations continue to dominate below\u2014a reference to verse is the product of more than the modern city\u2019s skyline, but also seven of the 11th sura of the 10,000 artisans, employed to over a vast empire stretching from Quran: \u201cThroned above the carve stone and wood, and to the Danube to the Tigris rivers. \u25a0 waters, He created the heavens make mosaics. It served as a and earth in six days.\u201d The school for a new generation of mosque has one of the world\u2019s craftsmen and women, keeping the arts of Islam alive.","202 SATMHHEAIDLRLGIGBAHRETDLEEOONDUSGSED... THE QURAN, 44:51 IN CONTEXT T he idea of paradise as a groves and vineyards to spring up\u201d garden far predates Islam. (23:18), yielding valuable fruit. THEME For example, a \u201cGarden of Water, fruit, and the blessed shade Paradise on Earth the Gods\u201d appears in the Sumerian provided by abundant foliage are epic Gilgamesh, which dates back the three key elements of the WHEN AND WHERE to about 1800 bce. Sumer was one of Islamic garden, offering both 13th\u201317th centuries, the ancient civilizations founded in spiritual and physical sustenance. Spain, Persia, India Mesopotamia, whose name means \u201cbetween two rivers\u201d in Greek, It is no coincidence that the BEFORE reflecting the fact that it spanned color most associated with 6th century bce In ancient the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Islam is the green of Paradise. It is Persia, Cyrus the Great If paradise was a garden to the reputed to have been Muhammad\u2019s (559\u201330 bce) creates a \u201croyal inhabitants of Sumer\u2019s fertile favorite color and it specifically garden\u201d in his imperial capital wetlands, how much more alluring appears in a number of the Quran\u2019s at Pasargadae, with palaces, must the concept have been to a descriptions of Paradise, such as monuments, and fountains set people from the deserts of Arabia. \u201cThey shall recline on green in a tree-lined park. cushions and fine carpets\u201d (55:76) It is no wonder that the Quran and \u201cThey shall be arrayed in c. 290 bce The Babylonian includes more than one hundred garments of fine green silk and priest Berossus writes of the references to the garden, mostly rich brocade\u201d (76:21). Hanging Gardens of Babylon, framed as a haven that awaits true which he attributes to King believers in the afterlife: \u201cSuch is Brooks will run Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605\u2013562 the Paradise the righteous have at their feet in the bce). Greek writers later list the been promised: it is watered by Gardens of Delight. gardens as one of the Seven running brooks: eternal is its fruit, Wonders of the Ancient World. and eternal is its shade\u201d (13:35); 10:10 \u201cTrees will spread their shade AFTER around them, and fruits will hang 2005 The Aga Khan funds an in clusters over them\u201d (76:14). extensive new public park in Cairo, designed along Islamic In the Quran, water is a symbol lines with water features, lush of God\u2019s mercy \u2013 He sends rain planting, and lots of shade. from the sky to water crops for the purpose of sustaining humans and animals (10:24, 16:65). Similarly, in God\u2019s mercy He caused \u201cpalm","GOLDEN AGE OF ISLAM 203 See also: The Quranic concept of Heaven 92 \u25a0 The example of Islamic Spain 166\u201371 \u25a0 The Safavid Empire 192\u201393 \u25a0 Islamic art and architecture 194\u2013201 \u25a0 The Mughal Empire 204\u201305 Earthly paradise The formal garden was also prized The Alhambra Gardens combine Regardless of when or where they in Persia, partciularly during the color, shade, aromatic plants, and were created, or their size, almost cultured era of the Safavids (1501\u2013 splashing water features to give all Islamic gardens share many of 1722), who cultivated green spaces pleasure to the senses. the same elements. The central in the cities of Isfahan, Kashan, and axis or main feature is almost Shiraz. But arguably the pinnacle of devices for irrigation and to feed always water: either a pool or Islamic garden design was reached the water-channels, as well as basin, or flowing channels. Planted in Mughal India (1526\u20131857), where canals, pavilions, and hillocks. areas are arranged around the the construction of gardens was a The Shalimar Bagh in Lahore, built water, either in symmetrical beloved imperial pastime. To the in 1619, had 450 fountains, some fashion or in geometric patterns. standard elements of the Islamic of which could shoot water 12 feet In Persia, a popular design was the garden they added water-lifting (3.6 m) into the air. \u25a0 so-called chahar bagh, or \u201cfour gardens,\u201d a quadrilateral layout based on sura 55 in the Quran, which includes a description of two pairs of gardens. Unlike the great gardens of Europe, which could be vast, open spaces of greenery, in the Islamic world gardens are typically more private places. Historically, they were often attached to a palace or other noble residence, and were almost always walled to create a space suitable for contemplation. Planting was carefully ordered for maximum pleasure, incorporating tall trees with shade-giving leaves alongside smaller, fruit-bearing species. Flowerbeds were likely to be filled with fragrant shrubs such as jasmine and roses. In certain regions, even the more modest houses of the medina (walled city) would have a small inner courtyard with a central fountain and a few fruit trees\u2014a paradise garden in miniature. In Morocco, many of these courtyard houses, known as riads, have now been converted into guesthouses. In Granada in Spain, the Moorish Nasrid dynasty (1230\u20131492) created the Alhambra, a citadel from which a series of terraced courtyards filled with pools, fountains, and greenery cascades down the hillside.","204 OMTTHFHOEESGIATORDDWOVAWAORNRNECSDEIHNEMITPSEEPTNNEITNRTYSOOFN EMPEROR AKBAR IN CONTEXT The Mughal Emperor Akbar I fuses elements from the multiple faiths of his people to create a new religion called Din-i Ilahi. THEME The Mughal Empire From Sufism, From Christianity, the yearning for God as a the idea of celibacy WHEN AND WHERE key feature of spirituality. 16th century, India as a virtue. BEFORE From Jainism, From Zoroastrianism, c. 1700 bce Hinduism arises in a condemnation of the making fire and the sun the valley of the Indus River. objects of divine worship. killing of animals. 8th century ce Islam arrives in India in the form of invading I n the late 16th century, the of beliefs to bind the Indian empire armies from Central Asia. It third Mughal emperor, Akbar I, together, but its lasting effect was becomes a major religion under attempted to introduce a to trigger a strong orthodox reaction the Delhi Sultanate. radical new interpretation of Islam in the Islamic community in India. into India. Called Din-i Ilahi AFTER (\u201cReligion of God\u201d), it combined Islam in India 18th century Hindu Sufi Islam with elements of The first Muslims had arrived in Marathas rout the Mughal Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism, India in the 8th century, during armies and establish a rival and Zoroastrianism. It was repeated invasions of northern India empire on the subcontinent. intended to provide a common set by Muslim armies from Central Asia. 1857\u201358 The Indian Rebellion against British rule is quashed. The last of the Mughal dynasty, Delhi Sultan Bahadur Shah, dies in exile in 1862. 1947 India is partitioned along religious lines, leading to the creation of the new Muslim state of Pakistan.","THE GOLDEN AGE OF ISLAM 205 See also: The origins of Ahmadiyya 220\u201321 \u25a0 The creation of Pakistan 242\u201347 \u25a0 The demographics of Islam today 260\u201361 \u25a0 The rising tide of Islamophobia 286\u201387 By the late 12th century, one of these Emperor Aurangzeb is frequently expression in the Taj Mahal at Agra. warlords\u2014Muhammad of Ghur\u2014 blamed for the downfall of the Mughal The apex of Mughal art, this ivory- had gained a lasting foothold, Empire. His religious intolerance, white marble mausoleum for the leading to the formation of the Delhi including demolishing temples, Shah\u2019s favorite wife, Mumtaz Sultanate, an Islamic empire based isolated several of his key Hindu allies. Mahal, is a gleaming fusion of the in Delhi that ruled over large parts Hindu and Islamic, created with of the Indian subcontinent for more form of sun and fire) as the the talents of craftsmen from all than 300 years. Zoroastrians did. The new religion over the Islamic empire. encouraged celibacy, as did In 1526, another conqueror from Catholicism, and forbade the Jahan\u2019s son Aurangzeb (r. 1658\u2013 Central Asia, Babur (r. 1526\u201330), slaughter of animals, in line with 1707) was the sixth and last great who claimed direct descent from Jainism, but there were no sacred Mughal emperor. He came to the Genghis Khan, defeated the Sultan scriptures and no priestly hierarchy. throne after imprisoning his father of Delhi at the Battle of Panipat. The At the center of the religion was and having his older brother killed, empire he founded was known as Akbar himself, as a new prophet. and ruled for nearly 50 years. His the Mughal Empire in reference to reign was characterized by military Babur\u2019s Mongol heritage, and it Din-i Ilahi was the emperor\u2019s might\u2014his conquests expanded lasted until 1857. Although the solution to the problem of how the Mughal Empire to its greatest Mughals were Muslims, they ruled a a Muslim ruler could govern a size\u2014and by his piety. country with a large Hindu majority. majority Hindu state. However, The new rulers did not attempt to the religion never spread beyond A devout and uncompromising impose Islam on their subjects and a tight circle of Akbar\u2019s own close Muslim, Aurangzeb ended the policy instead encouraged a mixing of associates. Most Muslim clerics of religious tolerance fostered by cultures. The language of Urdu, for declared it heretical. earlier emperors. He no longer let the example, developed in the Mughal Hindu community live under their era as a fusion of Persian, Arabic, After Akbar own laws and customs, demolished and Hindi. Following the death of Akbar, his many temples, and imposed Sharia heirs steered a path back to more law over the empire. Aurangzeb Din-i Ilahi traditional ways. His son Jahangir disapproved of his father\u2019s Taj (r. 1605\u201327) reinstated Islam as the Mahal, believing it to be counter to The combining of cultures reached state religion, while maintaining a the teachings of Muhammad. \u25a0 its peak during the reign of Akbar I policy of religious plurality. Under (r. 1556\u20131605), Babur\u2019s grandson. his successor, Shah Jahan (r. 1628\u2013 He was a patron of the arts and 58), this plurality found its finest an intellectual. He founded an academy, the Ibadat Khana (\u201cHouse Take heart, my friends! of Worship\u201d) in 1575, where There is a God! representatives of all major faiths There is a God! could meet to discuss issues of theology. From these debates, Emperor Aurangzeb Akbar concluded that no single religion captured the whole truth and that they should be combined. From this emerged Din-i Ilahi. Followers were encouraged to find purity through an Islamic God\u2014who was acknowledged through prayers and incantations of Allahu akbar (God is great)\u2014but they also worshipped light (in the","RREEFVOIVRAML 1527\u20131979","AND","208 INTRODUCTION S\u00fcleyman I leads an Tribal head Muhammad Sultan Mahmud II The British use the Ottoman army in a first bin Saud joins forces introduces the Indian Revolt of attempt to capture the with religious leader Westernizing 1857 as the pretext to city of Vienna, capital Muhammad Abdul exile the last Mughal Wahhab to create the Tanzimat reforms in Emperor, Bahadur of the powerful first Saudi state. the Ottoman Empire. Hapsburg Empire. Shah II. 1529 1744 1808 1858 1683 1798 1830 1871 Ottoman Grand Vizier Kara French forces under Napoleon The French invade Persian activist Jamal Mustafa Pasha lays siege Bonaparte invade Ottoman and seize Algeria, al-Din al-Afghani to Vienna, and is soundly inspires a circle of defeated by a coalition of Egypt in order to disrupt a province of the reformers who aim to Britain\u2019s communications with Ottoman Empire revitalize Islam. European forces its territories in India. since 1529. I n 1521, the Ottoman army of For the first time, the Ottomans which previously they could only S\u00fcleyman I overran Belgrade, were forced to surrender control obtain through Muslim merchants. a major stronghold in the of significant European territories. Rising powers such as the Spanish, Christian Kingdom of Hungary, This marked the point at which Portuguese, British, and Dutch and eight years later they laid siege the frontiers of Islam stopped explored and colonized much of to Vienna, capital of the Hapsburg expanding and went into retreat. the world. As the great empires of Empire. The city held and the Islam\u2014the Ottomans, Safavids, Ottomans eventually withdrew, Colonizing Muslim lands and Mughals\u2014slowly unraveled, the unconcerned by this setback. In Europe had entered a period of European powers vied for the spoils. 1571, the Ottoman Empire suffered dynamism, invention, and creativity, The Portuguese, British, and French its first major military defeat at the fueled by the Italian Renaissance all secured toeholds in India, where Battle of Lepanto, a clash at sea, of the 14th to 17th centuries. This the British eventually brought the during which the Venetians sank cultural and economic rebirth Mughal era to a close in 1857. France almost the entire imperial fleet. The was substantially inspired by the invaded Ottoman Egypt and Syria Ottomans simply built a bigger, transfer of knowledge from Muslim in 1798\u20131801, then Algeria in 1830. more modern fleet, and consolidated lands and by the wealth acquired their power in the Mediterranean. through trade with Muslim countries Colonialism was not limited to on the Mediterranean. European imperialists. In the 19th In 1683, an Ottoman army was century, the Chinese and Russians at the gates of Vienna again, and In 1499, Portuguese explorer absorbed the Muslim provinces of once more it was repelled. This Vasco da Gama found a sea route Central Asia. The Chinese province time, it did not make an orderly around Africa to India that gave of Xinjiang was created from Silk retreat but was routed by an Europeans direct access to the Road oases that had been controlled alliance of European powers. coveted spices of Southeast Asia, for centuries by Muslims.","REFORM AND REVIVAL 209 Indian reformer Reza Khan leads Egyptian teacher India is partitioned The Shah is deposed Mirza Ghulam Ahmad a successful coup Hassan al-Banna sets and Pakistan is by revolution in Iran in Iran and founds establishes the the secular and up the Muslim created out of and Ayatollah Ahmadiyya movement Brotherhood. majority-Muslim Khomeini becomes the modernizing Supreme Leader of the to renew Islam. Pahlavi dynasty. areas. Republic of Iran. 1889 1921 1928 1947 1979 1908 1923 1932 1964 A coalition of reform Ex-army officer Mustafa The kingdoms of Najd African-American civil groups, known collectively Kemal Atat\u00fcrk founds and Hejaz on the rights activist Malcolm X the Republic of Turkey. as the Young Turks, Arabian Peninsula are leaves the Nation of overthrows the Ottoman The following year he united as the Kingdom Islam organization and abolishes the caliphate. becomes a Sunni Muslim. sultanate. of Saudi Arabia. Reawakening reformist thinkers Sayyid Ahmad To be Islamic or not? By the mid-19th century, much of Khan (1817\u201398) and Muhammad The rise of political Islam was the Islamic world was controlled Iqbal (1877\u20131938)\u2014who would be accompanied by a growing by colonial powers. There was no instrumental in the creation of nationalism across the Muslim ideological clash\u2014this was not a Pakistan\u2014and of Mustafa Kemal world. Following World War I, the case of Christianity triumphing Atat\u00fcrk (1881\u20131938), future founder Western powers had sliced up the over Islam, as Islam was of little of the Turkish Republic. former Ottoman Empire, bringing interest to the colonizers. However, about the creation of the Arab for many Muslims who felt let down Some felt that Muslims needed nations of the modern Middle East. by national leaders who collaborated to absorb lessons from the West, Many of these new nations began with the colonial powers, Islam now but at the same time renew their calling for their independence, became a rallying cause. faith in Islam. This was the view which the majority achieved during taken by, among others, Persian the first half of the 20th century. From the mid-19th century, writer Jamal al-Din al-Afghani Islamic movements headed by (1838\u201397), founding father of Islamic The question that then arose charismatic ideologues emerged Modernism, and Hassan al-Banna was the extent to which Islam across the Islamic world. All shared (1906\u201349), founder of Egypt\u2019s would play a part in these modern the aim of awakening Muslims and reformist Muslim Brotherhood. nations. Reponses varied\u2014from shaking off colonial control, but their newly independent Turkey, where approaches varied. Some believed Others advocated the complete President Kemal Atat\u00fcrk expunged that Muslims had to emulate the rejection of everything Western in religion from the state in the West by modernizing and educating favor of a return to the pure, original 1920s and 30s, to Iran, where in order to compete on level terms. form of Islam. Proponents of this the revolution of 1979 recast the This was the view of Indian approach included Egyptian country as a solely Islamic state.\u25a0 intellectual Sayyid Qutb (1906\u201366).","BTUERTKTIESRH THAN POPISH DUTCH PROTESTANTS (1574)","","212 ISLAM IN EUROPE HOLY ROMAN (HAPSBURG) IN CONTEXT EMPIRE Vienna THEME Islam in Europe Black Sea Caspian OTTOMAN Sea WHEN AND WHERE EMPIRE 16th\u201319th centuries, Europe Istanbul BEFORE Mediterranean 711 An Arab and Berber army Sea led by Tarek ibn Ziyad crosses from North Africa to begin a Jerusalem SAFAVID Muslim conquest of Spain. EMPIRE Cairo (PERSIA) 1299 Osman I founds the Ottoman dynasty, which will Territory of the Red conquer Turkey, followed by Ottoman Empire Sea Greece and Serbia. Mecca 1453 Mehmet II, also known as Mehmet the Conqueror, Horn of captures Constantinople, Africa initiating centuries of glory for the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire in 1683 included most of what we now call the Middle East, most of North AFTER Africa, coastal East Africa as far as the Horn, all 1920 Following Ottoman the territories bordering the Black Sea, and a large defeat in World War I, the swath of southeastern Europe, including Greece, Treaty of S\u00e8vres partitions the all the Balkans, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. Ottoman Empire, leading to the creation of Turkey and the modern Arab world. I n 1683, as in 1529, an Ottoman The 1683 Siege of Vienna is often from Timur who had found asylum army laid siege to Vienna, the portrayed as a defining clash of in Eastern Europe in 1397. Skilled capital of the Christian Holy civilizations\u2014of Islam versus horsemen, they had fought for their Roman, or Hapsburg, Empire. the Christian West\u2014but that is new country ever since. This second attempt was a pivotal misleading. The truth is more moment in the history of both Islam nuanced: for example, while the The enemy of my enemy and Europe. Had Vienna fallen, citizens of Vienna were in dread Just as there were political then the Ottomans could have of the Muslim foe camped outside schisms in the Muslim world\u2014 pushed deeper into Europe to their city, fellow Christians in the neighboring empires of the seize control of major trade routes, France were openly relishing the Ottoman Turks and Safavid Persians changing the course of history on idea of an Ottoman victory. And were frequently at war\u2014enmity and the continent. Instead, the Christian John Sobieski might not have won rivalries also divided Europe. In armies of Europe under the the battle were it not for the help of 1517, a German monk named Martin command of King John III Sobieski his country\u2019s Muslim Tatars. Also Luther had initiated a reformation of of Poland defeated the Ottoman known as the Lipka Tatars, these the Christian Catholic Church, army and sent it into retreat. were the descendants of refugees causing a schism in which his","REFORM AND REVIVAL 213 See also: Spreading Islam through trade 182\u201385 \u25a0 The caliphate of the Ottoman Empire 186\u201389 \u25a0 The Safavid Empire 192\u201393 \u25a0 The secularization of Turkey 228\u201331 followers became known as I think it nothing offensive Protestant Christians observed Protestants. Europe became split to God to set one of his that they received better treatment between a predominantly Catholic from the Ottomans than from the south and a largely Protestant enemies against the other, the Catholics. Refugees from Catholic north. Islam\u2014thanks to the [Ottoman] Infidel against persecution often found shelter in Ottoman Empire\u2019s occupation the [Spanish] Idolaters. the Ottoman Empire, including the of the Balkans, Greece, and the William Harborne Jews of Spain and Huguenots from Kingdom of Hungary\u2014constituted France. Dutch Protestants under a third power in Europe. This English ambassador to Spanish rule had a saying, \u201cBetter made Muslim\u2013Christian relations Constantinople, 1583\u201388 Turkish than Popish\u201d (Liever Turks a complex political dance based dan paaps), meaning it was better on the ancient principle that \u201cthe Jesus is His Prophet \u2026 but the to be Muslim than Catholic. enemy of my enemy is my friend.\u201d faithless one they call Papa [the Blueprint for pluralism Pope] does not recognize his With territories stretching from The Ottomans were happy to Creator as One, ascribing divinity North Africa to the border of Iran, use Christian schisms to political to Holy Jesus \u2026 thus casting doubt and north to the fringes of Russia advantage, as illustrated by a letter upon the oneness of God.\u201d and Poland, the Ottoman Empire from Sultan Murad III (r. 1574\u201395) to was home to large minorities of Protestant Lutherans in Catholic In 1600, in a similarly political Jews and Christians. The Ottomans Spain, his arch rival: \u201cYou have vein, the court of Queen Elizabeth I were not above turning churches banished the idols and portraits of England hosted Muhammad into mosques and forcing Christians and bells from churches, and al-Annuri, ambassador of the to convert, but they also presided \u276f\u276f declared your faith by stating that Saadian Sultan of Morocco. He was God Almighty is one and Holy in London to negotiate a commercial Painting of Moroccan ambassador and military alliance between the Muhammad al-Annuri, whose stay at Sultan Mehmet II by Italian Gentile Protestant queen and the sultan English Queen Elizabeth I\u2019s court may Bellini, whose work launched European against their common enemy, have inspired Shakespeare\u2019s Othello. artistic interest in the Orient. He spent Catholic Spain. two years in Constantinople in 1479\u201381. There were many such examples of Christian\u2013Muslim alliances against other Christians, or other Muslims. In 1598, English brothers Robert and Anthony Sherley looked to make a pact with the Safavids of Persia in a potential war against the Ottomans. France wanted the Ottomans as an ally against the Hapsburgs; Sweden wanted Ottoman help against the Russians; Hungary\u2019s Protestant princes were willing to become Ottoman vassals if they could defeat the Catholic Hapsburgs.","214 ISLAM IN EUROPE over an era of pluralism. Each faith \u2026 a certain Bean of Arabia community was allowed to organize whereof they make a Drink A Persian mission itself into a separate millet or named Coffee \u2026 which is \u201cnation,\u201d based on religion rather nowadays in very great request In 1598, the English merchants than ethnicity or nationality: all Philippe Sylvestre Dufour and adventurers Sir Anthony Jews in the empire, for example, and Sir Robert Sherley traveled belonged automatically to the 17th-century French merchant to Isfahan in an attempt to Jewish millet. Each millet had befriend the Shah of Persia. its own education system and They wanted to form an judiciary. Giving each of the faith alliance that might break the communities more autonomy over monopoly the Spanish and its own affairs fostered greater Ottomans had on the lucrative social harmony between them. trade with the Far East. By The system was far from perfect, their own account, the but has often been described as a Englishmen became close blueprint for religious pluralism. companions of Shah Abbas. They proposed to him a Settlers and converts captured territories were inducted Persian\u2013Christian pact that Census data around the time of the into the Ottoman army to replenish would defeat \u201cthe Turk\u201d and 1683 Siege of Vienna suggests that and swell its ranks, and its soldiers give the Shah control over only 20 percent of the population of fought not for Islam but for bonuses Central Asia. The Shah gave the Ottoman territories in Europe and promotions. Anthony Sherley the authority was Muslim, formed of one third to negotiate on his behalf with Muslim settlers and two thirds The lure of the East other European powers to converts to Islam. The main At the height of their power, in form such a pact. Meanwhile, incentive for conversion was the 16th and 17th centuries, the Abbas declared his lands open probably economic and social, since Ottomans exploited the religious to all Christian people and Muslims enjoyed more rights and struggles of European powers for their religion. privileges than Christian subjects. their own political gain, and But the spread of Islam was never engaged in trade with their The Sherleys\u2019 schemes the goal of Ottoman expansion\u2014 neighbors, but otherwise they came to nothing, mainly instead it was land, manpower, and were indifferent to the European because much of Europe, plundered wealth. Young men from Christians. This was in contrast to England included, already Europe\u2019s curiosity about \u201cthe Turk.\u201d enjoyed a fairly profitable relationship with the Ottomans. Europe developed a fascination with the Ottoman world that became known as \u201cTurquerie,\u201d or \u201cTurkomania,\u201d and peaked between 1650 and 1750. It became the fashion to imitate aspects of Ottoman culture, setting new operas and ballets in the Orient, borrowing motifs from its decorative arts and architecture, The tulip is native to Central Asia, the original homeland of the Ottoman Turks. It became a favored motif in Ottoman art, used in fabrics and on tiles, as here in tiles from the R\u00fcstem Pasha Mosque (1563), in Istanbul.","REFORM AND REVIVAL 215 How helpful the experience of the Arabs could be if Europe wanted to carry its civilizing influence deep into Asia and Africa. Michael Jan de Goeje Dutch Orientalist (1836\u20131909) Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina, trade was dominated by the Dutch Shifting balance Central Europe, thrived as an Ottoman East India Company, and one of the Militarily, the Ottoman Empire frontier town in the 15th\u201316th centuries. earliest centers of Oriental studies never recovered from its defeat at The Old Bridge was designed by a was at Leiden, in Holland, from 1613 the walls of Vienna in 1683. From student of the imperial architect Sinan. onward. A chair of Arabic was also then on, any battle fought by the established at the University of Ottomans\u2014mostly against the donning Turkish dress for portraits Oxford in 1636; its first professor Hapsburg Empire and tsarist and balls, and drinking coffee. was Edward Pococke, who had been Russia\u2014resulted in a loss of Coffee originated in Arabia, and working as a chaplain to the English territory. The Ottoman\u2013Hapsburg spread through the Ottoman Empire merchant community in Aleppo. Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 saw the during the 16th century. The first Ottomans cede control of much of coffeehouse in Europe is thought to Christian Europe\u2019s academics Central Europe and established have opened in Venice around 1630, remained hostile towards Islam, the Hapsburg monarchy as the followed soon after by coffeehouses with the attitude that it needed to dominant power in the region. in Paris and London. This blossomed be studied, but mostly with the into a Europe-wide coffeehouse purpose of proving it wrong. Additional wars over the next culture by the 18th century. 200 years saw Christian armies The croissant, according to a popular expel millions of Europe\u2019s Muslims, Meanwhile, the Dutch had been story, was first baked in Vienna to demolishing mosques as they struck by \u201ctulipomania.\u201d A Dutch celebrate the defeat of the Ottomans advanced, pushing the Ottomans botanist imported the tulip from in 1683. Its shape is said to be inspired out of the Balkans and almost to Istanbul to Holland in the late 16th by the crescent on the Ottoman flag. the borders of what is now Greece, century, where it was successfully a position ratified in the 1878 cultivated. The flowers rapidly Treaty of Berlin. Islam retained became a coveted luxury item and only a small presence in Europe, at one point, in the mid-1630s, bulbs in what are now Albania, Kosovo, were traded for staggering prices on and Bosnia and Herzegovina. the financial markets. In time, interest in the West Europe also began to take an began to take seed in Islamic interest in \u201cOriental\u201d languages, lands. Muslim scholars attended including Arabic. This was driven universities in Europe and returned in part by commerce\u2014a knowledge home with new ideas. These would of Arabic was useful in the Asian reshape Islam as much as, if not and Indian Ocean spice trade. This more than, military encounters. \u25a0","216 IUPSRNLAIAFCMIETIRICCSEOF MUHAMMAD IBN ABD AL-WAHHAB IN CONTEXT God reveals the Quran to Muhammad with its central message of the Oneness of God. THEME Wahhabism, or an Generations of Islamic Wahhabism takes the Islamic Reformation scholars interpret the Quran and hadith at face Quran, and the words and value, rejects interpretations, WHEN AND WHERE actions of Muhammad, in and regards Shias and Sufis 18th century, Arabia order to arrive at an Islamic as deviants. BEFORE way of life, or sunna. 13th century Syrian theologian Ibn Taymiyya B orn in 1703 in the central from two tribes, who accepted him preaches against the Arabian region of Najd, as their religious leader. But he also contamination of Islam. Muhammad ibn Abd attracted powerful enemies, and al-Wahhab came from a family of was once again forced to move on. AFTER religious scholars. As a young man, 1932 Ibn Saud founds modern he traveled to Medina and to Basra, Moving to the town of al-Diriyah, Saudi Arabia and the Wahhabi in what is now Iraq, to study under near Riyadh, al-Wahhab gained new strain of Islam is adopted as scholars who followed the rigid followers and a powerful patron in a the official state religion. Hanbali school of Islamic law. He local ruler named Muhammad bin emerged as a preacher with an Saud. Al-Wahhab and his disciples 1979\u201389 Soviet troops invade absolutist ideology who condemned were given free rein by bin Saud to Afghanistan; thousands of many aspects of contemporary convert the locals to their cause, foreign fighters flock there to Islamic teaching and practice, and in 1744 the two men swore an join the anti-communist jihad, putting him at odds with other oath of mutual loyalty, forging the funded by Saudi Arabia and local religious authorities. first Saudi (and Wahhabi) state. the US, and are exposed to Wahhabism\u2014giving birth to Initially, al-Wahhab was The Wahhabis the Taliban and al-Qaeda, dismissed as a heretic and expelled The followers of al-Wahhab\u2014known among others. from several towns. Eventually he as Wahhabis and their doctrine as did manage to attract supporters Wahhabism\u2014opposed mainstream","REFORM AND REVIVAL 217 See also: God\u2019s guidance through Sharia 128\u201333 \u25a0 The rise of Islamic Modernism 222\u201323 \u25a0 The birth of Saudi Arabia 232\u201337 \u25a0 The modern Sharia state 266\u201369 \u25a0 The new extremists 272\u201377 \u25a0 Salafism 304 Islam, and advocated strict were encouraged to wage a jihad Qatari Muslims outside Doha\u2019s adherence to Sharia and literal against non-Wahhabi Muslims, national mosque, which is named after understandings of ambiguous declaring them apostates who had al-Wahhab. Qatar is the only country Quranic verses, untainted by the abandoned Islam. other than Saudi Arabia whose people contextual interpretations of past are predominantly Wahhabi. Islamic scholars. In 1812, a Saudi-Wahhabi army sacked Shia cities in Iraq. Shia drew the early 20th century. At this time, Wahhabism claimed to more the ire of Wahhabis in particular for al-Wahhab's ideas of a back-to- accurately represent the principle their veneration of the shrines of basics Islam were adopted by a of tawhid, or proclamation of the the Imams, former religious leaders number of reformers, notably the oneness of God, than other strands they revered as saints. In response, Lebanese intellectual Rashid Rida, within Sunni Islam. Followers Ottoman sultan Mahmud II, whose who campaigned to rehabilitate called themselves Muwahhidun, empire embraced both Iraq and some of the ideas of Wahhabism. which means \u201cUnitarians\u201d or the Arabian Peninsula, sent his \u201cUnifiers of Islamic practice,\u201d and Egyptian viceroy Muhammad Ali From the 1970s onward, now al-Wahhab himself was described to destroy the first Saudi-Wahhabi flush with oil money, the Saudi as mujaddid, a renewer of Islam\u2019s state. Its ruler Abdullah bin Saud state began actively funding the basic message and components. was beheaded in Istanbul in 1818. spread of Wahhabism\u2014building, His followers quoted a hadith that for example, large numbers of claims the Prophet once said, \u201cGod The revival of Wahhabism Islamic schools, universities, and will raise for the umma every 100 Al-Wahhab died in 1792. He had mosques around the world\u2014to years the one who will revive its six sons, and his descendants, project its values far beyond the religion for it.\u201d known as the Ahl ash-sheikh, have Arabian Peninsula. historically dominated the religious Wahhabi militancy institutions of the Saudi Arabian Controversy over al-Wahhab\u2019s The Wahhabis sent letters to state. Outside the Arabian legacy persists. Critics allege that religious scholars and political Peninsula, Wahhabism remained his strict interpretation of Islam leaders in Muslim countries as far a fringe, heretical movement until directly inspired a generation of afield as Morocco, asking them to the rise of the so-called Islamic terrorists, including al-Qaeda leader convert to the Wahhabi doctrine. Modernism movements and Osama bin Laden (1957\u20132011). If letter-writing failed, Wahhabis collapse of the Ottoman Empire in Supporters argue, however, that during his own lifetime al-Wahhab A forerunner of Wahhabism favored debate over violence, and not everyone agrees with drawing Long before al-Wahhab began more orthodox religious scholars, an ideological link to Bin Laden, promoting his uncompromising on whose orders he was jailed pointing out that his largely political reading of Islam, similar views on a number of occasions. motivation was enmity with the were expressed by the 13th- West, particularly America. \u25a0 century theologian Ibn Taymiyya Ibn Taymiyya also infamously (1263\u20131328). Born in Syria, he preached an extreme view of grew up studying under the jihad. He declared a fatwa Hanbali school of jurisprudence. against the Mongols, who had He later courted controversy, begun converting to Islam in denouncing Sufi leaders for their the 13th century, but whom he veneration of saints and, on at accused of not following God\u2019s least one occasion, calling for law. His sanctioning of violence the death of a Christian whom he against fellow Muslims directly accused of insulting the Prophet. inspired extremist groups in the He made himself unpopular with 20th century in acts of violence against their own governments.","218 EATUOPRWROOAPBRELDAENIMSALATTATIMCITUDE EDWARD SAID (1978) IN CONTEXT I n the eyes of the European presented as badly in need of powers, the Ottoman Empire Christian intervention. In the post- THEME was both a fearsome military colonial era, Palestinian-American Orientalism power and a valued trading ally. But academic Edward Said (1935\u20132003) from the 18th century, as the Turks articulated the Muslim perspective WHEN AND WHERE suffered a series of territorial losses in his influential study Orientalism, 18th\u201319th centuries, and the nation states of Europe which was published in 1978. In Europe grew economically stronger, the it Said wrote, \u201cTo say simply that \u201cOrient\u201d (in this sense, primarily the Orientalism was a rationalization of BEFORE Middle East and North Africa) was colonial rule is to ignore the extent 1479 Noted Italian artist increasingly viewed as backward, to which colonial rule was justified Gentile Bellini arrives in uncivilized, and un-Christian. in advance by Orientalism, rather Istanbul for a two-year stay, than after the fact.\u201d \u25a0 launching European artistic Western religious authorities interest in the Orient. and others attacked Islam and the Orientalist paintings played on Quran. French political thinker Western fantasies of the exotic East 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte Alexis de Tocqueville (1805\u201359), for and were typically dramatic and invades Egypt, bringing with example, pronounced that \u201cby and colorful, as in this work by French him scientists, archaeologists, large there have been few religions artist Jean-L\u00e9on G\u00e9r\u00f4me (1824\u20131904). and artists whose record of the in the world as deadly to men as country and its people inspires that of Muhammed.\u201d Such ideas a new wave of interest. were reinforced by so-called \u201cOrientalist\u201d experts and in art, AFTER which portrayed the Muslim world 1978 Edward Said publishes as licentious (women of the harem Orientalism, challenging were a favorite subject for painters), Western intellectuals on their brutal (swords and slaves were also ideas of the \u201cArab mind.\u201d popular), and fanatical. 1998 Christie\u2019s auction house This reductive view gave license holds the first Orientalist sale; to European powers to colonize its primary buyers come from Muslim countries, which were the Middle East. See also: The caliphate of the Ottoman Empire 186\u201389 \u25a0 Islam in Europe 210\u201315 \u25a0 The rising tide of Islamophobia 286\u201387","REFORM AND REVIVAL 219 PTUHREISFWICOARTIDON BY MUHAMMAD AHMED \u201cTHE MAHDI\u201d IN CONTEXT W hile there is no reference was proclaimed as the Mahdi by to the Mahdi\u2014meaning his disciples. At this time, there THEME \u201cthe Guided One\u201d\u2014in was widespread resentment among The Mahdi of Sudan the Quran, only in the hadith, Shia the Sudanese at the heavy taxation Muslims live in anticipation of this imposed by Egypt, which had WHEN AND WHERE Messianic figure who will appear conquered Sudan in the 1820s. The 1881\u201385, Sudan at the end of times, with Jesus, to Mahdi regarded the Egyptians as bring peace to Earth. Over the years, hypocrites and apostates who had BEFORE several individuals have claimed to turned their back on Islam. 9th century The 12th Imam be the Mahdi. becomes hidden from human In 1881, the Mahdi sent a view (in \u201coccultation\u201d), In 1881, the religious leader of personal message to the governor- destined to reappear to rescue a Sufi order in Sudan, Muhammad general of Sudan informing him his people at some future time. Ahmed bin Abdallah (1844\u201385), that he, the Mahdi, was acting by who claimed descent from Fatima, the divine inspiration of the Prophet c.1844 Sayyid Ali Muhammad the Prophet Muhammad\u2019s daughter, Muhammad\u2014and that anyone who Shirazi (1819\u201350) becomes the did not accept the Mahdi\u2019s divinely Bab (\u201cGate\u201d), a Mahdi-like This world is a appointed mission would be figure who launches Babism in carcass and those who \u201cpurified by the sword.\u201d Persia. The authorities execute him and thousands of his desire it are dogs. The Mahdist revolt amassed followers. He is subsequently The Mahdi countrywide support and the rebels, venerated as one of the central armed with only swords and spears, figures of the Bahai faith. Letter to the British, 1884 scored victories over first Egyptian and then British forces, capturing AFTER the city of Khartoum in 1885. The 1882 In the Punjab, northern Mahdi died of typhus later that year, India, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, and the revolt ended in 1898, but his founder of the Ahmadiyya name remained a potent symbol. A movement, declares himself to direct descendant, Sadiq al-Mahdi, be a minor prophet of Islam was prime minister of Sudan twice, and the Mahdi. in 1966\u201367 and 1986\u201389. \u25a0 See also: The emergence of Shia Islam 108\u201315 \u25a0 The caliphate of the Ottoman Empire 186\u201389 \u25a0 The origins of Ahmadiyya 220\u201321","220 I HAVE BEEN COMMISSIONED AND I AM THE FIRST OF THE BELIEVERS MIRZA GHULAM AHMAD IN CONTEXT There can be no prophet But Muslims have lost after Muhammad. the pure message from THEME The origins of Ahmadiyya Mirza Ghulam God that he brought. Ahmad, as renewer of WHEN AND WHERE A new message is Late 19th century, India Islam, brings that needed to steer Muslims message. back to the pure path BEFORE 632 The Prophet Muhammad, T he Ahmadiyya movement of the faith. the final prophet of Islam, emerged toward the end dies in Medina. of the 19th century in the be a new prophet\u2014in Muslim northwestern territories of British- thinking, the Prophet Muhammad 1857 The Indian Rebellion ruled India. Its founder was Mirza is the final prophet of Islam, and is quashed, but launches the Ghulam Ahmad who, in 1882, anyone else attempting to use the independence movement, declared himself to be a divinely status of prophet should therefore which includes some appointed reformer of Islam. The be denounced. Ghulam Ahmad militant elements. movement\u2019s name refers not to insisted that he was not bringing its founder but to \u201cAhmad,\u201d an a new revelation, but a new AFTER alternative name for the Prophet interpretation, with the aim of 1908 Leadership of the Muhammad in some hadith. guiding the Muslim community Ahmadiyya movement back to its roots. He saw himself as passes to Hakim Noor-ul-Din, a Ghulam Ahmad\u2019s claim was someone who could restore Islam to companion of Ghulam Ahmad. that he had come to revive Islam its original, pure state. He amassed and return it to the purity of its followers in Punjab and Sindh and 1984 The headquarters of foundations. He did not claim to launched the movement with a Ahmadiyya moves to the UK. ceremony of allegiance in 1889. 1983 The annual Ahmadiyya conference in Pakistan attracts almost 250,000 participants; in 1984, restrictions placed on the group force its leader into exile.","REFORM AND REVIVAL 221 See also: The early life of Muhammad 22\u201327 \u25a0 The quest to make God\u2019s word supreme 134\u201335 \u25a0 The Mahdi of Sudan 219 \u25a0 The creation of Pakistan 242\u201347 Unorthodox teachings One) and the Messiah who, in some Mirza Ghulam Ahmad In an atmosphere of growing hadith, was foretold by Muhammad anti-imperialist feeling in British- to appear in the end times. The son of a physician, Mirza occupied India, Ghulam Ahmad Ghulam Ahmad was born controversially advocated only the These claims went too far for in 1835 in Qadian, a village spiritual form of jihad and the many Muslims, and Ahmad was near Lahore, Punjab, which is peaceful spread of Islam rather than branded a heretic who challenged now in Pakistan but was then any form of military confrontation. Muhammad\u2019s position as the Final part of northwest India. He Prophet, and the revelations given studied Arabic and Persian, Other teachings were more to him. When Ahmad died in 1908, and some medicine with his incendiary. Ahmad stated that Isa his followers split into the Qadiani father. Although he briefly (Jesus) did not die on the cross, nor Ahmadiyyas, who accepted his took a job as a government was he\u2014as Muslims traditionally claims and continued his teachings, clerk, he returned to Qadian believe\u2014saved from death on the and the Lahori Ahmadiyyas, who and increasingly focused on cross by being raised up to heaven saw him as a renewer of the Islamic religious study and public by God. Instead, Ahmad said, Isa faith, but not as a minor prophet. debates in defense of Islam. fainted, recovered, and went to Afghanistan and Kashmir to search In 1973, Pakistani law ruled that In 1882, Ahmad declared for the lost tribes of Israel, where he Qadiani Ahmadiyyas were non- that he had a divine mission. died of old age. Muslims; from 1984, any Qadianis Seven years later, about who claimed to be Muslims, used 40 of his followers pledged Ahmad declared himself not Islamic terminology, or referred allegiance to him, and in 1889 just to be a reformer of Islam, but a to their faith as Islam could be he published a set of rules to second coming of Muhammad and punished. Persecuted, the Qadiani guide all who joined his Isa. He was both the Mahdi (Guided Ahmadiyyas moved their base movement. He traveled widely from Pakistan to the UK, and across northern India and to The Ahmadiyya movement has an now make up around 1 percent Delhi, spreading his message evangelical mission and encourages the of the world\u2019s Muslims\u2014although, and debating with Islamic building of mosques around the world. universally, all other Muslims do leaders. He wrote several This example in Berlin, Germany, was not regard them as such. \u25a0 books, including Arguments built in 1925. of the Ahmadiyya (1880\u201384), Victory of Islam (1891), and The Star of Guidance (1898). When Ahmad died in 1908, leadership of the Ahmadiyya passed to Hakim Noor-ul-Din, who later passed it to Ahmad\u2019s eldest son. The movement is now thought to have 10\u201320 million followers worldwide.","222 ITASHRNEEOLCIELGNOIOTNENGREROFISALTATMENATSION JAMAL AL-DIN AL-AFGHANI IN CONTEXT Only when Islam is seen I n the late 19th century, as relevant in the a movement arose to defend THEME and modernize Islam in line The rise of Islamic modern world can it with Western institutions and Modernism be regarded as a religion society. This movement, known as Islamic Modernism, had a number WHEN AND WHERE for all ages\u2026 of leading lights, including Sayyid Late 19th century, Egypt \u2026 so Islam must be Ahmad Khan (1817\u201398) and his reconciled with Western Aligarh movement in India, which BEFORE values such as democracy, pushed to establish a modern 19th century Declining civil rights, equality, system of education for the Muslim Ottoman power allows population of British India. European nations to seize and progress. control of parts of the Muslim At the same time, Muslims The two most influential world, notably Egypt in 1882. modernists, however, whose must resist Western impact was felt around the Islamic AFTER colonial exploitation and world, were Jamal al-Din al-Afghani 1923 Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk the imposition of Western (1838\u201397) and his student and proclaims the Republic of collaborator Muhammad Abdu Turkey, transforming what secular values \u2026 (1849\u20131905). Al-Afghani argued was the Islamic Ottoman \u2026 and Muslims must also that Islam should be seen first and Empire into a modern secular, insist on the importance foremost as a civilization rather nationalist, and Western- than a religion, and he urged oriented state. of religious faith Muslims to engage with the in public life. modern world, not retreat from it. 1928 Hassan al-Banna founds the Muslim Brotherhood in Rise of a modernist Egypt to create a political form Al-Afghani claimed Afghan of Islam capable of standing Sunni descent, hence his name, up to the West. but many believe he was in fact of Persian Shia origin, from a village in western Iran. What is clear is that he had an eclectic education in Iran and the Shia shrine cities of Iraq, which ultimately led to him","REFORM AND REVIVAL 223 See also: God\u2019s guidance through Sharia 128\u201333 \u25a0 Islam in Europe 210\u201315 \u25a0 Wahhabism, or an Islamic reformation 216\u201317 \u25a0 The rise of political Islam 238\u201341 \u25a0 The creation of Pakistan 242\u201347 Al-Azhar University in Cairo is the leading center of Sunni Islamic thought. As Egypt\u2019s Grand Mufti, Muhammad Abdu looked to reform its teachings, impacting all of Sunni Islam. merging Sufi, Shia, and rationalist Tunisia, Britain\u2019s 1882 occupation worked with a Lebanese religious ideas into the framework of his of Egypt, and Ottoman bankruptcy scholar, Rashid Rida, who had thought. He was a modernist both to European creditors, the journal come to Egypt in 1897. They in his use of media, specifically was revolutionary in creating a established the journal al-Manar, newspapers, to mobilize society sense of Islamic unity founded on which promoted reformist ideas. against the colonial powers and in opposition to European colonization Rida encouraged Muslims to his approach to Islam\u2014insisting of Muslim lands. interpret the primary sources of that Islamic theology and the Islam themselves, as he did. His legal tradition (Sharia) needed A rationalist approach ideas were considered controversial streamlining to meet the challenge Al-Afghani and Abdu\u2019s rationalist by many\u2014not the least of which of the West. He came to these approach to the Quran and Islamic was his support for Darwin\u2019s theory views through work and study in law earned them hostility among of evolution, which is something India, Afghanistan, Istanbul, and the Islamic authorities in Cairo some Muslims still do not accept. also Cairo, where he met a student and Istanbul but gained them a of Islamic mysticism Muhammad respectful hearing among Western Abdu also continued to push Abdu in 1868. officials and scholars. In 1883, for reform. He argued that Muslims when French scholar Ernest Renan could not rely on the interpretations Born into the Egyptian elite claimed publicly that Muslims of texts provided by medieval in the Nile Delta, north of Cairo, rejected education and science, scholars\u2014they needed to use Abdu was immediately impressed al-Afghani\u2019s insistence that Islam reason to keep up with changing by al-Afghani\u2019s ideas. Together could be a motor for rationalism times. He reinterpreted Sharia to they created the journal al-Urwa and scientific progress was loosen strict requirements such al-Wuthqa (a Quranic term meaning widely discussed. as avoiding usurious interest in \u201cthe firmest bond\u201d), of which they financial transactions and eating produced 18 issues in Paris in As Grand Mufti of Egypt only halal meat. He was also an 1884. Circulated in the aftermath (chief Islamic jurist) from 1899, advocate for the education of of France\u2019s 1882 occupation of Abdu went on to become a close women. His Muslim opponents confidant of Lord Cromer, Britain\u2019s called him an infidel, but his legacy I went to the West and saw agent and consul-general in Egypt. was a trend of liberal thought in Islam, but no Muslims; I got Following al-Afghani\u2019s death, Abdu 20th-century Islam. \u25a0 back to the East and saw Muslims, but not Islam. Muhammad Abdu","224 IN CONTEXT IUANSMNELEDEADERMSRICSTATOAND THEME Early Muslims in America MALCOLM X (1964) WHEN AND WHERE Early 20th century, US BEFORE 12th century Mali becomes the first Muslim kingdom of West Africa, after centuries of trade with Morocco\u2019s Arabs. 1503 The transatlantic slave trade begins, transporting more than 10 million Africans to the Americas by 1867. AFTER 1984 American rapper William Michael Griffin converts to Islam. As Rakim, he becomes one of the the most influential hip-hop artists of all time, and references Islam in his lyrics. 2006 Keith Ellison, the first Muslim elected to Congress, takes his oath of office using Thomas Jefferson\u2019s Quran. O n May 29, 1921, the Detroit Free Press newspaper carried a story with the headline \u201cSheik Helps Build Moslem Mosque.\u201d The \u201csheik\u201d in question was Hassan Karoub, a Syrian immigrant to the United States, who presided over the opening of what would be the first specifically designed mosque in America. The Karoubs had come from Damascus, Syria, to Detroit in about 1912, to find work in the automobile industry, like many other Muslim immigrants. They were part of a local Muslim community that was estimated to be about 16,000 strong at this time.","REFORM AND REVIVAL 225 See also: Spreading Islam through trade 182\u201385 \u25a0 The origins of Ahmadiyya 220\u201321 \u25a0 The demographics of Islam today 260\u201361 \u25a0 Muslims in the West 282\u201385 From 1503 onward, large An estimated In the late 19th century, numbers of Muslims arrive 3.45 million Muslims a wave of Muslim immigrants live in the United States arrives from the Middle East as slaves captured in today. This represents just West Africa. over 1 percent of the total and South Asia. This is halted by the 1924 Large-scale Muslim US population. Immigration Act. immigration resumes following the Immigration In the 1920s and 30s, and Naturalization Act various Black Muslim movements emerge, of 1965. including the Nation of Islam. Most of these would have been now Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, religion. However, despite this recent immigrants, although Islam Mali, and Nigeria. Put to work on coercion, some enslaved Muslims in America already had a long plantations, most Muslim slaves, did hold onto their religious history, with roots that predate forced by their owners to convert to practices. Among them was Ayuba the nation\u2019s founding in 1776. Christianity, abandoned their Suleiman Diallo, an educated man from a family of Muslim clerics in Islam in chains Senegal. Captured in 1730, he was The first Muslims to arrive in sent to work on a tobacco plantation America were brought as slaves. in Maryland. He ran away and They came as early as 1503, when eventually arrived in London in the Spanish took the first African 1733, where he wrote his memoirs. captives across the Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean and the New World. Omar ibn Said was taken from Researchers debate the exact Senegal in 1807 and transported to number of Muslim slaves transported America. He, too, was a learned \u276f\u276f to the Americas, but estimate that about one-third of all African slaves Ayuba Suleiman Diallo, painted by came from largely Muslim parts of William Hoare of Bath in 1733, the year West Africa\u2014mostly from what are Diallo escaped slavery in America and made his way to England.","226 EARLY MUSLIMS IN AMERICA Malcolm X was a dynamic, influential, and polarizing figure who initially fought for black nationalism under the banner of the Nation of Islam. man and before his capture he had Muslim population. Lists of soldiers Post slavery been an Islamic scholar. Omar serving under George Washington Islam as brought to America by spent the rest of his life enslaved during the American War of African slaves did not survive. Under in North Carolina and died in 1864, Independence in 1775\u201383 include pressure to convert to Christianity, the year before the abolition of Muslim names such as Bampett they could not pass their religion on slavery in America. He left a short Muhammad and Yusuf Ben Ali. to their children. However, by the memoir and other writings in Arabic, late 19th century, the millions of which reveal that while he appeared Thomas Jefferson, chief author economic immigrants coming to to have converted to Christianity, he of the Declaration of Independence America included tens of thousands continued to write verses of the in 1776 and third president of the from Muslim-majority countries in Quran in Arabic in his Bible. United States (1801\u201309), had his the Middle East and South Asia. own copy of the Quran, the 1734 They formed communities, built Firsthand accounts by Muslim translation into English by George mosques, and integrated Islam slaves such as Ayuba Suleiman Sale. Why Jefferson had the Quran into the fabric of American life. Diallo and Omar ibn Said are rare, is unknown, but it possibly hints but they show that, by the time of at an awareness of a religious The legacy of the early Muslim its founding in 1776, the United diversity in the newly forged nation slaves made itself felt early in the States already had a significant that many have now forgotten. 20th century, however, with the movement to promote the idea of Islam as a lost part of African- American heritage. In 1914, Jamaican immigrant Marcus Garvey founded the United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), in New York City\u2019s Harlem. The UNIA championed black separatism and advocated a return to Africa to end white colonialism and unite the continent under black rule. From Spain to California The United States of There is a theory that Islam was and then claimed in 1542\u2014 America \u2026 has in itself no present in the Americas even California. Some think they took character of enmity against before the first Muslim slaves the name from The Deeds of were landed in the 16th century: Esplandi\u00e1n, a romance novel the laws, religion, or Moors expelled from Spain in popular with the conquistadors. tranquility of Muslims. the 14th century may also have It features a rich island called crossed the Atlantic. And California, which is ruled by John Adams when Christopher Columbus black Amazons and their queen sailed from Spain in 1492 and Calafia. The book was published 2nd US President (1735\u20131826) discovered the \u201cNew World,\u201d he in 1510 in Seville, a city that is said to have brought Muslims had until recently been part of with him as part of his crew. al-Andalus and under the rule of a Muslim caliph: from \u201ccaliph\u201d A more lasting legacy might comes the female Calafia and exist in the name of one of the so perhaps California. territories the Spanish found","REFORM AND REVIVAL 227 [Islam] is the one religion Earth\u2019s original people and that Ramy Youssef, the American- that erases from its society Americans of African descent Egyptian comedian whose 2019 hit TV should be given a state of their show Ramy is all about the experience the race problem. own, separate from the white race. of being an American Muslim. Malcolm X While in prison in 1946\u201352, Muhammad Sadiq, who was sent to Although a Christian, Garvey Malcolm Little converted to Islam America in 1920 as a missionary of sometimes mentioned Islam in his and joined the Nation, changing his the Ahmadiyya movement. Looking speeches, while the UNIA\u2019s house name to Malcolm X\u2014as a protest at to build bridges between African- newspaper, Negro World, ran many the loss of identity when white slave American and other US Muslims, stories about Muslims in the 1920s, owners imposed new surnames on he made thousands of converts. playing a role in spreading the their slaves. Upon release, he became connection between Islam and one of the Nation\u2019s most high-profile The Ahmadis are the oldest black nationalism. members, but he grew disillusioned, continuous Muslim community left the organization, and embraced (although other Muslims do not The Moorish Science Temple mainstream Sunni Islam, making accept them as Muslims) in the US, of America, founded in Chicago by the Hajj in 1964. Then a stern critic with 10,000 to 20,000 followers, out of Timothy Drew\u2014or Noble Drew Ali of the Nation\u2019s separatist beliefs, he the estimated 3.45 million Muslims in \u2014in 1913, proposed a more explicit was assassinated by three of its America today. As 44th US president connection, claiming that African members in 1965. Barak Obama said in 2015, Islam is Americans were of Moorish \u201cwoven into our country\u2019s fabric.\u201d \u25a0 ancestry, from the Moroccan While each campaigned for the Empire, and were therefore Islamic. betterment of African Americans, the unorthodox religious beliefs and More influential was the Nation practices of these groups lie outside of Islam, established in Detroit in mainstream Islam; most Muslims do 1930 by Wallace D. Fard, or Wali not view followers of the Nation and Fard Muhammad. Thanks to its similar movements to be Muslims. charismatic leaders, notably Elijah Muhammad, who led from 1934 to Islamic unity in the US 1975, the Nation helped lay the The mosque that Muhammad groundwork for the emergence of Karoub founded in Detroit in 1921 Islam as an influential part of the closed in 1927. However, a mosque Black Power and broader civil rights built in Chicago in 1922 still stands; movements of the 1950s and 1960s. the Sadiq Mosque is named for The Nation\u2019s teachings drew on elements from the Bible and the Quran to argue that Africans were A mosque rises out of the northwest Ohio countryside. It belongs to a Muslim community with roots in the area going back to the 1930s.","228 IN CONTEXT SIPDNRAOTNOEEESVRIRFDNEEEORADTESIOTWNITH THEME The secularization MUSTAFA KEMAL ATAT\u00dcRK of Turkey WHEN AND WHERE 1923, Turkey BEFORE 1299 ce Osman I founds the Ottoman dynasty, which will conquer Turkey, then Greece and Serbia. 1453 Mehmet II, also known as Mehmet the Conqueror, captures Constantinople, thus ending the Byzantine Empire and initiating centuries of glory for the Ottoman Empire. AFTER 2001 Politicians form the Turkish AKP party, which looks to the conservative tradition of Turkey\u2019s Ottoman past and seeks to restore the country\u2019s Islamic identity. B y the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire, whose sultans had been ruling much of the Islamic world for more than 500 years, was in decline\u2014 a situation underlined by a series of failed military campaigns. The court attempted to reverse the trend through a policy of Westernization. In the mid-19th century, officials launched large- scale reforms in administration, law, the military, and education. Ultimately, this desire to reinvent itself would lead Islam\u2019s most powerful empire to largely abandon the Muslim faith at state level and transform itself into an almost entirely secular society.","REFORM AND REVIVAL 229 See also: The caliphate of the Ottoman Empire 186\u201389 \u25a0 Islam in Europe 210\u201315 \u25a0 The demographics of Islam today 260\u201361 \u25a0 Islam and democracy 264\u201365 The Ottoman Empire Islamists argue that the Modernization and loses military supremacy Ottoman Empire must secularism win out. Islam remain Islamic and not is suppressed, but over and political power, and attempt to ape the West. institutes reforms to halt Reformists argue that time it slowly makes the reforms must go further. a comeback. the critical decline. If the empire is to survive there has to be comprehensive Westernization. Roots of secularization reinforcing his status as caliph\u2014 known as \u201cYoung Turks,\u201d kept up Several factors led to the collapse and a regime of repression that the pressure for change. Most were of the sultanate, but the seeds of began with shutting down a brief weeded out and crushed, but one, its dismantling lay in the Tanzimat experiment in government by the Committee of Union & Progress program instituted in 1839. This parliament in 1878. But reform had (CUP), succeeded in seizing control had the aim of reforming the already progressed too far to allow of the Ottoman army in Macedonia. political structure of the state this reversion to authoritarian rule. By 1908, the CUP was powerful along Western lines\u2014creating new Small clandestine groups, later enough to send a telegram to the \u276f\u276f cadres of bureaucrats, technical experts, and military elites Keeping Islam alive in Turkey conversant in European methods and languages. Reformists also Said Nursi (1877\u20131960) was an he called a \u201cjihad of the word,\u201d legislated to reduce the power of Islamic theologian and scholar. which he characterized as the the religious establishment by He founded the Nur Movement, struggle to revive Muslim ethics restricting the remit of Sharia law. which advocated reinterpreting in a world that had become Unfortunately, the financial cost of Islam according to the needs highly secularized. the reforms meant that the state of a modern society. Originally had bankrupted itself to Western a member of the Young Turks, Following Nursi\u2019s death, creditors by the 1870s. Meanwhile, he later fell out of favor, and one of those who continued territorial losses continued as the was accused of taking part in his work was fellow scholar Ottomans lost the Balkans and anti-government revolts. While and preacher Fethullah G\u00fclen. the Caucasus to the Russians. in prison he wrote a work of Rivalry between the millions- Quranic commentary that ran strong G\u00fclen movement and The response of Sultan Abdul to more than 6,000 pages. Parts the ruling AKP party erupted Hamid II, who ruled from 1876 to of this were distributed to his in 2013, and in 2016 the AKP 1909, was a policy of reasserting disciples all over Turkey in what blamed G\u00fclenists for an Islamic power\u2014which included attempted coup in Turkey.","230 THE SECULARIZATION OF TURKEY aging sultan demanding the defeat and occupation, the If I see my nation\u2019s belief restoration of parliament. Faced disgraced CUP government fell secured, I will not even care with a rebellious revolutionary army from power. The British and French marching on Constantinople, Abdul planned to divide the empire into about burning in Hell. Hamid agreed to their demands. European-backed spheres of Said Nursi Elections to the new parliament influence. Renegade army units saw the CUP win all but one seat. began banding together under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, a Collapse of empire young Turkish general who had The Ottoman Empire entered World successfully repelled the Allied War I in 1914 by attacking Russia, invasion of the Dardanelles in 1915\u2013 which declared war in response, 16. In 1919, Kemal led a revolt from as did Russia\u2019s allies France and the interior, formally declaring Britain. When the war ended in independence and creating a new government in the city of Ankara. \u201cHenceforth,\u201d he declared, \u201cIstanbul does not control Anatolia, but Anatolia Istanbul.\u201d For two years, rival authorities in Istanbul and Ankara were at a stalemate, but by October 1922, Mustafa Kemal\u2019s forces prevailed. The sultanate was abolished and the last sultan fled Istanbul for Italy. The Turkish Republic was proclaimed in October 1923 with Mustafa Kemal \u201cAtat\u00fcrk\u201d (\u201cfather of the Turks\u201d) as its president and Ankara as its capital. The caliphate was abolished the following year. De-Islamification Several years of dismantling Islamic institutions followed, including shutting down the Sharia courts, banning the Sufi orders, and excising Islam from the constitution. This was part of a general policy of reducing the presence of Islam in Turkey; other measures extended to banning the headscarf in state institutions, forcing men to wear Western-style fedora hats instead of the fez, the exclusive use of the The National Assembly notifies the sultan of the end of the caliphate in 1924, following the proclamation of the Turkish republic the previous year, on the cover of a French newspaper.","REFORM AND REVIVAL 231 There may be a great many countries in the world, but there is only one civilization, and if a nation is to achieve progress, she must be a part of this civilization. Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk is celebrated much traction, even during the subsequent decades, a series of at his mausoleum in Ankara on Republic lifetime of Atat\u00fcrk, such as the parties came to power that drew Day, but there are many critics of the introduction of pews and wearing their support from the conservative aggressive secularism that removed shoes in mosques. Anatolian hinterland, which had Islam from Turkish public life. never fully subscribed to the The combined effect of these secular revolution. Despite a series Gregorian rather than the Islamic policies was to cut off Turkey from of military coups to remove these calendar, and the obligatory both its Middle Eastern neighbors governments, political Islam grew adoption of Turkish rather than and its Ottoman past. The goal of in strength, supported by Sufi Islamic\u2013Arabic surnames. the new regime was to create a networks and the work of religious new European Turk who could take scholar Said Nursi. The most radical measures were his or her place as a member of the the language reforms, which saw \u201cadvanced group of nations.\u201d Political Islam eventually Arabic script replaced with Latin overcame its secular adversaries script in 1928, alongside a purging Atat\u00fcrk\u2019s own attitude towards through electoral victories from of Arabic and Persian words to Islam appears ambiguous. He is the 1980s onward. From 2002, be replaced by, in many cases, quoted as saying, \u201cReligion is an the Justice and Development Party made-up words. Other reforms important institution. A nation (AKP) governments formed under were attempted that never gained without religion cannot survive,\u201d the leadership of Recep Tayyip but he also declared, \u201cI have no Erdogan are the culmination of A political party cannot religion, and at times I wish all this. Appealing to a coalition of have a religion. Only religions at the bottom of the sea. religious conservatives and secular individuals can. He is a weak ruler who needs forces attracted by its language religion to uphold his government,\u201d of civil rights and promises of EU Recep Tayyip Erdogan although to this he adds, \u201cEvery membership, the AKP proved to be man can follow his own conscience, surprisingly durable. Under the provided it does not interfere with AKP, Sufism also made a comeback. sane reason.\u201d The legacy of Atat\u00fcrk remains, Following Atat\u00fcrk however, and in recent years one The fervor of the new radicalism of the fiercest areas of contention in began to wane after World War II. public discourse has been between Multiparty elections were secular and religious interpretations instituted by Atat\u00fcrk\u2019s successor, of Ottoman imperial and Turkish Ismet In\u00f6n\u00fc, from 1950. Over republican history. \u25a0","IOSURTCHOENSQTIUTURTAIONN KING FAISAL (1967)","","234 THE BIRTH OF SAUDI ARABIA IN CONTEXT I n the 7th century, armies Elephant Rock in northern Saudi swept out of Arabia to conquer Arabia is a rare rocky landmark in a THEME vast territories in the name of country that consists almost entirely The birth of Saudi Arabia Islam. Within a short time, new of desert\u2014and vast oil reserves, mainly WHEN AND WHERE dynasties emerged in Damascus, in the Eastern Province. 1932, Arabian Peninsula Baghdad, and later in Cairo and BEFORE Istanbul, relegating the birthplace of Islam, Muhammad ibn Abd 967 During the Abbasid era, of Islam to a political backwater. al-Wahhab (1703\u201392). The two the position of Sharif From the 10th century onward, the men formed a partnership in 1744, of Mecca is created for the holy cities of Mecca and Medina cemented by marriage between steward of the holy cities were under the control of a local their children, and established the of Mecca and Medina and Arab ruler known as the Sharif of House of Saud. Wahhab\u2019s religious surrounding Hejaz region. Mecca, a position that mostly owed ideologies gave the House of Saud a The term sharif is Arabic for allegiance to other powers\u2014 legitimacy and potency other tribes \u201cnoble,\u201d and describes the notably the Abbasids, Mamluks, lacked. Those same ideologies also descendants of the Prophet\u2019s and, from the 16th century, the brought down the first Saudi state grandson Hassan. Ottomans. The rest of Arabia in 1818, after the Wahhabis\u2019 jihad- 1919 Sharif Hussein of Mecca reverted to tribal rule, as it was inspired territorial expansions had refuses to ratify the Treaty of before the coming of the Prophet. provoked the Ottoman Empire to Versailles at the end of World intervene and execute their leaders. War I, forfeiting British support The 20th century, however, saw for his claims to rule Arabia. a remarkable turnaround\u2014through The Sauds established a second AFTER a combination of conquest, shrewd Saudi\u2013Wahhabi state six years 1946 Abdullah, son of Sharif diplomacy, and luck, the Arabian later. Known as the Emirate of Najd, Hussein, becomes the first Peninsula regained control of the it pragmatically limited itself to its king of the newly independent destiny of Islam once again. home territory of the Najd region, in Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. central Arabia. Even so, the Sauds\u2019 Useful alliances rule was contested by a rival tribe, I\u2019m telling you, The first state in Arabia, called the the Rashidi, and in 1891 the Sauds you can\u2019t compare Saudi Emirate of Diriyah, was the result were decisively defeated and went Arabia to other countries. of an alliance between a local ruler, into exile in Kuwait, where they Muhammad bin Saud (1710\u201365), and sought the protection of the ruling Al-Walid bin Talal the preacher of a puritanical form al-Sabah family. Member of the Saudi royal family (b.1955)","REFORM AND REVIVAL 235 See also: Wahhabism, or an Islamic reformation 216\u201317 \u25a0 The modern Sharia state 266\u201369 \u25a0 Sunni and Shia in the modern Middle East 270\u201371 \u25a0 The new extremists 272\u201377 In 1902, Abd al-Aziz (1875\u20131953), Saudi Arabia is So signi\ufb01cant were the \ufb01nds that also known as Ibn Saud, son of the the heart of the in 1945, as World War II entered its expelled Saudi ruler, managed to Muslim world. \ufb01nal year and the Cold War loomed, retake the family\u2019s hometown of Abul Ala Mawdudi US President Franklin D. Roosevelt Riyadh in a surprise nighttime met Ibn Saud to secure assurances attack. Using Riyadh as his base, Pakistani political leader (1903\u201379) of unrestricted access to Saudi Ibn Saud followed this up with Arabia\u2019s oil. The two men reputedly attacks on small villages in Oil and America got along so well that Roosevelt southern Najd, forcing the Rashidi The kingdom\u2019s fortunes\u2014and the presented the king with one of his \ufb01ghters to retreat. politics of the Middle East\u2014were wheelchairs, while the king\u2019s gifts to transformed when drillers struck oil the president included a diamond- In seeking to form a new state, in 1938 at Dhahran, in the country\u2019s encrusted dagger. Ibn Saud was careful to avoid past Eastern Province. The cash-strapped mistakes. At the outbreak of World Ibn Saud granted American oil The meeting laid the foundations War I, he courted favor with the companies concessions to explore for a close relationship between British, who were eager to control and drill further. This discovery Saudi Arabia and the United States the seas around Arabia; they would turn out to be the \ufb01rst of that continues to this day and has encouraged the Sauds to capture many, eventually revealing Saudi profoundly influenced the history the Arabian Peninsula from Arabia to be the largest source of of the modern Middle East. In the Ottoman control. Backed by British crude oil (\u201cblack gold\u201d) in the world. years that followed, the American funding and weapons, Ibn Saud presence in Saudi Arabia grew, captured Mecca and Medina. with the establishment of a US airbase in Dhahran and a plan With the collapse of the to sponsor young Saudis to go to Ottoman Empire at the end of college in America, as a way of World War I, the Rashidis lost their ensuring that the Saudi nation backers and by 1927, the Sauds remained pro-American. had taken control of most of Arabia. In 1932, Ibn Saud formally united Problems of succession his realm into the Kingdom of Saudi On his death in 1953, Ibn Saud was Arabia, with himself as king. He succeeded by his second son, Prince reimposed the Wahhabi brand of Saud, who became King Saud. His Islam over the entire population, reign was marked by conflict with and appointed two of his sons as his brother Faisal\u2014given that their viceroys of the country\u2019s most father had had 45 sons, 36 of whom important regions, Najd and Hejaz. survived to adulthood, sibling rivalry He also brought in Muslim Arabs was almost inevitable, and highly from Iraq, Syria, and Egypt to help dangerous. Faisal took advantage of administer a territory that was the king\u2019s absence abroad because almost two-thirds as big as India, of illness to seize power in 1964. although only sparsely populated. Worried that he himself might in turn fall to a coup, Faisal engaged The infant kingdom was still in brutal internal suppression. \u276f\u276f extremely poor. Its main source of revenue came from fees paid by Ibn Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, met Hajj pilgrims, but even this income US President Roosevelt on a warship was unreliable. As a consequence on the Suez Canal in 1945. The of the worldwide Great Depression meeting sealed an enduring special of the 1930s, the number of pilgrims relationship between the countries. dropped to a \ufb01fth of what it had been only a few years before.","236 THE BIRTH OF SAUDI ARABIA When Faisal\u2019s brother Prince Talal A pipeline once carried oil from service, oil fields, and universities, and other liberal Saudi princes eastern Saudi Arabia all the way, via but also first-hand exposure to the demanded political reform and Jordan and Syria, to a Mediterranean doctrine of Wahhabism. a written constitution, which port in Lebanon. It ceased operation he feared might constrain his in 1990 because of regional disputes. From 1975 onward, under actions, the king responded, Faisal\u2019s successors, Saudi Arabia \u201cour constitution is the Quran\u201d. Oil-fueled politics began to truly make its weight felt Saudi Arabia\u2019s oil embargo of 1973 in the wider world through lavish There followed a number of deeply shocked the West. So, too, spending. Many of its foreign policy attempts to overthrow Faisal\u2019s had President Gamal Abdel Nasser goals aligned with those of the government, most of which were of Egypt, when he took power in United States: Palestinian leader foiled by a sophisticated Saudi 1956 and nationalized the Suez Yasser Arafat received money to internal security apparatus trained Canal, a vital artery for international keep things peaceful in Israel; the and equipped by the United States. shipping and oil supplies. Nasser\u2019s Somalis received money to expel So it was a shock to the West when, vision of secular Pan-Arabism had the Soviets from their country; in 1973, Faisal withdrew oil from made him a hero not just to Arabs Zaire was given funds to fight pro- world markets in protest over but throughout the developing world. Soviet rebels in Angola. Western support for Israel in that year\u2019s Arab\u2013Israeli War. Hoping to curb Nasser\u2019s growing The old alliance whereby the influence, the Saudi monarchy Saudi state backed its Wahhabi The action earned the King opened its arms to his opponents\u2014 clerics still held, ensuring that great prestige among his fellow notably Egypt\u2019s Islamist group, the they were well funded and able to Arab nations. The oil embargo Muslim Brotherhood\u2014giving them impose their strict interpretation of quadrupled the price of oil the money and arms they needed in Islam on the country and its holy internationally and flooded Saudi the fight against Nasser. Meanwhile, sites. However, following Iran\u2019s Arabia with money, creating an many Egyptians\u2014as well as Syrians, overthrow of its monarchy in economic boom in the Arabian Gulf Iraqis, and other Arabs\u2014poured into February 1979 and a failed Saudi region. Faisal was unable to enjoy Saudi Arabia, where they received insurrection by Wahhabi dissidents the benefits of the windfall, however, not just housing and work in the civil later that year, the state resolved to \u2014he was assassinated in 1975. keep the clergy away from domestic Large retractable umbrellas shelter pilgrims from the sun at the Prophet\u00b4s Mosque in Medina. Saudi Arabia has invested heavily in developing the holy sites to accommodate more pilgrims.","REFORM AND REVIVAL 237 The Saudi Arabian capital Riyadh In 1992, partly in response to civic Far-reaching media is the third-largest city in the Arab unrest, King Fahd decreed the world. Dating from the pre-Islamic era, Basic Law of Saudi Arabia, a Saudi Arabia commands a it has become a modern metropolis with charter divided into nine chapters. powerful position in Pan-Arab a population of over 6 million people. It reassured citizens that the media, influencing how it constitution of Saudi Arabia is presents the news, politics, politics and instead occupy them \u201cthe Holy Quran, and the sunna\u201d entertainment, and religious with promoting Saudi\u2013Wahhabi of the Prophet Muhammad. While affairs. This media tends to interests abroad. Over the next the Basic Law contains many of the support Saudi Arabia\u2019s agenda decade, Saudi Arabia allied with characteristics of a constitution, it in foreign policy, and attacks the United States in funding tens does not override Islamic laws. those who do not conform to of thousands of mujahideen fighters a Wahhabi line on Islam\u2014 from around the Muslim world Saudi Arabia also realized that notable targets are Iran, and to combat the Soviet Union\u2019s the export of Wahhabism was seen Shia Islam in general. Since incursion into Afghanistan. as a problem by its American allies. the late 1990s, Saudi\u2019s MBC, This led to a new era of domestic Orbit, and ART have been Moderate reforms reform driven by Crown Prince and some of the most heavily In 1990, following Iraq\u2019s invasion later King Abdullah (r. 2005\u201315), watched TV channels in the of Kuwait and fearing an attack on who instituted a restructuring Arab world. The rise of Saudi Saudi Arabia, the kingdom joined of the judicial system and curbs on media marks the eclipse of the military coalition against Iraqi the religious establishment. The Egypt as a political, economic, leader Saddam Hussein. However, reforms have continued under his and media force in the region. when King Fahd (r. 1982\u20132005) successor, King Salman. invited coalition forces to station In 2003, the Saudis also themselves in Saudi Arabia, factions Saudi Arabia has approximately set up Al Arabiya as a news within the kingdom denounced 20 percent of the planet\u2019s known oil channel to challenge Qatar\u2019s Saudi dependence on the United reserves, and Saudi Aramco, which Al Jazeera. In coordination States. In the wake of the Gulf War, extracts this oil, is believed to be with the United Arab Emirates Saudi Arabia suffered a wave of the world\u2019s most profitable company. (UAE), where Al Arabiya is terrorist bombings thought to have In addition, the annual revenue from based, Saudi media is at the been carried out by al-Qaeda and pilgrims making the Hajj and Umra forefront of a new struggle for other Islamic extremists as part of is expected to exceed $150 billion dominance between Saudi a campaign against Westerners by 2022. Such wealth ensures that Arabia and the UAE on one and Westernization. Saudi Arabia will continue to exert side, and Turkey and Iran on a strong influence on the practice of the other. Islam for some time to come. \u25a0 We have developed a case of oil addiction in Saudi Arabia. Muhammad bin Salman Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia","238 IN CONTEXT SISOLLAUMTIIOSNTHE THEME The rise of political Islam THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD WHEN AND WHERE 1928, Egypt BEFORE Late 19th century Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abdu formulate a new Islamic Modernism. AFTER 1966 The current leader of al-Qaeda, Ayman al-Zawahiri, begins his path of terrorism, inspired by Sayyid Qutb\u2019s message and his outrage about Qutb\u2019s execution. 2001 Osama bin Laden comes to worldwide prominence following the 9\/11 attacks on the United States. He cites the teachings of Sayyid Qutb as one of his influences. T he Muslim Brotherhood (Jamaat al-Ikhwan) was formed in 1928, in the Suez Canal city of Ismailia in Egypt, by schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna (1906\u201349). He was influenced by the likes of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abdu, and Rashid Rida of the Muslim modernist movement, and their project to recast Islam to meet the challenge of the West. Today, the Brotherhood\u2014as it is commonly abbreviated\u2014is the world\u2019s oldest political Islamist group. It has always campaigned for a system of rule based on Islamic law\u2014its slogan is \u201cIslam is the solution.\u201d The Brotherhood has married the idea of political","REFORM AND REVIVAL 239 See also: Al-Jahiliyya, the Time of Ignorance 20\u201321 \u25a0 The rise of Islamic Modernism 222\u201323 \u25a0 The secularization of Turkey 228\u201331 \u25a0 The new extremists 272\u201377 All Muslims not living according to Sharia Palestine. After World War II the are living in jahiliyya, or a state of ignorance brought about Brotherhood sent paramilitary units to take part in the 1948 by the influence of the West. war in Palestine. Alarmed by the A vanguard of true Muslims must pursue jihad to bring group\u2019s size and reach, and fearing it would carry out a coup, the enlightenment to the greater Muslim nation. British-backed government of Egypt outlawed the organization in December 1948. In retaliation, a member of the Brotherhood assassinated Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmoud al-Nokrashi. In February 1949, unknown assailants shot and killed al-Banna. The goal is to bring about the absolute Sayyid Qutb sovereignty of God, or hakimiyyat Allah, and the liberation The Brotherhood now entered its most influential period, dominated of service by humans to other humans. by its greatest intellectual, Sayyid Qutb (1906\u201366). Qutb was a civil activism with social responsibility, organization, which quickly spread servant and well-known liberal offering aid to often-marginalized throughout Egypt, was built around writer of literary criticism who elements of society. However, in a structure of usra (\u201cfamilies\u201d of four underwent a transformation to the past, members and affiliates or five initiates led by a naqib, or Islamic ideologue in the late of the party have resorted to \u201ccaptain\u201d) and held together by 1940s. After two years of study in extremist violence, and in recent a strict culture of obedience. By the United States, Qutb returned times the organization has found 1936 it was able to organize mass to Egypt in 1950 and became a itself demonized and persecuted protests against British rule in vociferous critic of not just America by the Egyptian state. but of the secular culture of the West in general. Qutb openly \u276f\u276f Militant beginnings In founding the Brotherhood, the charismatic al-Banna was influenced by a number of factors, including the belief that Britain had pressured the Turks into abolishing the Islamic caliphate in 1924, and the continued presence of British troops of occupation in supposedly independent Egypt. Al-Banna\u2019s The headquarters of the Muslim Brotherhood in Cairo burns in 1954, set on fire by angry crowds in retaliation against the attempted assassination of prime minister Gamal Abdel Nasser.","240 THE RISE OF POLITICAL ISLAM The civilization of the West, organization at the service of the A society cannot be which was brilliant by virtue new military regime. After an Islamic if it expels the religious of its scientific perfection for a assassination attempt against him long time, is now bankrupt in 1954, Nasser cracked down on Laws of Islam, so nothing the Brotherhood, and Qutb was one of Islam is left except rites and in decline. of many who were arrested. Hassan al-Banna and ceremonials. Vanguard of believers Sayyid Qutb supported the Brotherhood, While in prison, Qutb wrote a book although he did not formally join called Signs on the Road (Maalim Qutb implied that only the it until 1953. When army officers fi\u2019l-Tariq), which was published in vanguard were true Muslims\u2014 led by Gamal Abdel Nasser seized 1964 and became an international all other Muslims living in states, power in a military coup in 1952, manifesto for an Islamic revolution. whether Arab or non-Arab, in overthrowing the British-backed The book is based around the twin which Sharia law was not applied monarchy, Qutb and the Muslim concepts of jahiliya (ignorance) (for example, Egypt) were by default Brotherhood cooperated and hakimiyya (sovereignty); Qutb non-Muslim. In Qutb\u2019s view, Muslim enthusiastically with the coup believes that the modern world, governments and societies were leaders. The relationship soured including the parts inhabited by corrupted by the West to the point when Qutb turned down then- Muslims, is no better than the that they had abandoned Islam. prime minister Nasser\u2019s offer of the pre-Islamic \u201cAge of Ignorance.\u201d Only a return to Islam could free post of minister of education, and He argues that a vanguard of people to become true Muslims the Brotherhood as a whole was true believers is needed to bring living under the sovereignty of unwilling to place its huge about a truly Islamic society for God. This was a revolutionary plan all mankind, one in which clerics to save humankind. Two years after and rulers ensure that parliament only passes laws that accord with Sharia. Qutb was scathing about contemporary non-Islamic, nationalist ideologies including Nasser\u2019s ideas about Pan-Arabism, and suggested the vanguard would need to be prepared to defend itself from the forces of the state. Inspiration from Europe In two books, Islam and the euthanasia of society\u2019s Problem of Civilization (1962) \u201cdefectives,\u201d he presented no and The Future Belongs to This challenge to them either. Religion (1964), Sayyid Qutb cited heavily from French biologist- Qutb\u2019s work is also compared turned-eugenicist Alexis Carrel\u2019s with that of West Indian anti- 1935 critique of industrial colonial theorist Frantz Fanon civilization. Carrel\u2019s idea of a new (1925\u201361) and his study of elite of the mentally and physically Algeria\u2019s war of independence. superior who should withdraw Both authors dealt with the from society in preparation for its perpetuation of colonial renewal clearly foreshadows attitudes by successor regimes. Qutb\u2019s notion of the Muslim Fanon sounds very much like vanguard. Critics point out that Qutb when he writes: \u201cSo although Qutb did not translate comrades, let us not pay tribute anything from Carrel\u2019s passages to Europe by creating states, arguing for sterilization and institutions and societies that draw their inspiration from it.\u201d","REFORM AND REVIVAL 241 Supporters of Muhammad Mursi, the Muslim Brotherhood candidate who became Egyptian president, march in 2013. The former fringe Islamic party briefly headed the country. Signs on the Road was published, This period came to an end during presidential elections held in 2012, Qutb was hanged for treason, the Arab uprisings of spring 2011. its candidate Muhammad Mursi becoming a martyr for the cause After Egyptian president Hosni won the vote. But Mursi\u2019s secretive of radical Islam. Mubarak was forced out by mass style of leadership and restrictive public protests in February of that policies soon led to a fall from The Brotherhood today year, the Brotherhood emerged as grace, allowing the military to Following the initial era of al-Banna the dominant political player. In mount a coup. and the radical era of Qutb, a third act in the history of the Brotherhood Only in the Islamic way After Mursi was ousted, the saw the group return to active of life do all men become free state imposed a brutal crackdown. participation in civil society. Hundreds of Brotherhood members from the servitude of some were killed on the streets and After President Anwar Sadat men to others. thousands more imprisoned. Its took office in 1970, he released large Sayyid Qutb leadership went into exile. The numbers of prisoners and allowed group had proved incapable of the Brotherhood to operate again. managing Egypt\u2019s democratic A new generation of members transition. It was still driven by entered into politics. The group the Qutbist model of the vanguard, made great strides, becoming the while party thinking on social and strongest opposition group not only political questions, such as the in Egypt but across the region rights of women and the freedoms through affiliate parties such of secularism, was too far out of as Ennahda in Tunisia and Milli step with that of the more moderate G\u00f6r\u00fcs (National Vision) in Turkey. Egyptian public. Disturbing legacy Although the mainstream Muslim Brotherhood no longer identifies with the teachings of its former figurehead Sayyid Qutb, he remains enormously influential. His call for Muslims to replace the sovereignty of man with that of God continues to inspire some extremist thinking\u2014although it should be noted that Qutb never sanctioned violence, and once wrote that the killing of innocents finds no justification in the Quran. Apart from Middle East specialists, few in the West have heard of Sayyid Qutb, yet he is widely studied across the Muslim world, where his legacy continues to be a source of division decades after his death in 1966. \u25a0","PURELAND OF THE REHMAT ALI (1933)","","244 THE CREATION OF PAKISTAN IN CONTEXT Indian nationalists demand independence from Britain, but Muslims are afraid of being marginalized THEME The creation of Pakistan in a Hindu-majority India. WHEN AND WHERE Mahatma Gandhi The All-India Muslim 1947, India rallies millions with his call League demands an for nonviolent resistance independent state BEFORE and civil disobedience 8th century Islam arrives for Muslims. in India, brought by invading to end British rule. armies from Central Asia; it becomes a major religion under Indian independence is achieved in 1947 and the country the Delhi Sultanate. splits in two, creating a separate country for Indian Muslims called Pakistan. 1526 Babur defeats the Sultan of Delhi at the Battle of Panipat and founds the Mughal Empire. AFTER 1977 General Zia-ul-Haq takes control of Pakistan in a coup; he commits to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing Sharia to restore the country\u2019s Islamic identity. 1988 Following Zia-ul-Haq\u2019s death, Benazir Bhutto becomes Pakistan\u2019s first female prime minister, as well as the first female head of government in a Muslim-majority country. P akistan is often said to be \u201cPakstan\u201d to describe a future now Afghanistan, Bangladesh, the only country to have Muslim state that would include Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Sri been created in the name the Punjab, the North-West Frontier Lanka. The Mughals had built of Islam. It was formed in 1947, when Province (also known as the Afghan on the legacy of previous Muslim India was partitioned along religious Province), Kashmir, Sind, and sultanates that had governed most lines into two separate nations: the Baluchistan. The letter \u201ci\u201d was of north India since the late 12th predominantly Hindu India and added to ease pronunciation. Pak century. After the Mughal Empire Muslim Pakistan. As a result, also means \u201cpure\u201d in Urdu\u2014so began to disintegrate in the early about 97 percent of Pakistanis are Pakistan was to be the wholly 18th century, Muslim successor Muslims, and the country has the Islamic \u201cLand of the Pure.\u201d dynasties continued to control second-largest number of Muslims much of India, although Hindus in the world (only Indonesia has The British threat made up most of the population. more). The name of the country was At its height under Akbar the Great invented in 1933 by Rehmat Ali, a in the late 16th century, the Mughal The main threat to Muslim Muslim Indian student in Britain, Empire ruled almost all of South dominion came not from Hindus, who came up with the acronym Asia: an area including what are however, but from the British. The British East India Company opened","REFORM AND REVIVAL 245 See also: The Mughal Empire 204\u201305 \u25a0 The origins of Ahmadiyya 220\u201321 \u25a0 The secularization of Turkey 228\u201331 \u25a0 The demographics of Islam today 260\u201361 \u25a0 The rising tide of Islamophobia 286\u201387 The aim of Islam preached Islamic revival and led a Don\u2019t compare your nation is to bring about jihad against growing Sikh power with the nations of the West. a universal revolution. in the Punjab. He was killed, along Abul Ala Mawdudi with many of his followers, at a Distinctive is the nation of battle at Balakot in 1831. Some the Prophet of Islam. a first trading post in 1619, but in scholars believe he anticipated the Muhammad Iqbal the 18th century its interests turned idea of modern Islamists, in waging from trade to territory. In 1757, it jihad to try to create an Islamic education and compete with the took control of Bengal, followed by state. A more critical moment Hindus. He warned that \u201cIndia Bihar, and gradually increased its in the struggle for power came with is inhabited by two different territories until it commanded most the rebellion of 1857 against the nations,\u201d who would inevitably of the Indian subcontinent. British. Although many Hindus took vie with each other for power if part, the British saw the Muslims the British left. There were also other challenges as the principal force behind the to Muslim rule. In northern India, uprising, and they bore the brunt In 1885, less than three decades Sayyid Ahmad Barelvi (1786\u20131831) of British wrath in the aftermath. after the uprising of 1857, the From this time on, Hindus were Indian National Congress was favored by British officials over formed in order to give political their Muslim counterparts. representation to Indians in British- ruled India. Membership in the Two-nation theory Congress was open to all, but Mughal aristocrat Sayyid Ahmad Hindus significantly outnumbered Khan (1817\u201398) argued that Muslims Muslims\u2014reflecting the fact that needed to cooperate more with only a quarter of the population of the British and learn the ways of India was Muslim. In response, in the modern West to develop their 1906 Muslims founded the All-India Muslim League, which sought to counter the growing influence of the Hindus. The Muslim League originally grew from an intellectual group at the Aligarh Muslim University, founded by Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Poet Muhammad Iqbal was \u276f\u276f The partition of India in 1947 led to one of the biggest displacements of people in peacetime, as both Muslims and Hindus fled to their respective sides of the new border.","246 THE CREATION OF PAKISTAN elected president of the League in Birth of the new state Pakistan\u2019s flag, waved here at a 1930, and in his presidential In 1942, after two decades of leading cricket match, is the Crescent and Star. address at Allahabad, Iqbal put India\u2019s mass movement of nonviolent The green represents the country\u2019s forward the demand for a separate protest, Mahatma Gandhi made his Muslim majority; the white, its minorities; Muslim state in India, made up of \u201cQuit India\u201d speech, urging Hindus the star is light, the crescent is progress. the Punjab, North-West Frontier and Muslims to unite in ending Province, Sind, and Baluchistan. In British rule. Muslim\u2013Hindu violence of India. The area that was then his words, \u201cSelf-government within increased, however, and in 1947, being referred to as Pakistan was to the British Empire, or without the crippled by debt after World War II, consist of two halves: in the east, British Empire, the formation of a Britain agreed with Congress and the Muslim-majority area of Bengal, consolidated North-west Indian the Muslim League on the partition and in the west the Muslim-majority Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-west India.\u201d The so-called \u201ctwo-nation theory\u201d gained popularity among Muslims but was rejected by the Indian National Congress. In 1935, the British agreed to grant self- government to India in the form of a parliamentary democracy. Congress made an informal promise to the Muslim League that the two parties would form coalition governments in provinces with substantial Muslim populations, but after elections they reneged on this promise. In the Lahore Resolution (also known as the Pakistan Resolution) of 1940, the League\u2019s then-leader, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, laid out the formal demand for an independent Muslim state. Jamaat-e Islami In 1867, a group of Indian scholars The Jamaat initially opposed the founded a madrasa that was idea of the creation of Pakistan, hostile to British colonial rule. preferring to struggle for a more The school was called the Darul perfect Muslim society within Uloom Deoband and its followers India. After Partition, the party became known as Deobandis. split into separate groups in The movement spread across India and Pakistan; the Pakistan South Asia, and in 1941, it was group led the movement to the ideas spread by the Deobandis transform the country into an that inspired Islamic philosopher, Islamic state. After General jurist, journalist, and imam Abul Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq seized Ala Mawdudi (1903\u201379) to found power in Pakistan in a military the Jamaat-e Islami (Party of coup in 1977, the Jamaat Islam) in India. Mawdudi sought supported him in introducing to revive Islam in response to what \u201cSharization\u201d to Pakistan. Since he saw as the threat of Western Zia\u2019s death in 1988, the Jamaat\u2019s secular imperialism. influence has dwindled.","REFORM AND REVIVAL 247 area of Punjab and adjoining Take Islam out of Pakistan and the influence of the Muslim territories. The two were separated and make it a secular state; League dwindled. Since then, by almost 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of government of the country has Indian territory. Jinnah was made it would collapse. swung between civilian democracy governor-general, and his lieutenant Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and military dictatorship. in the League, Liaquat Ali Khan, was named prime minister. President of Pakistan 1978\u201388 While Islam is the state religion, Pakistan is not an Islamic state; Pakistani identity Kashmir led to war between the its rule of law is not set by Sharia. Partition caused one of the largest two nations. In 1971, Pakistan itself Political parties hold opposing movements of people ever seen. split into two countries, with the views about whether Pakistan was Muslims moved north out of India creation of an independent intended as a secular homeland for into Pakistan, and Hindus left what Bangladesh in the east. Indian Muslims (which was the was now Pakistan for Indian view of Jinnah) or as an Islamic territories. Some 12 million people Both Jinnah and his prime state. Many ask what the point became refugees, and between half minister were dead within four is of creating a Muslim state if it a million and a million people were years of the creation of Pakistan, is not Islamic, but Islamist parties killed in religious violence. have never been able to garner significant support in elections. \u25a0 Despite the creation of a new Muslim homeland, more Muslims Faisal Mosque in Pakistan\u2019s capital, stayed on in India than those who Islamabad, is one of the largest mosques left, while about two million Hindus in the world. Built with funding from the remained in Pakistan. The crisis Saudi King Faisal in 1976, its design over who controlled the region of echoes the shape of a Bedouin tent.","248 IN CONTEXT IONPSOROLLTAIIHTTMIIINCSIGSS THEME The Iranian Revolution AYATOLLAH KHOMEINI WHEN AND WHERE 1979, Iran BEFORE 1501 The 15-year-old Ismail proclaims himself shah and becomes the first of the Safavid dynasty. He replaces Sunnism with Shiism as the Persian state religion. 1789 The Qajar clan, which had been prominent under the Safavids, takes control of Iran. AFTER 1980 Iraq invades Iran, worried that the 1979 Iranian Revolution could cause Iraq\u2019s Shia majority to rebel against the country\u2019s Sunni regime. The war ends in 1988, at a cost of an estimated 500,000 lives. I n 1979, Iran underwent a popular revolution whose seismic impact on the country and beyond has been compared with the French Revolution in 1789 and the Russian Revolution in 1917. Rule by a constitutional monarchy was replaced with rule by theocracy, as the people of Iran installed a religious leader as the highest authority in the land. The revolution within Iran was supposed to be only the beginning of a larger Islamic revolution that would extend throughout the umma, or global Muslim community. More than 40 years later, that wider Islamic revolution has yet to materialize, but Iranian-backed","REFORM AND REVIVAL 249 See also: The emergence of Shia Islam 108\u201315 \u25a0 The Safavid Empire 192\u201393 \u25a0 The secularization of Turkey 228\u201331 \u25a0 Sunni and Shia in the modern Middle East 270\u201371 The Prophet Shia Muslims believe Only God, the Exalted, Muhammad was Muhammad appointed is the light; everything else the first leader of the Ali as his deputy and Islamic community. is darkness. rightful successor, Ayatollah Khomeini and revere Ali as the First Imam. The Supreme Leader, The Twelfth Imam The new shah continued his father\u2019s Ayatollah Khomeini, disappeared but will policies, and after World War II he assumes custodianship return one day; until drew Iran close to the United States, then, the Islamic Council a country that his government over Iran in the is required to appoint viewed as a suitably modern and absence of the Imam. anti-colonial partner. Iran became a deputy. filled with American products, from cars to Coca-Cola, as well as Shia groups continue to influence machine-gunned in the precincts American expatriates, particularly events in the Middle East in a of the Imam Reza Shrine in oil workers and military personnel. significant way. Mashhad. In 1941, Reza Shah was forced to abdicate and was Iran became an important The Shah succeeded by his Swiss-educated Middle Eastern ally of the US as The revolution ended the unpopular son, Muhammad Reza Pahlavi. the Cold War set in, due to its long rule of the Pahlavi shahs (kings), border with its neighbor, the Soviet which had begun when Reza Khan, Union. After the popular prime a military commander, seized power minister Muhammad Mosaddegh in 1921 and became shah in 1925. nationalized the oil industry in 1951, The Qajar dynasty he deposed had a US-led coup two years later been propped up by loans from allowed the Shah to reassert his Britain and Russia in return for grip on power. crippling economic concessions\u2014 including the exploitation of Iran\u2019s In 1971, the Shah threw a oil fields, which had first been lavish party at the ancient site of discovered in 1908. Persepolis to celebrate 2,500 years of Iranian monarchy. He invited An admirer of Mustafa Kemal global heads of state to an event Atat\u00fcrk\u2019s reforms in Turkey, Reza that was said to have cost in excess Shah wanted Iran and Iranians to of $100 million. Meanwhile, average look modern. He sidelined the working-class Iranians were mired \u276f\u276f ulema (religious council) and banned the hijab. When the ulema Muhammad Reza Pahlavi (center) protested in 1935 at the ongoing visits the United States in 1962, at the secularization, dozens were height of the Cold War, and is received by President John F. Kennedy.","250 THE IRANIAN REVOLUTION in poverty and, although the Islam is the religion country on cassette tapes. middle classes didenjoy some of of militant individuals Khomeini used this time to develop the benefits of the country\u2019s oil who are committed his ideas on Islamic rule. In his wealth, the Shah\u2019s autocratic and to truth and justice. book Hukumat-e Islami: Velayat-e repressive regime stifled free Ayatollah Khomeini Faqih (\u201cIslamic Government: speech and ignored human rights. Regency of the Jurist\u201d), published Many disaffected groups found America, and to Israel, whom the in 1970, Khomeini argued that the common cause in an opposition Iranian regime supplied with oil. actions of the Prophet constituted movement that had coalesced In 1964, Khomeini denounced a proof of the legitimacy of an Islamic around the black-garbed figure new law that extended diplomatic government\u2014Muhammad himself of an exiled religious leader, immunity to US military personnel had established a government and Ayatollah Khomeini. in Iran, saying, \u201cThey have reduced engaged in the implementation of the Iranian people to a level lower laws and administration of society. The Ayatollah than that of an American dog.\u201d Ruhollah Khomeini was born in He was forced into exile\u2014first in According to Twelver Shia Islam, 1902 in Khomein, a small town Turkey, then Iraq, and finally Paris. Muhammad had been followed by between Tehran and Isfahan. He his rightful successor, Ali and the came from a family of sayyids, or A theory of Islamic rule rest of the Imams. In the absence descendants from the Prophet; the Khomeini remained an important of the \u201cHidden Imam\u201d (the Twelfth), family traced its lineage back to the figure during his exile, with many the responsibility to rule passed Shias\u2019 Seventh Imam and thus to supporters in Iran displaying his to those selected by the ulema. the First Imam: Ali, Muhammad\u2019s picture and following his speeches, Khomeini demanded the removal rightful successor, according to the which were smuggled into the of the Shah and his administration, Shia. Khomeini studied religious law and the establishment of an ulema- in Qom, and become a mujtahid at appointed government instead. the precocious age of 34. Khomeini represented only one In 1963, Khomeini spoke out camp in the opposition to the Shah. against a new raft of reforms Another figure who commanded a proposed by the Shah, which he large following was the Western- considered to be an attack on educated intellectual Ali Shariati, Islam. He condemned the Shah for who was inspired by Marxism and spreading moral corruption in Iran, Western anti-colonial scholars, and and accused him of submission to incorporated their ideas into the concepts of Shia Islam. However, Mujtahid and ayatollahs After the collapse of the Safavid Ultimately, the Usulis prevailed In January 1979, fervent crowds Empire in the 18th century, in Iran, coming to prominence in in Tehran proclaimed allegiance to many of the Shia ulema (religious the 19th century under the Qajar Ayatollah Khomeini. Within weeks, the authorities) emigrated from Iran. dynasty. While most Akhbaris Shah left Iran and Khomeini returned. From these emerged two believe no one can give new distinct schools of legal thought. religious rules until the return of The first school, the Akhbaris, the Mahdi, in the Usuli system, took the theological position that there is a special class of everything a Muslim needed to religious scholar called mujtahid, know was in the Quran and the who are qualified to interpret hadith. The other school, the and pronounce an opinion on Usulis, argued that ijtihad matters of law. The title of (independent legal ruling) was ayatollah (which means \u201csign necessary to reinterpret religious of God\u201d) is bestowed on the law afresh for each generation. highest level of mujtahid."]
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