Big Ideas Simply Explained - The Islam Book

["ISLAM TODAY 301 See also: Women in the Quran 82\u201385 \u25a0 The secularization of Turkey 228\u201331 \u25a0 Muslims in the West 282\u201385 \u25a0 Islam in the digital age 288\u201389 \u25a0 A feminist Islam? 292\u201399 Styles of head covering disappeared. Following a military coup in 1980, a total ban was Hijab The generic Niqab Covers the Burka Covers the entire enforced. However, since the rise name for many styles face and head with an face and body, and there to power of Islamic parties, notably of headscarf. This is by opening for the eyes. It is a mesh screen over the AKP (Justice and Development far the most common is most common in the the eyes. Worn mainly Party), in the 21st century, the type of head covering. Arab Gulf States. in Afghanistan. headscarf is very much back. as the \u201chijab of the eyes\u201d\u2014but dressing modestly, covering knees Even when Muslim women do with the additional stipulation for and shoulders, is expected, wear the hijab, it is is not a uniform women concerning what they wear. particularly in rural areas. Dress look. West African women favor It is this directive \u201cnot to display codes are also subject to shifting a brightly colored wrap like a their adornments\u201d that has led to social attitudes and fashions at turban, while in South Asia it is the modesty-preserving clothing different times in history. In Turkey, a loosely draped cloth that hangs that many Muslim women wear. for example, after Kemal Atat\u00fcrk down around the shoulders. Woman declared the country a secular state in the Gulf States sometimes wear The hijab in 1923, headscarf-wearing went the khaleeji hijab (khaleej is Arabic into rapid decline and all but for Gulf). Nicknamed the \u201cbig bun,\u201d Women who wear the hijab are \u201cbeehive,\u201d or \u201ccamel hump,\u201d it has sometimes referred to as hijabis So even if you hate it, a rounded bulge at the back of the or muhajaba. The word hijab is I still wrap my hijab. head to give the impression of a used to refer to the headscarf, as Wrap my hijab, wrap my hijab mane of hair that has been neatly stipulated in hadith, but it also acts Wrap, wrap my hijab. coiled up into a bun. as a generic descriptor for modest dressing. In the Quran, hijab only Mona Haydar Other countries\u2014notably Iran, means a curtain or partition but also Saudi Arabia and other (between men and women or deity Lyrics to 2017 song Sharia states\u2014strictly police what and mortals); verses also mention \u201cHijabi (Wrap My Hijab)\u201d women wear in public. In Iran, they the khimar (\u201ccover,\u201d in 24:31) and have to put on either a chador, jilbab (\u201ccloak,\u201d in 33:59), but do not which is a long, black, shapeless specify the head or hair. garment covering the whole body, or (in less conservative circles) a Attitudes toward \u201cmodest headscarf, trousers, and a long- dress\u201d vary by region. In more sleeved coat called a manteau. moderate countries, such as Egypt, Women in Mecca and Medina are Turkey, and Tunisia, there is no obliged to wear an abaya (a robe- official dress code for women, but like dress) whenever they go out, and a cloth wrapped around the hair called the shayla; this has been promoted as the most authentic Islamic expression of modest dress, short of the full niqab. The niqab The influence of Saudi Arabia and the more conservative Sharia states in the Gulf, such as Qatar, has also been responsible for the spread of the niqab, the full face covering. Globally, however, the number of \u276f\u276f","302 THE HIJAB AND NIQAB For some Muslims in the West the hijab has almost become a symbol of defiance, a way to reassert an Islamic identity in the face of widespread Islamaphobia. women who wear the niqab is a workplace, and public spaces in Personal choices fraction of the number who wear a number of countries, both non- Women give a range of reasons the hijab. For many women, the Muslim and Muslim. for wearing the hijab. For some hijab is simply an everyday item it is a personal act of obedience to that may or may not have religious France and Belgium were the God, and strengthens their worship significance for the wearer, while first countries to ban the niqab in and their relationship with God. the niqab is associated, even public areas, in 2011. In 2019, the For others, it is a form of modest among Muslim women, with Netherlands became the 15th dressing that aims to reclaim their extreme conservatism. European country to ban face bodies from objectification and coverings. The Canadian province commercialization. It can also be a Because the niqab obscures of Quebec imposed a ban in 2017. way of reclaiming an identity that all but the wearer\u2019s eyes, it has Tunisia and parts of West Africa has been demonized, or a defiant become highly politicized and and China have also restricted expression of pride in their faith. has been banned in schools, the where women can wear the niqab. Or it can just be a case of fitting in or following fashion. Although wearing the I wear the niqab as a hijab is framed as a personal personal act of worship, and Conversely, in some Muslim I deeply believe that it brings countries in which modest clothing choice, I think there\u2019s a lot is mandatory by law, women have of social pressure. me closer to God. conducted protests by removing Shalini Gopalan Sahar al-Faifi their headscarves as an act of defiance\u2014echoing the act of early Marketing director, Indonesia British geneticist, activist, skydiver Egyptian feminist Huda Shaarawi back in 1922. The act of deveiling becomes not about religion, but about politics and human rights. Modest fashion A recent development is the rise of \u201cmodest fashion\u201d\u2014clothing that is designed to appeal to women who consider themselves to be observant Muslims but who still like to dress stylishly. For a younger generation of Muslims especially, faith and modernity go hand in hand. This has led to a grassroots fashion movement developed by Muslim women who feel that main street and online retailers are not responding to their fashion needs, and are building their own brands, often online. What began as a niche market is now a global phenomenon. The movement has been fueled by dedicated hijabi fashion bloggers,","ISLAM TODAY 303 A model showcases a look during a 2018 event in Milan organized by the Islamic Fashion & Design Council and dedicated to modest fashion, which is now a multibillion-dollar market. The hijab has become deeply politicized. Azzah Sultan Malaysian artist who post about how to create American model Halima Aden The meaning of hijab modest fashion looks. Major became the first woman of color international clothing, cosmetics, to appear on the cover of Vogue Critics point out that reducing the and fashion brands have caught on. magazine wearing a hijab. hijab to a piece of fashion apparel In 2016, Nura Afia, an American dilutes its meaning as an act of beauty vlogger, became the first Modest clothing is also making observance. Yasmin Mogahed, a brand ambassador to wear a hijab, a splash in sports. In 2016, Olympic Muslim scholar in the United States, Dolce & Gabbana released a line of athletes wearing the \u201cburkini\u201d (see reinforces this view when she says hijabs and abayas (robes), and below) made headlines, and fencer that the hijab is \u201ca personal choice Indonesian fashion designer Ibtihaj Muhammad, America\u2019s first to submit to God rather than the Anniesa Hasibuan presented an hijab-wearing Olympian, won bronze. fashion of society. To be beautiful all-hijab collection at New York Seeing a trend, Nike launched the to God rather than people.\u201d What is Fashion Week. In 2018, Somali- first made-for-athletes hijab in 2017 clear is that the hijab means many and modest swimwear in 2020. different things to many people. \u25a0 The burkini Part of the modest fashion trend, In 2016, however, the burkini the \u201cburkini\u201d is an all-over body was banned from a number of swimsuit and swimcap, and French towns and beaches. A sometimes has an additional loose newspaper picture that was layer, such as short dress or skirt. reproduced globally showed a The original burkini was created woman in a burkini surrounded by Lebanese-born Australian by armed policemen forcing her fashion designer Aheda Zanetti to disrobe. The photo sparked in 2004, who coined the name as outrage, and the ban was a cross between \u201cburka\u201d and overturned by higher courts. \u201cbikini.\u201d Zanetti had noticed the struggles that Muslim women face The burkini also made at the pool and in other sports. \u201cI headlines at the 2016 Rio created the burkini to give women Olympics, when beach volleyball freedom, not to take it away,\u201d she player Doaa Elghobashy of says. \u201cIt\u2019s not something that Egypt and sprinter Kariman symbolizes anything.\u201d Abuljadayel of Saudi Arabia wore similar attire.","304 ITANHRMEETYBHEGOSESTNEEPRLEIOAVTPIINLOEGN PROPHET MUHAMMAD IN CONTEXT S alafism is a back-to-basics Salafism is an ideology, not a single movement within Islam that organization, and it includes many THEME has its roots in Egypt in the strands of thought. There are Salafism 19th century, and which was itself Salafis who are apolitical and focus inspired by the example of Saudi on education and missionary work. WHEN AND WHERE Wahhabism. Salafism experienced However, there are also militant Today, worldwide a surge in popularity in the late Salafis, who aim to overthrow 20th century. It aims to reconnect \u201capostate\u201d rulers of the Muslim BEFORE Muslims with the original sources world and replace them with \u201ctrue\u201d 1303 Arab scholar Ibn of Islam, specifically the first three Muslims. Al-Qaeda and Islamic Taymiyya issues a fatwa generations of Islam, who are State are militant Salafists. The against the Mongols for collectively known as the salaf rise of such organizations reflects following man-made rather al-salihin, or \u201cpious predecessors.\u201d a struggle within Salafism itself, as than Islamic law. This ruling Followers of Salafism reject the much as it does a battle between is later used as a precedent for authority of the medieval schools of Islam and the West. \u25a0 Muslims declaring jihad on law, since they appeared after the other Muslims. salaf al-salihin, and instead look Its appeal is like that only to the texts of the Quran and of Protestant reformation 18th century Arab theologian the hadith, which they read literally. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab advocates in Christianity. strict adherence to literal To many Muslims, the Salafist Yasir Qadhi understandings of the Quran. approach is uncompromising. Its adherents wear traditional dress American Muslim scholar 2010 The Grand Sheikh of (robes for men, rather than trousers, al-Azhar, in Egypt, considered for example) and send their children by many as the highest to segregated Muslim schools. authority in Sunni Islam, Non-Islamic holidays, such as launches an attack in the national holidays, are not observed media on Salafism for by Salafis, and nonreligious promoting thinking that is greetings such as \u201cGood morning\u201d alien to Islam. are avoided. See also: God\u2019s guidance through Sharia 128\u201333 \u25a0 Wahhabism, or an Islamic reformation 216\u201317 \u25a0 The new extremists 272\u201377 \u25a0 Islam in Africa 278\u201379","ISLAM TODAY 305 IPSSRILNOACGMERTEHHSAESSIBVBEEEGEFINANINATIHNG MECCA INSTITUTE (2019) IN CONTEXT P rogressive Islam is an It saddens our hearts to see umbrella term for a diverse how traditionally conservative THEME array of individuals and Muslims today are frozen in Progressive Islam groups, with no central authority but with a shared goal of reforming time and place. WHEN AND WHERE interpretations of the Quran to Akmal Ahmed Safwat Today, worldwide better accord with the values of the wider modern world, particularly Democratic Muslims of Denmark BEFORE with regard to issues such as 1980s Egyptian reformist human rights and female equality. In addition to many academics thinker Hasan Hanafi engaged in this debate, bodies such promotes the idea of the Progressives believe that early as the US-based MECCA Institute \u201cIslamic Left,\u201d marrying Muslim scholars did their best to and UK-based Critical Muslim leftwing politics with Islam. interpret the Quran and sunna magazine aim to promote dialogue through consensus, analogy, and to do with liberal thinking about 1995 An Egyptian Sharia ijtihad (independent reasoning), Islam. Although conservative court declares scholar Nasr which they used to formulate Muslims reject the Progressive view, Hamid Abu Zeid an apostate Sharia law. However, they argue, liberalism is spreading in Islam\u2014for for saying that the Quran must these early interpreters were fallible instance, a 2017 poll in the United be viewed historically in the and mortal men, and the product of States showed that acceptance of context of 7th-century Arabia. their time and culture. gay marriage is now stronger among American Muslims than among 1999 Amina Wadud publishes Progressives argue that the white evangelical Christians. \u25a0 Qur\u2019an and Woman, looking at spirit of Islam\u2014a religion of justice the sacred text from a woman\u2019s and compassion\u2014cannot be perspective. sustained by observing laws that were made in a time and place that 2005 TIME magazine names condoned slavery and marrying off Iranian Progressive Islamic girls below the age of puberty. They thinker Abdolkarim Soroush as back their arguments by pointing one of the world\u2019s 100 most out that the Quran frequently urges influential individuals. Muslims to think independently. See also: Women in the Quran 82\u201385 \u25a0 God\u2019s guidance through Sharia 128\u201333 \u25a0 An Islamic feminism? 292\u201399","DIRECTO","RY","308 DIRECTORY I n addition to the individuals featured throughout the book, notably in the biography boxes in the articles, there are many other people who have played a key role in the history of Islam. These include the early leaders of the faith, caliphs, commanders, scholars, mystics, poets, and the later political leaders. Brief biographies of these figures who formed and developed the Muslim faith and Islamic civilization around the world are listed in chronological order below. KHADIJA BINT KHUWAYLID began to publicly preach and succeeded him as leader of the gain converts to his religion, Muslim community in 634. Under 555\u2013619 which became known as Islam. Umar\u2019s leadership the caliphate Muhammad\u2019s monotheism became a global power, conquering First wife of Muhammad, Khadija challenged the paganism of the territory from the Byzantine and bint Khuwaylid came from a rulers of Mecca, and he and his Sasanian Persian empires, and thus merchant family of the powerful followers faced persecution, leading extending its territory from North Quraysh tribe, which ruled Mecca. them to migrate to the city of Africa to the Caucasus. Umar\u2019s life She was a wealthy trader in her Medina in 622. War started was brought to a sudden end at the own right. She married Muhammad between Mecca and the Muslims age of 60, when he was fatally at the age of 40, after hiring him to in 624, and Muhammad gained stabbed by a Persian slave. take a caravan to Syria. Sunni victory in 630. By 632, Muhammad sources suggest she had already had gained control of most of UTHMAN IBN AFFAN been widowed twice before Arabia. That year he led the marrying Muhammad, although Farewell Pilgrimage to Mecca, and c. 576\u2013656 according to Shia tradition he was died shortly afterward in Medina. her first husband. Of their children, A wealthy Meccan merchant four, all daughters, survived to ABU BAKR AL-SIDDIQ from the powerful Umayyad clan, adulthood. After Muhammad\u2019s first Uthman ibn Affan converted to revelation, in 610, Khadija became 573\u2013634 Islam in 611. He would later marry the first convert to Islam. She fully two of Muhammad\u2019s daughters. supported his preaching for the rest See box on p103. After Umar died in 644, Uthman of her life. was on the committee of six UMAR IBN AL-KHATTAB nominated to choose his successor. MUHAMMAD Despite having little political or 584\u2013644 military experience, Uthman 570\u2013632 himself was selected as the third Umar ibn al-Khattab, second of the Rashidun (\u201cRightly Guided\u201d) The Prophet Muhammad was born Islamic caliph, converted to Islam caliphs. He oversaw the collation in Mecca, into the Banu Hashim in 615. Born in Mecca, he joined of an official version of the Quran clan of the Quraysh tribe. When Muhammad in Medina in 622, and and continued the campaigns he was 40 years old, he received a became one of the Prophet\u2019s most of conquest. However, there was visitation from the angel Jibreel (the important counselors. His daughter rising dissent against his regime, Arabic for Gabriel), which laid the Hafsa married Muhammad in 625. which erupted finally into revolt, foundations for the Quran. After After Abu Bakr became caliph, and Uthman was murdered at his two years of further revelations, he Umar\u2019s influence grew, and he home in Medina by his opponents.","DIRECTORY 309 KHALID IBN AL-WALID MUAWIYA IBN ABI SUFYAN AISHA BINT ABU BAKR 602\u201380 614\u201378 c. 585\u2013642 Born into a clan of the Quraysh Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan became a The daughter of Abu Bakr, Aisha tribe that was initially hostile to convert to Islam after Muhammad\u2019s married Muhammad at a young Muhammad, Khalid ibn al-Walid conquest of Mecca. Muawiya led age, becoming, after Khadija, his fought in some of the early battles campaigns against the Byzantines next most favored wife. Following against the Prophet. However, in and in 640 was made governor of the death of Muhammad she 629 Khalid migrated to Medina Syria. After Muawiya\u2019s kinsman concentrated on religious study, and converted to Islam, becoming Uthman was murdered in 656, he memorizing the Quran, as well an important military commander. rebelled against Ali, believing as narrating hadith (2,210 are After Muhammad\u2019s death, Khalid he had not done enough to catch attributed to her). She joined played a central role in defeating the culprits. Following Ali\u2019s the opposition to the third caliph, rebel Arab tribes. He then led assassination, Muawiya succeeded Uthman, but after he was killed, campaigns against the Sasanians him, founding the Umayyad she criticized Ali, who had now as well as the Byzantines during caliphate and moving the capital become the fourth caliph, for not the conquest of Iraq and Syria, to Damascus. As Muawiya I, he apprehending Uthman\u2019s murderers. becoming known as the \u201cSword of continued to extend the caliphate Aisha raised an army against Ali God.\u201d Despite being undefeated in further into North Africa and Asia and was defeated by him in 656 at battle, he was dismissed from the Minor. Before his death, Muawiya the Battle of the Camel in Basra, in army by Umar in 638, and died in named his son, Yazid, as his Iraq. Aisha was allowed to return to Homs, Syria, four years later. successor, setting the precedent Medina, where she lived peacefully, of hereditary rule. focusing on religious and charitable ALI IBN ABI TALIB endeavors until her death. FATIMA BINT MUHAMMAD 601\u201361 HASSAN IBN ALI 605\u201332 A cousin of Muhammad, Ali ibn 624\u201369 Abi Talib was raised by him from Fatima was the youngest daughter early childhood. He was the first of Muhammad and his first wife Hassan was the eldest son of male to convert to Islam, at the age Khadija. In 622, shortly after the Ali and Fatima, and the grandson of just nine. He joined Muhammad migration to Mecca, she married of Prophet Muhammad. After his in Medina, becoming his deputy Muhammad\u2019s cousin Ali. Theirs father was murdered in 661, Hassan and marrying his daughter Fatima. was a devoted union, and four succeeded him as caliph, but was Ali distinguished himself during of their children survived to challenged by Muawiya I, governor the wars with Mecca, earning a adulthood: two sons, Hassan and of Syria, who declared his decision reputation as a courageous warrior. Hussein, and two daughters. After not to recognize him. Both men After the death of Muhammad, Ali Muhammad\u2019s death in 632, Fatima prepared for conflict, but when it was passed over for leadership of clashed with caliph Abu Bakr; like became clear to Hassan that his the Muslims twice, before he was Ali, she was reluctant to recognize forces would be outnumbered, he selected as fourth caliph in 656. his authority. Abu Bakr\u2019s supporters entered into negotiations with The caliphate descended into gathered at Fatima\u2019s house in Muawiya to prevent civil war. civil war as rebels, known as the Medina to gain her support. Some Under the terms of the resulting Kharijites, sought to overthrow sources, mostly Shia ones, suggest treaty, Hassan abdicated and Ali. He was assassinated while at there was then a violent altercation, retired to Medina, where he lived prayer in Kufa, Iraq. Shia Muslims with Fatima suffering injuries and until his death in 669. According to revere Ali, and view him and his a miscarriage, which, they claim, some accounts, he was poisoned by descendants as the rightful contributed to her death from one of his wives, who had successors of Muhammad. illness later that year. conspired with Muawiya.","310 DIRECTORY HUSSEIN IBN ALI AMBADRWALA-NMALIK IBN ABU HANIFA 626\u201380 646\u2013705 699\u2013767 The second son of Ali and Fatima, Abd al-Malik was the son and Abu Hanifa was a renowned legal Hussein (also spelled Husayn) successor of Marwan I\u2014the fourth scholar whose work formed the joined his older brother Hassan Umayyad caliph, who reigned basis for the Hanafi school of in accepting Muawiya I as caliph briefly from 684 to 685. As caliph, Islamic law, which is still widely in 661. Muawiya had agreed that Abd al-Malik faced ongoing civil followed today. Born in the city of he would not nominate the next war, having to battle for the Kufa in Iraq, the son of a merchant, caliph, but before he died in 680, caliphate with the Mecca-based he initially studied theology he named his son Yazid I as Abdullah ibn Zubeir. Abd al-Malik before turning his attention to his successor. Hussein refused to killed his rival in 692, reestablishing jurisprudence. Abu Hanifa rationally recognize the succession. He fled Umayyad control over the entire applied Islamic doctrine to legal from Medina to Mecca before being caliphate. He then resumed war questions, and by about 738 was invited by the people of Kufa, a city with the Byzantine Empire, making one of the foremost scholars in Iraq. in Iraq where many opposed the advances into Anatolia and Although he was repeatedly offered Umayyads, to lead a rebellion Armenia, and across North Africa. official positions, he refused them against Yazid. Hussein set out By the time of his death, Abd in order to retain his independence. for Kufa but was intercepted by al-Malik had consolidated the Late in his life, he moved to Mecca, Umayyad forces at Kerbala; despite government of the caliphate. He where he was to die in prison\u2014 being overpowered, he refused to is also known for founding the having been incarcerated by caliph surrender and was beheaded. He is Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, al-Mansur, possibly as a result of mourned by all Muslims as a martyr. one of the earliest surviving Islamic refusing to serve him as a judge. religious monuments. ZEINAB BINT ALI MALIK IBN ANAS YAZID IBN MUAWIYA c. 627\u2013c. 682 711\u201395 647\u201383 Zeinab (also spelled Zaynab) was Born in Medina, Malik ibn Anas the daughter of Ali ibn Abi Talib The son of Muawiya I, the first forged a reputation as a jurist, and Fatima, and the grand- Umayyad caliph, Yazid I faced theologian, and philosopher, daughter of Prophet Muhammad. opposition when he succeeded and attracted a wide following of She was sister to Hassan and his father in 680\u2014initially from disciples. He became the founder Hussein ibn Ali. She married supporters of Hussein ibn Ali, who of one of the four schools of Sunni Abdullah ibn Jafar and had three was executed by Umayyad forces law, the Maliki, which became sons and two daughters with him. in Kerbala. The murder of Hussein, influential throughout much of When her brother, Hussein, fought in addition to rumors of Yazid\u2019s North Africa, and with some of the against Yazid ibn Muawiya in 680 dissolute lifestyle, led to a rebellion prominent Sufi orders. He was an at Kerbala, Zeinab accompanied against him in Arabia. In the outspoken man; in 762 he offered him. According to tradition she fall of 683, Yazid\u2019s army defeated support to a rebellion against caliph saved the life of her nephew, Ali the rebels outside Medina, al-Mansur by declaring that forced ibn al-Hussein, by throwing herself pillaging the city, before laying oaths of loyalty were not binding. over his body, and later secured the siege to Mecca, during which a fire As a result he was flogged. He later release by Yazid of herself and other damaged the Kaaba. The campaign made amends with the caliphate prisoners taken at Kerbala. For this, ended prematurely when Yazid died so that he could continue his work. she became known as the \u201cHeroine in Syria that November, although Malik compiled the Muwatta of Karbala.\u201d Her shrine at Damascus conflict within the caliphate (\u201cWell-trodden path\u201d), one of the remains an important place of continued until 692. oldest and most important Islamic pilgrimage, particularly for Shias. legal works.","DIRECTORY 311 AL-MANSUR HARUN AL-RASHID AHMAD IBN HANBAL 714\u201375 c. 766\u2013809 780\u2013855 Al-Mansur was a member of Son of the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi, Born in Baghdad, Ahmad ibn the Abbasid family, who were Harun al-Rashid succeeded his Hanbal began his religious and descended from Muhammad\u2019s older brother al-Hadi. As caliph, legal studies at a young age, uncle, and who, in 750, overthrew al-Rashid relied heavily on his traveling across Iraq, Syria, and the Umayyad caliphate. Al-Mansur\u2019s mother, al-Khayzuran, a Bedouin Arabia to learn from leading brother al-Saffah became the first former slave, until her death in 789; scholars, as well as making Abbasid caliph. He was succeeded he then was advised mainly by his five pilgrimages to Mecca. He by al-Mansur in 754. Al-Mansur former tutor and vizier Yahya the eventually settled back in Baghdad, consolidated Abbasid power by Barmakid, whose family became founding the Hanbali school of eliminating rival claimants and highly influential until falling from Islamic law, which emphasizes putting down the scattered revolts grace in 803. Although he faced the importance of strictly following that broke out against him. In 762 many local uprisings, al-Rashid\u2019s the Quran and hadith. Ibn Hanbal he founded Baghdad as his capital, reign is often viewed as the zenith refused to change his beliefs to which would house the increasingly of the Abbasid caliphate and his conform with doctrines approved large bureaucracy that governed Baghdad is memorialized in The by the caliph, and as a result was the caliphate. Al-Mansur died Thousand and One Nights. He died imprisoned, flogged, and briefly while on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 809 in the Khorasan region of banished from the city. Despite and was succeeded by his son Central Asia, after falling ill while this, he was a popular and highly al-Mahdi. trying to put down a revolt. respected figure, and his funeral was attended by 800,000 people. RABIA AL-ADAWIYYA AL-SHAFII AL-KINDI 714\u2013801 767\u2013820 c. 800\u201373 The origins of the most celebrated Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafii was female Sufi saint are contested. born in Gaza, but moved to Mecca See box on p157. Popular histories tell how Rabia as a child, growing up in a poor al-Adawiyya was born into a poor household. He studied in Medina AL-BUKHARI family, orphaned, and sold into with Malik ibn Anas, becoming slavery. However, scholars believe it known as a skilled jurist. At the 810\u201370 more likely she came from a well-off age of 30 he was appointed by the branch of the Quraysh tribe. She Abbasids as governor in Yemen, Muhammad al-Bukhari came grew up in the thriving port city of but in 803 was involved in a revolt from Bukhara, in modern-day Basra, in Iraq, where she practiced against the caliph and was briefly Uzbekistan. When he was 16 he renunciation\u2014turning away from imprisoned. After he was freed, he went on pilgrimage to Mecca, and this world to contemplate the next devoted himself to legal scholarship then began his search for accurate and living in seclusion. There are a until his death in Cairo. Thanks knowledge about the Prophet\u2019s life number of anecdotes emphasizing to his many followers, the Shafii and sayings, journeying for many her piety and asceticism. For school of Islamic law would years across Arabia, Iraq, Syria, example, it was said that once, become highly influential. Egypt, and Central Asia. On his after many days of fasting, a bird return home, he compiled his Sahih flew over and dropped food into AL-KHWARIZMI al-Bukhari, a compilation of 7,275 her bowl. Many pieces of poetry hadith he had deemed to be wholly and prose are also attributed to c. 780\u2013c. 850 reliable. Sunni Muslims regard this al-Adawiyya, which express her as one of the most important of all love of and devotion to God. See box on p159. religious works.","312 DIRECTORY AL-TABARI IBN AL-HAYTHAM IBN SINA (AVICENNA) 839\u2013923 965\u20131040 980\u20131037 As a child, Muhammad al-Tabari Known in the West as Alhazen, Ibn See box on p173. left his birthplace of Amol, in Iran, al-Haytham was a mathematician to study with scholars in Iraq, and astronomer. Born in Basra, he OMAR KHAYYAM Syria, and Egypt. He later settled in became a local official there. He Baghdad. Thanks to family wealth, then moved to Egypt, to work for 1048\u20131131 he had no need to take up any the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim, official positions, and was able claiming that he could regulate the Born and raised in Nishapur, in to pursue his many academic Nile\u2019s flooding. Although unable to north-eastern Iran, Omar Khayyam interests for the rest of his life. do this, Ibn al-Haytham remained excelled in studies of astronomy, He wrote extensively, including in Egypt, pursuing his studies of mathematics, and philosophy, and a highly influential commentary science and nature in Cairo until was welcomed at the court of on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari his death in 1040. A prolific and Samarkand, in modern Uzbekistan, (Commentary of al-Tabari), which in wide-ranging writer, Ibn al-Haytham where he wrote his famous Treatise some editions runs to 30 volumes. believed that theories had to be on Demonstration of Problems of His most famous and influential proved by experiments. His most Algebra (1070). Much of his life work was the Tarikh al-Rusul famous treatise was the Kitab was spent under the patronage of (History of the Prophets and Kings), al-Manazir (Book of Optics), which various courts. Although a gifted which chronicled events (focusing was the first work to correctly polymath, Khayyam is best known mainly on the Near East) from model human vision. as a poet, his verses invoking the Creation up to the year 915. This mystical state of Sufi spirituality. has been translated into many AL-BIRUNI His name achieved such fame languages, including an English that many works are probably edition in 38 volumes. 973\u2013c. 1050 inaccurately attributed to him. Despite this, his popular appeal ABDUL RAHMAN III The Persian polymath Muhammad can be credited with bringing a al-Biruni was one of the greatest strain of ancient mysticism to a 891\u2013961 scholars of his age, researching and wide audience, even almost 1,000 writing on a phenomenal range of years after his own time. Grandson of the sole surviving subjects and laying the groundwork member of the Umayyad dynasty, for modern scientific method. Born AL-GHAZALI in 912 Abdul Rahman III inherited in the Khwarazm region of Central the mantle of Emir of Cordoba. He Asia, he studied theology, law, c. 1058\u20131111 consolidated his authority over all medicine, and a wide array of of al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) and sciences, and exchanged ideas Abu Hamid al-Ghazali was born into North Africa. In 929, Abdul with contemporary thinker Ibn Sina around 1058 near Tus in Iran. As a Rahman III declared himself caliph (Avicenna). He served under several teenager he studied in the Persian of Cordoba, challenging the rule of royal patrons, and in 1017 was city of Nishapur, which at this time the Abbasid caliphate. Merciless made court astrologer to Mahmud was a major center of learning. In with his opponents, he presided of Ghazni, joining him on his forays 1091 he took up a post as a tutor over the most prosperous era of into India. Al-Biruni\u2019s extensive at a madrasa (theological college) Muslim Spain, when the economy, study of that country is one of his in Baghdad. Four years later, he culture, and architecture of the most significant works. Many of abandoned his prestigious post city of Cordoba were greatly his treatises concerned astronomy and embarked on several years of enriched. Following his death, and physics, and he explored travel, including to Damascus and Abdul Rahman III was succeeded experimental methods that are still Jerusalem, in search of spiritual by his son al-Hakam II. relevant today. enlightenment. He eventually","DIRECTORY 313 returned to Tus, where he spent rose to become chief judge of his IBN ARABI a number of years in seclusion, home town, as well as serving as dedicating himself to writing. court physician to the Almohad 1165\u20131240 By the time of his death he had caliph in Marrakech. In addition to authored some 70 works. Prominent his official career, Ibn Rushd was The poet, mystic, and philosopher among these are the Ihya ulum a polymath and prolific writer; he Ibn Arabi was born in Murcia, al-din (The Revival of the Religious achieved his greatest influence as Spain, and raised and educated Sciences), an influential work that a philosopher, and he was highly in Seville, where he worked for the brings together orthodox Sunni regarded for his commentaries on Almohad governor. After adopting theology and Sufi mysticism, and Aristotle. He often had to defend Sufism, he received a vision that Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence his philosophy against criticism he should travel east, and in 1200 of the Philosophers), which argues from orthodox religious figures, he left Spain to journey across the for faith over philosophy, and which and in 1195 such attacks led to Muslim world. He visited Arabia, is considered a landmark work in him being dismissed from his Egypt, Anatolia, and Iraq, before the history of philosophy. posts. He was restored to favor settling in Damascus in 1223, and recalled to the Almohad court where he stayed until his death. He AL-IDRISI three years before he died. became a famed scholar and was a prolific writer: the work that is often 1100\u201365 SALAH AL-DIN YUSUF considered his most significant is Fusus al-Hikam (The Bezels of Muhammad al-Idrisi was one of 1137\u201393 Wisdom), which summarizes his the foremost geographers and teachings and beliefs. cartographers of the medieval era. The warrior-sultan known in the Born in Ceuta in North Africa, he West as Saladin (whose Arabic AL-TUSI studied in Cordoba, and traveled name \u201cSalah al-Din\u201d means across North Africa, Asia Minor, \u201cRighteousness of the Faith\u201d) 1201\u201374 and Europe. In 1136, he entered was a Kurd, born in Tikrit, in Iraq. the service of Roger II of Sicily, a He fought for the Turkish Zengid A Persian intellectual of great Christian Norman king. Working dynasty in their wars to gain talents, Nasr al-Din al-Tusi was at his court in Palermo, al-Idrisi influence in Egypt. By 1169 he most distinguished as an produced several important works, was vizier to the Fatimid caliph astronomer. Born in Tus, north- including the Tabula Rogeriana, an in Egypt; two years later he eastern Iran, he traveled widely extensive description of the world overthrew the caliphate to as a young scholar, driven partly with accompanying world maps. establish his own Ayyubid dynasty. by the incursions of the Mongol Completed in 1154, it took al-Idrisi From 1174 to 1186, Salah al-Din Genghis Khan\u2019s armies. In 1256 15 years to produce, and combined battled other Muslim rulers to gain he became scientific adviser to his own experiences with ancient control of much of the Middle East, Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan, who and contemporary knowledge. before defeating the Crusader had just destroyed the fortress of Despite lacking parts of some of states, and conquering Jerusalem Alamut, where al-Tusi resided, and the continents, the map would be and most of Palestine. From 1189 who agreed to fund the building of the most accurate in existence for he spent three years fighting off a grand observatory near Maragha, many centuries. the Third Crusade, Christendom\u2019s a city in Azerbaijan. Completed in attempt to regain the territory; he 1262, the site hosted a scientific IBN RUSHD (AVERROES) died in Damascus one year later. community that included Chinese astronomers. Here, al-Tusi and his 1126\u201398 IBN JUBAYR peers made hitherto impossible calculations, transforming their Ibn Rushd, known in the West 1145\u20131217 field of study with new models and as Averroes, was born in the theories: a period that became Andalusian city of Cordoba. He See box on p178. known as the Maragha Revolution.","314 DIRECTORY RUMI IBN BATTUTA eastern and southern Europe, adding huge swaths of territory 1207\u201373 1304\u2013c. 1368\/69 to the Ottoman Empire. Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi was See box on p183. SHAH ISMAIL a Persian Sufi mystic and poet. He was born in Balkh, in modern-day IBN KHALDUN 1487\u20131524 Afghanistan. When he was about 11, he and his family left and 1332\u20131406 Shah Ismail, also known as Ismail I, migrated to Anatolia, eventually founded the Safavid dynasty, which settling in the city of Konya. By Ibn Khaldun started his career as ruled Iran from 1501 to 1736. His 1244 Rumi had begun to practice a calligrapher for the ruler of his father, Haydar, was the leader of Sufism. That year he met Shams native Tunis. This was the first of the Safawiyya, a Sufi group that al-Din Tabrizi, a wandering dervish, the many different leaders for whom later became associated with Shia and the two developed a close Ibn Khaldun worked, across North beliefs, and who was killed fighting friendship and spiritual bond. Africa and Muslim Spain\u2014moving Sunnis in 1488. Ismail remained in Shams disappeared about three frequently because court intrigues hiding until 1501, when he publicly years later, and it seems likely that meant that he sometimes fell out succeeded his father, took the city he was murdered. Grief-stricken, of favor. In 1375 he began the of Tabriz, in northwestern Iran, Rumi began writing poems, Muqaddimah (Introduction), a and proclaimed himself shah. He eventually composing some 30,000 general philosophy of history then conquered the rest of Iran, of them. After he died, in Konya in that touched on sociology and as well as parts of modern-day 1273, his followers founded the economics. This was the first book Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iraq, and Mevlevi (or Mawlawi) order, known of Kitab al-Ibar (Book of Lessons), Turkey. Ismail declared Twelver for performing a whirling dance as a world history that focused on Shiism the official religion of his an act of religious devotion. Muslim North Africa. In his later empire, leading to conflict with his years, Ibn Khaldun still held some Sunni Ottoman neighbors. MUSA I political offices, but concentrated on teaching and writing; he died MIMAR SINAN c. 1280\u2013c. 1337 in Cairo, while in the service of the Mamluk sultans. c. 1488\u20131588 Musa I was the tenth mansa (king) of the West African Islamic Mali MEHMET II The most esteemed architect of the Empire. This was an empire that Ottoman Empire, Sinan was born covered a vast swath of land mostly 1432\u201381 into a Christian family, possibly north of the Niger River, and which of Greek or Armenian origin, in flourished from 1235 to 1670. At its Known as \u201cMehmet the Conqueror,\u201d central Anatolia. The son of a peak, the empire grew rich from Mehmet II became Ottoman sultan stonemason, he converted to Islam taxes on trade and the wealth at the age of 12, when his father, when he was conscripted into the accrued from three large gold Murad, abdicated in 1444. However, Janissary infantry units, rising mines that made Mali the largest civil disorder led to Murad II to become a senior officer. His producer of gold in the world. Musa I coming out of retirement to reclaim skill as a military engineer led to ruled for about 25 years, and he the throne in 1446, ruling until his architectural work, and from 1539 is believed to have been one of death in 1451. Mehmet II then he was employed as chief royal the richest people in history. He is began his second reign. His first architect, overseeing public famed for his pilgrimage to Mecca, great achievement was to conquer buildings including mosques, made between 1324 and 1325, on Constantinople in 1453, which palaces, and bridges. His most which he was accompanied by a became his capital. Mehmet famous design is the magnificent lavish retinue of some 60,000 men followed this triumph with a series S\u00fcleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul; and women, and lots of gold. of campaigns across Anatolia and he is buried in a tomb nearby.","DIRECTORY 315 S\u00dcLEYMAN I ABBAS I MUHAMMAD IBN ABD AL-WAHHAB 1494\u20131566 1571\u20131629 1703\u201392 S\u00fcleyman I became sultan of the Shah Abbas I came to the throne in Ottoman Empire upon the death 1588, at the age of 17. At that time The theologian Muhammad ibn of his father, Selim I, in 1520. the Safavid Empire was in disarray Abd al-Wahhab was born in the He enjoyed military success, under his weak father, with village of Uyaynah in Arabia, and leading his armies personally significant territories claimed by finished his education in Medina. and conquering Belgrade in 1521 the Ottomans and the Uzbeks. He became convinced that many and Rhodes in 1522. However, his Abbas I made a peace treaty with Islamic practices of the time, such westward expansion of Ottoman the Ottomans, ceding large areas as venerating the tombs of saints, power was checked in 1529, with of land to them, then built up a new were heretical innovations. He the failed Siege of Vienna. Later, army with which he crushed the preached a traditionalist message, S\u00fcleyman I defeated the Safavids, Uzbeks in 1598. He increased his and was expelled from several gaining territory in the Middle East lands further and made Isfahan his towns before settling in al-Diriyah, and the Caucasus, while victories new capital, which became one of at the invitation of its ruler in the Mediterranean gave him the most beautiful cities in the Muhammad bin Saud. The two control of most of North Africa. world. Credited with restoring his men agreed to work together to Domestically, he oversaw major empire to glory, Abbas I was a make the House of Saud rulers of legal reforms and sponsored public skilled but ruthless leader, whose Arabia, with \u201cWahhabism\u201d as their works across his empire, notably suspicion of betrayal led to the ideology. Wahhabism remains the in Istanbul. He died in 1566 while merciless treatment of many dominant doctrine in Saudi Arabia, campaigning in Hungary; he was members of his own family. He which continues to sponsor its succeeded by his son, Selim II. died with no heir to succeed him. global spread. AKBAR AURANGZEB MUHAMMAD BIN SAUD 1542\u20131605 1618\u20131707 1710\u201365 The greatest of the Mughal The last of the great Mughal Muhammad bin Saud started as emperors, \u201cAkbar the Great\u201d emperors, Aurangzeb (meaning the emir of al-Diriyah, a town in succeeded his father Humayun in \u201cOrnament of the Throne\u201d) ruled central Arabia. In 1744 he made 1556, at just 13 years old. For the for nearly 50 years and expanded a pact with the religious leader first four years of his reign there his empire over almost the entire Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. was a regency, but in 1560 Akbar Indian subcontinent. He ascended They would unite the local tribes began governing for himself. He the throne in 1658 having to create a state, free from the modernized his army, winning a conspired against the brother influence of the Ottoman Empire, series of victories that gave the whom his father, Shah Jahan, had ruled by Bin Saud and spiritually Mughals dominance over the named as his successor. Aurangzeb guided by Wahhab\u2019s version of northern Indian subcontinent. To was a pious and orthodox man, Islam. The alliance was sealed with consolidate his huge empire, he disapproving of luxury, and put an the marriage of Wahhab\u2019s daughter instituted a centralized taxation end to his predecessors\u2019 tolerance to Bin Saud\u2019s son. Diriyah thus and administrative system, while of a multi-faith land. Sharia law was formed the nucleus of the First adopting tolerant and conciliatory imposed and many Hindu temples Saudi State, which Bin Saud ruled policies to his non-Muslim subjects, destroyed. Ultimately, Aurangzeb\u2019s until his death. His descendants particularly local Hindu rulers. persistent spending on military extended the boundaries of the Akbar died after a reign of nearly campaigns damaged his economy, state, which was the forerunner 50 years, with his son Jahangir and following his tenure the empire of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ascending the throne in his place. went into decline. officially founded in 1932.","316 DIRECTORY AHMAD IBN IDRIS SAYYID AHMAD KHAN MUHAMMAD AHMED 1760\u20131837 1817\u201398 1844\u201385 Ahmad ibn Idris was born in Fez, Islamic reformist Sayyid Ahmad Muhammad Ahmed bin Abdallah Morocco, and studied there before Khan was born in Delhi, when the was a Sudanese leader who settling in Mecca in 1799, where Mughal emperor Akbar II was a became known as \u201cthe Mahdi\u201d he began to teach his version of figurehead under British rule. Khan and led a war against the British. Sufism. He warned his followers worked for the East India Company, As a young man he joined the against rigid adherence to any later becoming a judge. Following Samaniyya Sufi sect and became particular religious school, and the Indian uprising of 1857, he a Quranic teacher. He gained a stressed that people should seek published a damning critique large following and in 1881, he was a personal relationship with God of British policies, although he proclaimed as the Mahdi, the through gaining their own remained loyal to the British messianic redeemer of the Islamic independent understanding of the Empire. He had a powerful belief faith, by his disciples. The colonial Quran and other religious texts. In in modern education, and founded government in Khartoum sent a 1828 he moved to Yemen, where he many schools, as well as the first military expedition against him, stayed until his death. By then his Muslim university in Southern which was defeated. Mahdi-led set of teachings, known as the Asia. His writings included forces similarly defeated a British Idrissiya, had gained many commentaries on both the Quran army sent from Egypt. He created a students and followers, who and the Bible. vast Islamic state extending from disseminated it across the world. the Red Sea to Central Africa and MIRZA GHULAM AHMAD founded a movement that remained MUHAMMAD IBN ALI influential in Sudan a century later. AL-SANUSI 1835\u20131908 MUHAMMAD ABDU 1787\u20131859 See box on p221. 1849\u20131905 The founder of the Sanusi (also JAMAL AL-DIN AL-AFGHANI spelled Senussi) mystical order, Born into an elite Egyptian family, Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi came 1838\u201397 as a student in Cairo Muhammad from northwestern Algeria and Abdu became a dedicated follower spent his early life studying and Born in Iran, Jamal al-Din of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Inspired traveling across North Africa, al-Afghani was a political reformer by al-Afghani, Abdu agitated for during which time he became who rose to prominence in 1866, political reform in Egypt to ensure convinced that Islam needed to be when he emerged as counselor to that it did not fall under Western revitalized and reformed. He settled the emir of Afghanistan. Following imperialism\u2014a view that led to in Arabia, where he established his a regime change, al-Afghani left him being exiled in 1882, after the own Sufi school of thought, the Afghanistan in 1868, and from British military occupation of Egypt Sanusi, in 1837, remaining there then on led a peripatetic existence, began. He was permitted to return until he was expelled by the living around the world including to Egypt in 1888, and held the role Ottomans in 1841. Al-Sanusi in Istanbul, Cairo, India, Paris, of a judge before being appointed relocated his order to Cyrenaica, London, Russia, and Iran until Grand Mufti (chief Islamic jurist) in northeastern Libya, where he his death from cancer in 1897. of Egypt in 1899, remaining in the spread his message among local He spoke out against Western post for the rest of his life. As one of tribes. After he died, his son imperialism, believing that it could the leading figures in the country, assumed leadership of the Sanusi be combated by pan-Islamism he supported liberal, rationalist order. His grandson Idris I later as well as political reform, and reforms in both government and reigned as king of an independent improved technical and scientific religion. He also wrote several Libya from 1951 until 1969. education within the Muslim world. religious treatises.","DIRECTORY 317 RASHID RIDA MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH HUDA SHAARAWI 1865\u20131935 1876\u20131948 1879\u20131947 Born in modern-day Lebanon, near Born in Karachi to a wealthy Huda Shaarawi was an Egyptian Tripoli (then part of the Ottoman merchant family, Muhammad Ali feminist and nationalist. Forced to Empire), Muhammad Rashid Rida Jinnah moved to London in 1892, marry her cousin at the age of 13, was a founding figure in the Salafi where he qualified as a barrister she was subsequently estranged movement, which sought, in the before returning home in 1896. from him, enabling her to pursue face of Western imperialism, to After ten years of practicing law her education. She spearheaded reform the Muslim world by in Bombay (now Mumbai), Jinnah a wave of reforms for women in returning to the spirit of early Islam. became involved in the Indian Egypt, and was a key figure in the He declared that adherence to independence movement, and in Revolution of 1919 against British Sharia law was essential for all 1913 joined the All-India Muslim rule. In 1922, she shocked society Muslims. However, he was also League. This organization aimed to by publicly removing her face veil, open to change and modernization, secure the rights of Muslims, and inspiring others to do the same. The willing to embrace innovations in Jinnah came to favor the creation following year, Shaarawi founded science and technology. Rida moved of a separate state for them. His the Egyptian Feminist Union and to Egypt in 1897, where he founded leadership was central to achieving was elected its first president. the influential reformist journal this in 1947. When India gained The Union achieved legislation titled Al-Manar (The Lighthouse), independence from the British that included a minimum age for which he published and edited Empire, Pakistan was created from marriage, and access to university from 1898 until his death in 1935. Muslim-majority areas. Jinnah was education for women. the new country\u2019s first governor- IBN SAUD general, but died a year later. MUSTAFA KEMAL ATAT\u00dcRK 1875\u20131953 MUHAMMAD IQBAL 1881\u20131938 Abdulaziz ibn Abdul Rahman ibn 1877\u20131938 The founder of modern Turkey was Faisal ibn Turki ibn Abdullah ibn born in Thessaloniki, in present- Muhammad Al Saud was born in After leaving his homeland in the day Greece. He entered the Riyadh, Arabia, a small, mud-walled Punjab in Northern India in 1905, Ottoman Army after graduating town in the middle of the desert. Muhammad Iqbal qualified as a from military college in 1905, and His family was driven into exile in barrister in London and earned a became involved with the reformist Kuwait when he was ten, but in doctorate in philosophy in Munich. Young Turks movement, before 1902 he returned to capture Riyadh He returned to Lahore in 1908 and fighting in the Balkan Wars and at the head of a Bedouin war party practiced law, as well as gaining World War I. From 1919 to 1923, mounted on camels. He went on to fame as a writer of poetry. Iqbal, Kemal masterminded nationalist subdue the rest of Central Arabia, who was knighted in 1922, was victory in the Turkish War of followed by Mecca, Medina, and also prominent in the Indian Independence, which led to Jeddah. In 1932 he unified his independence movement, the overthrow of the Ottoman territories as the Kingdom of Saudi advocating the establishment of a sultanate and the declaration of Arabia, with himself as monarch. separate nation state for provinces the Republic of Turkey. Kemal was Initially the kingdom subsisted on with a majority-Muslim population. its first president, and initiated profits from the pilgrim trade to He saw this as a way to guarantee sweeping reforms that created a Mecca, then oil was discovered in their religious and political rights. modernized and secular nation the late 1930s. Oil exports began to His vision helped to inspire the state. In 1934, the Turkish bring in colossal wealth and by the creation of the nation of Pakistan parliament honored him with time of his death in 1953, Ibn Saud in 1947, nine years after his the surname Atat\u00fcrk, meaning was one of the world\u2019s richest men. death in 1938. \u201cFather of the Turks.\u201d","318 DIRECTORY ELIJAH MUHAMMAD ABUL ALA MAWDUDI SAYYID QUTB 1897\u20131975 1903\u201379 1906\u201366 American Elijah Muhammad, born Abul Ala Mawdudi was born Sayyid Qutb began his career Elijah Robert Poole, left his home into a middle-class Sunni family working for Egypt\u2019s Ministry of state of Georgia in 1923 to settle in in Aurangabad, in northwestern Education. Initially a secularist, Detroit. There he became involved India. A prodigious scholar and he shifted toward Islamist views, in the Nation of Islam, a black writer on a wide range of subjects, joining the Muslim Brotherhood nationalist group that aimed to he argued that Western influences in 1953. The group criticized the promote unity and self-help in the must be removed from Islam. In regime of President Nasser for its African-American community. 1941 he founded the Jamaat-e- secularism, and, when a member Adopting the surname Muhammad, Islami, an organization that aimed of the Brotherhood attempted to by 1934 he had become leader of to create an independent Islamic assassinate Nasser in 1954, Qutb the organization and turned it state in British India. After the and many of his colleagues were into a nationwide movement, founding of Pakistan in 1947, imprisoned. While incarcerated, with its own mosques, businesses, Mawdudi reestablished his group Qutb grew increasingly radical. In and schools. Although Muhammad and became politically active. He 1964, he published Maalim fi\u2019l-Tariq often clashed with others in the was imprisoned several times, (Signs on the Road), an influential Nation, including Malcolm X, he although by the time he died in work that called for Muslims to retained the leadership until his 1979 the ruling regime of General establish a society based on death in 1975. Zia-ul-Haq had embraced many of the Quran. A few months later he Mawdudi\u2019s values. was found guilty of plotting to AYATOLLAH RUHOLLAH overthrow the government, and KHOMEINI HASSAN AL-BANNA in 1966 he was executed. 1902\u201389 1906\u201349 MUHAMMAD ZIA-UL-HAQ Ruhollah Khomeini, known in the In 1928, Egyptian schoolteacher 1924\u201388 West as Ayatollah Khomeini, was Hassan al-Banna founded the an Iranian politician and cleric who, Muslim Brotherhood. This was an Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq deposed as a young man, rose to prominence organization that aimed to revive the prime minister of Pakistan, as a scholar in the Shiite holy city Islam through social reform, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, in a military of Qom. He became a vocal critic of charitable works, and educational coup in 1977. He declared martial Iran\u2019s ruler, Shah Muhammad Reza efforts. As it gathered members law and became the country\u2019s sixth Pahlavi, particularly after the Shah across Egypt, the Brotherhood president in 1978. When the Soviets launched a raft of modernizing became more political in outlook. invaded Afghanistan in 1979, Zia reforms, known as the White It espoused pan-Islamism and worked closely with the Afghan Revolution, in 1963. Khomeini was opposed Western imperialism; mujahidin against the Soviets. He imprisoned and banished; while it also became involved in the undertook a process of Islamization exiled in Iraq and then France, conflict in the Holy Land by of Pakistan, replacing the largely he continued to oppose the Shah, sending volunteers to fight for the secular law inherited from the and helped inspire the movement Palestinian Arabs there. Al-Banna\u2019s British with curbed civil liberties against him that culminated in popularity and influence as both a and the introduction of new his overthrow in 1979. That year religious and political leader made criminal offenses, including Khomeini returned to his home him a threat to the Egyptian adultery and fornication, with new country, and was named supreme government\u2019s authority, and in punishments including stoning, leader of the Islamic Republic of 1948 the Brotherhood was outlawed. flogging, and amputation. He was Iran, remaining in office until his Al-Banna was assassinated in killed in a mysterious plane crash death in 1989. Cairo the following year. in 1988.","DIRECTORY 319 MALCOLM X AGA KHAN IV prominent individuals in the Sunni tradition of Islam, considered by 1925\u201365 b. 1936 some Muslims to be the highest authority in Islamic jurisprudence Born in Omaha, Nebraska, Malcolm Aga Khan is the title held by the worldwide. While serving as the Little became involved in crime Imam, or spiritual leader, of the grand Sheikh, al-Tayyeb has spoken during his youth, leading to jail. Ismaili Shia. The first to hold the against the Muslim Brotherhood While in prison he joined the title was Hassan Ali Shah, who and Islamic State (ISIS) for their Nation of Islam and changed his was the 46th Imam of the Ismailis. exploitations of Islam as a political name to Malcolm X. Following his The current, and fourth, Aga Khan ideology, while also resisting calls release he became a national figure, is Prince Karim, who took up the by Egyptian president Abdel Fatah criticizing the integrationist and role in 1957 at just 20 years old. al-Sisi to revoke the verbal divorce nonviolent views of other civil He was born in Geneva, brought up law in Egypt. rights leaders. Eventually, he grew in Nairobi, and educated at, among disillusioned with the Nation of other places, Harvard. He has a BENAZIR BHUTTO Islam and left the group in 1964. British passport but resides at an Having made the Hajj, Malcolm X estate near Chantilly in northern 1953\u20132007 converted to the Sunni tradition of France. In addition to looking after Islam and changed his name to the material as well as spiritual Benazir Bhutto served as prime al-Hajj Malik al-Shabazz. His life needs of his followers, Aga Khan IV minister of Pakistan from 1988 ended tragically in 1965, when he heads the Aga Khan Development to 1990 and from 1993 to 1996. was assassinated in New York Network, which employs 80,000 She was the first woman to head by three members of the Nation people in 30 countries and is known a democratic government in a of Islam. for the nonprofit work it does in poor Muslim-majority nation. She was and war-torn parts of the globe, born in Karachi to a political family: EDWARD SAID benefiting people of all faiths. her father was prime minister until he was ousted in a military coup 1935\u20132003 SHEIKH AHMED and executed. After his death, MUHAMMAD AL-TAYYEB Oxford University-educated Bhutto Born in Palestine to Christian led a movement for the restoration parents, Edward Said was brought b. 1946 of democracy, for which she was up between Jerusalem and Cairo, imprisoned and then exiled to before being sent to the US to Born in Upper (southern) Egypt, Britain. She returned to Pakistan complete his education, including Ahmed Muhammad al-Tayyeb was in 1986 and was elected prime studies at Princeton and Harvard a student at Egypt\u2019s prestigious minister two years later. She lost universities. He became a professor al-Azhar University in the 1960s her position but regained it in the of literature at Columbia University, and 1970s. Later he studied at the 1993 elections. During her terms New York, a public intellectual, and University of Paris before returning in office she worked to advance a founder of the academic field of to his alma mater. He served as women\u2019s rights. While on the postcolonial studies. He became a president of al-Azhar for seven campaign trail in 2007, she was high-profile spokesperson for the years and since 2010 he has been assassinated; al-Qaeda claimed establishment of a Palestinian the Grand Imam, or Sheikh, of responsibility. She has since state. He is best known for his al-Azhar\u2014the 50th person to hold become an icon for women\u2019s rights highly influential book Orientalism the role since it was established in in the developing world. (1978), which is a critique of the the late 17th century. The world\u2019s ways in which the Western world second-oldest university, al-Azhar MALALA YOUSAFZAI has historically portrayed the Arab represents the center of Sunni and Islamic worlds, presenting a Islamic jurisprudence and issues b. 1997 distorted image that was intended authoritative religious rulings. The to serve colonialist interests. Grand Imam is among the most See box on p277.","320 GLOSSARY In this glossary, terms defined Ahmadiyya Followers of Mirza Aqiqa A ceremony, traditionally within another entry are identified Ghulam Ahmad, who claimed to be with animal sacrifice, for a newborn with bold type. God\u2019s \u201crenewer\u201d of Islam. Most child, held seven days after birth. traditional Muslims do not consider Abaya A long, loose-fitting robe Ahmadiyya to be true Muslims. Arabesque A style of decoration that is worn by women, originating using curled lines that avoids on the Arabian Peninsula. Allah The Arabic name of the one depicting humans or animals. God. Abbasids A dynasty descended Arabic numerals The Hindu- from Prophet Muhammad\u2019s uncle Allahu akbar \u201cGod is great:\u201d the Arabic decimal system. Invented in Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib that phrase that invokes the supremacy India, it was developed by medieval formed the third Islamic caliphate of God. mathematicians in Baghdad and (750\u20131258). reached Europe in the 15th century. Almohads Berber tribesmen from Adaan The call to prayer. southern Morocco who formed an Arkan al-Iman See Six Pillars Islamic empire in North Africa and of Faith. Afranj The Arabic term for Spain in the 12th century. European Christians, or \u201cFranks,\u201d Arkan al-Islam See Five Pillars during the Crusades. Almoravids Berber tribesmen of Islam. from southern Morocco who formed Aga Khan The title of the an Islamic empire in North Africa Ashura The 10th day of the month hereditary spiritual leader of the and Spain in the 11th century. of Muharram that for Shia Muslims Ismaili branch of Shia Islam. marks the martyrdom of the third Amir al-Muminin \u201cCommander Imam, Hussein, at Kerbala. Ahl al-beit \u201cPeople of the House:\u201d of the Faithful:\u201d a title given to Ali specifically, the Prophet himself, by Shia Muslims but to Umar, the Aya A verse of the Quran. his daughter Fatima, cousin and second caliph, by Sunni Muslims son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, and and adopted by many later leaders. Ayatollah A religious leader in Ali and Fatima\u2019s sons Hassan the Shia tradition of Islam. and Hussein. Al-Andalus The region of the Iberian peninsula occupied by Bedouin An Arabic-speaking Ahl al-dhimma Non-Muslim Muslims from 711 ce to the late desert nomad. \u201cprotected peoples.\u201d Christians, 15th century. Jews, and others who were free Beit al-Hikma \u201cHouse of Wisdom:\u201d to practice their own religion Ansar The \u201chelpers:\u201d the people the Grand Library of Baghdad, under Muslim rule, subject of Medina who aided the Prophet established in the 9th century by the to the jizya tax. and his followers after their flight Abbasid caliphate as a repository (Hijra) from Mecca. of all the world\u2019s knowledge. Ahl al-kitab \u201cPeople of the Book:\u201d Apostasy The renunciation of a Bismillah The opening phrase followers of the other religions religion by former believers (who of the Quran: \u201cIn the name of God, based on divine revelations are branded apostates). In Islam, the Compassionate, the Merciful.\u201d enshrined in holy books\u2014mainly apostasy is a serious crime that Recited before every sura except Jews and Christians, but also can be punishable by death under one, and used as an invocation Zoroastrians and Sabaeans. Sharia law. before any significant undertaking.","GLOSSARY 321 Black Stone The special stone, Companions of the Prophet Eid al-Adha The \u201cFeast of the possibly a meteorite, embedded in Those followers of Muhammad Sacrifice,\u201d commemorating Ibrahim\u2019s the eastern corner of the Kaaba. who saw or spent time with him devotion to God, when he intended during his lifetime. In Arabic, they to sacrifice his son and God provided Boko Haram A militant Islamist are called the Sahaba. a lamb to sacrifice instead. It follows group founded in Nigeria in 2002, the Hajj rituals for pilgrims in Mecca, whose original stated goal was to Day of Judgment The event in but is celebrated by all Muslims. \u201cpurify Islam.\u201d which all Earth is destroyed, along with all living beings, followed by Eid al-Fitr The \u201cFeast of Breaking Buraq The winged mount that resurrection and the weighing up of the Fast,\u201d marking the end of the Muslims believe transported every person\u2019s deeds to determine fasting month of Ramadan. Muhammad to Jerusalem and to whether they go to Heaven or Hell. Heaven on his Night Journey. Emir Prince, ruler, or commander. Deobandi Revivalist Islamic Burka Modest dress for women of movement founded in India in 1867. Ennahdha The \u201cRenaissance a robe and headcovering, with a Party,\u201d a moderate Islamist political mesh screen over the eyes. It is Dervish Follower of Sufism who party founded in Tunisia in 1981. associated with the Taliban, and seeks to reach a trancelike state is worn mainly in Afghanistan and by dancing and whirling around. Fanous Colorful lanterns used in parts of Pakistan. the celebration of Ramadan. Dhikr Ritual acts, usually prayer Burkini Modest swimwear or repetition of a devotional phrase, Faqih An expert in fiqh, or Islamic consisting of an all-over body central to Sufi worship. jurisprudence. swimsuit and swimcap. Dhimmi \u201cProtected person:\u201d a Fatiha The \u201cOpening:\u201d the first Caliph Spiritual and political leader term referring to non-Muslims sura of the Quran. It is frequently of the Islamic community. From the living in a Muslim state who are recited silently whenever believers Arabic word khalifa, meaning given legal protections. feel the need to praise or thank God. \u201csuccessor\u201d (of the Prophet). Dikka A platform in larger mosques Fatimids Dynasty (909\u20131171) Caliphate Islamic state under the on which a cleric stands to repeat founded in North Africa whose leadership of a caliph, consisting of the sermon and lead the prayers for rulers claimed descent from the the Muslim community and all those those too far from the front to hear. Prophet\u2019s daughter Fatima. They under its dominion. were the first Shia dynasty. They Din-i Ilahi \u201cDivine Faith:\u201d a new established their capital al-Qahira Chador Full-length outer garment interpretation of Islam introduced (Cairo) in 969 ce. or cloak draped over the head and in India by the Mughal emperor held closed under the chin; worn by Akbar in the late 16th century, with Fatwa A decision or ruling on a women in Iran, Iraq, and other elements of Sufism, Christianity, matter of Islamic law given by an predominantly Shia communities. Zoroastrianism, and Jainism. Islamic legal expert. Chahar bagh Rectangular Persian Djinn Supernatural creatures Fiqh The study of Sharia, or garden layout divided into four by formed out of fire. Islamic law. water channels and designed to reflect paradise on Earth. Dome of the Rock An Islamic Fitna \u201cUnrest\u201d or \u201ccivil strife.\u201d The place of worship built in the 7th First Fitna (656\u201361 ce) was the Charter of Medina A constitution century on Temple Mount in struggle between Ali and Muawiya written for the residents of Medina Jerusalem. It covers a rock from for control of the Islamic caliphate, following Prophet Muhammad\u2019s which the Prophet is said to have which led to the split between the arrival with his followers in 622 ce. ascended to Heaven on the Miraj. Sunni and Shia branches of Islam.","322 GLOSSARY Five Pillars of Islam The core Hanafi One of the four schools of Ibadism An early strand of Islam practices of Sunni Islam, which Sunni Islamic law. Founded by Abu formed by Muslims who opposed should be observed by all Muslims. Hanifa (699\u2013767), it emphasizes the rule of the third caliph Uthman. These are: Shahada (profession a process of systematic reasoning. Ibadis diverge from mainstream of faith); salat (offering prayer to Islam in minor aspects of theology. God); zakat (almsgiving); sawm Hanbali One of the four Sunni Ibadism is dominant in Oman and (fasting); and Hajj (the pilgrimage schools of Islamic law. Based on is also found in parts of North and to Mecca). the teaching of Ahmad ibn Hanbal East Africa. (780\u2013855), it is considered the most Fivers See Zaydis. conservative on matters of doctrine. Iftar The sundown meal that breaks the fast during Ramadan. Furu al-Din The ten practices of Haram Food or behavior that is Shia Islam: salat (offering prayer to forbidden, or unlawful. Ihsan The Muslim duty to obtain God); zakat (almsgiving); sawm perfection in worship\u2014to worship (fasting); Hajj (the pilgrimage to Hejaz The holy land of Islam: God as if the believer sees Him. Mecca); khums (a tax in addition western Saudi Arabia, including to zakat); jihad (the struggle to do the cities of Mecca and Medina. Ijma A legal concept meaning good); amr bil-maaruf (encouraging \u201cconsensus,\u201d or the agreement of others to do good); nahi anil-munkar Hijab A head covering worn by the Muslim community or of a body (forbidding what is evil); tawalla some Muslim women to conceal of Muslim scholars on a particular (expressing love for the Prophet); the hair. point of law. and tabbara (disassociation from those who insult God). Hijra The \u201cflight\u201d of the Prophet Ijtihad The concept of intellectual Muhammad and his followers in reasoning in the understanding Hadith Account (or accounts) of 622 ce from persecution in Mecca and advancement of Islam. the sayings and actions of Prophet to safety in Medina. Muhammad, as recorded by those Ilkhanid A Mongol dynasty who were close to him. Hadith are Hijra calendar The lunar calendar (1256\u20131335) that emerged from the second prime source for the used by Muslims. Its year zero is the fragmentation of the greater practice of Islam after the Quran. dated from the Hijra in 622 ce. Mongol Empire to rule most of Iran, Iraq, and Central Asia. Its Hafiz A \u201cguardian\u201d of the Quran\u2014 Houri A beautiful maiden who, rulers converted to Islam in 1295. in other words, somebody who has according to the Quran, waits in learned it by heart. Paradise for devout men. Ilm al-Rijal \u201cScience of the learned men:\u201d the study of the individuals Hajj The pilgrimage to the sacred House of Wisdom See Beit who transmitted the hadith. city of Mecca, which every Muslim al-Hikma. who can should make at least once. Imam 1) In Shia Islam, the leader It is performed during the last Hudud Fixed Sharia punishments of the community, and a rightful month of the Hijra calendar, Dhu for crimes as prescribed in the successor to the Prophet, starting al-Hijja. Hajj is one of the Five Quran and the hadith. with Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Pillars of Islam. Imam. 2) In Sunni Islam, an imam Ibadat The collective term for the is a religious official who leads a Hakawati A professional storyteller. different forms of worship in Islam. congregation in prayer. Halal Food, products, or behavior Ibadat Khana \u201cHouse of Worship:\u201d Infidel Unbeliever. Said by Muslims that is permitted, or lawful under an academy founded in India by of Christians and vice versa. Islamic law. It is often used with the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1575, reference to meat slaughtered to where representatives of major faiths Inshallah A popular Arabic phrase prescribed Islamic methods. met to discuss theology. meaning \u201cIf God wills it.\u201d","GLOSSARY 323 ISIS See Islamic State. Jamaat-e Islami Islamic religious Kafir Unbeliever. party founded in 1941 in India by Islam The religion established by Mawlana Abul Ala Mawdudi and Kalam The \u201cscience of debate\u201d or Prophet Muhammad and practiced still active in Pakistan. a system of philosophical and by Muslims. The word means theological argument. \u201csubmission\u201d in Arabic and refers to Janna Paradise. the act of submission that Muslims Kerbala Site of a battle in 680 ce are expected to make to God. Jebel al-Nur Location of the at which Hussein, grandson of the Hira cave, the spiritual retreat of Prophet Muhammad, was killed, Islamic State A militant group Muhammad, where Jibreel first accentuating the split between the founded in 1999, previously known delivered the divine revelations that Sunni and Shia traditions of Islam. as ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and became the Quran. al-Sham), or ISIL (Islamic State of Kharijites Originally supporters of Iraq and the Levant), or by its Jerusalem One of the three most Ali ibn Abi Talib, the \u201cseceders\u201d Arabic acronym Daesh. sacred sites of Islam, along with were dissenters who urged strict Mecca and Medina. Originally, adherence to Islamic law. Islamism A movement to reform Muslims faced Jerusalem in prayer, government and society so they before the orientation of the qibla Kiswa The silk cloth that covers conform to a strict interpretation of was changed to Mecca c. 624 ce. the Kaaba in Mecca. Islamic law. Adherents of Islamism are Islamists. Jibreel The angel who conveyed Koran See Quran. the message of the Quran to the Ismailism A branch of Shia Prophet, and who brought a ram for Kufic A highly stylized, rectilinear Islam that considers Ismail, son Ibrahim to sacrifice in place of his Arabic script, often used in of Jafar al-Sadiq, to have been the son. Jibreel is known as Gabriel in monumental inscriptions. legitimate Imam after his father. Judaism and Christianity. The main branch of Ismailism Leilat al-qadr The \u201cNight of today follows the leadership of Jihad The struggle for a particular Power,\u201d the holiest night of the year, the Aga Khan. cause, in the name of God. The commemorating the first revelation \u201cgreater jihad\u201d (al-jihad al-akbar) is of the Quran to the Prophet. It falls Isnad The chain of attribution that the inner, spiritual struggle against in the last 10 days of Ramadan. links a hadith back to the Prophet. the demands of the lower self. The \u201clesser jihad\u201d (al-jihad al-asghar) Madrasa A school for Islamic Isra The first part of the Prophet\u2019s refers to physical struggle. religious education. Night Journey, in which he traveled on the winged steed Buraq to the Jizya A tax payable by ahl Mahdi A savior and restorer \u201cfurthest mosque,\u201d identified with al-dhimma living under Muslim of true Islam who, according to al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. rule, in return for the freedom to some traditions, will appear before practice their own religion. the Day of Judgment and rid the Jahannam Hell. world of evil. Juma Friday prayers. See Salat. al-Jahiliya The \u201cTime of Makruh Food or behavior that is Ignorance,\u201d before Islam and the Kaaba The most sacred site in considered \u201cdetestable\u201d but (unlike revelation of the Quran to the Islam, a large stone cubelike haram) not forbidden absolutely. Prophet. The word jahiliya can also structure within the Great Mosque refer to life in modern times that is at Mecca. It existed as a pre-Islamic, Maliki One of the four Sunni incompatible with Islam. pagan shrine before becoming the schools of law. Based on the focal point for Muslim prayer and teachings of Malik ibn Anas, it Jamaat al-Ikhwan See Muslim pilgrimage following Muhammad\u2019s relies on the Quran and the Brotherhood. capture of Mecca in 630ce. hadith as primary souces.","324 GLOSSARY Mamluks Freed slave-soldiers Medina (Medinah) Called Yathrib It is a building for prayer but also who founded a dynasty that ruled in pre-Islamic times, the city to a place where Muslims can come Egypt, Syria, and the Hejaz from which Muhammad and his early together as a community. 1250 to 1517. followers fled when they faced persecution in Mecca in 622 ce. Mount Arafat A site near Mecca, Marwa One of two small hills It is the second holiest city in Islam associated with rituals of the Hajj. of Mecca, now enclosed within the after Mecca. Great Mosque, which pilgrims walk Muezzin The person who calls between as part of the rituals of Mevlevi An order of Sufis founded Muslims to prayer. Hajj. The second hill is Safa. in Konya (in modern-day Turkey) by followers of Jalal al-Din Muhammad Mughal Empire Created in India Mashallah A phrase meaning Rumi. Their form of dhikr, a slowly after the invasion of Babur from \u201cGod wills it\u201d used to express spinning dance, led to their other Central Asia in 1526. Its Muslim appreciation, resignation, or joy. name of \u201cwhirling dervishes.\u201d emperors ruled predominantly Hindu subjects. Mashhad Iranian city that is the Mihrab A niche in a mosque that site of the revered Shia shrine of indicates the qibla, the direction Muhadithun Specialists in the Imam Reza. Mashhad means \u201cPlace of the Kaaba in Mecca for prayer. study of hadith. of Martyrdom.\u201d Millet A self-governing religious Muhajirun Those who followed Masjid The Arabic word for community of non-Muslims, during the Prophet in his flight from Mosque. the Ottoman Empire. Mecca to Medina (the Hijra). al-Masjid al-Haram The Great Mina A site near Mecca associated Mujahidin From the Arabic Mosque of Mecca, which contains with rituals of the Hajj, in particular \u201cthose who fight for jihad.\u201d Most the Kaaba. It is the largest mosque the \u201cStoning of the Devil.\u201d closely linked with the Afghani and in the world and the second-largest foreign forces who fought the Soviet building in the world. Minaret A tower typically Union in Afghanistan (1979\u201389). attached to a mosque from which al-Masjid al-Nabawi The Mosque the muezzin traditionally makes Mujtahid Someone who is able of the Prophet, in Medina, which the call to prayer. to interpret and make independent contains Muhammad\u2019s tomb. rulings on Islamic law. Minbar An elevated pulpit found Matn \u201cBackbone:\u201d the main text in a mosque, used by the imam to Murid A disciple in a Sufi order. of a hadith, the record of what the deliver the sermon. Prophet said or did. See also Isnad. Muslim A follower of Islam: literally Miraj The second part of Prophet \u201cOne who submits\u201d (to God). Mawlid al-Nabi The birthday of Muhammad\u2019s Night Journey, when the Prophet, which is widely he ascended from Jerusalem to the Muslim Brotherhood Political celebrated on the 12th day of the heavens. See also Isra. Islamist group, founded in Egypt month of Rabi al-Awwal. Also in 1928 by schoolteacher Hassan spelled Moulid al-Nabi. Mongol Empire Established by al-Banna. Genghis Khan in 1206, the empire Mecca (Makkah) The desert town stretched across Central Asia to the Mutawin Islamic religious police. in Arabia where Muhammad was Persian Gulf and the Danube River. born and first spread the message The Mongols razed Muslim cities Mutazilites \u201cThose who separate of Islam. Location of the holy Kaaba, but later converted to Islam. themselves:\u201d a Muslim group and one of the three most sacred established in the 8th century sites in Islam, along with Medina Mosque From the Arabic masjid, whose followers believed in open and Jerusalem. meaning a \u201cplace of prostration.\u201d questioning and rational enquiry.","GLOSSARY 325 Najaf Iraqi city containing the the Great in 550 bce, to the Qajars, Quranists A minority of Muslims burial place of the First Imam whose reign came to an end in who believe that the Quran alone Ali ibn Abi Talib, a sacred site 1925. With the Arab conquest of is sufficient for guidance, and in Shia Islam. Persia in 651 ce, Islam became its dismiss all hadith as unreliable. dominant religion. The modern Najd A rocky plateau in central name for Persia is Iran. Quraysh A leading tribe of Mecca. Saudi Arabia, scene of early Muslim Muhammad was born into the Banu victories over rebel tribes, and later Qadar The concept of divine Hashim branch of the tribe in 570 ce. the birthplace of Wahhabism. destiny in Islam\u2014the recognition that God knows all that has Qurra \u201cReciters:\u201d those who Naskh A rounded, easily legible happened and all that will happen. memorized the Quran during the Arabic script, used in early copies Prophet\u2019s lifetime, enabling it to be of the Quran and other documents. al-Qaeda A militant organization collated in written form. that was formed in the late 1980s Night Journey See Isra by participants in the war against Rakat A sequence of prescribed and Miraj. the Soviets in Afghanistan. Its physical movements performed goal was specifically to target while offering prayers. Each daily Niqab A face veil worn by some the West. Under the leadership of prayer comprises a specified Muslim women that leaves only the Osama bin Laden, it carried out number of rakats. See also salat. eyes uncovered. attacks against the United States\u2014 including 9\/11\u2014and its allies. Ramadan The ninth month of the Niyya The concept of intending Hijra calendar, when Muslims fast an act for the sake of God. Qajar A dynasty that ruled Persia during the hours of daylight. (Iran) from 1796 to 1925. Orientalism A Western view Rashidun The four \u201crightly of Arab and Muslim culture as Qawwali A Sufi musical tradition guided\u201d caliphs in Sunni Islamic exotic, backward, and uncivilized that aims to elicit a state of ecstasy tradition, and the Prophet\u2019s first that flourished in the 19th and in its listeners. successors: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn 20th centuries. al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Qibla The direction of prayer for Ali ibn Abi Talib. Ottoman Empire Founded in Muslims, originally Jerusalem, Turkey in the 13th century by but later changed by the Prophet Rehal A foldable bookrest to Osman I, at its height the empire Muhammad to Mecca, following a support the Quran for reading. included all of modern Turkey, much divine revelation in 624. of the Middle East and North Africa, Riad A traditional Moroccan house and much of southeastern Europe. Qital Literally \u201ccombat,\u201d a temporary with a central courtyard garden. It was abolished in 1923 with the form of jihad sometimes known as formation of the Turkish Republic. the \u201clesser jihad,\u201d which may take Ridda Wars The \u201cWars of the form of armed struggle. Apostasy,\u201d fought after the Prophet\u2019s Pan-Arabism The idea of a death when a number of tribes in political and cultural alliance Qiyas A way of establishing Arabia refused to acknowledge his across Arab states that was rulings in Islamic jurisprudence successor, the caliph Abu Bakr. popular from the 1950s to 1970s. by reasoning. It is applied in the absence of any guidance from Safa See Marwa. People of the Book See ahl the Quran or the hadith. al-Kitab. Safavid Empire The ruling Quran The holy book and regime in Persia (Iran) between Persian Empire An empire ruled foundational scripture of Islam. It 1501 and 1722. The Safavid founder by a series of dynasties from the is God\u2019s message to humanity as Ismail made Twelver Shiism the Achaemenids, established by Cyrus revealed to Prophet Muhammad. official form of Islam in Persia.","326 GLOSSARY Sahaba See Companions of the and that his son Muhammad ibn Sira The body of literature Prophet. Ismail would return as the Imam devoted to the life of the al-Mahdi. Prophet Muhammad. Sahih al-Bukhari \u201cThe Authentic Collection:\u201d a collection of around Shafii One of the four schools Six Pillars of Faith In Arabic, 7,275 hadith compiled in the 9th of Sunni Islamic law. Founded by arkan al-iman\u2014the Sunni belief in century by Muhammad al-Bukhari Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafii (767\u2013 the Oneness of God (Tawhid) and in and considered by Sunnis the most 820), it is the dominant school in His angels, His scriptures (the Quran, reputable source on the words and East Africa, Indonesia, and parts the Gospels, the Torah, and the actions of Prophet Muhammad. of Arabia, and for the Kurds. Psalms), His prophets (who received His scriptures and spread His Saint See Wali. Shah Persian for \u201cking.\u201d The last message), the Day of Judgment, shah of Iran was exiled in 1979. and divine destiny (Qadar). Salafism A reform\/revivalist movement rooted in 18th-century Shahada One of the Five Pillars Sufism From the Arabic, tasawwuf, Wahhabism that gained popularity of Islam. A profession of faith, it meaning \u201cto dress in wool,\u201d a branch in the 20th century. Its followers states that \u201cthere is no god but God of mystical Islam that emerged in (Salafis) advocate a return to the and Muhammad is His messenger.\u201d the Umayyad period and which traditions of the salaf, the first three places an emphasis on attaining a generations of Muslims: the Prophet Sharia The code of conduct and spiritual closeness with God through Muhammad and his Companions law of Islam, which was evolved rituals known as dhikr. (the Sahaba); their successors (the largely in the 9th century, based on Tabiun); and the successors of the the Quran and the hadith. Suhur The predawn meal that successors (the Tabi al-Tabeen). is taken during the fasting month Sheikh A senior, respected figure. of Ramadan. Salat Prayer: one of the Five Pillars The title is often given to the head of of Islam. Formal worship of God a tribe or clan, the leader of a Sufi Sunna The Muslim way of life, takes place five times every day, at order, or a man of religious learning. in the form of its social and legal dawn (fajr), early afternoon (dhuhr), practices derived from the life of late afternoon (asr), dusk (maghreb), Shia The tradition of Islam that the Prophet Muhammad. Together and evening (isha). The weekly supported the Prophet\u2019s cousin and with the Quran and the hadith, congregational prayer, on Friday son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib and Ali\u2019s the Sunna forms the basis of afternoon, is known as al-juma descendants as leaders of the Sharia or Islamic law. (the Arabic for Friday), meaning Muslim community. Now the gathering together. dominant form of Islam in Iran and Sunni The tradition of Islam that in parts of Iraq and other countries. grew from the supporters of Sawm Fasting: one of the Five succession to the caliphate by Pillars of Islam. Shirk Idolatry: the worship of election rather than by blood; now anyone or anything besides God. the dominant form of the religion in Seljuk Empire A Turkish empire Shirk is a crime under Sharia law. most parts of the Islamic world. The lasting from 1037 to 1194. At its second most dominant is Shia. height it controlled a vast area, from Shura A consultation process or western Anatolia (in modern-day body. Early in Islamic history, the Sura A chapter of the Quran. Turkey) and Syria to the Hindu Kush second caliph Umar set up a body in the east, and from Central Asia to of people (or shura) to elect his Tabi al-Tabeen The generation the Horn of Africa in the south. successor. Now it refers to a court that comes after the Tabiun. of law or a parliament. Sevener A branch of Shia Islam Tabiun The \u201csuccessors:\u201d the that believed that Ismail ibn Jafar Silsila Literally \u201cchain:\u201d the lineage generation of Muslims who came was the seventh and last Imam, of spiritual teachers in a Sufi order. after the Companions of the","GLOSSARY 327 Prophet (Sahaba). A Tabi is Mongol Empire. At its peak, the Wahhabism Sunni Islamic one who received Muhammad\u2019s Timurids controlled most of Central movement started by Muhammad teachings secondhand. Asia and Iran, as well as parts of ibn Abd al-Wahhab in 18th-century India, Pakistan, Syria, and Turkey. Arabia. It was taken up by the Tafsir The field of scholarship that India\u2019s Mughal Empire was an Saudi family and is practiced in interprets and comments on the offshoot of the Timurid. Saudi Arabia and Qatar. meanings of the Quran. Twelver The branch of Shia Islam Wali In Islam, a \u201cfriend of God\u201d Takfir The act of one Muslim that believes in a line of 12 Imams (wali, plural awliya), chosen by God declaring another Muslim to be and that the Twelfth Imam did and endowed with special, even a nonbeliever (kafir) guilty of not die but went into a hidden miraculous, powers. Tombs of the apostasy. It is usually associated existence and will return as the saints are centers of pilgrimage. with extremists, who use takfir to Imam al-Mahdi. justify killing other Muslims who Whirling dervishes See do not share their views. Ulema \u201cThose with knowledge:\u201d Mevlevi. the ulema are Islamic scholars, Taliban A mostly student traditionally educated in madrasas. Wudu Ritual ablutions made prior movement of Pakistani origin that The ulema also produce religious to prayer. succeeded in taking control of officials, judges, and teachers. Afghanistan in the 1990s, following Wufud Delegations sent by tribes the withdrawal of Soviet forces. Umayyad Empire The first to the Prophet in Medina, to Islamic caliphate after the era of express their loyalty. Tanzimat A series of reforms the Rashidun. The Umayyads instituted during the 19th century (661\u2013750) made the position of Yazidi Kurdish minority mainly with the aim of modernizing the caliph hereditary and ruled from found in northern Iraq, northern Ottoman Empire. Damascus. See also al-Andalus. Syria, and southeastern Turkey. Their faith includes elements of Tariqa A school, or order, of Umma The Islamic community. Iranian religions, Judaism, and Sufi thought. Nestorian Christianity, and they Umra The \u201clesser pilgrimage\u201d venerate Umayyad caliph Yazid I. Tawaf Circumambulation of to Mecca, which can be made at Long persecuted as apostates, the Kaaba, performed by pilgrims any time of the year. See also Hajj. most recently by the Islamic State. during the Hajj. Usul al-Din The five \u201cPrinciples of Zakat One of the Five Pillars of Tawassul In Shia tradition, the Religion\u201d of Shiism: belief in the Islam: the charitable giving of a appeal to Imams at their shrines Oneness of God (Tawhid), His portion of wealth to the needy. to intercede with God. justice (Adl), His messengers and prophets, the Imam successorship, Zakat al-Fitr A charitable Tawhid The concept of the Oneness and the Day of Judgment. obligation traditionally paid at the of God, who is the sole deity. end of fasting in Ramadan to poor Usury The practice of charging Muslims, so that they can celebrate Thobe An ankle-length robe with interest (riba) on loans, which is the feast of Eid al-Fitr. long sleeves (often white) worn by specifically forbidden in the Quran men in the Arabian Peninsula and and consequently in Sharia law. Zaydis Also known as \u201cFivers,\u201d a parts of North Africa. branch of Shia Islam who believe Yathrib The former name of the Zayd ibn Ali, the great-grandson of Timurid Empire The dynasty city of Medina. Ali ibn Abi Talib, to have been a (1370\u20131507) founded by Timur (or legitimate Imam. Tamerlane), who was descended Yom al-Din See Day of from Genghis Khan, founder of the Judgment. Zikr See Dhikr.","328 INDEX Page numbers in bold refer al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din 115, 208, 209, Almohad dynasty 170, 189, 199 al-Assad, Hafez 271 to main entries. 222\u20133, 238, 274, 316 Almoravid dynasty 170, 199 astronomy 148, 151, 153, 154, 155, 159, almsgiving see zakat 9\/11 attacks 133, 238, 254, 255, 275, Afghanistan 221, 244, 261, 264, 275, Alvaro of Cordoba 171 162\u20133 276, 277, 285, 286 295 America, Muslims in 224\u20137 Atat\u00fcrk, Mustafa Kemal 189, 209, 222, al-Qaeda in 276 amputation 133, 269 A Sharia in 267, 269 amr bil-maaruf 39 228\u201331, 249, 264, 300, 301, 317 Soviet invasion 216, 237, 254, 274 al-Andalus 48, 97, 168\u201371, 199\u2013200 Ates, Seyran 298 Aaron 73 Taliban 276\u20137 angels (malak) 87 Attar, Farid al-Din 145 Abasa (sura 80) 63 United States and 255 Angola 236 Aurangzeb, Emperor 205, 315 abaya 262, 269, 303 animism 279 Australia 284 Abbas I, Shah 193, 200\u20131, 214, 315 Afia, Nura 303 Ankara 230 Austria 283, 294 Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib 138 Africa al-Annuri, Muhammad 213 ayat 72, 73\u20134 Abbas ibn Firnas 169 ansar (helpers) 30, 69 ayatollahs 250 Abbasid caliphate 97, 104, 106, Islam in modern 278\u20139 al-Ansari, Kaab ibn Malik 30 Ayyubid dynasty 148 Islam spreads in 182\u20134 Antioch 181 Azerbaijan 192, 261, 294 115, 135, 136\u20139, 148\u20139, 150, African Americans 226\u20137, 263 apostasy 121, 268, 274 al-Azhar 186, 198, 234 Aga Khan 113 apps 289 Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Caliph 100, Aga Khan IV (Karim Al Husseini) 113, Aqaba, Pledges of 30 Grand Sheikh of 151, 304, 319 137\u20138, 310 115, 202, 319 aqida (creed) 86 university 151, 223, 256, 319 Abd al-Muttalib 24 Age of Discovery 177 aqiqa ceremony 40, 41, 257 Azzam, Abdullah 272, 274, 275, 277 Abdel Rahman, Sheikh Omar 275 Agung, Sultan of Mataram 280 Arab conquests\/expansion 67, 96, 100, Abdelkader, Emir 142 ahl al-beit 122 B al-Abdi, Muhammad ibn Ali 139 ahl ash-asheikh 217 105, 130, 137\u20138, 149, 182\u20135 Abdu, Muhammad 222, 223, 238, 316 Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam 24, 209, 219, Arab Spring 241, 255, 264, 265, 288, babies 257 Abdul Hamid II, Sultan 189, 229\u201330 220\u20131 Babism 219 Abdul Rahman I, Caliph 97, 148, Ahmadinejad, Mahmud 113 296 Babur, Emperor 149, 205, 244 168, 169 Ahmadis 227 arabesque designs 185, 189, 196, Babylon 105, 202 Abdul Rahman III, Caliph 169, 312 Ahmadiyya 209, 219, 220\u20131 Babylonian exile 42 Abdullah bin Saud 217 Ahmed, Qadi 191 197\u20138 Badr, Battle of 33, 49 Abdullah ibn Zubeir 137 Aisha bint Abu Bakr 19, 27, 56, 57, 59, Arabia Baghdad Abdullah of Jordan 234 103, 106, 107, 309 Abdullah of Saudi Arabia 237 Ajrami, Abe 285 after death of Muhammad 96 Abbasid caliphate 136\u20139, 148, ablutions, ritual (wudu) 42, 43, 88, Akbar I, Emperor 142, 204, 244, 315 Muslim conquest of 19, 32, 234 150\u20131, 152, 165, 169, 198, 234 99, 100 Akhbaris 250 Ottoman conquest of 186, 187 Abraham 80; see also Ibrahim AKP (Justice and Development Party) polytheism 18, 20\u20131, 27, 29 golden age 148, 150\u20131 Abrahamic religions 14, 80 228, 229, 231, 301 pre-Islamic powers and religions 21 House of Wisdom 148, 150\u20131 Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Caliph 19, 26, 31, Aksum 29, 30, 278 regains control of Islamic destiny sacked by Mongols 104, 136, 139, 44, 103 al-Alaq (sura 96) 63 as first caliph 32, 56\u20137, 96, 102 Alawites 271 234 149, 150, 154, 186 and Quran 67, 68, 69, 90 Albania 215, 261 seminomadic tribes 18 schools of tafsir 91 Wars of Ridda (apostasy) 96, 102, alcohol 97, 125, 126, 132, 271, spread of Islam from 184 al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr 277 281, 290, 291 Wahhabism 216\u201317 al-Baghdadi, al-Khatib 134, 135 103, 105 Aleppo 215 women in 7th-century 83, 84 Bahadur Shah II 204, 208 Abu Dawud 122 Alexandria 105 Arabic language 148, 149, 215, 262\u20133 Bahai faith 219 Abu Dhabi 101 Alfonso X of Castile 171 Arabic script 190, 191, 231 Bahira 18, 24 Abu Hamza 139 algebra 148, 159\u201360, 161 Arabism 138 Bahrain 68, 264, 270, 295, 296 Abu Hanifa 133, 310 Algeria 142, 168, 181, 208, 241, 265 Al Arabiya 237 Bakar, Osman 152 Abu Kamil 160 Alhambra (Granada) 200, 203 Arabization 262\u20133 Bakhtiar, Laleh 85 Abu Sufyan 33 Ali al-Hadi, Imam 114 Arab\u2013Israeli War 236 Balakot, Battle of 245 Abu Talib 18, 24, 26 Ali al-Rida (Ali ibn Musa al-Reza), Arafat, Mount 53, 54, 55, 56, 139 Bali 280 Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid 305 Imam 114, 115, 193 Arafat, Yasser 236 Balkans 213, 215, 229, 283 Abu Zeid 164 Ali ibn Abi Talib, Caliph 26, 31, 56, Aramaic script 190 Bamba, Cheikh Ahmadou 279 Abuljadayel, Kariman 303 108, 114, 115, 136, 143, 174, 250, architecture 194\u2013201 Bangladesh 244, 247, 260, 261, 264, Aceh 185, 269, 280, 281 283, 309 calligraphy in 191 284, 297 Achaemenid Empire 198 assassination of 96, 107, 111 mosques 100, 101 Bani Hanifa tribe 67 Acre 181 as fourth caliph 96, 102, Venetian 185 Bani Shaiba tribe 35 adaan (call to prayer) 41, 42 Arctic 49 banking, Islamic 267, 291 Adam 18, 19, 34, 43, 54, 81, 121, 263 106\u20137, 111 Al Arefe, Muhammad 289 al-Banna, Hassan 209, 222, 238, 239, Adams, John 226 and Shia\/Sunni schism 103, Aristotle 150, 156, 170 240, 241, 318 adl (divine justice) 114 Armenia 189 Banu Hashim tribe 24, 308 administrative structure 96, 106, 138 110\u201311, 192 art 194\u2013201 al-Baqara (The Cow) (sura 2) 62, 66, 73, adultery 121, 133, 267, 268, 269 supporters of 103, 105, 106 Orientalism 218 74\u20135, 83, 88 Ali Zayn al-Abidin, Imam 112, 114 Aryabhata 162 Barelvi, Sayyid Ahmad 245 Aligarh movement 222 Ashura 114, 117 Barendregt, Bart 288 Alkhateeb, Firas 169 Asia Barks, Coleman 174, 175 All-India Muslim League 244, 245\u20137 discrimination in 287 Basra 68, 107, 216 Allah 15, 79; see also God Islam spreads in 184\u20135 Allenby, General 180 al-Assad, Bashar 271","INDEX 329 al-Basri, Hassan 142, 143 C coffee 215 divorce 83, 131, 259, 269 al-Battani 163 Cold War 235, 249, 265 Djemaa al-Djaza\u00efr (Algiers) 101 Bedouin tribes 103 Caesar, Julius 116 colonialism 208, 209, 218, 222, 223, Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem) 97, 100, Beibars, al-Zahir 164 Cairo 105, 186, 234, 239 Beit Allah (Mecca) 34 226, 240, 266, 281, 283 138, 191, 196, 197 Belgium 283, 302 Fatimid dynasty 110, 115, 151, 153, Columbus, Christopher 176, 226, 260 domes 101, 200, 201 Bellini, Gentile 213, 218 198\u20139 Committee of Union & Progress (CUP) domestic violence 85, 296 Belly, L\u00e9on 177 dress Berbers 168, 169, 170, 199\u2013200, 212 Mamluk dynasty 199 229\u201330 Berlin, Treaty of 215 Qaitbay Mosque 198, 199 Companions of the Prophet (Sahaba) Arabian 262 Berossus 202 calendar, Islamic 97, 116\u201317, 231 hijab and niqab 300\u20133 beys 188 California 226 67, 68, 69, 96, 102, 103 secularization of 230\u20131 Bhutto, Benazir 244, 264, 296, 297, caliphs Compendium on Calculating, The strict Sharia 267, 281 hereditary rule 137 women\u2019s 268\u20139, 294\u20135 319 Ottoman 186\u20139 (al-Khwarizmi) 158\u201360, 161 Drew, Timothy 227 Bible 14\u201315, 24, 27, 58, 62, 72, 79, 80, Rashidun 104\u20137 Conference of the Birds, The (Attar) drugs 126, 132, 268, 291 role of 105 Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre 214 124, 177, 179 Umayyad and Abbasid 136\u20139 145 Dutch East India Company 215, 280\u20131 Quran and the 81 see also by name Constantinople 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, Bin Laden, Osama 217, 238, 275\u20136, 277 call to prayer 42\u20133 E Birmingham Quran 68 calligraphy 27, 190\u20131, 196, 197, 198 187, 188, 189, 193, 212, 228 birth 256, 258 Camel, Battle of the 106, 107 conversions to Islam East Africa 183, 184 birth rate, Muslim 255, 283 Cameron, David 297\u20138 Edessa 181 al-Biruni, Abu Rayhan Muhammad Canada 113, 261, 285, 302 in Islamic Spain 170 education, women\u2019s 255, 277, 295\u20136 148, 154\u20135, 162, 163, 312 canings 281 under Umayyads 97, 138 Egypt Bismillah 74, 77 Canon of Medicine (Ibn Sina) 172, 173 Cook, Michael 69 black nationalism 227 Canterbury Tales 165 Copernicus, Nicolaus 155, 162, 163 ancient 177, 179 Black Power 227 caravans Cordoba 97, 148, 154, 168\u201371, 189 Arabs capture 96, 105, 168 Black Stone (Kaaba) 34, 35, 52, 53 camel 32\u20133, 149 Creation 63, 78, 156\u20137 British occupation 223 Blair, Tony 168 pilgrimage 52 criminal law 267, 268, 269 dress code 301 blasphemy 93, 268 Carrel, Alexis 240 croissants 215 European control 222 blood feuds 56 carrion 125 Cromer, Lord 223 Fatimid dynasty 115, 189 Boccaccio, Giovanni 165 cartography 148, 149, 176\u20139 Crone, Patricia 69 French invasion (1798) 181, 208, 218 Boko Haram 279, 295 Casablanca, Hassan II Mosque 201 Crusades 148, 149, 180\u20131 Islamic Modernism 222\u20133, 238 bones, Quran written on 67, 69 Catholic Church 212\u201313 Cyprus 106 al-Jihad 275 Book of Deeds 92 Cave of Hira (Jabal al-Nur) 26 Cyrus the Great of Persia 202 Mamluk dynasty 149, 185, 199 Book of Roger, The (al-Idrisi) 176, chador 301 Muslim Brotherhood 222, 236, 178, 179 Chaldiran, Battle of 193 D Bosnia and Herzegovina 215, 261, 283 charity see zakat 238\u201341, 266 Brahe, Tycho 162 Charlemagne, Emperor 148 da Gama, Vasco 208 Muslim population 260 Brahmagupta 158 Charles Martel 97, 138 Daesh see Islamic State Ottoman conquest 186, 187 Brazil 290 Charter of Medina 19, 33 Damascus 68, 97, 98, 185, 234 revolts in Umayyad 106 Britain chastity 82, 300 revolution (2011) 241, 264, 265, and Egypt 223, 239, 287 Chechnya 261, 276 Arab capture of 96, 105 and India 208, 220, 221, 222, 244\u20137 children, custody of 131 Great Mosque 138, 197 288, 296 and Iran 249 China 183, 185, 208, 260, 261, 280, 287, Sayyida Zeinab Mosque 193 Suez Canal 236 Muslim population 282, 284, 295, 302 Umayyad caliphate 102, 111, Egyptian Feminist Union 294 Chisti Order 145 Eid al-Adha 55, 117 298, 302 Chisti, Sheikh Salim 142 136\u20139, 165 Eid al-Fitr 45, 48\u20139, 117, 263 and Ottoman Empire 230, 239 Chopra, Deepak 175 Day of Judgment (Yom al-Din) 45, 63, Eisenhower, Dwight D. 282 and Palestine 239 Christianity Elevli, Hakan 196 and Saudi Arabia 235 Alawites and 271 76, 87, 92, 93, 121 Elghobashy, Doaa 303 and Sudan 219 alcohol 126 de Goeje, Michael Jan 215 Elizabeth I of England 213 terrorist attacks 276, 286 in Arabia 21 death 41, 92, 258, 259 Ellison, Keith 224 British East India Company 244\u20135 condemned in hadith 121 death penalty 259, 268 Eltahawy, Mona 297 Brunei 255, 259, 261, 262, 267, 269 Crusades 148, 149, 180\u20131 Decameron, The 165 Ennahdha Party 241, 265 Buddhas of Bamiyan 58, 276 and Din-i Ilahi 204, 205 decimal point 161 Erdogan, Recep Tayyip 231 Bukhara 144, 173 fasting 46, 49 Delhi Sultanate 204, 205, 244, 294 Eritrea 261, 278 al-Bukhari, Muhammad 31, 38\u20139, 58, honoring of Jesus 56, 58 democracy 264\u20135 Ethiopia 182, 183, 278 121\u20132, 311 incorporates Judaic covenants 38 demographics, Islamic 260\u20131 ethnography 149 Buraq 29, 180 Islam and 80\u20131 Denmark 298, 305 etiquette 121, 125 burial 92, 259 in Islamic Spain 168, 170 Deobandis 246 Euclid 150, 151, 158, 161 burka 301 Muslim converts to 170, 225, 226 dervish see Whirling Dervish Europe burkini 303 in Ottoman Empire 213\u201314 Descartes, Ren\u00e9 154 colonialism 208, 209, 218, 222, 223, Bursa 149 prophets 26\u20137 dhikr (ritual acts) 144, 145, 175 Busbecq, Ogier Ghiselin de 88 Reformation 212\u201313 dhimmi 84 226, 240, 266, 281, 283 Bush, George W. 285 religious imagery 58, 59 Diafarab\u00e9 (Mali) 100 Islam in 210\u201315, 260, 261 business, women in 296 circumcision 257 Diallo, Ayuba Suleiman 225, 226 Muslims in 255, 282\u20135 Buyids 137 civil law 267, 269 dietary laws 97, 124\u20135 Orientalism 218 Byzantine Empire 18, 20, 21 civil rights movement 209 dikka 100 Renaissance 208 Arab conquests 96, 105, 106, 137\u20138, Din-i Ilahi 204, 205 Sayyid Qutb\u2019s inspiration from 240 dining etiquette 125 Turkey and 231 156, 180, 182 Diophantus 158 European Union 231 art and architecture 196, 197 al-Diriyah 216, 315 Eve 34, 81, 263 Ottoman conquest 187, 228 Emirate of 234 disbelievers 93 discrimination 297 divine destiny (qadar) 86, 87","330 INDEX evil 39, 63, 114 occupation of Tunisia 223 Gulf Arabic culture 262\u20133 homosexuality 121, 259, 267, 268 executions 133, 268 and Ottoman Empire 189, 212, Gulf War, First 237, 254 houris (virgins) 121 extremism Gulf War, Second 254, 271, 275 House of Wisdom (Beit al-Hikma) 213, 230 Islam discourages 145 Franks 97, 138, 148, 181 H (Baghdad) 148, 150\u20131 modern 135, 217, 237, 239, 241, free will 87 Houthis 271 frescoes 58 hadith 38, 90, 91, 97 Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim 166, 169 272\u20137, 279, 286, 289 Friday prayers 43, 132 chains of authenticity 122\u20133 Hubal 34 Ezekiel 42 funerals 259 collecting 121 Hudaybiyya, Treaty of 33 al-Furqan (Salvation) (sura 25) 66, 78 on food and drink 125 hudud (Sharia punishments) 267, 268, F furu al-din 39 key compilations 121\u20132 Quranists and 123 269 face coverings see niqab G as sources on Muhammad 27, 69, Huguenots 213 Fahd, King of Saudi Arabia 237 118\u201323, 131 Hulagu Khan 163 al-Faifi, Sahar 302 Galen 150 Sunni and Shia 122 human rights 250, 255, 257, 302, 305 Faisal Mosque (Islamabad) 247 Galilei, Galileo 162 uses of 120\u20131 Hungary 189, 208, 213 Faisal, King of Saudi Arabia 232, Galland, Antoine 164, 165 Wahhabism and 216 Husain, Ed 260, 261 Gambia 225, 261, 278 Hussein, Saddam 133, 237, 254, 255, 235\u20136, 247 gambling 97, 126, 281, 291 hafiz 72 al-Falaq (sura 113) 63 Gandhi, Mohandas K. 46, 244, 246 Hafsa 67 270, 271, 275 False Messiah 81 Garden of Eden 177, 179 Hajar (Hagar) 52, 54 Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca 234 family law 267, 268, 269 gardens 202\u20133 Hajj 19, 34, 35, 38, 39, 46, 50\u20135, 281 Hussein ibn Ali 49, 112, 113, 114, Fanon, Frantz 241 Garvey, Marcus 226\u20137 fanous 49 Gaspard, Lynn 286, 287 account of Ibn Jubayr 178 137, 310 al-Farabi (Alpharabius) 157 gastarbeiters 283 hadith and 120\u20131 death at Kerbala 96, 97, 111\u201312, Farabism 157 Genghis Khan 205, 313 Ottomans and 189 Farah, Mohammad \u201cMo\u201d 284 Genoa 185 Saudi revenue from 235, 237 114, 192, 193 Fard, Wallace D. 227 geography 148, 149, 176\u20139 al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage) (sura 22) 80 Huygens, Christiaan 154 Farewell Pilgrimage 19, 56 geometry 148, 150, 158, 196, 197, 198 al-Hakam II, Caliph 169 hypocrisy 93 Farewell Sermon 54, 56, 263 Georgia 189 hakawati (storytellers) 164\u20135 al-Farsi, Salman 271 Gerard of Cremona 173 halal I fashion 302\u20133 Germany 221, 261, 282\u20134, 294, 295, 298 food 124\u20135, 267, 290 fasting see sawm Ghadir Khumm 111 products 124, 290 ibadat (acts of worship) 38 fate 86 al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid 93, 156, Hanafi, Hasan 305 Ibn Arabi 145, 313 al-Fatiha (The Opener) (sura 1) 62, 73, Hanafi school 97, 133 Ibn Battuta 149, 182, 183, 184, 185, 312\u201313 Hanbali school 97, 133, 217, 268 74, 76\u20137 Ghazni 154 Hanging Gardens of Babylon 202 200 Fatima bint Muhammad 110, 114, 122, Ghazni, Mahmud of 312 Hapsburg Empire 189, 208, 212, Ibn al-Hajjaj, Muslim 121\u20132 Gibraltar 168 213, 215 Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad 133, 311 192, 219, 309 God haram (unlawful) 124, 125, 127, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) 148, 153\u20134, Fatimid dynasty 110, 151, 153, 264, 290 as creator 157 Harborne, William 213 155, 312 189, 198\u20139 existence of 157 al-Hariri of Basra 161 Ibn Idris, Ahmad 316 Fatir (The Creator) (sura 35) 258 images of 58 Harun al-Rashid, Caliph 97, 139, Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad 27, 29 fatwas (legal rulings) 130, 133, 217, monotheism 18, 19, 20, 27, 28, 33, 34, 148, 311 Ibn Jabal, Muadh 132 Hasdai ibn Shaprut 168 Ibn Jubayr 178 286, 289, 304 36\u201341, 58, 63, 76, 77, 80, 86, 87 Hasibuan, Anniesa 303 Ibn Khaldun 314 female genital mutilation (FGM) names of 79 Hasina, Sheikh 297 Ibn Maja 122 nature of 76, 77, 78 Hassan al-Askari, Imam 114 Ibn Masud 68 257 in Quran 76, 77, 78\u20139 Hassan ibn Ali, Imam 111, 112, 114, Ibn Muadh al-Jayyani 154 feminism 85, 292\u20139 and Sharia 131 234, 309 Ibn Muqla 191 Ferdinand II of Aragon 168, 171 unity of 78\u20139 Hassan, Sheikh Hussein 291 Ibn al-Nafis 172 Ferdowsi 198 gold 183, 184 Hassanal Bolkiah, Sultan of Brunei 267 Ibn Nusayr 271 festivals, dates of 97, 117 Golden Age of Islam 97, 139, Hasyim Asyari 281 Ibn Rushd (Averroes) 134, 156, 157, Fetteh, Saliha Marie 298 146\u2013205 Haydar, Mona 287, 301 Fez 151 Gopalan, Shalini 302 head, shaving of 55, 257 170, 172, 313 Fibonacci 158, 160 Gospels 30, 42, 46, 80, 87 Heaven (Janna) 92 Ibn Saud 216, 235, 266, 317 fiqh (jurisprudence) 130, 267 Granada 149, 168, 171, 200, 203 Hejaz 209, 234, 235 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) 148\u20139, 156, FitzGerald, Edward 145 grand viziers 188 heliocentric universe 148, 155, Five Pillars of Islam (arkan al-islam) Great Depression 235 162, 163 157, 172\u20133 Great Zab River, Battle of the 138 Hell (Jahannam) 93 Ibn Taymiyya 130, 216, 217, 304 19, 36\u201355, 86 Greece 212, 213, 215, 228 Hezbollah 271 Ibn Thabit, Zayd 66\u20137 Fivers see Zaydis Greek architecture 197 hijab 123, 262, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303 Ibn al-Walid, Khalid 103, 309 flags 41 Greek philosophy 156\u201357 Hijra 18, 19, 28\u201331, 47, 62 Ibn Yunus 163 Florence 185 Greek scholarship 148, 149, 150\u20131, 152, Hijra calendar 117 Ibn Ziad, Tarek 168, 212 food and drink 153, 156, 162 Hinduism 204, 244\u20137, 261 Ibrahim (Abraham) 24, 34\u20135, 52, 53, 55 green 202 Hizb ut-Tahrir 186 Ibrahim, Anwar 264 dietary laws 97, 124\u20135, 267, 290 Gregorian calendar 116, 117, 231 Holy Roman Empire 189 idolatry 18, 19, 29, 33, 58, 59, 87 Ramadan 46\u20139 Guadalete, Battle of 168 holy war 133, 135, 139, 180\u20131, 280, 281 al-Idrisi, Abu Abdullah Muhammad Four Principles 122 Guinea 225, 278 Homer 164 France G\u00fclen, Fethullah 229 148, 176, 177, 313 invasion of Algeria 142, 208 G\u00fclen movement 229 Idrisid dynasty 192 invasion of Egypt 181, 208, iftar (evening meal) 48 ihram (state of purity) 53 218 ihsan (state of worship) 142 invasion of Syria 208 ijma (consensus) 130, 132, 264 Muslim advance into 97, 138 ijtihad (intellectual reasoning) 135, Muslim population 261, 282, 250, 305 283, 302","INDEX 331 al-Ikhlas (Oneness) (sura 112) 63, 86 Islamic Salvation Front 265 Jordan 234 kiswa 35, 189 al-Ilah 21, 26 Islamic State (ISIS) 59, 135, 186, 255, Joseph see Yusuf Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics) (Ibn Ilkhanid dynasty 200 Judaism image-making 58\u20139, 196, 198 277, 287, 304 al-Haytham) 153\u20134 Imamate, Shia (imama) 112\u201314 Islamism and Islamists 133, 135, 274, and alcohol 126 Konya 144 in Arabia 21 Kosovo 215, 261 and hadith 122 279, 289, 323 Charter of Medina 33 Kufa 68, 107, 190 imamzadeh 114 Islamophobia 134, 255, 286\u20137 condemned in hadith 121 kufic script 190, 191 immigration 283\u20135, 287 Ismail ibn Jafar 113, 114 family disputes 268 Kuwait 133, 234, 237, 254, 271, 275, impurity see purity Ismail (Ishmail) 34, 35, 52, 54, 55 fasting 46, 49 Inclusive Mosque Initiative 298 Ismail, Shah (Ismail I) 149, 192\u20133, images of God 58 295 independence movements 209, 244 and Islam 80, 81 India 248, 314 in Islamic Spain 168, 170 L Ismailis (Seveners) 113\u201314, 192 law 170 Ahmadiyya 219, 220\u20131 isnad (chain of attribution) 122 money-lending 127 Lahore 203 Arab conquests 138, 184 Isra (Muhammad's Night Journey from in Ottoman Empire 213\u201314 Lahore Resolution 246 British rule 220, 221 persecution in Christian Spain Lamartine, Alphonse de 201 emigration 284 Mecca to Jerusalem) 29 Lamrabet, Asma 85 European colonization 208 Israel 171, 213 lashings 259, 268, 269 Islamic Modernism 222 prophets 26\u20137 Last Day 86, 87, 92 Mughal Empire 149, 204\u20135 conflict with Arab nations 236, as a race 263 Muslim population 260, 261, 264, 287 254, 275, 276 and Sufi practices 142 see also Day of Judgement partition 242\u20137, 264 Temple Mount (Jerusalem) 100 al-Lat 21 Quran Only movement 123 creation of 180 Torah 38 Latin, translations into 11, 150, 153\u20134, Sufism 144, 145 and Iran 250 Julian calendar 116 Indian National Congress 245, 246 lost tribes of 221 al-Juma 43 161, 170, 173 Indian Rebellion (1857) 204, 208, Istanbul 77, 187\u20138, 201 jurisprudence 91, 97, 130, 133, 139, law see jurisprudence; Sharia 220, 245 151, 157, 217, 266, 299 Lebanon 255, 259, 270, 271, 276 individualism 145 J Jyllands-Posten 59 left hand 125 Indonesia 255, 260, 261, 263, 264, Leilat al-Baraat (Night of Salvation) 29, 267, 280\u20131 Jaafari school 133 K infidels 135, 274 Jabal al-Nur (Mountain of Light) 24\u20135, 59, 100, 117, 180 inheritance 94, 133, 148, 269 Kaaba (Mecca) 19, 20, 21, 26, 29, 33, Leilat al-Miraj (Night Journey) 29, 117 In\u00f6n\u00fc, Ismet 231 26, 27, 28, 47 34\u20135, 52, 53, 55, 98, 99 Leilat al-Qadr (Night of Power) 48 integration, Muslim 284 Jafar al-Sadiq, Imam 90, 91, 113, Lepanto, Battle of 208 interest, earning 127, 291 al-Kafirun (The Unbelievers) (sura 109) Levant 149 internet 288\u20139 114, 115 80 LGBT+ and Islam 259, 299, 305 Iqbal, Muhammad 27, 175, 209, Jahangir, Emperor 205 liberalism 223, 281 245\u20136, 317 jahiliya, modern 21 al-Kahf (sura 18) 62 Libya 168, 264 Iran al-Jahiliya (Time of Ignorance) 20\u20131, Karlowitz, Treaty of 215 Lot 84, 259 calendars 117 Karoub, Hassan 224 lunar calendar 97, 116\u201317, 162 Iran\u2013Iraq War 248, 254, 271 239, 240 Karoub, Muhammad 227 Lutfi Pasha, Grand Vizier 189 legal code 267 Jainism 204 Kashan (Iran) 203 Luther, Martin 212 Pahlavi dynasty 209 Jamaat-e-Islami 91, 246 Kashmir 221, 244, 247, 276 Lynn, Mahdia 299 revolution (1979) 115, 192, 209, Jan III Sobieski of Poland 212 al-Kawthar (Abundance) (sura 108) 74 Janissaries 188\u20139 Kennedy, John F. 249 M 248\u201351, 254, 271, 286 Janmohamed, Shelina 290 Kenya 183, 255, 261, 276, 279 Shiism 110, 115, 193, 248, 261 Jatakas 127 Kepler, Johannes 154 Macedonia 145, 261 spreading influence 255 Java 280 Kerbala 112, 193 al-Mahdi, Imam 113, 115, 192, 219, Sufism 145 Al Jazeera 237, 263 Kerbala, Battle of 96, 97, 111\u201312, 114, women in 301 Jefferson, Thomas 224, 226 221, 249, 250 see also Persia Jerusalem 42, 57, 186 117, 137, 192, 193 al-Mahdi, Sadiq 219 Iraq 68, 200, 276 Khadija bint Khuwaylid 18, 24, 25, 26, Mahdi, the 219, 221, 249, 250 emergence of Shia Islam 110\u201315 Arabs capture 96, 105, 180 Mahfouz, Naguib 165 falls to Arabs 105 Crusades 148, 180\u20131 49, 84, 256, 294, 308 Mahmud II, Sultan 208, 217 invasion of Kuwait 133, 237, 254, as direction of prayer 100 Khan, Ghazala 298 al-Maida (The Table) (sura 5) 72 Dome of the Rock 97, 100, 138, 191, Khan, Liaquat Ali 247 Maimon, Moses ben (Maimonides) 170 271, 275 Khan, Mariam 292, 299 majalis 48 Iran\u2013Iraq War 248, 254, 271 196, 197 Khan, Sadiq 284 Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir 193 Islamic State 277 Mosque of Aqsa 180 Khan, Sayyid Ahmad 127, 209, 222, Makki, Hind 289 revolts against Umayyads 106 Night Journey 29, 180 makruh (detestable but not forbidden) Sufism 143\u20134 partition 180 245, 316 Sunni and Shia in modern 270 Jesus (Isa) 24, 42, 46, 56, 63, 84, 219, 221 Khankan, Sherin 298 124, 125 irrigation 203 images of 58 Kharijites 107, 139 Malacca 280 Isabella I of Castile 149, 168, 171 in Quran 81 Khartoum 219 Malaysia 257, 261, 262, 263, 264, 280, Isfahan 193, 200\u20131, 203, 214 revered as a prophet 80 al-Khatahtbeh, Amani 299 Isidore of Seville 176 tomb in Jerusalem 181 Khayyam, Omar 145, 160, 161, 312 290, 295 ISIL\/ISIS see Islamic State Jibreel (Gabriel) 18, 24\u20135, 28, 38, 52, Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah 115, 192, Malcolm X 209, 224, 226, 227, 319 Iskandar, Sultan of Johor 262, 263 62, 66, 87 Mali 261, 264, 278 Islam Nusantara 255, 263, 280, 281 jihad 39, 134\u20135, 217, 239, 274, 277, 209, 249, 248\u201351, 254, 286, 318 Mali Empire 149, 183\u20134, 224, 278 Islamabad 247 304 Khorasan 192 Malik ibn Anas 130, 133, 310 Islamic law see Sharia al-Jihad 275, 276, 277 khums 39 Maliki school 97, 130, 133 Islamic Left 305 jihadism 134, 135, 274 al-Khwarizmi, Muhammad ibn Musa Mamluks 137, 149, 185, 187, 199, 234 Islamic Modernism 209, 217, Jilani, Abdul Qadir 144 222\u20133, 238 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali 175, 246, 247, 148, 158\u201361, 162\u20133, 177 277, 317 Kilwa Sultanate 260 jizya (tax on non-Muslims) 81, 96, 170 al-Kindi (Alkindus) 156, 157, 160 Job 80 Joko Widodo 280","332 INDEX al-Mamun, Caliph 115, 139, 148, 151, Medinat al-Zahra 169 Farewell Pilgrimage 19, 56 N 157, 158, 159, 177 meditation 142, 144 Farewell Sermon 54, 56, 263 Mehmet II, Sultan 186, 187\u20138, 189, 212, as Final Prophet 19, 20, 24\u20137, 28, al-Naba (The Tidings) (sura 78) 93 Manat 21 Nabatean Empire 34, 190 al-Mansur, Hussein (al-Hallaj) 143 213, 228, 314 220, 221 Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) 281 al-Mansur ibn Abi Amir, Caliph 138, Mehmet III, Sultan 189 and first mosques 99\u2013100 nahi-anil-munkar 39 M\u00e9li\u00e8s, Georges 165 Hijra 18, 19, 28\u201331, 62 an-Nahl (The Bee) (sura 16) 76 139, 169, 311 Men of the Great Assembly 42 historical sources 27 Nahrawan, Battle of 107 manteau 301 menstruation 88 Jewish and Christian view of 80 Nairobi 255, 276, 279 maps 176\u20139 Mercator, Gerardus 176 on knowledge 150 Najaf 112, 193 Maqam Ibrahim 35 Merkel, Angela 282 marriages 18, 19, 24, 256, 294 Najd 209, 216, 234, 235 Maragha Revolution 163 Mernissi, Fatema 299 as military and political leader names 257, 263 Marathas 204 Mesopotamia 202, 300 Napoleon I, Emperor 208, 218 Maronite Chronicle 137 Messiah 221 96, 100 Naqshbandi Order 144 marriage 83, 132, 133, 181, 256, 257\u20139, Mevlevi order 144\u20135, 174, 175 Night Journey 29, 100, 117, 180 al-Nas (sura 114) 63 mihrab 43, 99, 100 receives first revelation from Jibreel al-Nasai 122 268, 269, 294 militancy see extremism naskh script 190, 191 martyrdom 121, 151, 241 Milli G\u00f6rus 241 18, 24\u20135, 27, 28, 47, 48, 62, 66 Nasr, Sayyid Hussein 196, 197 Marwa, hill 52, 54, 55 Mina 53, 54, 55, 139 religious tolerance 81 Nasrid dynasty 203 Maryam (Mary) (sura 19) 84 minarets 99, 101 sayings and actions of 118\u201323 Nasser, Gamel Abdel 236, 239, 240, Maryam (mother of Jesus) 30, 59, 84 minbar 100 in Shahada 40 Mashhad 115, 193, 249 miniatures 198 starts preaching Islam 18, 26, 28 294 masjid (place of prostration) 98 Miraj (ascension to Heaven) 29, 87, successor to 102\u20133, 110 Nation of Islam 209, 225, 226, 227 Masnavi (Rumi) 175 tomb 57 nationalism 209, 244, 271 mathematics 139, 148, 150\u20131, 155, 117 visions 27 N\u2019Dour, Youssou 278 mixed marriages 181, 296\u20137 Muhammad, Elijah 227, 318 Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon 202 158\u201361 modesty 82, 123, 269, 300, 301, 302\u20133 Muhammad, Ibtihaj 299, 303 Nepal 244, 261 matn 122 Mogahed, Yasmin 300, 303 Muhammad (sura 47) 92 Nestorianism 25 Mawdudi, Abul Ala 21, 90, 91, 235, money-lending 127, 291 Muhammad XII, Sultan 168 Netherlands 208, 213, 215, 280\u20131, Mongols 205, 217, 304 Muhammad Ahmed bin Abdullah (the 245, 246, 318 Mahdi) 219, 316 283, 302 Mawlid al-Nabi 117 architecture 200 Muhammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt 217 New Guinea 182 al-Mawsili, Abu al-Qasim Ammar ibn crush Abbasids 137, 139 Muhammad al Baqir, Imam 114 New Testament 72, 84 sack Baghdad 104, 136, 139, 149, Muhammad al-Jawad, Imam 114 New Year (Ras as-Sana al-Hijriya) 117 173 Muhammad bin Salman, Crown Prince New York 275, 276, 286 McVeigh, Timothy 286 150, 154, 186 of Saudi Arabia 237 Newton, Isaac 155 meat, halal 125 monotheism 18, 19, 20, 27, 28, 33, 34, Muhammad bin Saud 208, 216, Niger 261, 278, 295 Mecca 234, 315 Nigeria 260, 261, 267, 279, 295 36\u201341, 58, 63, 76, 77, 80, 86, 87 Muhammad of Ghur 205 Night Journey 29, 59, 100, 117, 180 closed to non-Muslims 52 months of the year 116 Muhammad ibn Hasan, Imam 113, 114 Night of Power see Leilat al-Qadr direction of 99, 100, 162, 163 monuments, destruction of 58, 59, 276 Muhammad ibn Ismail 113 Night of Salvation see Leilat al-Baraat Hajj pilgrimage 19, 34, 35, 50\u20135 Moon, cycles of the 117 Muhammad Reza Shah 115, 209, nikah 258 as holy city of Islam 19, 28 Morocco 144, 145, 151, 168, 170\u20131, 248\u201351 niqab 53, 262, 269, 287, 300, 301\u20132 Kaaba 19, 20, 21, 26, 29, 33, 34\u20135, mujahideen 237, 274\u20135, 276 an-Nisa (Women) (sura 4) 62, 73, 82\u20135, 180, 199\u2013200, 203, 213, 224, 264 mujtahid 250 52, 98, 99 mortgages 291 al-Muminun (The Believers) 86, 93 Masjid al-Haram (Great Mosque) mosaics 58, 197 (sura 23) 78 nisab 45 Moses 24, 25, 56, 62, 73, 80, 130 Mumtaz Mahal 205 niyya 41, 42 35, 52, 53, 54, 101, 180 mosques 98\u2013101 Munqidh, Usama ibn 181 Noah 34, 80 Muhammad conquers 19, 33, 59 Murad III, Sultan 213 Nobel Prizes 154, 155, 165, 255, 277 Muhammad flees 30\u20131 see also architecture Murcutt, Glenn 196 al-Nokrashi, Mahmoud 239 Muhammad preaches in 18 Mostar 215 murder 93, 131, 268 Noor-ul-Din, Hakim 220, 221 pre-Islamic 21, 29 Mouride Brotherhood 279 Mursi, Muhammad 241, 265 Normans 177, 181 schools of tafsir 91 Mshatta 197 Musa I of Mali (Mansa Musa) 149, Norway 283 under Ottomans 186, 189, 193 Muawiya I, Caliph 96, 104, 107, 111, 183\u20134, 278, 314 numerals, Arabic 158, 160\u20131 usury in 127 Musa al-Kazim, Imam 113, 114 Nur al-Din 180, 181 MECCA Institute 305 136, 137, 192, 309 music, Sufi 143, 145 al-Nur (Light) (sura 24) 78, 82 Meccan calendar 116 Mubarak, Hosni 241, 265, 288 Muslim Brotherhood 209, 222, 236, Nur Movement 229 Meccan suras 75 muezzin 42, 99, 101 238\u201341, 265, 266 Nursi, Said 229, 231 media mufassirun (Quranic scholars) 91 Muslim League 244, 245\u20137 and Arabization 263 muftis 133 Muslim Women\u2019s Day 299 O Saudi Arabia 237 Mughal Empire 149, 198, 203, 204\u20135, Muslim World League 262 medicine 139, 148\u20139, 152, 155, 169\u201370, Muslims Obama, Barak 227, 276 172\u20133 208, 244 first 26\u20137, 28\u201330 obedience, female 294, 299 Medina al-muhadithun 123 meaning of name 26 observatories 162, 163 Battle of the Trench 19 muhajirun (immigrants) 69 and race 263 occultation 113, 219 early Muslims 28\u201330 Muhammad 308 Mustafa Pasha 208 oil 235, 236, 237, 254, 262, 263, 265, Hijra 18, 19, 31, 47 Mustaqfi, Caliph 139 as holy city of Islam 19, 28 on Arabs and non-Arabs 262, 263 mutah marriages 259 275, 276 Masjid al-Taqwa 99 ascension to Heaven (Miraj) 87, 100 Mutazilism 156 Masjid an-Nabawi (Prophet\u2019s assassination attempt 30\u20131 Muwahhidun 217 on beauty 194 Muzdalifa 53, 55 Mosque, Medina) 55, 57, 99\u2013100, birth 18, 24 Myanmar (Burma) 261, 287 180, 236 birthday (mawlid) 117 mysticism, Sufism and 140\u20135 Masjid Quba 33 Charter of Medina 33 Muhammad\u2019s death 19, 56\u20137 conquers Mecca 19, 33, 59 Muhammad\u2019s tomb 57 death 19, 56\u20137, 96, 102 pre-Islamic 21 depictions of 58\u20139 schools of tafsir 91 divine revelations 18, 24\u20135, 26, 27, under Ottomans 186, 189, 193 Medinan suras 75 62, 66, 90 early life 24\u20137","INDEX 333 Old Testament 62, 80, 81, 124 planetary motion 162, 163 and hadith 120 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 235 Omar, Ilhan 255, 297 Plato 150, 153 on Heaven 92 Roy, Olivier 265 Omar, Mullah 58 Pococke, Edward 215 on Hell 93 Rubaiyat (Omar Khayyam) 145 Omar ibn Said 225\u20136 Poitiers, Battle of 97 on jihad 135 Rumi, Jalal al-Din Muhammad 144, On First Philosophy (al-Kindi) 156\u20137 Poland 213, 294 and knowledge 152\u20133, 154, 155 Operation Desert Storm 254, 275 politics and law 130\u20133, 266, 267, 268 145, 174\u20135, 314 optics 153\u20134 length of 72 Rushdie, Salman 286 oral tradition 67, 68, 164\u20135 rise of political Islam 238\u201341 literal understandings of 79, 91, 107, Russell, Alexander 165 Orhan, Sultan 149 women in 296\u20137 Russia 208, 213, 229, 230, 249, 260, Orientalism 215, 218 Polo, Marco 185 156, 217, 304 Osman I, Sultan 149, 186, 187, 212, 228 polygamy 83, 256, 258 meaning of the word 67 261, 282, 294 Ottoman Empire 81, 149, 180, 182, 193, polytheism 18, 20\u20131, 26, 27, 29, 87 physical form of 88\u20139 poor, help for the 18, 29, 44\u20135, 63 reading in Ramadan 47 S 208, 218, 234, 263, 270 population, Muslim 260\u20131 recitation 72 art and architecture 198, 201 pork 124, 125, 291 revelation of 18, 24\u20135, 27, 28, 62 Saadian dynasty 213 caliphate 136, 186\u20139 Portugal 176, 208 Six Pillars of Faith 86\u20137 Saba 21 collapse of 209, 217, 222, 223, prayer mats 98 on tolerating other beliefs 80\u20131 al-Sabah dynasty 234 prayers see salat topics covered by 72 Sabuncuoglu, Serefeddin 172 230, 235 predestination 86 touching 88 sacrifices, animal 53, 55, 257 and Islam in Europe 210\u201315, 283 pregnancy 258 Uthmanic recension 68\u20139 Sadat, Anwar 241, 254, 275 religious pluralism 213\u201314 prejudice 286\u20137 Wahhabism and 216 Saadeddin 189 Tanzimat reforms 208 Progressive Islam 305 on women 82\u20135 Sadiq, Muhammad 227 prophets 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 34, 62, 80 as word of God 120 Saeed, Khalid 288 P Muhammad as Final Prophet 19, 20, Quran Only see Quranists Saey 53 Quranists 120, 123 Safa, hill 52, 54, 55 Pahlavi dynasty 209, 249\u201350 22\u20137, 28, 220, 221 Quraysh tribe 18, 20, 24, 26, 29, 30\u20131, Safavid Empire 110, 115, 145, 149, 189, Pakistan in the Quran 87 33, 34, 52, 68, 103, 114, 130, 189 protected peoples (ahl al-dhimma) 81 qurra (reciters) 67 192\u20133, 198, 203, 208, 212, 213, 248, Ahmadiyya 221 Protestantism 212\u201313 Qutb, Muhammad 275 250, 270 creation of 175, 204, 209, 242\u20137, 264 Ptolemy, Claudius 155, 159, 162, Qutb, Sayyid 21, 84, 134, 181, 209, 238, Safaviyya Sufi order 192 emigration 284 163, 176 238\u201341, 274, 275, 318 al-Saffa, Caliph 97, 138, 139 Islamic identity 244, 246, 247 punishments 121, 267, 268, 269 al-Saffat (The Ranks) (sura 37) 93 Jamaat-e-Islami 91, 246 Punjab 244, 245, 246, 247 R Safwat, Akmal Ahmed 305 military coup 254 purification 42\u20133, 49, 53 Sahara Desert 183 Muslim population 260, 261, 264 purity 88, 257 Rabia al-Adawiyya 140, 143, 311 Sahih al-Bukhari 121\u20132 politics 264 race 263 Sahih Muslim 121\u20132 Sharia in 269 Q radicalism see extremism Said, Edward 218, 319 Sufism 145 al-Rahman (The Merciful) (sura 55) Saladin see Salah al-Din, Yusuf Taliban 277 Qadhi, Yasir 304 Salafism 264, 304 Palestine 239, 276 Qadiani Ahmadiyyas 221 63, 76 Salah al-Din, Yusuf 148, 151, 180, 181, Pan-Arabism 237, 240 Qadiri Order 144 rakat (sequence of prescribed prayer 313 Panipat, Battle of 149, 205, 244 Qadisiyya, Battle of 105 Salah, Mohammed 284 paper 151, 191 al-Qaeda 135, 216, 217, 237, 238, movements) 43 Salam, Muhammad Abdus 155 Paradise (Janna) 87 Rakim (William Michael Griffin) 224 salat 38, 42\u20133, 97 earthly 202\u20133 254\u20135, 275\u20136, 277, 278, 279, 304 Ramadan 46\u20139, 117, 125, 126, 262\u20133 hadith and 120, 121 martyrs in 121 Qaf (The Letter Qaf) (sura 50) 73, 86 Ramy (TV show) 271 location of 98 in Quran 92 al-Qahira see Cairo rape 268, 296 regulated daily 19, 29, 39 Partisans of the Quran (ahl-e Quran) 123 Qaitbay, Sultan 57, 199 Rashidi dynasty 234, 235 Saleh, Ali Abdullah 271 Pasargadae 202 Qajar dynasty 248, 249, 250 Rashidun caliphs 32, 56, 102, 104\u20137, Salman of Saudi Arabia 237, 269 patriarchy 84\u20135, 294, 295, 299 Qatar 133, 237, 263, 267, 301 Samarkand 200 patterns 196, 198 Qawwali music 145 110, 137, 191 Samarra 139, 198 People of the Book (ahl al-kitab) 32, 81 qibla (direction of prayer) 35, 99, 100, Rauf, Feisal Abdul 261 Samb, Cheikh Tidiane 279 persecution Al Rayan Bank 291 al-Sanusi, Muhammad ibn Ali 316 of early Muslims 28, 29 162, 180 al-Razi, Muhammad ibn Zakariya Sasanian Empire 18, 20, 21, 150, of Jews and Muslims in Christian qiyas (analogical reasoning) 130, 132 156, 198 Qom 250, 251 148, 172 Arabs conquer 96, 105, 150 Spain 171 Quran Razia, Sultana 294 Saud dynasty 234, 235\u20136 of Muslims in Europe 215 refugees, Muslim 255, 283 Saudi Arabia 133, 264 of Sufis 145 on alcohol and gambling 126 Rehmat Ali 242, 244 and Arabization of Islam 262, 263 Persepolis 249 art of interpreting (tafsir) 90\u20131 Renaissance 149, 150, 151, 161, 208 birth of 232\u20137 Persia and the Bible 81 Renan, Ernest 223 first Saudi state 208, 216\u201317, 234 Arab conquests 106, 138, 182 calligraphy 190\u20131 resurrection of dead 87 Kingdom of 209, 235\u20137 architecture 200 compilation of 62, 64\u20139 Reza Shah Pahlavi 209, 249 media 237 gardens 202, 203 composition of 70\u20135 Rida, Rashid 217, 223, 238, 274, 317 as modern Sharia state 266\u20139 Safavid dynasty 189, 192\u20133 core message 62\u20133 Ridda Wars 44, 96, 102, 103, 105 oil 235 Sasanians 150 created or uncreated? 89 Rifai Order 145 Shia population 270 Shiism 110 dating of 69 rites of passage 256\u20139 women in 255, 268, 269, 289, Sufism 145 disposing of 89 Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) 235, 237 see also Iran on dress 300 Robinson, Victor 170 295\u20136, 301 philosophy 139, 150, 156\u20137, 170, feminist translation of 85 Roderic, King of the Visigoths 168 sawm 19, 38, 39, 46\u20139, 120, 125 173, 193 first sura 76\u20137 Roger II of Sicily 148, 177\u20138, 179 science 139, 148, 151, 152\u20135 pilgrimage see Hajj; Umra Five Pillars of Islam 39 Rohingya people 287 on food and drink 124\u20135 Romans 20, 168, 196, 197","334 INDEX Second Coming 81 rise to power 115 Sunni Islam tiling 199, 200 sectarianism 271 schools of law 133 compared to Shia Islam 112, 114 Timbuktu (Mali) 184, 278 secularization 209, 222, 228\u201331 shrines 193 hadith 121\u20132 Timur (Tamerlane) 200, 212 self, shedding of the 142 Six Pillars of Faith 86\u20137 leader chosen by consensus 110 Timurid dynasty 200 self-determination 266 Twelvers 112\u201313, 114, 192, 250 in modern Middle East 270\u20131 Tirmidhi 122 Selim I (\u201cthe Grim\u201d), Sultan 186, 193 Wahhabism and 216 number of Muslims 112 Tlaib, Rashida 255, 297 Selim II, Sultan 98 Zaydis 113\u201314 prayer 43 tobacco 291 Selimiye Mosque (Edirne) 98 Shiraz 203 rift in Islam 56, 97, 103, 110\u201315, 192 Tocqueville, Alexis de 218 Seljuk Turks 137, 181 Shirazi, Sayyid Ali Muhammad (the schools of law 133 Toledo 171 Senegal 225, 261, 264, 278, 279 Bab) 219 Six Pillars of Faith 86\u20137 tolerance, religious 80\u20131 Serbia 212, 228 shrines, Shia 193 Wahhabism 217 Seveners see Ismailis Shukar, Muszaphar 42 in conquered territories 96, 106 S\u00e8vres, Treaty of 212 shura (council) 264 Suraqa bin Malik 31 in Islamic Spain 168, 170 sex, premarital 257, 269 Shuubiyya movement 262 suras 72, 73, 74\u20135, 76\u20137 Torah 38, 79, 87, 124, 130 sexes, complementary nature of 82, 85 Sicily 177\u20138 al-Suyuti 91 tourism, halal 290 sexual abuse 289 Sierra Leone 261, 278, 295 Sweden 282, 283 Tours, Battle of 97, 138 sexual equality 305 Siffin, Battle of 107 Syria trade 149, 178, 181 sexual intercourse 47, 53 Sikhism 245, 263 Islam spread through 182\u20135 Shaarawi, Huda 294, 302, 317 Silk Road 183, 185, 208 Alawites 271 trances 143 al-Shabab (The Youth) 255, 276, 279 sin, and Hell 93 civil war 255, 264, 271, 277, 287 translations of ancient texts 150\u20131 al-Shafii, Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Sinan, Mimar 98, 201, 215, 314 Companions in 68 Trench, Battle of the 19 al-sira 27 Crusades 180\u20131 Tripoli 181 Idris 120, 122, 130, 132, 133, 256, 311 Six Pillars of Faith (arkan al-iman) 86\u20137 French invasion 208 Trump, Donald 277, 298 Shafii school 97, 133 Six Styles (aqlam al-sitta) 191 Mamluks 149, 185 tulipomania 215 Shagaret al-Dur, Sultana of Egypt 294 slavery 183, 224, 225\u20136, 299 Muawiya rules 107 Tunisia 115, 168, 198, 241, 264 Shah Jahan 205 Sleepers in the Cave 62 Ottoman conquest 186, 187 Arab Spring 255, 264, 265, 296 Shahada (profession of faith) 36\u201341, 43, smartphones 288, 289 Umayyad dynasty 96, 97 French occupation 223 smoking 47 women in 296\u20137, 301 256, 259 social justice 63 T Turkerie\/Turkomania 214 Shaheen, Jack 286 social media 289, 299 Turkey Sharia law 128\u201333 solar year 116, 117 Ta Ha (sura 20) 75 dress code 230, 300, 301 Somalia 236, 261, 262, 276, 279 al-Tabari, Muhammad 77, 91, 102, economic migrants 283 in Aceh 281 Soroush, Abdolkarim 305 Islamic heritage 263 in Brunei 255, 259, 267, 269 Southeast Asia 184\u20135, 208, 261, 280\u20131 103, 312 Muslim population 261, 264, 282 codification of 266 Soviet Union tabarra 39 Quran Only movement 123 countries employing full system of and Afghanistan 216, 237, 254, Tabatabai, Allama 91 Republic of 189, 209, 212, 222, 230 Tabriz 192, 200 secularization 228\u201331 267 274, 276 Tafhim-ul-Quran (Mawdudi) 90, 91 Sufism 142, 144\u20135, 174\u20135, 231 and democracy 264 Cold War 249, 265 tafsir (art of interpreting the Quran) see also Ottoman Empire and family law 267 in Somalia and Angola 236 al-Tusi, Nasr al-Din 163, 313 hadith and 69, 97, 121 Spain 90\u20131, 97 Twelvers 112\u201313, 114, 117, 192, 250 and halal products 290 and the Americas 226 Tafsir al-Tabari 91 in Iran 267 Christian reconquest 149, 154, taifas (small principalities) 171 U and Islamic banking 291 Taj Mahal (Agra) 205 in modern world 133, 223, 240, 169, 171 takfiri 274 Uhud, Battle of 19, 33, 56\u20137 Cordoba 97 Talal, Prince of Saudia Arabia 236 Uighurs 287 266\u201369 Islamic 166\u201371, 199\u2013200 Talbiyya (Pilgrim\u2019s Prayer) 50 ulema 249, 250 in non-Muslim countries 268 Muslim conquest 97, 138, 148, 168, Taliban 58, 216, 254, 264, 269, Um al-Quran (Mother of the Book) 77 in Pakistan 246, 247, 254 Umar ibn al-Khattab, Caliph 56, 57, 96, in Saudi Arabia 237, 266\u20139 212, 283 276\u20137, 295 schools of 38, 133 religious tolerance in Islamic 81, Tang dynasty 185 102, 104\u20136, 127, 308 in Shia and Sunni Islam 114, 115 Tanzania 276 Arab conquests under 105, 180 sources of 130, 132 168, 170 tarika (schools of Sufi thought) 143\u20134 assassination 106 Taliban and 276 Sufism 144 Tatars 212 and Quran 67\u20138 Wahhabis and 217 spice trade 183, 185, 208 tawaf 53, 54 Umar II, Caliph 44, 97 women and 268\u20139, 301 spiritual struggle (greater jihad) 135 tawalla 39 Umayyad caliphate 97, 102, 104, 107, Shariati, Ali 250\u20131 sport 284, 303 tawassul 114 134, 135, 136\u20139, 189, 197 al-Sharif, Manal 289 Sri Lanka 244, 261, 262, 287 al-Tawba (Repentance) (sura 9) 62, 74, Sufism under 142, 143 Sharif of Mecca 234 stoning 121, 133, 255, 269 umma (community of Islam) 32\u20133, 57, shayla 301 Stoning of the Devil ritual 53, 54\u20135 88, 92 96, 117, 135 Sheba, Queen of 84 Sub-Saharan Africa 261 tawhid (divine unity) 63, 86, 87, 114, 217 digital 288\u20139 Sherley, Robert and Anthony 213, 214 Sudan 219, 267, 269, 275 al-Tayyeb, Sheikh Ahmed Muhammad Umra 55 Shia Islam Suez Canal 236 United Arab Emirates (UAE) 237, 269, additional \u201cpillars\u201d 38, 39 Sufism 97, 142\u20135, 174\u20135, 193, 204, 216, 319 297 Alawites 271 217, 231 Tehran 250, 251 United Negro Improvement beliefs 114, 249 suhur 48 television 237, 263 Association (UNIA) 226\u20137 compared to Sunni Islam 112 S\u00fcleyman I (\u201cthe Magnificent\u201d), Sultan Temple of Solomon 100 United States emergence of 108\u201315, 192 187, 188, 189, 196, 201, 208, 263, Ten Commandments 38, 130 and Afghanistan 277 hadith 122 283, 315 terrorism 59, 237, 238, 254\u20135, 276, 277, Gulf Wars 254, 271, 275 Imamate 110, 112\u201314 Sultan, Azzah 303 and Iran 249, 250 Ismailis 113\u201314, 192 Sumatra 185, 280, 281 278, 279, 286\u20137 in modern Middle East 270\u20131 Sumer 202 theft 133 number of Muslims 110, 112 Sunan al-Nasai 93 theology 139, 153 prayer 43 sunna (way of life) 69, 110, 114, 120, Thousand and One Nights, The and the Prophet\u2019s family 112 130, 216, 251, 305 rift in Islam 56, 97, 103 (Arabian Nights) (Alf leila wa leila) 164\u20135, 198","INDEX 335 and Israel 276 Wahid, Abdurrahman (Gus Dor) 280, right to vote 294 Zanetti, Aheda 303 leads coalition against Islamic State 281 in Sharia 130\u20131, 268\u20139 al-Zawahiri, Ayman 238, 275, 276 striking of 85, 299 Zayd ibn Ali 114 277 Waldseem\u00fcller, Martin 176 world, end of the 63 Zaydis 113\u201314, 271 Muslim women in Congress 255, 297 Walid I, Caliph 57, 98, 138 World Islamic Front 276 Zeinab bint Ali 18, 193, 310 Muslims in 224\u20137, 260, 261, 263, Walid II, Caliph 136, 138, 197 World Trade Center (New York) 275, Zheng He 280 Wansbrough, John 69 276, 286 Zia, Khaleda 297 268, 284\u20135, 295 al-Waqia (sura 56) 63 World War I 180, 189, 209, 212, 230, Zia-ul-Haq, Muhammad 244, 246, 247, al-Qaeda and 217, 238, 254\u20135, 275\u20136 Waqqas, Muhammad bin Saad bin Abi 234, 235 and Saudi Arabia 235, 236, 237 World War II 235, 239, 246, 283 254, 269, 318 universities 151, 171, 215, 217 103 Wright, Lawrence 275 Zidane, Zinedine 284 al-Uqlidisi, Abu al-Hassan 161 War on Terror 276 wufud 137 Zoroastrianism 21, 204, 205 Urban II, Pope 180, 181 Waraka 25 Zubeir ibn al-Awwam 107 urfi marriages 256, 258\u20139 Washington, George 226 XYZ al-Zukhruf (sura 43) 62 usul al-din 39 water 202, 203 al-Zumar (The Throngs) (sura 39) 72 Usulis 250 wealth 44\u20135, 62 Ya Sin (sura 36) 62, 76 usury 127, 223 weddings 258, 259 Yamana, Battle of 67 Uthman ibn Affan, Caliph 56, 96, 102, West Yarmuk, Battle of 105 Yazid I (Yazid ibn Muawiya), Caliph 104, 106, 185, 260, 308 Islamic Modernism and 222\u20133 assassination of 106, 107, 111 Muslims in 282\u20135 111, 112, 137, 192, 310 and Quran 68\u20139, 97, 106 reaction to Islamic terrorism 254\u20135 Yazidis 327 al-Uzza 21 rejection of 209, 237, 246, 254, 274, Year of Sorrow 18 year zero 31, 117 V 304 Yemen 68, 114, 130, 132, 157, 270, 276, West Africa 183, 184, 225, 301, 302 veiling 300 Whirling Dervishes 144, 145 295 Venice 185, 215 Yom Kippur 46, 49 Versailles, Treaty of 234 see also Mevlevi order Young Turks 209, 229 Vesalius, Andreas 152, 155 widows 84 Yousafzai, Malala 255, 277, 295 Vienna, sieges of 189, 208, 212, 215 William I of Sicily 179 Youssef, Ramy 227, 285 Visigoths 97, 148, 168, 170 William II of Sicily 178 Yunus (Jonah) (sura 10) 66 Voltaire 171 witchcraft 268, 279 Yusuf (Joseph) (sura 12) 62, 73, 80\u20131, witnesses 84 W women 84 al-Zahrawi, Abu al-Qasim 70, 169, Wadud, Amina 298\u20139, 305 dress 300\u20133 al-Wahhab, Muhammad ibn Abd 208, driving 255, 268, 269, 289 172, 173 education 255, 277, 295\u20136 Zaire 236 216\u201317, 234, 304, 315 equality 305 zakat 19, 38, 39, 44\u20135, 97, 102, 103, Wahhabism 216\u201317, 234, 235, 236\u20137, feminist Islam 292\u20139 in hadith 122 120 255, 264, 281, 304 inheritance 94 Zakat al-Fitr 45 and internet 289 al-Zalzala (The Earthquake) (sura 99) and Islamophobia 287 men\u2019s authority over 84\u20135 63, 74 in mosques 100, 289, 298\u20139 Zamzam, well (Mecca) 21, 54 in politics 296\u20137 position in tribal Arabia 83 in the Quran 82\u20135","336 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Original styling by 83 Getty Images: Anadolu Agency \/ Jefri Tarigan (t). 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