Big Ideas Simply Explained - The Psychology Book

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 299 See also: Roger W. Sperry 337–38 ■ Heinz Heckhausen 338–39 ■ Michael Rutter 339 The male brain is The female brain is predominantly hard-wired predominantly hard-wired for understanding and for empathy. building systems. Autistic people are obsessed with Simon Baron-Cohen understanding and working with systems, Born in London, Simon but do not have the “tools” for empathy. Baron-Cohen qualified as a clinical psychologist at London Autism is an extreme form University’s Institute of of the male brain. Psychiatry, and took his PhD at University College, London. have a “systematizing brain,” while are centered on some form of system, many people have a “balanced” such as an intense preoccupation In 1995, he became a fellow brain of equal abilities. with light switches. They focus on in experimental psychology at tiny details in the system, working Trinity College, Cambridge, Theory of mind out the underlying rules that govern and is currently the university’s Baron-Cohen believes that autistic it, or home in on a specific topic, Professor of Developmental people lack a “theory of mind”—the learning everything about it with Psychopathology and director ability to interpret others’ emotions great accuracy. This mix of little or of its Autism Research Centre, and actions successfully—and so no empathy and an obsession with where his work involves are unable to assess another’s state systems, along with the higher rate investigating ways of treating of mind or intentions. Also, they of autism in males, led Baron-Cohen autism, as well as research often have obsessive interests that to conclude that autistic people have into possible causes. an extreme “male” brain. His many accolades include Autism is one of the most severe the President’s Award and psychiatric disorders in children, Spearman Medal from the and Baron-Cohen’s ideas have British Psychological Society, helped to deepen understanding of plus the Boyd McCandless the condition, raising awareness and Award from the American making treatment more effective. ■ Psychological Association. Autistic children sometimes show From 2009 to 2011, Baron- remarkable aptitude in certain areas, Cohen served as vice-president especially those that demand acute of the International Society of observation of fine detail, such as Autism Research, and is also mathematics, drawing, and painting. vice-president of the National Autistic Society (UK). Key works 1993 Autism: The Facts 1995 Mindblindness 1999 Teaching Children with Autism to Mind-Read 2003 The Essential Difference

PSYCHOL OF DIFFE PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE

OGY RENCE

302 INTRODUCTION In The Descent of Man, Charles Spearman Floyd and Gordon Raymond Cattell Charles Darwin proposes that intelligent Allport publish suggests that behavior is generated by a argues that variations single, unitary quality Personality Traits: their intelligence is made up in intellectual abilities within the brain, which he Classification and of two factors: fluid tend to be inherited. Measurement. and crystallized calls “the general intelligence. factor” or “g.” 1871 1904 1921 1941 1884 1905 1937 1942 Francis Galton is the first to Alfred Binet and Theodore Gordon Allport Katherine Briggs and investigate individual Simon develop the first publishes his most Isabel Briggs Myers intelligence test, which significant work, create the Briggs differences scientifically, becomes known as the through large-scale Binet-Simon scale. Personality: Myers Type questionnaires. psychological Indicator—a widely interpretation. used psychometric test. T heoretical psychology has from research into more general refinement of Allport’s theories: largely been concerned theories rather than a study of reducing the number of traits that with identifying and personality itself. The first combined to form an individual examining aspects of the mind psychologist to systematically personality. The prominent traits of and behavior that are common approach the subject was Gordon introversion and extraversion were to us all, yet philosophers, and later Allport, who felt that existing ideas common to most of these models, scientists, have always recognized of personality were inadequate. As and the distinction between them that there are differences in our one of the pioneers of what is now was felt to be a major factor in psychological make-up that render called “trait theory,” he identified determining personality. They were us individuals. Some of the early a number of different personality incorporated into Hans Eysenck’s philosophers explained differences traits, which he suggested showed three-factor model, with its basic in personality using the idea of the themselves in three different levels traits of extraversion–introversion, four humors or temperaments, but it in a combination unique to each neuroticism, and psychoticism. was not until the 20th century that person. The idea of traits became there was any truly scientific study central to personality psychology One assumption that was of personality. and, following Allport’s work, it questioned was whether personality became a major new area of study. traits would result in consistent Behaviorists, as one would behavior. Research conducted expect, saw personality as a Personality traits by Walter Mischel showed that product of conditioning, and New ways of analyzing traits, different situations produced psychoanalytical theory described such as Raymond Cattell’s factor different behavior, and suggested personality as the effect of past analytical method, which identified that personality traits should be experience on the unconscious— 16 personality factors, led to considered in the context of an but these explanations resulted individual’s perception of and

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 303 Hans Eysenck Corbett H. Thigpen and Walter Mischel publishes Nico Frijda publishes develops an Hervey M. Cleckley Personality and Assessment, The Emotions, influential document a case of questioning the assumption describing them that behavior is determined three-factor model multiple personality as changes in an of the theory of disorder in The Three by personality traits individual that prepare personality. regardless of situation or him or her for action. Faces of Eve. context. 1947-70S 1954 1968 1986 1955 1973 1990S 1950 J.P. Guilford suggests that David Wechsler David Rosenhan Researchers agree on the the Structure of Intellect develops the questions the validity of “big five” personality (SI) has three dimensions: Wechsler Adult psychiatric notions of traits—openness, content, products, and Intelligence Scale normal or sane in his conscientiousness, operations. extraversion, neuroticism, (WAIS). pseudo-patient and agreeableness. experiments. reaction to various circumstances. was assumed to be an inherited up general intelligence. This notion Not only was personality found to characteristic (and carried with it of a single measure of intelligence be less consistent than had been connotations of racial stereotypes was challenged by J.P. Guilford, who assumed, but in some cases there and eugenics) rather than one believed that intelligence consists of was the possibility of an individual influenced by environment. The a number of different abilities, an having more than one distinct issue of nature versus nurture in idea that led to Raymond Cattell’s personality. In a case made famous determining intelligence became theory of fluid and crystallized by a book and film, The Three Faces key, with psychologists including intelligence—two levels of of Eve, psychiatrists Corbett H. Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck reasoning and critical thinking. Thigpen and Hervey M. Cleckley defending a hereditary viewpoint, described multiple personality and others arguing that not only is Research into other areas of disorder, now called dissociative intelligence affected by environment, psychological difference has identity disorder. but the way it is tested is culturally included emotions and facial biased, giving distorted results. expressions, pioneered by Paul The intelligence factor Ekman and Nico Frijda, and Another factor that distinguishes In the early 20th century, British psychological disorders, but David us as individuals is intelligence. psychologist Charles Spearman had Rosenhan’s experiment showed This had been studied from the laid the foundations for a more that it is not easy to distinguish earliest days of psychology, but objective, scientific study of the “normal” from the “abnormal.” had proved difficult to define or intelligence by using statistical Individual differences appear to measure. Studies are also frequently techniques to test and measure be points on a spectrum, rather controversial; since the time of intelligence. He identified a single than easily labeled divisions— Darwin and Galton, intelligence factor, the “g factor,” that correlated highlighting the complexity and to all the mental abilities that make diversity of human psychology. ■

304 NAME AS MANY USES AS YOU CAN THINK OF FOR A TOOTHPICK J.P. GUILFORD (1897–1987) IN CONTEXT A lthough intelligence, and children who might benefit from what makes up intelligence, educational assistance. Together APPROACH had been discussed since with researcher Theodore Simon, he Intelligence psychometrics the time of ancient Greece, the first created the “Binet–Simon Scale,” systematic method of measuring which used memory, attention, and BEFORE intelligence was not developed until problem-solving tasks to measure 19th century Wilhelm Wundt, 1905, when the French psychologist and produce a number, or “quotient,” Gustav Fechner, and Francis Alfred Binet was asked to identify that summarizes intellectual ability. Galton claim that individual differences in people’s Questions of memory and Problems requiring cognitive abilities can be simple problem-solving… creative solutions… empirically measured. …can be answered using …can be solved using 1904 British psychologist convergent thinking – divergent thinking – Charles Spearman claims the ability to come up with exploring many possible intelligence can be summed up in a single number. one “correct” answer. avenues at once. 1938 British psychologist This can be tested This requires a new L.L. Thurstone identifies seven using standardized form of testing that includes independent factors that make intelligence (IQ) tests. up a person’s “primary both problem-solving abilities” or intelligence. and imagination. AFTER 1969 Philip E. Vernon estimates that intelligence is 60 percent inborn. 1974 US psychologist Ellis Paul Torrence produces his own tests of creativity, which are most widely used today.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 305 See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ Hans J. Eysenck 316–21 ■ William Stern 334 ■ David Wechsler 336 Creative minds see even toothpicks it has fundamental flaws. Standard happen if all national and local laws as potentially having hundreds of uses. intelligence tests, he says, ignore were suddenly abolished. Guilford Guilford’s “Alternative Uses Test” scores creativity and assume that there is scored the answers on levels of four people on their ability to think of many a “general intelligence” that can be key components: originality, original and widely assorted alternatives. represented by an IQ score. fluency, flexibility, and elaboration. The average intelligence quotient Measuring creativity Guilford claims that intelligence (IQ) was set for convenience at 100, By definition, creativity means there is not made up of just one “general allowing psychologists to categorize is more than one answer to any factor,” but of three different groups people in relation to this score. In problem. It requires a different kind of activities. “Operations” are the practice, around 95 percent of the of thinking, which Guilford calls intellectual processes we use; there general population score between “divergent,” since it goes in different are six types of these, including 70 and 130, and the top 0.5 percent directions and produces multiple memory, cognition, and evaluation. score over 145, the “genius” level. solutions to a problem. In contrast, “Content” is the type of information traditional IQ tests require thinking or data involved—there are five of Although the scale is still that ends up with a single answer: these, including visual and auditory used for most IQ tests today, US “convergent” thinking. content. “Products” are the results of psychologist J.P. Guilford believes applying operations to content, such Guilford thought that creativity as classes or relations, and there was measurable—it is indicated by are six of these. The many ways in the number of directions in which a which we combine and use these person’s thoughts travel. He devised different types means there may be a number of tests to quantify anything up to 180 (6 × 5 × 6) types divergent thinking, including his of intelligence—more than 100 of 1967 “Alternative Uses Test,” which these have already been verified. asks participants to write as many uses as they can think of for: (a) a The complexity of Guilford’s toothpick, (b) a brick, and (c) a paper theory and problems with testing clip. In his “Consequences Test,” mean that his tests are used less subjects were asked to imagine all frequently than standard IQ tests, the things that might possibly but his work has influenced research into intelligence and creativity. ■ J.P. Guilford World War II—until his The person who is retirement in 1967. Described as capable of producing Joy Paul Guilford was born on a devoted family man of a large number of ideas a farm in Nebraska. Always enormous integrity and per unit of time… has a markedly intelligent, he was the generosity, his shyness earned greater chance of having valedictorian of his high school him the nickname “gray ghost” class. His bachelor’s degree in during his time in the army. An significant ideas. psychology was interrupted by a influential and prolific J.P. Guilford spell in the army as a private, researcher, Guilford produced but he went on to earn a PhD more than 25 books, 30 tests, from Cornell University. In 1928, and 300 articles. he returned to Nebraska as an associate professor, then took a Key works position at the University of Southern California (USC) in 1936 Psychometric Methods 1940, remaining there—apart 1967 The Nature of Human from a short secondment during Intelligence

DID ROBINSON CRUSOE LACK PERSONALITY TRAITS BEFORE THE ADVENT OF FRIDAY? GORDON ALLPORT (1897–1967)



308 GORDON ALLPORT G ordon Allport is sometimes People… are busy referred to as one of the leading their lives into IN CONTEXT founding fathers of personality psychology, as he was the future, whereas APPROACH the first psychologist of modern psychology, for the most Trait theory times to embark on a dedicated study of personality. Since the early part, is busy tracing BEFORE work on the four temperaments by them into the past. 2nd century BCE Galen Hippocrates (c.400 BCE) and Galen Gordon Allport classifies human temperament (c.150 CE), there seems to have been according to the four humors. no attempt to classify personality in The American psychologist Gordon any detail. In the 19th century, Allport had fundamental problems 1890 In Principles of personality was barely mentioned with both of these approaches. He Psychology, William James in psychology, though there was thought that behaviorism was makes an early attempt to much discussion of the self, or “ego.” wrong to discount the “person” define the self as having both doing the learning, because each an “I” (the knowing self) and a In the early 20th century, person is unique and their perception “me” (the experiencing self). the two predominant schools of is part of the process. He also psychology—psychoanalysis and considered psychoanalysis to be AFTER behaviorism—were polar opposites inadequate for explaining personality 1946 Raymond Cattell in approach. Both were highly and behavior because it placed too develops his 16PF (Personality developed and influential schools much importance on a person’s Factors) questionnaire, based that remain powerful (as well as past, ignoring their current context on Allport and Odbert’s enduringly controversial) to this and motivations. His view was lexical hypothesis. day. Behaviorism, being interested only in how we acquire (or learn) our 1970s Hans J. Eysenck creates behavior, had nothing to say about the PEN (Psychoticism, personality; while psychoanalysis Extraversion, Neurotisicm) offered an in-depth approach, arguing personality questionnaire. for the existence of an unknowable unconscious that controls personality 1993 American psychologist but reveals itself only fractionally Dan P. McAdam demonstrates and accidentally by slips of the the idiographic method in his tongue and in dream symbols. book The Stories We Live By. Personality is formed from… …cardinal traits or …common traits, …secondary traits, “ruling passions”, such such as honesty or such as being nervous when as altruism. Not everyone aggression. In the meeting strangers or laughing absence of cardinal at inappropriate moments. has a cardinal trait, traits, personality is These traits are evoked by and those that do shaped by these traits. are often famous for it. specific situations.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 309 See also: Galen 18–19 ■ William James 38–45 ■ Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Carl Rogers 130–37 ■ Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■ Martin Seligman 200–01 ■ Paul Salkovskis 212–13 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ Hans J. Eysenck 316–21 ■ William Stern 334 affirmed when, as a young college Dilthey, but had first been put into work in general is not known for graduate, he paid a visit to Sigmund practice by Allport’s university its focus on empirical research; Freud in Vienna. On first meeting, tutor, William Stern. The first he was more of a theorist, almost to make small talk, Allport told method, the nomothetic, aims to a philosopher. Yet his very first Freud of a small boy he had met be as objective and scientific as paper, Personality Traits: Their on the train on the way, who was possible, and it is exemplified in Classification and Measurement, afraid of getting dirty and refused the study of human intelligence. cowritten with his brother Floyd, to sit near anyone dirty, despite This involves obtaining test results was an excellent example of the his mother’s encouragement. from large populations of people, nomothetic method. One of his Perhaps, Allport suggested, the on personality traits such as last major pieces of work, the child had learned this dirt phobia extraversion and introversion. analysis of Jenny Masterson, from his mother, a neat and rather Results can be submitted to a was an extraordinarily detailed domineering woman. Freud then sophisticated analysis, resulting example of the idiographic method. asked, “And was that little boy in a number of general conclusions, you?” Freud’s reduction of this such as the percentages of people The lexical hypothesis small observation of Allport’s who are extravert or introvert, or In his first study, Allport and his to some unconscious episode variations linked to age, gender, or brother reported their research from his own childhood seemed, geography. However, this method on personality traits. They asked to Allport, dismissive of all his does not aim to comment in any the participants to complete a current motivations and intentions. way on traits at the individual level; personality questionnaire, and Throughout his work, Allport it focuses on comparative comments to ask three people who knew emphasizes the present over the and conclusions about a certain trait, them well to complete it too; past, though later in his life he paid rather than any particular person. this reflected the Allport brothers’ more attention to psychoanalysis This was the method that the view that personality is forged as a supplement to other methods. behaviorist B.F. Skinner used for in relationship to others. They his observations of rat behavior. concluded from their results that Allport argued for an approach there is a case for identifying traits, to the study of human learning The second method, the and for attempting to measure and personality that was reasoned, idiographic, stands in direct them. They also believed they eclectic, and conceptually open- opposition to the nomothetic had proven the possibility of minded. He took some of what he method; it studies one individual developing a complete and believed from prevailing approaches, in breadth and depth, taking into sensitive instrument for the but his central belief is that the account their biography, their measurement of personality. ❯❯ uniqueness of each individual and personality traits, and their his or her personality is largely— relationships, as well as how Types exist not in people but not exclusively—forged in they are seen and experienced or in nature, but rather in human relationships. by others. This method is much the eye of the observer. closer to the psychoanalytic Theory of personality method with its focus on one Gordon Allport Allport’s idea of personality is a person, one life. complex amalgam of traits, human relationships, current context, Allport said that while the and motivation. He identified two nomothetic method was a way distinctly different approaches of describing traits, it had little to the study of personality—the explanatory power; whereas the nomothetic and idiographic idiographic method, though unable methods—both of which had been to draw any general conclusions, devised by the German philosophers could explain one person in Wilhelm Windelband and Wilhelm illuminating detail. He was to use both methods, though his

310 GORDON ALLPORT paranoid someone that it guides and unifies awkward stubborn mischievous eager bossy their life in both conscious and unconscious ways; virtually every judgmental loyal envious acute tender vain devout patient act is traceable to its influence. chineveerdfnuaftloirvirnctegoguiauvrrciiarohnomuyggbsainfhtratieooctnueafseurrbsltitticirsmebtasaiiegdcsrhgvfsresueodelsclfsia-acicbvcoeleneqnfitdupsreereionndsuttdiiwtmkiciievtnotnelyddtaplssmoahblroyicotoealddsytic In his later years, Allport considered a person’s cardinal shallow organized inconsiderate talkative traits as contributing to the proprium: the essential drives, core efficient trustful helpful needs, and desires of a person. This imaginative concept goes beyond the idea of temperament, and is more akin to a Allport and Odbert’s lexical hypothesis guiding purpose that will always rested on the idea that the most important press for expression. As an example and relevant personality differences are of the proprium, Allport gave the reflected by language; they identified 18,000 Norwegian polar explorer Roald personality-describing words in English. Amundsen, who had one dominant passion from the age of 15: he In 1936, Allport and his colleague of the English language available wanted to be a polar explorer. The H.S. Odbert proposed that individual at the time, to find 18,000 words obstacles to his ambition seemed differences that are most salient that described personality. They insurmountable, and the temptation and socially relevant in people’s narrowed this down to 4,500 to relinquish his dreams was great, lives eventually become expressed adjectives that they considered but the “propriate” striving persisted, through language; and the more to be observable and stable and though he welcomed each important the difference, the more personality traits. success, it simply raised his level likely it is to be expressed as a of aspiration. Having sailed the single word. This idea is known as Cardinal traits Northwest Passage, Amundsen the lexical hypothesis. The two Based on a further analysis of embarked upon the project that led researchers went on to study the his lexical study, Allport defined to his success in reaching the South most comprehensive dictionaries three distinct categories of traits: Pole. Then, after years of planning cardinal, common, and secondary. and discouragement, he flew over A man can be Cardinal traits are those that are the North Pole. His commitment said to have a trait; fundamental to a person, governing never wavered, and he eventually but he cannot be their entire approach to life. Not died attempting to save the life of a said to have a type. everyone has a cardinal trait, less experienced explorer. Gordon Allport according to Allport, but when they do, they may even be famous for Less fundamental traits them; in fact some people are so In contrast to cardinal traits, famous for them that their name common traits are general becomes a byword for that trait, characteristics, such as honesty, giving us terms such as Byronic, that are found in most people. Calvinistic, and Machiavellian. These are the building blocks that On a less iconic scale, a person’s shape our behavior, but they are cardinal trait might be something less fundamental than cardinal like “a fear of communism,” where traits. Common traits, Allport said, this is so central and important to develop largely in response to parental influences, and are a result of nurture. They are shared among many people within a culture but in varying degrees; aggressiveness, for instance, is a common trait that varies by degrees. According

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 311 Any theory that quite another. This is because our very angry when tickled” or “she regards personality motives today are not continuously gets nervous on flights.” These as stable, fixed, or dependent on the past. We may traits express preferences or invariable is wrong. start learning to draw, for instance, attitudes that are open to change. Gordon Allport to compete in popularity with In the absence of another person, another child in class, but secondary traits might be present to Allport, most of us have ultimately become more interested but quite invisible. Added to personalities made up of five in perfecting the craft for its own the common and cardinal traits, to ten of these traits at a level sake. This means that how we they provide a complete picture whereby they have become our think and act today is only of human complexity. “outstanding characteristics.” indirectly affected by our past. Functional autonomy is also Traits and behavior Over time, common traits may thought to explain obsessive and Allport was interested in how traits achieve “functional autonomy,” by compulsive acts and thoughts: they are forged in a person, and their which Allport means that although may be manifestations of connection with behavior. He we start doing something for one functionally autonomous traits, suggested that a combination of reason, we may carry on doing it for where someone has no idea why internal and external forces he is doing something, but can’t influence how we behave. Certain stop himself from doing it. internal forces, which he called “genotypes,” govern how we retain Allport’s third category of traits, information and use it to interact known as secondary traits, exert with the external world. At the much less influence on us than same time, external forces, which cardinal or common traits. They are he named “phenotypes,” determine only seen in certain circumstances, the way individuals accept their because they are determined by surroundings and how they allow context or situation. For instance, others to influence their behavior. ❯❯ we might say of someone “he gets Genotype traits are internal, Person in difficulty Kindness to others but phenotype traits are external—they require Self-sufficiency stimuli from the outside world to make them manifest. Genotype traits Spider Phenotype traits Gluttony Personality Fear Irritation Traits Creative thinking Rude person

312 GORDON ALLPORT Robinson Crusoe, Allport concluded, must always have had many distinctive personality traits, but some were only uncovered by new circumstances after he was shipwrecked and met Friday. These two forces, he said, provide and persistence to teach him to whom she was friendly. Allport used the groundwork for the creation of speak English, and the capability these letters for his analysis, asking individual traits. to convert him to Christianity. 36 people to characterize Jenny’s While Crusoe always had these personality traits from her letters. Applying these ideas to the personality traits, they remained Eight trait “clusters” encompassing story of Robinson Crusoe, Allport unexpressed on the island until he 198 individual traits were relatively saw that, prior to his meeting with formed a relationship with Friday. easy to identify, with broad Friday, Crusoe’s genotypes, or The idea is similar to a well-known agreement from all the people inner resources, along with some philosophical puzzle: if a tree falls rating the documents. These traits phenotype aspects, helped him to down in a forest, and there is were: quarrelsome–suspicious; survive alone on a desert island. He nobody there, does it make a noise? self-centered; independent– had the resilience to overcome his For Allport, traits make behavior autonomous; dramatic–intense; initial despair, and fetched arms, consistent; they are always there, aesthetic–artistic; aggressive; tools, and other supplies from the even if no one is around to evoke cynical–morbid; and sentimental. ship before it sank. He built a them or witness them in action. fenced-in compound around a cave, However, Allport concluded that and kept a calendar. He hunted, An idiographic study this trait analysis of Jenny was grew corn and rice, and learned to After the publication of Personality: somewhat inconclusive, and so he make pottery and raise goats, and A Psychological Interpretation in went on to use a number of other he also adopted a parrot. He read 1937, Allport turned his attention to frameworks, including Freudian the Bible and became religious. the topics of religion, prejudice, and and Adlerian analysis. Assisted These activities demonstrated the ethics. But in 1965 he returned to by his students Jeffrey Paige and expression of Crusoe’s genotypical the subject of personality by Alfred Baldwin, he also applied traits and resulting behaviors. undertaking an idiographic study “content analysis” to the material. of the personality traits of Jenny This was a new form of computerized However, it was only with the Masterson, who lived from 1868 to analysis, where the computer was arrival of Friday that other aspects 1937. During the last 11 years of her programmed to count the number of his phenotypic behaviors could life, Jenny wrote 300 personal of times words or phrases occur find expression: he helped Friday letters to a married couple with that are related to a given topic or to escape from his captors; he emotion. Allport was particularly named him; he had the patience impressed by this new method Personality is far too complex a thing to be trussed up in a conceptual straight jacket. Gordon Allport

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 313 because of its potential to analyze Allport urged psychologists Gordon Allport idiographic data, confirming his to study personality traits belief that the idiographic approach and leave character to the Gordon Willard Allport was can identify subtleties of an born in Montezuma, Indiana individual character that trait province of philosophy. in 1897. The youngest of four questionnaires alone cannot reveal. Martin Seligman sons, Allport was shy and studious as a child, but as a In 1966, Allport published a to explore positive human experience teenager he became editor of paper entitled Traits Revisited are based “largely upon the behavior his school newspaper and ran suggesting that the aim of of sick and anxious people or upon his own printing business. personality study should not be the the antics of captive and desperate microanalysis of individual traits, rats.” He wondered why there were During World War I, Allport but the study of the psychic no theories based on the study of performed military duties, organization of the whole person. healthy human beings, and those before winning a scholarship He stated that his early writings who strive to make life worth to Harvard University to study about traits were written in an age living. He pointed out that most philosophy and economics. of psychological innocence, although studies are of criminals, not of After graduating in 1919, he he maintained his belief that traits law abiders; of fear, not courage; taught for a year in Turkey, are a reasonable starting point for and focus on the blindness of then went back to Harvard, the description of personality. humans, rather than their vision. where he gained his doctorate The burgeoning school of positive in psychology in 1922. He also Allport’s influence psychology, led by Martin studied with the Gestalt School Allport’s work forms the basis of Seligman, has taken up this idea in Germany, and at Cambridge many contemporary schools of and aims to develop a scientific University in England. thought, though he is rarely credited psychology of positive experience. directly. Much of modern personality In 1924, Allport again testing derives from the work of By 1955, when Allport wrote returned to Harvard to teach Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck, Becoming, his thinking had the first course in personality and both of these psychologists developed further; he now saw studies in the US. Apart from drew upon Allport’s lexical study. human striving toward a higher level four years at Darmouth College, Cattell’s “16 Personality Factor of consciousness and realization as he remained at Harvard until Questionnaire,” which is still used the true motive of personality. The his death from lung cancer, by psychologists today, uses 16 idea that “becoming” is the ultimate aged 70, in 1967. traits identified by Cattell through goal of human beings was also computer analysis of Allport and developed by the psychologists Key works Odbert’s original 4,500 adjectives. Carl Rogers and then Abraham Maslow, who renamed it “self- 1937 Personality: A Humanistic psychology, which actualization.” Although Allport’s Psychological Interpretation forms the basis of most counseling work is cited less often than other 1954 The Nature of Prejudice and therapeutic practices, also well-known figures, he had a 1955 Becoming relies heavily upon Allport’s ideas, profound and lasting influence 1961 Pattern and Growth in particularly his idiographic method on the field of psychology. ■ Personality and insistence upon the uniqueness of each and every person. Increased focus on the practitioner–client relationship as a vehicle for the expression and development of personality has its roots in Allport’s assertion that personality is largely a function of relationships. Allport was also one of the first to point out that even those psychological theories that attempt

314 GENERAL INTELLIGENCE CONSISTS OF BOTH FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE RAYMOND CATTELL (1905–1998) IN CONTEXT R aymond Cattell, considered made up “g”: fluid and crystallized to be one of the dozen most intelligence. Fluid intelligence is APPROACH eminent psychologists of a series of thinking or reasoning Intelligence theory the 20th century, contributed hugely abilities that can be applied to to the study of human intelligence, any issue or “content.” Sometimes BEFORE motivation, and personality. His described as the intelligence we 1900s Alfred Binet claims interest in intelligence was sparked use when we don’t already know intelligence can be measured, early in his career when he was a how to do something, it comes into and introduces the term student of Charles Spearman, the play automatically in processes “intelligence quotient” (IQ). British psychologist who defined such as problem-solving and “g”—a single-factor, general pattern recognition, and it is 1904 Charles Spearman intelligence that serves as the thought to be closely related to identifies “g” as an underlying foundation for all learning. working memory capacity. property of intelligence. In 1941, Cattell developed this Cattell suggests fluid intelligence 1931 In The Measurement of concept further, defining two is genetically inherited, which may Intelligence, Edward Thorndike different types of intelligence that account for individual differences. says that there are three or four main types of intelligence. General underlying intelligence (g) is made up of two parts. AFTER 1950 J.P. Guilford claims that Fluid intelligence, which Crystallized intelligence, there are around 150 different is the ability to think and which builds from past types of intellectual ability. reason abstractly, and to experiences and learnt perceive relationships facts, and amounts to 1989 US psychologist John between things without judgement skills that B. Carroll proposes a three- accumulate as we age. stratum psychometric model prior practice or instruction. of intelligence, consisting of narrow abilities, broad abilities, and Charles Spearman’s “g” factor.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 315 See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ J.P. Guilford 304–05 ■ Hans Eysenck 316–21 ■ William Stern 334 ■ David Wechsler 336 It builds to a peak in young The culture-fair intelligence adulthood, then steadily declines, test was developed by Cattell perhaps because of age-related in the 1920s. It measures fluid changes in the brain. Brain injury intelligence through pattern- can affect fluid intelligence, which related problems that require suggests it is largely physiological. reasoning ability but no prior learning or knowledge to solve. Crystallized intelligence As we use fluid intelligence for AB CD solving problems, we begin to E F GH develop stores of knowledge and working hypotheses about the of intelligence increases gradually Noting that standard IQ tests world around us. This store of over a lifetime and stays relatively tend to assess a combination of knowledge is our crystallized stable until we are around 65 years fluid and crystallized intelligence, intelligence, described by Cattell old, when it begins to decline. Cattell developed tests to assess as “the set of judgmental skills” fluid intelligence inisolation. His gained from investing fluid Cattell sees fluid and crystallized culture-fair intelligence test, which intelligence in cultural activities. intelligence as fairly independent uses nonverbal, multiple-choice Vast differences in learning of each other, but reasons that questions based on shapes and experiences occur because of having a higher fluid intelligence patterns, requires no prior learning factors such as social class, age, might lead to the broader and from the participants and can be nationality, and historical era. faster development of crystallized used to test children and adults intelligence, depending on factors from any culture. ■ Crystallized intelligence relating to personality and interests. includes skills such as verbal comprehension and numerical facility, because these abilities rely on knowledge already gained— such as the rules of grammar or addition, subtraction, and other mathematical concepts. This form Raymond Cattell Born in Staffordshire, England, life there. In 1997, the American Raymond Bernard Cattell achieved Psychological Association a first-class degree in chemistry in honored him with a Lifetime 1924 before turning to psychology Achievement Award. However, and receiving his doctorate in his idea that nations should 1929. After teaching in London safeguard high, inherited and Exeter universities, he ran intelligence through eugenics the Leicester Child Guidance made this a controversial award, Clinic for five years before moving and led to critical attacks. to the US in 1937. He lived and Cattell defended himself and taught there until 1973, holding refused the award, but died of posts at Clark and Harvard heart failure the following year. universities, and the University of Illinois. Cattell married three Key works times and moved to Honolulu as a professor at the University of 1971 Abilities Hawaii, spending the rest of his 1987 Intelligence

THERE IS AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN INSANITY AND GENIUS HANS J. EYSENCK (1916–1997)



318 HANS J. EYSENCK D iscussion about genius has There is a common been dominated for most genetic basis for great IN CONTEXT of its history by the nature- potential in creativity and versus-nurture debate: is a genius for psychological deviation. APPROACH born or made? Prior to the early Personality 1900s, ideas about genius were Hans J. Eysenck based largely on stories of people BEFORE who were perceived as geniuses, than the detailed characteristics 1926 American psychologist such as Leonardo da Vinci and that make up a whole person. He Catharine Cox tests the Beethoven. As early as Aristotle, was a biologist, and like others intelligence and personalities creative genius and madness were before him, notably the ancient of 300 geniuses and finds the seen as linked, and both assumed to Greek physicians Hippocrates and average IQ to be 165+; key be largely genetic in nature. In 1904, Galen, he believed that physiological characteristics are tremendous British psychologist Havelock Ellis’s factors account for temperament. persistence and motivation. A Study of British Genius, reported Hippocrates had suggested that controlled studies of both psychotic personality type arises from an 1956 J.P. Guilford develops the patients and creative people to excess or deficit of a particular type concept of divergent thinking establish a link between the two. of bodily fluids, known as humors. to discuss creativity. Seventy years later the German Galen expanded upon this idea to psychologist Hans Eysenck reviewed suggest there are four types of AFTER the early evidence and concluded temperament: sanguine, choleric, 2009 In Genius 101: Creators, that it is not psychosis (full blown phlegmatic, and melancholic. Leaders, and Prodigies, insanity) that is related to genius, American psychologist Dean but psychoticism, which he defined Keith Simonton argues that as an underlying disposition to geniuses are the result of good develop psychotic symptoms. genes and good surroundings. Temperament and biology 2009 Swedish psychologist Many psychologists have defined Anders Ericsson attributes and measured personality traits, expert performance to 10,000 but Eysenck’s interests focused hours of practice. on human temperament rather A capacity for …and combined with …this can lead over-inclusive thinking an IQ of 165 or above… to genius. can lead to original and …but combined with …this can lead creative ideas… psychotic symptoms… to insanity.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 319 See also: Galen 18–19 ■ Francis Galton 28–29 ■ J.P. Guilford 304–05 ■ Gordon Allport 306–13 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ Walter Mischel 326–27 ■ David Rosenhan 328–29 He claimed that sanguine people Eysenck’s model of personality provides an overarching have an excess of blood, and are paradigm for defining temperament. Each of the superfactors cheerful and optimistic. Those with (Extraversion and Neuroticism) is made up of lower-order a choleric temperament, stemming habits, such as “lively.” The two superfactors divide habits from an abundance of bile, are into four types that reflect Galen’s four temperaments. quick and hot-tempered. Phlegmatic individuals, with too much phlegm, neuroticism are slow, lazy, and dull. Melancholics, who suffer from black bile, are sad, holic moody touchy c pessimistic, and depressed. anxious restless melanc holeric Galen’s biological approach rigid aggressive appealed to Eysenck, who considered temperament to be physiological sober excitable and genetically determined. He proposed a measure of two pessimistic changeable dimensions, or overarching “superfactors” of personality, that introversion reserved impulsive extraversion encompass all the detailed traits: Neuroticism and Extraversion– unsociable optimistic Introversion, which he then mapped against Galen’s four temperaments. quiet active Eysenck’s scales apassive sociableguine “Neuroticism” was Eysenck’s name phlegm careful outgoing for a personality dimension that talkative ranges from emotionally calm and thoughtful responsive stable at one extreme, to nervous peaceful easy-going and easily upset at the other. He controlled lively claimed that neurotics (at the less reliable carefree san stable end of the spectrum) have a tic even-tempered cheery low activation threshold in terms of calm triggering the sympathetic nervous system, which is the part of the emotional stability brain that activates the “fight or flight” response. People with be more likely to develop a variety under-aroused and bored; so the this more responsive system are of nervous disorders. Eysenck’s brain must either wake itself up hyperactive in this regard, so they second dimension of temperament through seeking further excitement respond to even minor threats as was “Extraversion–Introversion.” He with other people (extraverts) or though they are seriously dangerous, used these terms very much as we calm itself down through seeking experiencing an increase in blood use them to describe people around peace and solitude (introverts). pressure and heart rate, sweating, us: extraverts are outgoing and and so on. They are also more likely talkative, while introverts are shy Psychoticism to suffer from the various neurotic and quiet. Eysenck claimed that Eysenck tested his ideas on large disorders. However, Eysenck was variations in brain activity explain groups of people, but realized there not suggesting that people who the difference: introverts are were some sections of society that scored at the nervous end of this chronically over-aroused and jittery, he was missing; so he took his dimension are necessarily neurotic while extraverts are chronically studies into mental institutions. ❯❯ in practice, merely that they would

320 HANS J. EYSENCK Introverts are characterized said that, as with the neuroticism involves originality and novelty, by higher levels of activity dimension, psychoticism ranges and is based on aspects of both than extraverts and so are along a scale; his tests looked for intellectual ability and personality. chronically more cortically the occurrence of personality traits In his paper, Creativity and aroused than extraverts. commonly found among psychotics. Personality: Suggestions for a Theory, Eysenck aimed to throw Hans J. Eysenck Eysenck found that a number of some light on the nature of creativity personality traits relate to each other and its relationship to intelligence, Through this work, he identified to produce psychoticism; those who personality, and genius. a third dimension of temperament, score highly on this scale are usually which he labelled “psychoticism,” aggressive, egocentric, impersonal, Genius is held to be the highest a term that has largely replaced the impulsive, antisocial, unempathic, form of creativity, and it rests upon word “insanity” in general use. In creative, and tough-minded. A high very high intelligence: an IQ score personality theory, this was quite score on the scale does not mean a of at least 165 is considered to be a a departure: most personality person is psychotic, and it is not prerequisite. However, a high IQ is theorists were attempting to define inevitable that they will become so; not enough on its own. Another and measure the normal (sane) they simply share characteristics relevant component of intelligence personality. However, Eysenck with psychotic patients. In controlled is the mental search process which studies, such as those by Norwegian we use to find solutions, by psychologist Dan Olweus and his bringing together different ideas colleagues in 1980, the aggressive from memory to form new answers element of psychoticism has been to problems. This mental scanning related biologically to increased is guided by ideas of relevance: testosterone levels. what past ideas and experiences do I have that are relevant to this Studying genius problem? Each of us performs this A clear psychological definition of differently, and it is an ability that creativity has proved slippery, but is independent of our IQ. The there is broad agreement that it ability runs along a scale, ranging from an expansive, over-inclusive idea of what is relevant (seeing too many things as potential possibilities), to an overly narrow one (seeing few possibilities); at the center sits a more conventional sense of what might apply to any problem at hand. Over-inclusive thinking can be measured by word-association tests, which analyze two features: the number of responses to any given word, and the originality of responses. For example, when presented with the word “foot,” those with a narrow range of responses are most likely to Professor Frankenstein creates a monster in Mary Shelley’s novel, and exhibits classic psychotic symptoms: recklessness, disregard for conventions, and tough-mindedness.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 321 Creative geniuses, such as the artist psychoticism (in the absence of Hans J. Eysenck Vincent van Gogh, exhibit traits from psychosis). The drive to translate the Eysenck’s psychoticism dimension, trait of creativity into achievement, Hans Jurgen Eysenck was particularly over-inclusive thinking, for example by creating works of born in Berlin, Germany, to independence, and nonconformity. art, comes from aspects of artistic parents; his mother the psychotic temperament, was a well-known film actress, respond with the word “shoe;” a in particular the over-inclusive and his Catholic father, Eduard, slightly wider range of inclusive thinking style. Eysenck was not was a stage performer. His thinking might contain the words suggesting a causal link between parents separated soon after “hand” or “toe,” while an over- genius and insanity; while the his birth, and he was raised inclusive person might generate two things have something by his maternal grandmother. words such as “soldier” or “sore.” in common—over-inclusive In 1934 he discovered that This kind of test makes it possible thinking—this combines with he could only study at Berlin to measure people’s creativity. other features of genius or insanity University if he joined the to lead to very different results. Nazi party, so he traveled to It is the element of over-inclusive England to study psychology thinking that Eysenck demonstrated Research into creativity faces at University College London. to be a common feature of both a number of difficult challenges: psychoticism and creativity. When with some researchers claiming He married in 1938 and over-inclusive thinking and high IQ that creativity can only be judged after narrowly escaping are present together, creative on what it produces. Eysenck internment as a German genius will result, because the felt unable to propose a fully citizen during World War II, he combination generates creative and developed theory of creativity, completed a PhD, and took up original ideas. This is the cognitive only a suggestion for one. As he work as a psychologist at an characteristic that lies at the base said, “I am linking several fuzzy emergency hospital. He later of creativity. When over-inclusive theories.” His work ranged over founded and then headed the thinking and psychotic symptoms many areas, though he is best Institute of Psychiatry at the are present together, psychosis, in known for his exploration into University of London. Eysenck varying degrees, may result. personality and intelligence. His married again in 1950, and PEN (Psychoticism, Extraversion, became a British citizen in Creativity and personality Neuroticism) model was hugely 1955. He was diagnosed with a Eysenck believed that creativity is influential, and acted as the brain tumor in 1996 and died a personality trait that provides the basis for much of the later in a London hospice in 1997. potential for creative achievement, research into personality traits. ■ but the realization of that potential Key works lies in the character trait of Psychoticism in the absence of psychosis… is the vital 1967 The Biological Basis of element in translating the Personality 1976 Psychoticism as a trait of creativity (originality) Dimension of Personality from potential to actual 1983 The Roots of Creativity achievement. Hans J. Eysenck

322 THREE KEY MOTIVATIONS DRIVE PERFORMANCE DAVID C. MCCLELLAND (1917–1998) IN CONTEXT Motivation is a key component of job performance. APPROACH But what people say about their motives Need theory cannot be taken at face value... BEFORE ...because motivations are largely unconscious. 1938 American psychologist Henry Murray develops his Tests reveal that there are three key theory of how personality is motivations that drive performance. shaped by psychogenic needs. Achievement: the drive to 1943 Abraham Maslow’s A excel and improve in all efforts. Theory of Human Motivation presents his hierarchy of needs. Power: the drive to Affiliation: the drive to influence and manage form and maintain warm 1959 In Motivation to Work, US psychologist Frederick Herzberg other people. relationships with states that achievement, rather other people. than money, motives people. AFTER 1990 In Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, Mihály Csíkszentmihályi discusses motivation for achievement. 2002 Martin Seligman explores motivation as the expression of character strengths. 2004 In Leadership That Gets Results, US psychologist Daniel Goleman applies McClelland’s ideas to leadership in business.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 323 See also: Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■ Mihály Csíkszentmihályi 198–99 ■ Martin Seligman 200–01 I n the 1960s and 70s, decisions the unconscious. We are not fully David C. McClelland about whether to employ aware of our own motivations, he someone or not were usually stated, so what we may say about David Clarence McClelland based on educational achievement, our motives in job interviews or was born in Mount Vernon, and the results of personality and IQ self-report questionnaires should New York. After graduating tests. David C. McClelland, however, not be taken at face value. He from Wesleyan University, suggested that peoples’ motivations advocated using the Thematic Connecticut, and gaining were the best predictor of success Apperception Test (TAT), which an MA at the University of in the workplace. Through extensive psychologists Henry Murray and Missouri, he moved to Yale, research, he identified the three key Christiana Morgan devised in where he completed his PhD motivations that he believed were the 1930s as a way of revealing in experimental psychology responsible for job performance: the aspects of the unconscious. Rarely in 1941. He taught briefly at need for power, for achievement, used in a business setting, the test several universities, before and for affiliation. While everyone presents a series of pictures to the accepting a position at has all three motivations, he subject, who is then asked to Harvard in 1956. McClelland maintained that one would be develop a story based on them. stayed there for 30 years, dominant, shaping a person’s The assumption is that the stories becoming Chairman of the performance in the workplace. will be a projection of the subject’s Department of Social Relations. underlying abilities and motivations. Three key needs McClelland went on to devise an In 1963, McClelland set McClelland saw the need for power, innovative way of analyzing TAT up a business management or to have control over others, as responses to allow a comparison consultancy, applying his the most important motivation for between the suitability of the theories to assist company a good manager or leader. But this different people who took the test executives in the assessment is only true as long as the need for to specific work-related roles. and training of staff. In 1987, power is on behalf of a company Boston University made him or an organization. Someone with McClelland’s ideas revolutionized a Distinguished Research a strong drive for personal power business recruitment, and although Professor of Psychology, a may make a poor team player. his intensive methods of assessing position he held up to his job applicants have lost some of death at the age of 80. High quality work, McClelland their popularity, the basic principles thought, stems from the need for endure. Motivation is now seen as Key works achievement, which is therefore critical to performance at work. ■ a far more accurate predictor of 1953 The Achievement Motive job success than intelligence. The Thematic Apperception Test 1961 The Achieving Society The drive to achieve, he believed, was promoted by McClelland as a way of 1973 Testing for Competence is what gives people a competitive assessing job candidates. Telling a story Rather Than for Intelligence edge, helping them to stretch for based on a series of images was thought 1987 Human Motivation new goals and improve. to uncover people’s true motives. 1998 Identifying Competencies with Behavioral-Event Lastly, McClelland claimed that Interviews the need for affiliation—to have good relationships with others— helps people to work well within a team. He also noted that people with a pronounced need for affiliation are unlikely to be successful managers. McClelland pointed out that motivation stems from personality traits that are deeply embedded in

324 EMOTION IS AN ESSENTIALLY UNCONSCIOUS PROCESS NICO FRIJDA (1927– ) IN CONTEXT O ur emotions and feelings situation has changed, as scientific are idiosyncratic; they seem findings regarding the “site” of APPROACH to be purely subjective, and emotions have led to renewed Psychology of emotion the mysticism surrounding them interest. Evolutionary psychologists may explain why the psychology of have also posed questions. What is BEFORE emotion has advanced so slowly. the purpose of emotions? How have 1872 Biologist Charles Darwin But during the last 30 years, this they helped us survive and thrive? publishes the first scientific study of human emotions Emotion is an essentially unconscious process. in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Emotions are motivating Feelings are how we interpret forces, preparing us for action. the emotions we experience. Late 1800s William James and Danish physiologist They are spontaneous We are consciously aware of Carl Lange propose the biological processes that our feelings and can make James–Lange theory of decisions based on them. emotion: that emotions are are out of our control. the result of bodily changes, and not the cause of them. They can be understood by As we have control of our others through spontaneous feelings, others cannot 1929 Physiologists Walter Cannon and Philip Bard say physical expression, guess at our feelings we experience physiological such as laughter. through our behavior. arousal and emotion at the same time, in the Bard– Cannon theory. AFTER 1991 In Emotion and Adaptation, psychologist Richard Lazarus says a thought must precede any emotion or physiological arousal.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 325 See also: William James 38–45 ■ Albert Ellis 142–45 ■ Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ Charlotte Bühler 336 ■ René Diatkine 338 ■ Stanley Schachter 338 Nico Frijda’s groundbreaking book, about it. We are not suddenly Emotions, such as fear, Frijda says, The Laws of Emotion, explores hijacked by our feelings as we are are always “about something.” They are the substance and rules of by our emotions. spontaneous responses to changing emotions. He sees them as lying circumstances, and reveal much about at the crossroads of biological and Action and thought our relationship with our environment. cognitive processes: some, such Frijda points out that emotions and as fear, are biologically inherent feelings are also displayed differently. In defining and describing a very or innate, and these basic emotions Emotions prepare us for action; in specific set of laws by which are the ones we share with other situations that induce fear, they are emotions operate, Frijda shows that animals. Others arise in us in motivating forces that prepare the they emerge, wax, and wane in a response to thoughts, so are clearly body to flee or stand and fight. Other predictable way. Reason interprets cognition-based. They may even— people are able to understand, or at them like a barometer, to ensure our as in the case of indignation or least guess at, our emotions from our mental well-being. “Our emotional humiliation—be shaped by culture. behavior. Feelings, however, may or selves and reasonable selves are not may not be consistent with compartmentalized,“ Frijda says, Frijda makes clear distinctions behavior, because we can choose “on the contrary, they are connected between emotions and feelings. to behave in a way that hides them. much more than they seem”. ■ Emotions are beyond our control; they spontaneously arise and alert Frijda sees the basic emotions us to their presence by physical as an opportunity for greater self- sensations, such as a tightening awareness. They accompany a in the gut when we feel fear. For biological arousal that makes us this reason he says that “emotion notice them and become more is an essentially unconscious aware of our feelings. This allows us process.” Feelings, on the other to factor them into choices we make, hand, are our interpretations of and with honest reflection, to deepen whatever emotions we are self-awareness. But Frijda confines experiencing, and have a more basic emotions to anger, joy, shame, conscious element to them. When sadness, and fear. Others, such as we feel something, we are able to jealousy and guilt, do not have the have thoughts and make decisions same biological imperative. Nico Frijda Nico Henri Frijda was born in teaching. For the next 10 years Amsterdam to an academic Jewish he was assistant professor at family, and lived in hiding as a the University of Amsterdam, child to avoid the persecution of then professor in experimental the Jews during World War II. He and theoretical psychology. studied psychology at Gemeente Universiteit, Amsterdam, where he Frijda has held visiting posts was awarded a PhD in 1956 for in universities across Europe, his thesis Understanding Facial including Paris, Italy, Germany, Expressions. He attributes his and Spain. He lives with his initial interest in emotions to second wife in Amsterdam. being in love, as a student, with “a very expressive girl.” Key works From 1952 to 1955 Frijda 1986 The Emotions worked as a clinical psychologist at 2006 The Laws of Emotion the Dutch Army Neurosis Centre, 2011 Emotion Regulation and before returning to research and Free Will

326 BEHAVIOR WITHOUT ENVIRONMENTAL CUES WOULD BE ABSURDLY CHAOTIC WALTER MISCHEL (1930– ) IN CONTEXT U ntil the late 1960s, Raymond Cattell identified 16 personality was most different personality traits; Hans J. APPROACH often described as a series Eysenck suggested there were only Personality theory of individual behavioral traits three or four. In 1961, Ernest Tupes that were genetically inherited. and Raymond Christal proposed BEFORE Psychologists worked to define that there are five major personality c.400 BCE Ancient Greek and measure these traits, because traits (the “Big Five”): openness, physician Hippocrates this was thought to be essential conscientiousness, extraversion, suggests personality depends to understanding and reliably agreeableness, and neuroticism or on the levels of the four predicting a person’s behavior. emotional stability. Then, in 1968, humors in the body. How can behavior 1946 Raymond Cattell begins be predicted? developing his 16-factor model of personality. Looking at …we also need personality traits alone to consider external 1961 American psychologists gives us very few cues… factors and context. Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal propose the first “Big The dynamic interaction Five” personality-factor model. between a person and the situation AFTER he finds himself in is the best 1975 Hans J. Eysenck’s predictor of behavior. Personality Questionnaire identifies two biologically based, independent dimensions of personality. 1980 US psychologists Robert Hogan, Joyce Hogan, and Rodney Warrenfeltz develop comprehensive personality tests based on the “Big Five” model of personality.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 327 See also: Galen 18–19 ■ Gordon Allport 306–07 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ Hans J. Eysenck 316–21 Walter Mischel shocked the world of personality theory when he proclaimed in Personality and Assessment that the classic personality test was almost worthless. He had reviewed a number of studies that tried to predict behavior from personality test scores, and found them to be accurate only 9 percent of the time. External factors Resisting temptation, rather than Walter Mischel Mischel drew attention to the part succumbing to short-term gratification, played by external factors, such as often indicates a capacity for greater Walter Mischel was born in context, in determining behavior, achievement in life, as Mischel’s studies Austria, but emigrated with believing that it was necessary to of behavior in young children revealed. his family to the US in 1938. look at the dynamic interaction of He grew up in Brooklyn, New people and the situation they find In his famous marshmallow York, receiving his PhD in themselves in. Imagine how absurd experiments, aimed at testing clinical psychology from Ohio it would be if people’s behavior willpower, four-year-old children State University in 1956. appeared to be independent of were presented with a single He then went on to teach at external factors. He proposed that marshmallow and told they could the Universities of Colorado, an analysis of a person’s behavior, either eat it immediately, or wait 20 Harvard, and Stanford, moving in different situations, observed on minutes and then have two. Some in 1983 to Columbia University numerous occasions, would provide children were able to wait, others in New York City, where he is clues to behavior patterns that were not. Mischel monitored each the Robert Johnston Niven would reveal a distinctive signature child’s progress into adolescence, Professor of Humane Letters. of personality, as opposed to a list and reported that those who had of traits. Individual interpretation of resisted temptation were better Numerous honors have a situation was also considered. adjusted psychologically and more been heaped on Mischel. These dependable; they did better at school, include the Distinguished Later, Mischel explored habits of were more socially competent, and Scientific Contribution Award thinking, which might endure over had greater self-esteem. Ability to as well as the Distinguished time and across different situations. delay gratification seemed to be a Scientist Award of the better predictor of future success American Psychological What is a personality than any previously measured trait. Association, and the test really telling us prestigious Grawemeyer Mischel’s work led to a shift in Award in psychology in about a person? the study of personality—from how 2011. Mischel is also a Walter Mischel personality predicts behavior to prolific and talented artist. how behavior reveals personality. It also changed the way personality Key works profiling is used in assessing job candidates. Tests that were once 1968 Personality and considered an accurate basis for Assessment staff recruitment are now seen as 1973 Is Information About a guide, to be interpreted in the Individuals More Important context of the situations that are Than Information About likely to arise in doing a job. ■ Situations? 2003 Introduction to Personality

328 WE CANNOT DISTINGUISH THE SANE FROM THE INSANE IN PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS DAVID ROSENHAN (1932– ) IN CONTEXT Psychiatrists say that mental disorders can be accurately diagnosed through symptoms APPROACH Anti-psychiatry that can be categorized into diseases. BEFORE So they should be able to tell the difference 1960 In The Divided Self: between the sane and the insane. An Existential Study in Sanity and Madness, R.D. Laing A first experiment A second experiment emphasizes the family as showed that sane people showed that people with a source of mental illness. genuine mental health can be judged insane. disorders can be judged 1961 Psychologists E. Zigler and L. Phillips demonstrate to be faking them. huge overlaps in the symptoms of different categories of We cannot distinguish the sane from psychiatric disorder. the insane in psychiatric hospitals. 1961 Hungarian-American psychiatrist Thomas Szasz publishes the controversial The Myth of Mental Illness. 1967 British psychiatrist David Cooper defines the anti-psychiatry movement in Psychiatry and Anti-Psychiatry. AFTER 2008 Thomas Szasz publishes Psychiatry: The Science of Lies. Psychiatric diagnoses are not objective, but exist only in the minds of the observers.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 329 See also: Emil Kraepelin 31 ■ R.D. Laing 150–51 ■ Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Erving Goffman 228–29 ■ Elliot Aronson 244–45 ■ Thigpen & Cleckley 330–31 D uring the 1960s, psychiatry an appointment. Later, at the and powerlessness. Their records faced a vocal challenge to admissions office, they were to showed that the average daily time its fundamental beliefs by complain of hearing an unfamiliar they spent with medical staff was a number of experts known as voice in their heads, which was less than seven minutes. Although the “anti-psychiatrists.” This unclear but used words such as they were undetected by the hospital informal group of psychiatrists, “empty” and “thud.” This suggested staff, other patients challenged their psychologists, and welfare workers existential feelings of pointlessness. sanity, sometimes quite vigorously: claimed that psychiatry is a medical They were instructed to give false “You’re not crazy. You’re a journalist model of mental health, yet there names and occupations, but checking up on the hospital.” are no physical symptoms, and its otherwise true personal histories. treatment regimes largely ignore Judging the insane sane the patient’s needs and behaviors. As a result, all the pseudo- In the second part of Rosenhan’s patients were admitted to hospital study, he falsely informed the staff In 1973, David Rosenhan carried with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, at a teaching and research hospital out a field study in the US that despite showing no symptoms of (who were aware of the first study) explored the validity of psychiatric the disorder. Their hospital stays that during the next three months, diagnosis and resulted in the lasted an average of 19 days, during one or more pseudo-patients would dramatic conclusion that we which time they behaved completely try to be admitted to the hospital, cannot distinguish the sane from normally. They maintained journals and they were asked to rate each the insane in psychiatric hospitals. of their experiences, surreptitiously new patient on the likelihood of at first but then openly, as it was them being a pseudo-patient. Of In the first part of the study, never questioned. Demonstrating 193 genuine new admissions, 41 Rosenhan assembled a group how even normal behavior might were judged suspect by at least of eight sane people (including be interpreted as evidence of a one member of staff, and 23 were himself), made up of women and psychiatric condition, Rosenhan flagged as possible pseudo-patients men of different occupations and found that a common comment in by at least one psychiatrist. ages, and designated them as their medical notes was “patient pseudo-patients. They were briefed engages in writing behavior.” Rosenhan’s work generated an to make an attempt to be admitted explosion of controversy, and led as patients to different mental The “patients” themselves many institutions to take steps to hospitals in five US states, first by described their experience in improve their care of patients. ■ telephoning the hospital to ask for hospital as one of depersonalization David Rosenhan David Rosenhan was born in He is a fellow of the American the US in 1932. After gaining Association for the Advancement a BA in psychology from Yeshiva of Science and was a visiting College, New York City, he moved fellow at Oxford University. to the city’s Columbia University He founded the Trial Analysis to study for his MA and PhD. He Group and has long been a specialized in clinical and social major advocate for the legal psychology, and became an expert rights of mental health patients. in legal trial tactics and decision- making. From 1957 to 1970, he Key works taught at Swarthmore College, Princeton University, and 1968 Foundations of Abnormal Haverford College, then moved Psychology (with Perry London) to Stanford, where he taught for 1973 On Being Sane in Insane nearly 30 years. He continues to Places work at Stanford as professor 1997 Abnormality (with Martin emeritus of psychology and law. Seligman and Lisa Butler)

330 THE THREE FACES OF EVE CORBETT H. THIGPEN (1919–1999) HERVEY M. CLECKLEY (1903–1984) IN CONTEXT M ultiple personality One of the most famous cases of disorder (MPD, later multiple personality disorder is APPROACH known as dissociative that of Eve White. Eve was referred Mental disorders identity disorder) is a mental to Thigpen and Cleckley in 1952, condition in which an individual’s suffering from severe headaches BEFORE personality appears to present as and occasional blackouts. She was 1880s Pierre Janet describes two or more distinct identities. a neat, rather prim, young woman, MPD as multiple states of MPD was first reported in 1791 by aged 25, married, with a four-year- consciousness and coins the Eberhardt Gmelin; over the following old daughter. Eve would remain in term “dissociation.” 150 years, a further 100 clinical cases treatment for 14 months. were documented. It was believed 1887 French surgeon Eugene that the condition arose from Eve described to the doctors a Azam documents the multiple childhood abuse, and could be cured disturbing episode: she had bought personalities of Felida X. by integrating the sub-personalities some extravagant clothes she could back into the main personality. not afford, yet had no memory of the 1906 US physician Mortin purchase. As she recounted this, her Prince reports Christine Beauchamp’s case in The Eve White Eve Black Dissociation of Personality. Prim, reserved, timid, Wayward, harsh, repressed, compulsive. No irresponsible, shallow, AFTER awareness of the other hysterical. Aware of Eve 1970s US psychiatrist Cornelia White, but not of Jane. Wilbur reports Sybil Isabel two personalities. Dorsett’s case and links MPD definitively with child abuse. Jane Mature, boldly capable, 1980 The American Psychiatric interesting, compassionate. Association publishes the third Aware of both Eves, but edition of the Diagnostic and only from the point of Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, legitimating MPD. her awakening. 1994 MPD is renamed Dissociative Identity Disorder.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 331 See also: Pierre Janet 54–55 ■ Timothy Leary 148 ■ Milton Erickson 336 Corbett H. Thigpen & Hervey M. Cleckley demeanor began to change. She Eve’s story was popularized in a book Corbett H. Thigpen was looked confused, then the lines of and a film, The Three Faces of Eve, born in Macon, Georgia. her face altered. Her eyes widened, which captured the public’s imagination His childhood interest and she smiled provocatively. She and made Eve’s case the most famous in amateur magic endured spoke in a bright, flirtatious tone, example of Multiple Personality Disorder. throughout his life, and he requesting a cigarette, even though was inducted into the Eve did not smoke. Eve’s condition was believed to Southeastern Association result from childhood abuse, so of Magicians’ Hall of Fame. This was “Eve Black,” a separate efforts were made to work back into Thigpen graduated from personality so distinct that she her early childhood, using hypnosis Mercer University in 1942, even suffered from a skin allergy to to provoke the emergence of Eve and from the Medical College nylon that Eve White did not. Eve Black. Eventually, an attempt was of Georgia in 1945. He served White was unaware of Eve Black, made to summon both personalities in the US Army during World while the latter was wholly aware of at once; Eve fell into a trance. She War II, then in 1948 he began the former, and was full of derision woke as a third personality: this was his distinguished career as a for her: “She’s such a damn dope….” Jane, the third face of Eve—a more psychiatrist in a private capable and interesting character practice with Hervey M. Distinct personalities than Eve White. She seemed to Cleckley. For two decades, Both personalities were submitted combine the assets of both Eves, the pair taught in the to extensive psychological testing. without their weaknesses. While departments of psychiatry Eve White had a marginally higher neither Eve was aware of Jane, she and neurology at the Medical IQ than Eve Black; both fell in the was aware of them both. College of Georgia. Thigpen “bright, normal” category. Personality was known as “the professor dynamics were explored using the Jane appeared to be a balanced who received a standing Rorschach test (in which subjects compromise between the two Eves, ovation after every lecture.” report their perception of inkblots). and she was nurtured as the He retired in 1987. There were dramatic differences: personality with the best grasp of Eve Black showed a dominant the complex dynamics of the three Hervey M. Cleckley was hysterical tendency, and the ability personalities: the two Eves were born in Augusta, Georgia. In to conform. Eve White showed integrated into her character. 1924, he graduated from the “constriction, anxiety, and obsessive University of Georgia, where compulsive traits” and an inability Full-blown cases of MPD such he was also a keen to deal with her hostility. as Eve’s are rare, but it is now sportsman. He won a Rhodes thought that less pronounced cases scholarship to Oxford ‘When I go out and are more common. The careful University, graduating in get drunk,’ Eve Black documentation of in-depth case 1926. He spent his entire said, ‘she wakes up studies like Eve’s has resulted in career at Georgia Medical with the hangover.’ diagnostic and treatment protocols School, in a variety of Thigpen & Cleckley that make MPD highly treatable. ■ positions, including that of founding chairman of the Department of Psychiatry and Health Behavior. In 1941, he wrote The Mask of Sanity, a seminal study of psychopaths. Key works 1941 The Mask of Sanity (Cleckley) 1957 The Three Faces of Eve (Thigpen & Cleckley)

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334 DIRECTORY I nvestigation into the workings of the mind dates back to the earliest civilizations, although it was largely philosophical in nature, rather than scientific in the modern sense. It was only with major advances in the biological sciences in the second half of the 19th century that a truly scientific analysis of our mental processes became possible—giving rise to psychology as a distinct area of study. The ideas and discoveries of some of the key researchers in the field have been examined already in this book, but many more have contributed to the growth of psychology as a respected science in its own right. From structuralists to behaviorists, from psychoanalysts to cognative therapists, the people discussed below have all helped deepen our understanding of our uniqueness as human beings. JOHN DEWEY methods of cross-cultural analysis See also: Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■ Rivers used on an expedition to the William James 38–45 ■ J.P. Guilford 1859–1952 Torres Straits Pacific islands laid 304–05 ■ Edwin Boring 335 the foundations for future field study. American John Dewey greatly See also: Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■ WILLIAM STERN influenced the development of the Hermann Ebbinghaus 48–49 ■ science and philosophy of human Sigmund Freud 92–99 1871–1938 thought in the first half of the 20th century. Although primarily a EDWARD B. TITCHENER German-born William Stern was a behaviorist psychologist, his leading figure in the establishment application of the philosophy of 1867–1927 of developmental psychology. His pragmatism on society had a major first book, Psychology of Early impact on educational thinking Englishman Edward Bradford Childhood (1914), was based on and practice in the US. Titchener studied experimental observations of his own three See also: William James 38–45 ■ psychology, first at Oxford and then children over 18 years. His G. Stanley Hall 46–47 in Germany under Wilhelm Wundt. method—“personalistic He moved to the US in 1892, where psychology”—investigated the W.H.R. RIVERS he became known as the founder of individual developmental path, Structural Psychology, which breaks combining applied, differential, 1864–1922 down the experiences of humanity genetic, and general psychology. A and arranges them into elemental pioneer in forensic psychology, he William Halse Rivers Rivers was an structures. As Structural Psychology was the first to use the nomothetic- English surgeon, neurologist, and is based on introspection, it was at idiographic approach. Stern is best psychiatrist who specialized in the odds with behaviorism, which was remembered for his work on the relationship between the mind and growing in popularity. By the 1920s, intelligence quotient (IQ) tests to the body. He published several key Titchener was fairly isolated in his calculate a child’s intelligence. A papers on neurological conditions, beliefs, though he was still widely single-number score is awarded including hysteria. He is best known admired. He wrote several textbooks by dividing the “mental age” of the for his work on “shell shock” (post- on psychology including: An Outline test-taker by his or her “chronological traumatic stress disorder), and is of Psychology (1896), Experimental age” and multiplying by 100. also considered one of the founders Psychology (1901–1905), and A See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ of medical anthropology. The Textbook of Psychology (1910). Jean Piaget 262–69

DIRECTORY 335 CHARLES SAMUEL MYERS Experiments. Using disciplines Testing (1929) and Hypnosis and drawn from psychology, physiology, Suggestibility (1933). Informed by 1873–1946 and anthropology, he examined over his objective behaviorist approach, a five-year period the productivity Hull’s Mathematico-Deductive At Cambridge University, Myers and morale of six female workers as Theory of Rote Learning (1940) studied experimental psychology he made changes to their working measured all behavior (including under W.H.R. Rivers, and in 1912 he conditions. The most surprising animal) by a single mathematical set up the Cambridge Laboratory of outcome was the way the workers equation. He developed the theory Experimental Psychology. During responded to the research itself. in Principles of Behavior (1943), World War I, he treated soldiers for The Hawthorne Effect, as it is now which examined the effects of “shell shock” (a term he invented). known, is an alteration in human reinforcement on the stimulus- After the war, he was a key figure behavior that occurs when people response connection. His Global in the development of occupational know they are being studied. This Theory of Behavior was psychology. His books include discovery had a lasting impact on one of the standard systems of Mind and Work (1920), Industrial industrial ethics and relations, and psychological research at the time. Psychology in Great Britain (1926), research methods in social science. See also: Jean-Martin Charcot 30 and In the Realm of Mind (1937). See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Alfred Binet 50-53 ■ Ivan Pavlov See also: Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■ ■ Carl Jung 102–07 60–61 ■ Edward Thorndike 62–65 Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Raymond Cattell 314–15 ■ W.R.H. Rivers 334 HERMANN RORSCHACH EDWIN BORING MAX WERTHEIMER 1884–1922 1886–1968 1880–1943 As a Swiss schoolboy, Rorschach One of the most important figures was called Klek (Inkblot), because in experimental psychology, Boring Together with Kurt Koffka and he was always drawing. He later specialized in human sensory and Wolfgang Köhler, Czech psychologist devised the inkblot test, whereby perceptual systems. His Max Wertheimer founded Gestalt responses to specific blots may interpretation of W.E. Hill’s reversible psychology in the US in the 1930s. reveal emotional, character, and old woman/young maid drawing led Gestalt built on existing theories of thought disorders. He died, aged 37, to it becoming known as the Boring perceptual organization. Moving a year after his “form interpretation Figure. At Harvard in the 1920s, away from Wundt’s molecularism, test” Psychodiagnostics (1921) was Boring moved the psychology Wertheimer advocated the study of published. Others later developed department away from psychiatry, the whole, famously saying “the the test, but this gave rise to four turning it into a rigorously scientific whole is more than the sum of its different methods, each flawed. In school that unified structuralism and parts.” He also devised Pragnanz, 1993, American John Exner united behaviorism. His first book, A the idea that the mind processes them all in the Comprehensive History of Experimental Psychology visual information into the simplest System—one of the most enduring (1929), was followed by Sensation forms of symmetry and shape. psychoanalytical experiments. and Perception in the History of See also: Abraham Maslow 138–39 See also: Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ Experimental Psychology (1942). ■ Solomon Asch 224–27 Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Carl Jung See also: Wilhelm Wundt 32–37 ■ 102–07 Edward B. Titchener 334 ELTON MAYO CLARK L. HULL FREDERIC BARTLETT 1880–1949 1884–1952 1886–1969 In the 1930s, while Professor of American Clark Leonard Hull’s early Frederic Bartlett was Cambridge Industrial Management at Harvard, studies included psychometrics and University’s first Professor of Australian Elton Mayo carried out hypnosis. He published Aptitude Experimental Psychology (1931–51). his groundbreaking Hawthorne

336 DIRECTORY He is known for his memory Edward Thorndike and Charles induces a trance by confusing the experiments where participants were Spearman, administering the Army mind with a moment of “behavioral asked to read an unfamiliar, mythical Alpha Test for group intelligence. He void” as the flow of the handshake story composed by Bartlett (such as later developed Binet’s tests, adding is interrupted. Considered the The War of the Ghosts) before nonverbal reasoning. Wechsler founder of hypnotherapy treatment, retelling it. Many added details that believed intelligence lies not only in Erickson was also a major influence were not in the original story, or the ability to think rationally, but also on the growth of family therapy, changed meanings to fit their own in the ability to act purposefully solution-focused therapy, systemic specific culture. Bartlett concluded and to deal effectively with one’s therapy, and a number of brief- that they were not remembering but environment. In 1939, the Wechsler- therapy treatments, including NLP rather reconstructing the text. Bellevue Intelligence Scale was (neuro-linguistic programming). See also: Endel Tulving 186–91 ■ published, followed a decade later by See also: B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ W.H.R. the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Stanley Milgram 246–53. Rivers 334 Children (1949). The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (1955) is still the ALEXANDER LURIA CHARLOTTE BUHLER most widely used intelligence test. See also: Francis Galton 28–29 ■ 1902–1977 1893–1974 Alfred Binet 50–53 ■ David C. McClelland 322–23 Born in Kazan, Russia, Luria studied German-born Bühler founded the at Moscow’s Institute of Psychology. Vienna Institute of Psychology in NANCY BAYLEY His work on reaction times and 1922 with her husband, Karl. Her thought processes resulted in his studies of childhood personality and 1899–1994 “combined motor method” and the cognitive development expanded first ever lie-detector machine. He to include the course of human Nancy Bayley, an eminent American then went to medical school and development throughout life. Rather child developmental psychologist, specialized in neurology. Balancing than Jung’s three stages of life, she specialized in the measurement of the physical and the mental, he made proposed four: birth–15; 16–25; motor and intellectual development. breakthroughs in brain damage, 26–45; and 46–65. Bühler found For her doctorate, she measured memory loss, perception, and links between adult emotions and fear in children by analyzing the aphasia (language disorders). The early childhood. Her World Test is a sympathetic nervous system via stories he told in books such as therapeutic device that uses a set moisture levels in sweat glands. The Man with a Shattered World: of numbered miniatures to reveal a Her Bayley Scales of Mental and The History of a Brain Wound (1972) child’s inner emotional world. After Motor Development (1969) remains helped to popularize neurology. publishing From Birth to Maturity the worldwide standard measure of See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 (1935) and From Childhood to Old mental and physical development ■ B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Noam Age (1938), she moved to the US. In in infants from one to 42 months. Chomsky 294–97 the 1960s, Bühler helped to develop See also: Edwin Guthrie 74 ■ humanistic psychology. Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99 DANIEL LAGACHE See also: Carl Rogers 130–37 ■ Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■ Viktor MILTON ERICKSON 1903–1972 Frankl 140 ■ Gordon Allport 306–13 1901–1980 Frenchman Daniel Lagache was DAVID WECHSLER inspired to study experimental Nevada-born Erickson’s trial-and- psychology, psychopathology, and 1896–1981 error observations of hypnosis over phenomenology by the lectures of many years led him to become a Georges Dumas. A forensics and During World War I, Wechsler, a world authority on hypnosis and criminology expert, Lagache’s key Romanian-born American, worked trance. He is well known for his books included Jealousy (1947) and as an army psychologist alongside Ericksonian Handshake that Pathological Mourning (1956). After

DIRECTORY 337 being expelled from the International their own personalities through their Cerebral Cortex and the Internal Psychoanalytical Association in 1953 cognitive appraisal of events. From Organs (1954), Miller set out to for his criticism of Sacha Nacht’s this theory came the “role construct prove that internal organs and medical authoritarianism, he set up repertory test,” which is used to their functions could also be the breakaway French Society of research and diagnose the nature manipulated at will. His findings Psychoanalysis with Jacques Lacan. of personality. Valued in cognitive led to the treatment technique of A Freudian theorist, Lagache also psychology and counseling, it is also Biofeedback, which aims to played an important role in used in organizational behavior and improve patients’ conditions by promoting psychoanalysis among educational studies. training them to respond to signals the general public, particularly by See also: Johann Friedrich from their own bodies. linking it with clinical experience. Herbart 24–25 ■ Carl Rogers 130–37 See also: Anna Freud 111 ■ See also: Jacques Lacan 122–23 ■ Ulric Neisser 339 Albert Bandura 286–91 ERNEST R. HILGARD MUZAFER SHERIF ERIC BERNE 1904–2001 1906–1988 1910–1970 In the 1950s, Ernest Ropiequet Raised in Turkey, Sherif gained his Berne, a Canadian psychiatrist and “Jack” Hilgard collaborated on his PhD in the US at Columbia, with a psychoanalyst, developed the theory pioneering hypnosis studies at dissertation on how social factors of transactional analysis, which put Stanford University with his wife can influence perception. Published verbal communication at the center Josephine and, in 1957, they as The Psychology of Social Norms of psychotherapy. The words of the founded the Laboratory of Hypnosis (1936), it became known as “the first speaker, the Agent, were called Research. There, with André Muller autokinetic effect” experiments. One a Transaction Stimulus; the reply of Weitzenhoffer, he developed the of Sherif’s legacies was combining the Respondant was a Transaction Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility successfully experimental methods Response. Every personality was Scales (1959). His controversial in the laboratory and the field. He split into alter-egos: child, adult, and neodissociation theory and the worked with his wife, Carolyn Wood parent; each stimulus and response “hidden-observer effect” (1977)— Sherif, notably on the Robbers Cave was seen as playing one of these which asserts that under hypnosis Experiment (1954). In this, a number “parts.” Exchanges were studied as several subsystem states of of boy campers were divided into an “I do something to you, and you consciousness are regulated by an two groups. Posing as a janitor, do something back” transactional executive control system—have Sherif observed the origins of analysis. His Games People Play stood the test of time. His textbooks prejudice, conflict, and stereotype in (1964) suggested that “games,” or Conditioning and Learning (with social groups. His resulting Realistic behavior patterns, between D.G. Marquis, 1940) and Introduction Conflict theory still underpins our individuals can indicate hidden to Psychology (1953) are still studied. understanding of group behavior. feelings or emotions. See also: Ivan Pavlov 60–61 ■ With Carl Havland, he also developed See also: Erik Erikson 272–73 ■ Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Eleanor E. the Social Judgement theory (1961). David C. McClelland 322–23 Maccoby 284–85 See also: Soloman Asch 224–27 ■ Philip Zimbardo 254–55 ROGER W. SPERRY GEORGE KELLY NEAL MILLER 1913–1994 1905–1967 1909–2002 American neurobiologist Sperry’s Kelly made an important contribution successful separation of the corpus to the psychology of personality American psychologist Miller was callosum—the bundles of nerve through The Psychology of Personal a research fellow in Vienna under fibers that transfer signals between Constructs (1955). His humanistic Anna Freud and Heinz Hartman. left and right brain hemispheres— idea suggests that individuals make After reading K.M. Bykov’s The led to a dramatic breakthrough in

338 DIRECTORY the treatment of a certain kind of in opinions to prove that television HAROLD H. KELLEY epilepsy. In 1981, with David Hubel could alter people’s values. and Torsten Wiesel, he was awarded See also: Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ 1921–2003 the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Albert Medicine for his work on his split- Bandura 286–91 American social psychologist Kelley brain theory, which showed that gained his PhD under Kurt Lewin the left and right hemispheres had RENE DIATKINE at Massachusetts Institute of separate specializations. Technology. His first major work, See also: William James 38–45 ■ 1918–1997 Communication and Persuasion Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99 (with Hovland & Janis, 1953), split Diatkine, a French psychoanalyst a communication into three parts: SERGE LEBOVICI and psychiatrist, was central to the “who;” “says what;” and “to whom.” development of dynamic psychiatry. The idea was widely adopted, and 1915–2000 He emphasised emotions and their it changed the way people such as underlying thought processes, rather politicians presented themselves. In Lebovici was a French Freudian than observable behavior. Diatkine 1953, he began working with John who specialized in adolescent, child, was also very active in developing Thibaut. Together they wrote The and infant development, especially institutional mental health, helping Social Psychology of Groups (1959), the bonding process between baby to set up The Association De Santé followed by Interpersonal Relations: and mother. He is credited with Mentale in 1958. His book on primal A Theory of Interdependence (1978). introducing child psychoanalysis fantasies, Precocious Psychoanalysis See also: Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ to France. His many books include (with Janine Simon, 1972), is one of Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■ Noam Psychoanalysis in France (1980) his most enduring works. Chomsky 294–97 and International Annals of See also: Anna Freud 111 ■ Adolescent Psychiatry (1988). Jacques Lacan 122–23 STANLEY SCHACHTER See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ Anna Freud 111 PAUL MEEHL 1922–1997 MILTON ROKEACH 1920–2003 New York-born Schachter is best known for the two-factor theory of 1918–1988 The work of American Paul Meehl emotion (the Schachter-Singer has had a lasting impact on mental Theory), developed with Jerome Rokeach, a Polish-American social health and research methodology. In Singer. The pair showed that psychologist, studied how religious Clinical Versus Statistical Prediction: physical sensations are linked to belief affects values and attitudes. A Theoretical Analysis and a Review emotions—for example, the way in He saw values as core motivations of the Evidence (1954), he argued which people experience increased and mental transformations of basic that behavioral statistics were heartbeat and muscle tension psychological needs. His theory of better examined using formulaic before feeling afraid—and that dogmatism examined the cognitive mathematical methods rather than cognition is affected by an characteristics of closed- and open- clinical analysis. In 1962, he found a individual’s physiological state. mindedness (The Open and Closed genetic link to schizophrenia, which See also: William James 38–45 ■ Mind, 1960). Rokeach’s Dogmatism until then had been attributed to Leon Festinger 166–67 Scale, an ideology- and content-free poor parenting. His studies of way to measure closed-mindedness, determinism and free will focusing HEINZ HECKHAUSEN is still used, and the Rokeach Value on quantum indeterminacy were Survey is viewed as one of the most published as The Determinism- 1926–1988 effective ways of measuring beliefs Freedom and Mind-Body Problems and values in particular groups. In (with Herbert Feigl, 1974) German psychologist Heinz The Great American Values Test, See also: B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Heckhausen was a world expert Rokeach et al. measured changes David Rosenhan 328–29 on motivational psychology. He

DIRECTORY 339 completed a postdoctoral its development had neglected the (never having had something), and dissertation on hopes and fears of role of perception. His specialism is linked antisocial behavior to family success and failure, and his early memory, and in 1995 he chaired the discord rather than maternal work on childhood motivational American Psychological Association deprivation. development led to the Advanced task force “Intelligence, Knowns See also: John Bowlby 272–77 ■ Cognitive Model of Motivation and Unknowns,” which examined Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99 (Heckhausen & Rheinberg, 1980). theories of intelligence testing. His His book Motivation and Action papers were published as the book FRIEDEMANN SCHULZ (1980), coauthored with his The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains VON THUN psychologist daughter, Jutta, has in IQ and Related Measures (1998). had a lasting influence. See also: George Armitage Miller 1944– See also: Zing-Yang Kuo 75 ■ 168–73 ■ Donald Broadbent 178–85 Albert Bandura 286–91 ■ Simon German psychologist Friedemann Baron-Cohen 298–99 JEROME KAGAN Schulz von Thun is famous for his Communication Model, published ANDRE GREEN 1929– in the three-volume To Talk With Each Other (1981, 1989, 1998). Von 1927– Kagan, a leading American figure in Thun says there are four levels of developmental psychology, believed communication in every part of a André Green, an Egyptian-born that physiology had more influence conversation: speaking factually; French psychoanalyst, developed an on psychological characteristics making a statement about interest in communications theory than the environment. His work on ourselves; commenting on our and cybernetics while an intern for the biological aspects of childhood relationship to the other person; Jacques Lacan in the 1950s. He later development—apprehension and or asking the other person to do became a harsh critic of Lacan who, fear-revealed effects on self- something. He says that when he said, put too much emphasis on consciousness, morality, memory, people speak and listen on different symbolic and structural form, which and symbolism—laid foundations levels, misunderstandings occur. invalidated his Freudian claims. In for research on the physiology of See also: B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ the late 1960s, Green returned to the temperament. His work influenced Kurt Lewin 218–223 Freudian roots of analysis with his studies of behavior in fields far exploration of the negative. This beyond psychology, including crime, JOHN D. TEASDALE was most elegantly expressed in his education, sociology, and politics. paper, The Dead Mother (1980), in See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ 1944– which the mother is psychologically Jean Piaget 262–69 dead to the child, but, as she is still British psychologist Teasdale there, confuses and frightens him. MICHAEL RUTTER investigated cognitive approaches See also: Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■ to depression. With Zindel Segal Donald Winnicott 118–21 ■ Jacques 1933– and Mark Williams, he developed Lacan 122–23 ■ Françoise Dolto 279 the technique called Mindfulness- British psychiatrist Michael Rutter Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT). ULRIC NEISSER has transformed our understanding This combines cognitive therapy of child development issues and with mindfulness and Eastern 1928– behavior problems. In Maternal meditation techniques, asking Deprivation Reassessed (1972), he patients with recurrent major The best-known book by German- rejected John Bowlby’s selective depression to engage with negative American Neisser is Cognitive attachment theory, showing that thoughts intentionally, rather than Psychology (1967), which outlines a multiple attachments in childhood automatically, and to observe them psychological approach focused on were normal. His later research from a more detached perspective. mental processes. He later criticized revealed a split between deprivation See also: Gordon H. Bower 194–95 cognitive psychology, feeling that (a loss of something) and privation ■ Aaron Beck 174–77

340 GLOSSARY Anecdotal method The use of Behavior modification The Collective unconscious In Carl observational (often unscientific) use of proven behavior change Jung’s theory, the deepest level reports as research data. techniques to control or modify the of the psyche, which contains behavior of individuals or groups. inherited psychic dispositions Archetypes In Carl Jung’s theory, through the archetypes. the inherited patterns or frameworks Behaviorism A psychological within the collective unconscious approach that insists that only Conditioned response (CR) that act to organize our experiences. observable behavior should form A particular response elicited by Archetypes often feature in myths the object of study, as this can an initially neutral stimulus that has and narratives. be witnessed, described, and been paired with an unconditioned measured in objective terms. stimulus, which naturally provokes Association i) A philosophical that response. explanation for the formation of Central traits In Gordon knowledge, stating that it results Allport’s theory, the six or so Conditioned stimulus (CS) In from the linking or association of main personality traits that are classical conditioning, a stimulus simple ideas to form complex ideas. used to describe a person, such as that comes to elicit a particular ii) A link between two psychological “shy” or “good natured.” These are (conditioned) response by virtue processes, formed as a result of the “building blocks” of personality. of having been paired with an their pairing in past experience. unconditional stimulus. Classical conditioning A type Associationism An approach of learning in which a neutral Contiguity The close occurrence of that claims that inborn or acquired stimulus acquires the capacity two ideas or events. This is thought neural links bind stimuli and to trigger a particular response to be necessary for association. responses together, resulting in by becoming paired with an distinct patterns of behavior. unconditional stimulus. Control group Participants in an experiment who are not exposed to Attachment An emotionally Cognitive To do with mental the manipulation of the researchers important relationship in which one processes, such as perception, during an experiment. individual seeks proximity to and memory, or thinking. derives security from the presence Correlation A statistical term for of another, particularly infants to Cognitive dissonance An the tendency of two data sets or parental figures. inconsistency between beliefs variables to vary in a similar way in or feelings, which leads to a a certain set of circumstances. It is Attention A collective term for state of tension. often mistaken for causation. the processes used in selective, focused perception. Cognitive psychology A Crystallized intelligence The psychological approach that collected skills, cognitive abilities, Autism The informal term for focuses on the mental processes and strategies acquired through autistic spectrum disorder involved in learning and knowing, the use of fluid intelligence. It is (ASD)—a cluster of mental and how the mind actively said to increase with age. dysfunctions that is characterized organizes experiences. by extreme self-absorption and lack Defense mechanisms In of empathy, repetitive motor Cognitive style The habitual psychoanalytic theory, mental activities, and the impairment of way in which an individual reactions that occur to ward off language and conceptual skills. processes information. anxiety by unconscious means.

GLOSSARY 341 Desensitize A process of Extinction i) The elimination of General intelligence (“g”) As weakening a strong response to something, especially a species. defined by Charles Spearman, a an event or thing by repeated ii) The weakening of a strength of general factor of intelligence or exposure to that stimulus. response in conditioned learning, ability determined through the due to a lack of reinforcement. correlation of scores on various Depression A mood disorder mental tests; Spearman saw it as a characterized by feelings of False memory A recovered measurement of mental energy, but hopelessness and low self worth, memory or pseudomemory of an others view it as an individual’s accompanied by apathy and loss event that did not take place. It is abstract reasoning ability. of pleasure. In extreme cases, thought to arise through suggestion. depression may impair normal Gestalt psychology A holistic functioning and can lead to Family therapy A general term psychological approach that thoughts of suicide. denoting therapies that treat a emphasizes the role of the whole family, rather than one organized “whole,” as opposed Determinism The doctrine that person, on the assumption that to its parts, in mental processes all events, acts, and choices are problems lie in the interrelationships such as perception. determined by past events or within the family system. previously existing causes. Humanistic psychology A Field theory Kurt Lewin’s model psychological approach that Dichotic listening Listening of human behavior, which uses the emphasizes the importance of to two different messages that concept of force fields to explain the free will and self-actualization in are presented simultaneously, “life space” or field of social determining good mental health. one to each ear. influences around an individual. Hypnosis The induction of a Ego A psychoanalytic term for Fluid intelligence The ability to temporary, trancelike state of one of three elements of the deal with totally new problems. It heightened suggestibility. human persona (see also id, is said to decrease with age. superego); the ego is the rational Hypothesis A prediction or aspect of personality that is in Free association A technique statement tested for verification or touch with the outer world and its used in psychotherapy, in which refutation by experimentation. requirements, and is responsible the patient says the first thing for controlling the instincts. that comes to mind after any Id A psychoanalytic term for one of given word. three elements of the human persona Empiricism A philosophical (see also ego, superego); the id is and psychological approach that Freudian slip An act or word that the source of psychic energy and is assigns the attribution of all is close but different to the one allied with the instincts. knowledge to experience. consciously intended, and reflects unconscious motives or anxieties. Individual differences All the Encoding The processing of psychological characteristics that sensory information into memory. Functionalism A psychological are susceptible to variation approach that is concerned with between individuals, such as Ethology The scientific study investigating the adaptive personality or intelligence. of animal behavior under functions of the mind in relation natural conditions. to its environment. Inferiority complex A condition, suggested by Adlerian (after founder Extraversion A personality type Fundamental attribution error Alfred Adler) psychoanalysis that that focuses energy primarily The tendency to explain other is said to develop when a person is toward the external world people’s behavior by reference to unable to deal with real or imagined and other people (see also personality traits rather than feelings of inferiority and becomes introversion). external situational factors. either belligerent or withdrawn.

342 GLOSSARY Imprinting In ethology, an innate Law of Effect Proposed by Oedipus complex According system of rapid learning that takes Edward Thorndike, this is the to psychoanalytic theory, a place in animals immediately principle that, where several developmental state that arises subsequent to birth; it commonly responses to an event are possible, around the age of five, during involves developing an attachment those that lead to reward tend to which a boy experiences to a specific individual or object. become more strongly associated unconscious desire for his with the event, while those that mother and the wish to replace Innate Inborn or present in an lead to punishment become more or destroy his father. organism from birth; it may or may weakly associated. not be genetically inherited. Operant conditioning A form of Materialism The doctrine that conditioning in which the outcome Instincts Natural drives or views only the physical realm as real, depends upon an animal operating propensities. In psychoanalysis, and sees mental phenomena as upon its environment, such as these are the dynamic forces that explicable through physical terms. pressing a lever to obtain food. motivate personality and behavior. Mental age The age at which Personality A person’s stable and Instrumental conditioning A children of average ability can enduring mental and behavioral form of conditioning in which the perform particular tasks, as traits and characteristics, which animal is instrumental in the indicated by levels of performances incline him or her to behave in a outcome of events; an example of in standardized tests. relatively consistent way over time. this type of conditioning would be an animal’s negotiation of a maze. Mind-body problem The problem Phenomenology An approach of defining the interaction of mental to knowledge based on immediate Intelligence quotient (IQ) An and physical events, first raised by experience as it occurs, without index of intelligence that allows René Descartes. any attempt to categorize it individuals to be allocated through preconceptions, comparative levels of intelligence. Negative reinforcement In assumptions, or interpretations. First suggested by William Stern, instrumental or operant it is calculated by dividing an conditioning, the strengthening Phobia An anxiety disorder, individual’s mental age by their of a response through the removal characterized by intense and chronological age, and then of a negative stimulus. usually irrational fear. multiplying by 100. Neuron A type of nerve cell Positive reinforcement A key Introspection The oldest involved in transmitting messages concept in behaviorism, this is psychological method; it consists (as nerve impulses) between the process of increasing the of self-observation: “looking different parts of the brain. probability of a response by (spection) within (intro)” one’s immediately following the own mind to examine and report Neuropsychology A subdiscipline required response with a on one’s own inner state. of psychology and neurology that is reward or positive stimulus. concerned with the structure and Introversion A personality type function of the brain, and studies Pragmatism The doctrine that that focuses energy primarily the effects of brain disorders on sees ideas as rules for action; the toward its own internal behavior and cognition. idea’s validity is measured by its thoughts and feelings (see also practical consequences. extraversion). Nonsense syllables Syllables of three letters that do not form Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud’s Just noticeable difference recognized words. They were first set of theories and therapeutic The smallest difference that can be used experimentally by Hermann methods, which explore the detected by an individual between Ebbinghaus in a study of learning unconscious processes that two physical stimuli. and memory. influence human behavior.

GLOSSARY 343 Psychophysics The scientific Schizophrenia A group of severe Trait theory The view that study of the relations between mental disorders (originally known individual differences depend mental and physical processes. as dementia praecox) that cause largely on underlying character impairment in multiple areas of attributes (traits) that remain Psychosexual stages In functioning. It is characterized by essentially consistent across psychoanalytic theory, the marked disturbance of thought, flat time and context. developmental stages of childhood, or inappropriate emotions, and centering on zones of the body distorted visions of reality. Transference In psychoanalysis, through which pleasure is derived. the tendency for a patient to Self-actualization The full transfer emotional reactions from Psychotherapy A collective term development of one’s potentialities past relationships (particularly for all therapeutic treatments that and realization of one’s potential. parental) onto the therapist. use psychological rather than According to Abraham Maslow, physical or physiological means. this is the most advanced Trial and error learning A human need. theory of learning initially proposed Purposive behaviorism Edward by Edward Thorndike that claims Tolman’s theory, which says all Shaping In behaviorism, the learning occurs through the behavior is directed toward some shaping of behavior is the performance of several responses, ultimate goal. procedure of providing positive with the repetition of those that reinforcement for successive produce desirable results. Reality principle The set of rules, approximations of a desired in psychoanalysis, which govern response or standard. Unconditional positive regard the ego and take account of the In Carl Rogers’ client-centered real world and its demands. Social learning A theory of therapy, the absolute acceptance learning based on observing of someone purely because he or Reflex An automatic reaction the behavior of others and the she is a human being. to a stimulus. consequences of those behaviors. Albert Bandura was the foremost Unconditioned response In Reinforcement In classical proponent of this theory. classical conditioning, a conditioning, the procedure reflexive (unconditioned, natural) that increases the likelihood Stimulus Any object, event, response produced in response to a of a response. situation, or factor in the particular stimulus (e.g. moving a environment that an individual limb away from a painful stimulus). Replication Repetitions of can detect and respond to. research or an experiment in all Unconditioned stimulus In details that lead to the same Stream of consciousness classical conditioning, a results. Replication is essential William James’s description of stimulus that elicits a reflexive to establish validity of findings. consciousness as a continuous (unconditioned, natural) response. flowing process of thoughts. Repression In psychoanalytic Unconscious In psychoanalysis, theory, an ego-defense mechanism Structuralism A psychological the part of the psyche that cannot that pushes unacceptable thoughts, approach that investigates the be accessed by the conscious mind. memories, impulses, or desires structure of the mind. beyond conscious awareness. Validity The extent to which Anna Freud also called it Superego In psychoanalysis, a test measures what it is “motivated forgetting.” the term for the portion of the supposed to measure. psyche that is derived from Retrieval Recovering information internalizing parental and Zeigarnik effect The tendency to stored in the memory through a societal values and standards. recall incomplete or unfinished tasks process of search and find. It is governed by moral restraints. more easily than completed ones.

344 INDEX A Baldwin, Albert 312 brain 59, 163 Bandler, Richard 114 autism 298 A Guide to Rational Living, Albert Ellis 91 Bandura, Albert 74, 80, 164, 236, 260, 261, children 265 A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Leon cognitive psychology 158 286–291, 294 connectionism 64 Festinger 158 Bard–Cannon theory 324 damage 16 A Theory of Human Motivation, Abraham Bard, Philip 324 female/male 236 Baron-Cohen, Simon 236, 261, 284, 298–299 hemispheres 16 Maslow 198, 322 Baron, Robert A. 288 imaging 76, 150, 163, 191 Absent Fathers, Lost Sons, Guy Corneau 155 Barthes, Roland 123 information processing 182, 183, 185 Adler, Alfred 90, 100–101, 138, 139, 142, 146 Bartlett, Frederic 48, 158, 180, 188, 204, 208, intelligence 315 adolescence 46, 47 learning 58 Adorno, Theodor 248 234, 237, 335 memory 190, 191 Affect Theory of Emotions 196 Basic Forms and the Realization of Human mind/body dualism 20, 211 affectionless psychopathy 276 resilience 153 aggression, childhood 288, 289, 290 “Being-in-the-World,” Ludwig Binswanger 141 sex differences 284 Ainsworth, Mary 261, 277, 280–281 Bass, Ellen 204 speech area 76 Allport, Floyd 302, 310 Bateson, Gregory 150, 151 Allport, Gordon 165, 173, 204, 216, 302, 306–313 Bayley, Nancy 336 Breggin, Peter 240 analysis of consciousness 40–45 Beck, Aaron 72, 91, 142, 145, 159, 174–177, Breuer, Josef 23, 90, 94 analytical psychology 104–107 brief therapy 149 Animal Intelligence, Edward Thorndike 65 198, 200, 212 Briggs, Katherine 302 Animal Minds, Donald Griffin 34 Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) 177 Broadbent, Donald 72, 158, 173, 178–185, 192 antipsychiatry 150–151, 328, 329 Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) 177 Broadbent Filter Model 183 anxiety 86, 87, 159, 177 Beck, Judith 175 Broca, Pierre Paul 16, 76 applied psychology 182 Beck Hopelessness Scale 177 Brown, Roger 194, 216, 217, 237 archetypes 94, 104, 105, 106, 107 Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation (BSS) 177 Brüke, Ernst 96 Argyle, Michael 100 Becoming, Gordon Allport 313 Bruner, Jerome 158, 162, 164–165, 173, 188, Aristotle 18, 20, 34, 41, 201, 240 behavior therapy 60, 80 Aronson, Elliot 166, 217, 236, 244–245, 282 behavioral epigenetics 75 261, 270 Asch Paradigm 224, 225 behavioral psychology 322–323 Bruno, Giordano 48 Asch, Solomon Elliott 216, 224–227, 248, 249 Behavioral Study of Obedience, Stanley Buddhism 116, 140, 210 Asperger, Hans 298 Bühler, Charlotte 336 attachment theory 261, 274–277, 278, 280–281 Milgram 248 Burns, David 142 Attitudes Toward Women Scale 236 behavioral therapy 59, 159 Burt, Cyril 50 attribution theory 242–243 behaviorism 11, 12, 59, 68–71, 72, 80, 90, autism 261, 298 C autokinetic effect 225 149, 158, 308 Avenzoar (Ibn Zuhr) 60 Behaviorism, John B. Watson 71 Cajal, Santiago Ramón y 76 Avicenna 22 behaviorist movement 44, 58, 76, 77 Campbell, Joseph 104 Axline, Virginia 118 behaviorist psychology 62, 63, 64, 160 Cannon, Walter 324 Azam, Eugene 330 Bellak, Leopold 149 Carroll, John B. 314 Bem, Daryl 166 Cattell, James 35, 50, 51 B Berkeley, George 20 Cattell, Raymond 302, 303, 308, 313, Berkowitz, Leonard 288 babies, Berne, Eric 111, 337 314–315, 326 attachment theory 274, 275, 280, 281 Bernheim, Hippolyte 224 Chapman, Robin 297 hatred by mother 121 Bernoulli, Daniel 193 Charcot, Jean-Martin 17, 23, 30, 51, 54, 55, innate concepts 265 Bettelheim, Bruno 261, 271 nature–nurture debate 29 Beyond Freedom and Dignity, B.F. Skinner 85 90, 94 Binet, Alfred 17, 30, 50–53, 265, 302, 304, 314 Cherry, Colin 158, 183, 184 Baddely, Alan 185 Binet–Simon Scale 52–53, 52, 304 child abuse 204, 206, 207 Binswanger, Ludwig 141 Childhood and Society, Erik Erikson 46, 260 bio-psychology 28–29 children, Bleuler, Eugen 31, 150 Bly, Robert 155 adopted 119, 120 Boring, Edwin 335 aggression 288 Bornstein, Robert 232 Bower, Gordon H. 159, 188, 194–195, 196 Bowlby, John 77, 104, 152, 211, 260, 271, 274–277, 278, 280 Braid, James 22, 23

INDEX 345 attachment theory 276, 278, 280 Karl Lashley 76 Beck 159 autism 298, 299 language 294, 295 Descartes, René 16, 20–21, 34, 40, 41, childcare systems 271 Zing-Yang Kuo 75 cognitive development 264–269 conformism 224–227, 248–253 180, 192 conditional love for 135 conformity 216, 254–255 desensitization 59 development 12, 13, 270 Conjoint Family Therapy, Virginia Satir 91 development, stages of 272–273 developmental psychology 260, 261 connectionism 62–63 developmental psychology 11, 12, 159, education 270, 279 consciousness 16, 17, 44, 148 intelligence tests 52 analysis of 40–45 260–261, 269, 284–285 language learning 294, 296, 297 human and animal 37 Dewey, John 216, 334 moral development 292, 293 mind/body dualism 20 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental nature–nurture debate 28 psychoanalysis 94, 95, 96 negative reinforcement 82 stream of 40–41, 45 Disorder 330 psychic growth 101 structuralism 24, 25 Diatkine, René 338 psychoanalysis 118, 119 Cooley, Charles Horton 100, 228 difference, psychology of 11, 13, 302–303 race attitudes 282, 283 Cooper, David 328 Dilthey, Wilhelm 309 stimulus-response conditioning 71 Corneau, Guy 91, 155 Dimensions of Personality, Hans Eysenck 18 trauma 153, 257 Coué, Emile 22 Diseases of the Nervous System, Children of the Kibbutz, Melford Spiro 271 Counseling and Psychotherapy, Carl Rogers Choice Theory 217, 240–241 Jean-Martin Charcot 54 Chomsky, Noam 59, 72, 85, 173, 211, 260, 261, 91, 141, 146 dissociation 54, 330 294–297 Cowan, Nelson 173 Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) 303, 330 Christal, Raymond 326 Cox, Catharine 318 Divided Consciousness, Ernest R. Hilgard 54 Clancy, Susan 208 Craik, Fergus 185 Does Consciousness Exist, William James 20 Clark, Kenneth 260, 261, 282–283 Craik, Kenneth 180, 181 Dollard, John 288 Clark, Mamie Phipps 260, 261, 282 creativity 91, 304, 305, 318–321 Dolto, Françoise 261, 279 classical conditioning 58, 59, 60–61, 68, 69, Creativity and Personality: Suggestions for a dream analysis 98, 98 Drives Toward War, Edward Tolman 75 70, 81, 85 Theory, Hans J. Eysenck 318 Duncker, Karl 160 Ivan Pavlov 60–61, 62 Critical Psychology, Isaac Prilleltensky & Cleckley, Hervey M. 303, 330–331 E client-centered therapy 200 Dennis Fox 256 Client-Centered Therapy, Carl Rogers 26, 198 Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály 198–199, 200, 201, Eagly, Alice 236 cocktail party problem 183, 184 Ebbinghaus, Hermann 10, 11, 17, 48–49, 62, cognition 59, 68, 73, 160 322 cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) 12, 59, Cultural Psychology, Wilhelm Wundt 37 158, 162, 170, 172, 188, 208 Culture-fair Intelligence Test 315, 315 education, 72, 85, 144, 145, 159, 212–213 Cutshall, Judith 207 cognitive behaviorism 72–73, 160 Cyrulnik, Boris 152–153 child-centered 264, 267, 268, 269 cognitive development 164–165, 264, 265, connectionism 62 D intelligence tests 52 266, 267, 269 nature-nurture debate 29 cognitive dissonance 166, 167, 244, 245 Damasio, Antonio 45 educational psychology 65 Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men, Edward Damon, William 198, 292 ego 96, 96, 97, 105, 106, 111 Darwin, Charles 16, 28, 34, 50, 58, 77, 83, 211, Eichmann, Adolf 248 Tolman 59 Eisenberg, Nancy 292 cognitive neuroscience 163 302, 324 Ekman, Paul 159, 196–197, 303 cognitive psychology 11, 12, 59, 72, 85, 91, Dasen, Pierre 269, 269 electric shock obedience experiment Davis, Keith 242 158, 159, 166–167, 180, 181, 184, 185, Davis, Laura 204 248–252 208–209, 260–261 Dawkins, Richard 211 Ellis, Albert 91, 110, 142–145, 174, 177, 212 Cognitive Psychology, Ulric Neisser 159 de Faria, José Custódio (Abbé Faria) 23 Emerson, Peggy 277, 278 cognitive therapy 72, 91, 174–177, 198, 200 De Homine, René Descartes 20 Emotion and Adaptation, Richard Lazarus 324 collaborative psychology 193 death instinct 91, 108, 109 emotions 68, 69, 144, 159, 196, 197, 233, 303, collective unconscious 90, 104, 105, 106, 107 deception 196, 197 Coming of Age in Samoa, Margaret Mead 46 Decision and Stress, Donald Broadbent 185 324–325 community psychology 256 defensive pessimism 108 awareness 116 Compendium of Psychology, Emil Kraepelin 17 Deisher, Robert 271 repression of 134 Completion, Arithmetic, Vocabulary, and Deleuze, J.P.F. 54 Emotions Revealed, Paul Ekman 197 Directions (CAVD) test 65 dementia 31 empathy 235, 235, 236 conditioning 11, 58, 59 depression 109, 140, 142, 154, 159, 176, 200, English Men of Science: Their Nature and B.F. Skinner 80, 81, 82 Nurture, Francis Galton 29, 75 Edward Thorndike 63 201, 243 Envy and Gratitude, Melanie Klein 91 Edward Tolman 72, 73 Depression: Causes and Treatment, Aaron Epicetus 142 Edwin Guthrie 74 epigenetics, behavioral 75 Ivan Pavlov 60–61, 61, 62 episodic memory 189, 190, 191 John B. Watson 68, 69, 70, 71

346 INDEX epistemology, genetic 264 G Hamilton, Max 154 Erickson, Milton 149, 336 Hamilton, V.L. 248 Ericsson, Anders 318 “g factor” 302, 303, 314 Hampson, Sarah 228 Erikson, Erik 46, 90, 260, 272–273 Galen, Claudius (Galen of Pergamon) 18–19, Hanh, Thich Nhat 210 ethology 59, 77 Harlow, Harry 139, 261, 274, 277, 278, 280 eugenics 28, 29 20, 308, 319 Haslam, Alex 254 evolution 16, 58 Gallimore, Ronald 277 Hebb, Donald 48, 76, 158, 163 evolutionary psychology 13, 211 Galton, Charles 16 Hebbian learning 163 Existence, Rollo May 91 Galton, Francis 13, 28–29, 50, 51, 75, 270, Heckhausen, Heinz 338 existential philosophy 91 Hegel, Georg 122, 238 existential psychology 91 302, 304 Heidegger, Martin 141 existential psychotherapy 141 Gardner, Howard 198 Heider, Fritz 242 Existential Psychotherapy, Irvin Yalom 141 Gelman, Susan 269 Heinroth, Oskar 77 existentialism 16, 26–27 gender development 290, 291 Heisenberg, Werner 238 experimental psychology 17, 34–37, 48, gender differences 261, 284, 285 Helmreich, Robert 217, 236 gender studies 236, 261 Helplessness: On Depression, Development, 49, 148 genetic epistemology 264–267 Experimental Studies of the Perception of genetics 59, 83, 159 and Death, Martin Seligman 174 Genius 101: Creators, Leaders, and Prodigies, Herbart, Johann Friedrich 16, 24–25 Movement, Max Wertheimer 160 Hereditary Genius, Francis Galton 16, 29 extraversion 19, 319–321 Dean Keith Simonton 318 Herzberg, Frederick 322 Eyewitness Testimony, Elizabeth Loftus 159, genius, nature of 318–321 Hess, Eckhard 77 genotypes 311, 312 Hilgard, Ernest R. 54, 337 188, 206 Gergen, Kenneth 238 Hill, Heather 294 Eysenck, Hans J. 18, 19, 212, 302, 308, 313, Gestalt movement 44 Hippocrates 18, 30, 308, 319, 326 Gestalt psychology 12, 59, 72, 73, 158, 159, Hogan, Joyce 326 316–321, 326 Hogan, Robert 326 160–161, 167, 220 Horney, Karen 90, 110, 114, 126, 129, 142, 143 F Gestalt theory 91, 154 Hull, Clark L. 59, 240, 335 Gestalt therapy 114–117, 142, 174 human development 29, 46–47 facial expressions 196, 197, 235, 303 Gilbert, Dan 140 humanist psychoanalysis 126–129 Facial Expressions of Emotion, Paul Gillette, Douglas 155 humanistic psychology 12, 129, 136, 137, Glasser, William 217, 240–241 Ekman 159 Gmelin, Eberhardt 330 138–139, 141, 198 facial recognition 36 Goddard, Henry H. 53 humanistic psychotherapy 91 false memory syndrome 206, 207 Goetzinger, Charles 233 Hume, David 49 familiarity 232–235 Goffman, Erving 216, 228–229 humorism 18–19, 308, 319 family therapy 146–147, 151 Goldstein, Kurt 138 hypnosis 16, 17, 22–23, 30, 30, 90, 94, 224, 331 Faria, Abbé (Dormez) 16, 22–23 Goleman, Daniel 322 hysteria 17, 30, 90, 94 Fausto-Sterling, Anne 284 Good Business: Leadership, Flow and the fear 68, 69, 70, 71, 325 I Fear of Freedom, Erich Fromm 90 Making of Meaning, William Damon & Fechner, Gustav 232, 304 Howard Gardner 198 “I,” the 122–123 feminism 284 Good Work: When Excellence and Ethics Meet, Ibn Sina 22 feminist psychology 284 William Damon & Howard Gardner 198 Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) 60 Festinger, Leon 159, 166–167, 244 Goodman, Cecile 158 id 96, 111 flashbulb memories 190 Goodman, Paul 91, 174 identity crisis 46, 273 Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, Gould, Judith 298 idiographic method 308, 309, 313 Green, André 339 impression management 228–229 Mihály Csíkszentmihályi 199, 200, 322 Griffin, Donald 34 imprinting 59, 77 fluid intelligence 314, 315 group dynamics 216, 220, 223 individual psychology 100–101 forgetting 48, 49, 208, 209 Guilford, Joy Paul 303, 304–305, 314, 318 individualism 117 Frankl, Viktor 91, 140 Guthrie, Edwin 58, 59, 74 inferiority complex 100, 101 freedom of attitude 140 inheritance 16, 28, 59, 104, 105 Freeman, Derek 46 H inkblot (Rorschach) test 331, 335 Freud, Anna 90, 111, 260, 273 innate (inborn), Freud, Sigmund 11, 12, 17, 22, 24, 30, 46, 54, Haley, Jay 149 Hall, G. Stanley 17, 46–47 abilities 28 90, 92–99, 104, 108, 111, 118, 150, 152, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) behavior 75, 80 174, 195, 204, 220, 272, 274, 278, 292, 309 154 beliefs 104 Freudian slips 98 insanity, and genius 318, 320, 321 Frijda, Nico 303, 324–325 Frith, Uta 298 Fromm, Erich 90, 91, 124–129, 198

INDEX 347 insight-oriented therapy 149 Kraepelin, Emil 17, 31 Lewin, Kurt 12, 166, 167, 216, 218–223, 254 instinct 28, 58, 59, 75, 77, 104, 105, 161, Krech, David 45 liberation psychology 217, 256–257 Kubovy, Michal 192 Linas, Rodolfo 44 275, 297 Kuczaj, Stan 294 Lipitt, Ronald 220 intelligence 13, 17, 161, 304–305, 314–315 Kulik, James 237 Locke, John 28, 40, 41, 49, 264 Kuo, Zing-Yang 58, 75, 80 Loeb, Jacques 68 child development 264, 265, 266, 267 Loevinger, Jane 111 connectionism 63, 65 L Loftus, Elizabeth 91, 159, 188, 202–207, 208 “g factor” 62 logotherapy 140 inheritance 29 L’Automatism Psychologique, Pierre Janet 110 Loneliness, Creativity and Love, Clark psychology of difference 303 Lacan, Jacques 90, 122–123, 155, 279 intelligence quotient (IQ) tests 50, 52, 53, 65, Lagache, Daniel 336 Moustakas 132 Laing, R.D. (Ronald David) 26, 27, 91, Lorenz, Konrad 34, 59, 75, 77, 274, 278 265, 302, 304, 305, 314, 315, 318, 320, 323 Lucretius 31 intelligence theory 50–53 150–151, 328 Luria, Alexander 336 introversion 90, 319, 321 Lange, Carl 43, 324 IQ see intelligence quotient (IQ) tests language 116, 260, 294, 295, 296, 297 M Iron John: A Book About Men, Robert Bly 155 Language Acquisition Device (LAD) 296, 297 Language and Communication, George Maccoby, Eleanor E. 261, 284–285 J Machiavellian trait 310 Miller 171 MACOS program 164 Jacklin, Carol 284 Larsen, Knud S. 224 Main, Mary 280 James–Lange theory of emotion 43, 324 Lashley, Karl 58, 59, 76, 163, 165 Man: A Course of Study (MACOS) James, William 11, 17, 20, 28, 38–45, 47, 59, Lasker, Bruno 282 latent learning 68, 73 program 164 65, 68, 80, 82, 100, 122, 148, 162, 163, 170, Laws of Organization in Perceptual Forms, Man’s Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl 91, 172, 228, 237, 308, 324 Janet, Pierre 17, 54–55, 104, 330 Max Wertheimer 40 140 Johnston, Charles M. 271 Lazarus, Arnold A. 177 Marcia, James 272 Jones, Edward E. 242 Lazarus, Richard 324 Margaret Mead and Samoa, Derek Freeman 46 Jung, Carl Gustav 24, 90, 94, 102–107, 114, 122 Leadership That Gets Results, Daniel marshmallow tests 327 Jungian archetypes 155 Martín-Baró, Ignacio 217, 256–257 Just-World hypothesis 242, 243 Goleman 322 Marx, Karl 129 juvenile delinquency 276 learned abilities 28 masculine psychology 155 learned helplessness 200, 201 Maslow, Abraham 91, 100, 126, 132, 133, K learning 12, 16, 17, 48, 49, 58, 59, 68, 159, 163, 137, 138–139, 148, 198, 200, 313, 322 Kabat-Zinn, Jon 200, 210 221, 222 Masterson, Jenny 310 Kagan, Jerome 339 brain function 76 Maternal Care and Mental Health, John Kahneman, Daniel 159, 193 by association 76, 77 Kahun Papyrus 30 child-centered education 264, 268, 269 Bowlby 275 Kanner, Leo 298 childhood aggression 288 maternal deprivation 275, 276 Kant, Immanuel 40, 41, 114, 264 conditioning 61, 73 May, Rollo 26, 91, 126, 137, 141 Kelley, Harold H. 338 connectionism 62, 63, 64, 65 Mayo, Elton 335 Kelly, George 154, 337 developmental psychology 260, 262 MBCT 210 Kelman, Herbert 248 “g factor” 314 MBSR 210 Kierkegaard, Søren 16, 26–27, 141 imprinting 77 McAdam, Dan P. 308 King Solomon’s Ring, Konrad Lorenz 34 insight 160, 161 McClelland, David 322–323 Klein, Melanie 90, 91, 99, 108–109, 110, 111, jig-saw method 244, 282 McLuhan, Marshall 12 language 294, 295 Mead, Margaret 46, 196 118, 119, 121, 260 memory and 162, 194–195 medical psychiatry 31 Klineberg, Otto 282 nature–nurture debate 28 Meehl, Paul 338 Koffka, Kurt 160 learning difficulties 261 memory and memories 17, 48, 49, 49, 58, 158, Kohlberg, Lawrence 260, 261, 292–293 learning theory 74, 166, 294 Köhler, Wilhelm 193 social 288–291 159, 180, 208, 234 Köhler, Wolfgang 158, 159, 160–161, 163, Leary, Mark 228 and learning 162 Leary, Timothy 91, 148 and neurons 163 20, 225 Lebowici, Serge 338 autobiographical 237 Kohut, Heinz 110 Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous brain function 76 Kowalski, Mark 228 System, Jean-Martin Charcot 17 emotional states and 196 Leibniz, Gottfried 24, 25 “forgetting curve” 62 Lerner, Melvin 154, 217, 242–243 information processing 183, 184 Levi-Strauss, Claude 123 inherited 104, 105 intelligence 304, 314

348 INDEX recall (retrieval) 159, 195, 204–207, 208, 209 neurohypnotism 22 parenting systems 271 repressed 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 99 Neurolinguistic Therapy (NLP) 114 Passions of the Soul, René Descartes 16 storage and retrieval 188–191 neurological science 30, 54–55 Pavlov, Ivan 11, 58, 59, 60–61, 62, 68, 70, 72, structuralism 25 neuropsychology 67, 163 Memory, A Contribution to Experimental neuroscience 59, 158, 159, 163 74, 76, 80, 81, 86, 87, 161, 174 Psychology, Hermann Ebbinghaus 17, 49, Neurosis and Human Growth, Karen PEN (Psychoticism, Extraversion, 170, 208 Horney 114 Neuroticism) 308, 321 mental disorders 17, 330–331 neuroticism 19, 319–321, 319 Peplau, Letitia 242 mental illness 31, 150, 151 Neurypnology, James Braid 22 perception 16, 17, 59, 114, 115, 158, 159, Mersenne, Marin 21 New Passages, Gail Sheehy 272 Mesmer, Franz 22 Nietzche, Frederick 141 160, 161, 192 Metzler, Jacqueline 159 nomothetic method 309 Perception and Communication, Donald Milgram, Stanley 166, 217, 224, 225, 227, Norem, Julie K. 108 nurture see nature–nurture debate Broadbent 72, 158, 184, 192 246–253, 254 Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) 240, 241 Miller, Alice 118 O Perls, Frederick “Fritz” Salomon 91, 112–117, Miller, Geoffrey 211 Miller, George Armitage 159, 162, 163, 164, obedience 217, 224, 227, 248–251, 254 126, 132, 138, 174 Obedience to Authority, Stanley Milgram 252 Perls, Laura 91, 174 165, 168–173, 180, 194, 208 Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Persistent Vegetative State (PVS) 44 Miller, Neal 59, 337 person-centered therapy 132–135 mind/body dualism 20–21 212–213 personal construct theory 154 mind, theory of 298–299 Odbert, H.S. 308, 309, 310, 313 personality 13, 16, 17, 134, 318–321 Mindblindness, Simon Baron-Cohen 261 Oedipus complex 155 mindfulness 200, 210 Olweus, Dan 320 humorism 18, 19, 308, 309 Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy On Aggression, Konrad Lorenz 75 multiple personality disorder 331 On Becoming a Person, Carl Rogers 26, 136 nature–nurture debate 28 (MBCT) 210 On Memory, Hermann Ebbinghaus 62 Personality and Assessment, Walter Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction On the Cause of Lucid Sleep, Abbé Faria 23 On the Diseases of Women, Hippocrates 30 Mischel 303, 327 (MBSR) 210 On the Fabric of the Human Body, Andreas Personality: Psychological Interpretation, Minuchen, Salvador 146 Mischel, Walter 302, 303, 326–327 Vesalius 18 Gordon Allport 302, 312 Mitchell, Peter 298 On the Nature of Prejudice, Gordon personality psychology 302, 303, 308–313 mnemonics 48 personality tests 323 Montessori schools 264 Allport 216 personality theory 303, 318–321, 326–327 mood-congruent processing 195 On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin 16, personality traits and types 107, 128, 129, 308, mood-dependent retrieval 195 Moore, Robert L. 155 50, 77 309, 310, 320, 326–327 moral development 292–293 On the Qualities of Form, Christian von Personality Traits: Their Classification and Morgan, Christiana 323 Moscovici, Serge 216, 217, 224, 227, 238–239 Ehrenfels 160 Measurement, Gordon and Floyd Allport mother–infant bond 275, 280, 281 operant conditioning 58, 59, 72, 82, 83, 84, 302, 308 motivation 322–323 Phillips, L. 328 Motivation and Personality, Abraham Maslow 85, 288, 294, 295, 297 philosophy 10, 11, 16 Opinions and Social Pressure, Solomon Philosophy of the Unconscious, Eduard 91, 200 von Hartmann 24 Motivation to Work, Frederick Herzberg 322 Asch 224 phobias 87 Moustakas, Clark 132 optical illusions 192 Piaget, Jean 74, 164, 165, 260, 262–267, 270, Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) 303, 330 Origins of Intelligence in the Child, Jean 272, 292 Murray, Henry 138, 322, 323 Pien, D. 232 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 107 Piaget 164 Pinker, Steven 159, 192, 294, 297 Myers, Charles Samuel 335 Ornstein, Robert E. 148 placebo effect 22 Myers, Isabel Briggs 302 Osmund, Humphrey 148 Plato 20, 34, 41 “other,” the 122–123 play therapy 109, 118 Pollack, Irwin 171, 172 N P positive psychology 152–153, 198–199, 200–201, 313 nativism 294–297 Pahnke, Walter 148 positive reinforcement 81, 83, 85 natural selection 77, 83 Paige, Jeffrey 312 Posner, Laura 116 nature–nurture debate 13, 16, 28, 29, 71, 75, Palazzoli, Mara Selvini 146 Postman, Leo 48, 165, 204 Paracelsus 94 Powers, William T. 240, 241 159, 261, 264, 270, 303 Prilleltensky, Isaac 256 negative reinforcement 82, 83 Prince, Morton 54, 330 Neisser, Ulric 159, 237, 339 Principles of Physiological Psychology, Wilhelm Wundt 31, 34 Principles of Psychology, William James 17, 60, 80, 82, 308 problem solving 159, 160, 161 Prospect Theory 193 psyche 96, 105