Big History

["1 BCE 1 CE 1300 CE RENAISSANCE 1439 CE PRINTING PRESS SPARKS THE 1600 CE COLUMBIAN BEGINS INFORMATION REVOLUTION EXCHANGE \u25c0 Portuguese trade In 1543, the first Portuguese ships, sailing from Goa, India, reached Japan. They exchanged Chinese silks and porcelain and Indian cloth for Japanese metalwork and artwork. This Japanese painting shows a Portuguese carrack, a type of large merchant ship. SOUTH AMERICAN SILVER valuable. Government officials and soldiers 12\u201325 million Africans crossed the Atlantic, found they could no longer live on their pay. chained in the holds of slave ships. In 1545, the Spaniards discovered a mountain of silver ore at Potosi in Bolivia. Despite the flow of silver from the The impact of globalization on the This was the biggest source of silver ever Americas, the Spanish crown, constantly environment was also catastrophic. The found. By 1660, about 60,000 tons of silver engaged in wars, was always in debt. The introduction of sheep to Australia and had been shipped to Spain, tripling the wealth ended up in the hands of foreign goats to the Pacific Islands, for example, amount of the metal in Europe. bankers who serviced the royal debt. resulted in widespread deforestation and the extinction of many species of native wildlife. Silver, sought after by Asian merchants, DESTRUCTIVE IMPACT soon became the foundation of the world Globalization also spread Eurasian diseases \u25c0 Spanish silver economy. Much of it found its way to China, throughout the world. Their impact on Famous for their where it was used to buy silks and porcelain. the indigenous peoples of the Americas, consistent weight and Spanish galleons, sailing from Mexico, Australia, and the Pacific Islands was purity, Spanish silver carried the silver across the Pacific to the especially devastating. coins set a standard Philippines. Portuguese ships also went east, against which other using New World silver to buy cotton and At first, mines and farms in the Americas coins were measured. spices in India, and porcelain and silks in were worked by American Indians, but so China, which they then traded in Japan. many perished as a result of ill treatment and introduced diseases that a new source of The flood of silver from America caused labor was required. From 1534, Europeans widespread inflation in Europe and beyond. began to transport African slaves\u2014who Through trade, Spanish silver coins reached had a resistance to Old World diseases\u2014 the Ottoman Empire, rendering the local to the Americas. Over the next 350 years, coinage, with its lower silver content, less TRADE GOES GLOBAL 299","THRESHOLD","INDUSTRY RISES Spurred on by the need to feed and care for a growing population, humans unlock a new source of energy from the Earth\u2014fossil fuels. These power the rise of industry and consumerism, creating a new world order in which humans become a dominant force for change on Earth.","GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS In large, diverse, interconnected societies, collective learning EIRnxanppoaivdnadaticinvcgee,lneperratowtbioolenrmkins-scoooflveixnchan is a powerful force. The journey to our highly complex modern ge agnsdktilrlllesenctdivteolegalornbianlgization world began in the 18th century, when new global connections enriched existing networks of exchange. The pace of change started to accelerate\u2014as did the human capacity to control the biosphere. Agricultural revolution Commercial methods begin to transform farming, as new technology and innovations increase the carrying capacity of the land and use less human labor. Redundant farm workers take up crafts and gravitate to urban centers, creating a potential industrial workforce. What changed? Extensive access to new sources of energy\u2014first coal, then oil and natural gas. These fossil fuels replaced wind, water, human, and animal power, leading to the production and use of energy on a new scale. Population growth Efficient farming techniques allow food production to soar and support larger populations of potential factory workers. Mechanization Wind, water, and animal power are used to drive machinery that can grind grain, pump water, and transport goods faster and more efficiently than humans alone. Entrepreneurs \u2013 especially in the textile trade \u2013 look for ways to replace hand tools and human labor with mechanical production methods.","Warfare Countries Require Colonial Global compete to raw materials Empires connections secure materials and markets Seek new Trade increase Economic markets increases competition Military ECONOMIES Population EVOLVE grows Manage GOVERNMENTS Protect Innovations Consume economy EVOLVE interests increase more goods INDUSTRIAL Provide Digital REVOLUTION health care revolution Communications Compulsory revolution education New global social networks SOCIETY EVOLVES ENVIRONMENT Global Use more CHANGES connections fossil fuels Global Climate increase Generate warming change heat, light, Transport and power Quest for equipment Lost sustainable biodiversity resources and to protect biodiversity","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION In the mid-18th century, after hundreds of years of slow development, a series of innovations in Britain began a process that would change the world forever. This process is now known as the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution transformed commercial projects and rewarded agrarian societies that discovered how to innovation, as part of an intellectual climate use fossil fuels like coal to replace human known as the Enlightenment. and animal power in manufacturing, communication, and transportation. It Most of Britain\u2019s national income came began in Britain, when several factors\u2014 from commerce, which was protected by a both global and local\u2014ushered in an era strong army and navy, and provided the of relatively fast technological change. essential capital needed for industrialization. London was an important trade hub; at the WHY THERE, WHY THEN? center of an international trade network Britain\u2019s industrialization followed a period connecting Europe and the Americas, Britain of rapid population growth in Europe. was perfectly placed to benefit from new Innovations in agriculture, such as the inventions as a result of collective learning. horse-drawn seed drill and the adoption of modern farming methods, had combined In theory, with its large population, to increase the carrying capacity of the land, China could have industrialized at any point fueling population growth (see pp.252\u201353). from the 11th century, when it developed an It was also a time of social change: with iron and steel industry, powered by coal. But landowners able to produce twice as much its coalfields were located in the unstable food using less labor, many agricultural north of the country, far from the economic workers moved to the cities or took up crafts. centers, which had moved south after the Landowners no longer took tribute from Mongol invasions in the 13th century. The their peasants, who became wage earners. political climate was also unfavorable: For the first time, the structure of society the Confucian ideals promoted by the government emphasized stability, and industrialization was seen as disruptive. [THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION] WAS PROBABLY THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENT IN WORLD HISTORY\u2026 SINCE THE INVENTION OF AGRICULTURE AND CITIES. Eric Hobsbawm, British historian, 1917\u20132012 began to change from an agrarian society A GROWING PROBLEM to a commercialized one. Britain\u2019s population doubled between 1750 This was a significant change. Rates and 1800. This led to a shortage of wood, of innovation are slower when social and so coal was increasingly used as a source of ideological conditions offer no incentives to fuel. As the shortage became acute, demand innovate, and the political climate played for coal rose. Britain had abundant reserves, a part in that too. During the 18th century, but they were underground and difficult Europe\u2019s absolute monarchies stifled to access. This created a need to innovate; innovation, but Britain had a parliamentary Britain had all the necessary conditions monarchy with a government that supported for innovation to thrive\u2014and thrive it did. 304 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS Working from home Agricultural workers freed up to work in cottage industries, such as textiles, boosted the economy, trade, and exports, helping to pave the way for industrialization. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 305","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE \u25bc Workings of a coal mine Horse-drawn carts were Brick chimney As Britain began to industrialize, more used for delivery of wood Steam engine house coal was needed to fuel steam engines and furnaces. As a result, coal production and other materials and increased, mines got deeper, and the the transportation of coal industry became more dangerous. Coal for collection Steam engine also powered winches to transport miners up and down one shaft and bring coal up to the surface Hot air rising from the upcast had a lower density than the cold air in the nearby downcast shaft. The difference in air pressures pushed fresh cold air down the downcast Large piles of wood support mine shafts and tunnels Wooden platform for simple pulley system Upcast shaft was lined with wood Workers were winched down to the pit bottom in large wicker corf Workers transported coal from small coal seams to the main shaft Hot air rose up the upcast shaft, drawing poisonous and highly combustible gases from the mine up the shaft to the surface Coal was hoisted up to the pit surface Water pump pipe extracted water from below ground. Miners sometimes worked up to their waists in water, and mines were prone to flooding Coal supply for furnace Furnace burned coal to ventilate the mine, removing poisonous gases, and reducing the chance of explosions Worker shoveled coal into furnace Cold air pushed down the downcast shaft ventilated the mine IN 1700, BRITAIN PRODUCED Horse-drawn coal corves on 2.54 MILLION TONS OF wooden wagons were taken to COAL. IN 1900 IT PRODUCED downcast shaft 224 MILLION TONS Young boys called trappers were in charge of opening and closing doors that controlled ventilation and the flow of air around the mine 306 THRESHOLD 8","1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS Miners and their families Coal shoveled Boiler Winding and COAL FUELS lived in tiny cramped into boiler to pumping engine INDUSTRY cottages near the mine power engine Access to large reserves of coal was the breakthrough Spoil tip, the waste that fueled the machines of industry and set the rock removed modern age alight. Coal was the first of several fossil during mining fuels used to power the industrial world. Coal The history of coal is far older than the mines of 18th-century supply Europe. It was used in China as early as 1000 BCE to heat homes, smelt copper, and fuel blast furnaces to create iron; by the 11th By the late 18th century, the purpose of century CE, the Song Dynasty relied on coal to produce the iron the steam engine was twofold: both to needed to make weapons and armor. In Britain, coal was used as pump water from the mine, and also to fuel from the 2nd century CE, when the Romans mined coal near move the baskets that lowered the miners the surface to heat their forts, fuel furnaces, and burn sacrifices at and to remove the coal. This required altars in honor of their gods. After the Romans departed in the giving the steam engine rotary motion. 5th century, the use of coal declined. For most people, wood was a far more accessible source of fuel, but from the 13th century sea Worker in a shallow coal\u2014an abundant resource that washed up on the beaches of coal seam northeast England\u2014was collected and distributed by boat. Hurriers, often women or young Fuel was needed for industrialization, and in Britain coal deposits children, transported coal away were fortuitously located in thick seams, albeit deep underground. from the pit face. Smaller seams However, early mining was hazardous: pits continually filled with with height restrictions did not water, and horsepower removed it too slowly. The steam engine, have tracks or horses invented by Thomas Newcomen and developed by James Watt, was the breakthrough that made it possible to effectively pump Main coal seam water out of mines and access more coal at greater depths. Hewers, usually adult men, \u25c0 Screening coal chipped at coal from the pit Women and children face using pick axes. Davy sorted the coal and lamps provided illumination separated it into different groups based on size. The sorted coal was washed and dried, before being transported from the mine. Wooden props prevented the roof from collapsing over areas from which coal had been excavated Coal was loaded onto corves on shallow wooden carts with iron wheels and pushed along major coal seams Entire families were encouraged to work in mines, until the 1842 Mines Act prohibited the employment of children under 10. Men would typically hew the coal from the rockface and the women and children would haul it to the surface. COAL FUELS INDUSTRY 307","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION STEAM POWER DRIVES CHANGE Developed in the 18th century to pump floodwater from mines, the steam engine was the defining invention of the Industrial Age. Fueled by the newly available coal, steam engines replaced human, animal, and water power and led to the rise of factories, railways, and steamships. \u25bc Driving change In 1712, British ironmonger and engineer in coal mines. In 1765, inventor \u25b2 Powering industry Railways carried Thomas Newcomen invented a steam James Watt realized a lot of coal Watt\u2019s improvements to the Newcomen engine passengers, raw engine that could pump water with the and steam was going to waste in enabled it to power factory machinery, leading to materials, and power of twenty horses from mines deep Newcomen\u2019s machine and built an the rise of mass-production. manufactured goods. underground. This made it possible to engine with a separate condenser Steam locomotives mine to greater depths and unlock the to eliminate this wastage. Birmingham\u2019s Soho manufactory, which provided cheap seemingly endless supply of British coal. produced small metal trinkets and toys. transportation that Newcomen\u2019s machine became so popular RISE OF THE FACTORY SYSTEM Like many industrialists of the time, encouraged further that by 1755 his engines were installed in Although mining engines relied on an Boulton relied on a waterwheel to power industrialization. France, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, up-and-down motion, the industrialist his machinery, and when a drought left the Sweden, and the United States. However, Matthew Boulton recognized the potential river bed dry, production came to a halt. Newcomen\u2019s engine was large, inefficient, of Watt\u2019s improved design to be adapted to and consumed enormous quantities of coal: the rotary motion needed to drive factory without improvements it could operate only machinery. Boulton was the owner of 308 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS Boulton gave Watt the tools and engineers industry and the mass-production of to build a prototype, and in 1776, Watt\u2019s textiles transformed the British economy. steam engine was invented, releasing Attaching a steam engine to spinning and manufacturing from the constraints of weaving machines allowed cotton textiles natural power. It produced the same to be produced at unprecedented speeds. amount of power as the Newcomen engine By 1850, Britain was using 10 times more on a quarter of the fuel, and could be cotton than in 1800, and textiles became installed anywhere. Soho became the first cheap and widely available. The demand steam-powered factory in the world and for more American cotton kept the its employees began toiling on production country\u2019s slave plantations in business. lines in the new mass-production of goods. Steam engines enabled the growth of a new THE SPREAD OF STEAM mode of production: the factory system. Steam engines made it possible to work and produce goods without being reliant The shift to machine-based on proximity to waterways. Towns sprang manufacturing began with the textile up around steam-powered factories at the industries in Britain, the United States, turn of the century. To supply these towns and Japan. Steam power transformed the THOSE WHO ADMIRE MODERN CIVILIZATION with the necessary amounts of coal, raw \u25b2 Women weavers USUALLY IDENTIFY IT WITH THE STEAM ENGINE materials, and goods for market, new The power loom was AND THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. transport links were created: turnpike gradually adopted roads, canals, and then railways. in textile factories. George Bernard Shaw, Irish playwright and political activist, 1856\u20131950 When it became Railways were part of a second wave more efficient, women of industrialization that was made possible and children could through the mass-manufacture of iron. operate the equipment British engineer Abraham Darby learned and replaced men how to smelt iron by burning coke in as weavers. the early 18th century, and Britain\u2019s iron production rapidly increased thanks to \u25b2 Shipping lines the new availability of coal. The marriage The Royal Netherland of iron and smaller, high-pressure steam Steamship company engines allowed for the manufacture transported goods, of steam locomotives and tracks to run passengers, and mail them along. During the 19th century, between Europe and new railway lines joined up other the Dutch East Indies. industrializing nations too. Iron, coal, and railways became the central symbols of the industrial revolutions in Germany, Belgium, France, and the United States. Railways were another example of the incessant drive in the industrial age to improve existing technologies. Introducing a turbine system to the steam engine allowed the technology to power ships. The introduction of a screw- propeller, which was more efficient than the earlier paddle wheels, enabled a more consistent propulsion. By 1840, steamships were making trips across the Atlantic to transport goods and people. By the end of the 19th century, the ironclad warship, a steam- propelled vessel protected by iron or steel plates, showed that the power of steam could also be used as a weapon. STEAM POWER DRIVES CHANGE 309","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN Coal EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSPORTATION ADVANCES SOURCE OF ENERGY Countries industrialized by NETWORKS Improvements in steam power harnessing an energy source: Getting raw materials to technology were constantly water, coal, oil, or gas. Coal was factories and finished goods to the main energy of the Industrial market was an essential aspect of made, leading to locomotives and Revolution, used in steam industrialization. Turnpike roads steamships. Coal-burning steam were followed by canals and later engines, iron-producing railways. Steamships enabled engines still power the world blast-furnaces, and as fuel. fast transportation across by producing much of its electricity. Oil the Atlantic. Steam engine A WORKFORCE Population growth created by innovations in agriculture led to the specialization of labor: artisans, craftsmen, weavers, and wage workers were no longer tied to rural areas and could migrate to cities to find work in factories. THE PROCESS OF INNOVATIVE MINDSET INDUSTRIALIZATION New machinery, such as the water frame, cotton gin, and As the first country to undergo an industrial revolution, Britain spinning jenny, allowed goods provided a template that other nations could follow. Each to be mass-produced. Large country took a unique path, but they all shared common factors. machines powered by steam engines led to the rise of the Industrialization transformed agrarian economies. It produced a series of technological innovations that increased the use of natural resources and led to factory system. the mass production of manufactured goods. Access to new energy unlocked a chain of innovation; the invention of machines that increased production but FREEDOM TO required less human energy to operate allowed work to be organized differently EXCHANGE IDEAS in factories, which led to increased specialization and division of labor. As The exchange of ideas between science was increasingly applied to industry, new materials like iron contributed innovators and industrialists led to developments in transportation and communication infrastructures. to the creation of new technologies, such as the steam Eventually, industrialization resulted in political, social, and economic engine. Industrial espionage and change as trade expanded, economies grew, governments responded to the expanding trade routes enabled needs of the new industrialized societies, and new cities and empires emerged. these technologies to spread. 310 THRESHOLD 8 Iron STRONG TRADE LINKS Industry created wealth: governments and industrialists provided the capital. New domestic and international markets were opened to provide raw materials and buyers for the finished products. INGREDIENTS FOR INDUSTRIALIZATION","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS \u25c0 How industrialization works Industrialization was a process that transformed agricultural societies and economies. Spurred on by new inventions and technologies, it resulted in vast social and political changes, new economic doctrines, and the creation of powerful industrial empires. POLITICAL PARTNERSHIPS Revolution, the rise of the middle classes, and political and social reforms led to new social contracts between governments and their citizens, the creation of the modern state, and the rise of democracy. GROWTH OF CITIES SOCIAL REFORMS Cities sprang up around In the 19th century, industrial centers. Mass- governments began to act urbanization often led to to improve the lives of their overcrowding, squalor, and the citizens, introducing laws spread of disease. Industrial cities to control working hours were dirty, and provided little and child labor; compulsory sanitation or running water for public education; health working-class inhabitants. systems; and instigating sanitation projects to clean MONEY MANAGERS Industrial governments began to up cities. manage markets. Financial POWERFUL MILITARIES institutions were created to Industrial wealth enabled control and accumulate wealth, governments to create militaries including banks, stock markets, large enough to compete with other industrialized nations. and insurance agencies. These militaries were sometimes also used to control vast colonial empires. NEW PRODUCTION MILITARY NEW IDEOLOGIES METHODS TECHNOLOGY As governments of industrial Building strong militaries was Factories housing the new a major concern of industrial countries adopted the industrial machines mass- powers. Military technology, such institutions of the modern state, produced goods. There were as machine guns, gave social consequences, as workers governments control over concepts of nationalism and markets and encouraged some imperialism developed. Inherent in toiled for long hours in unindustrialized nations to terrible conditions and with imperialist doctrine were the open to trade. ideals of supremacy over very little pay. peoples and nations of the unindustrialized world. CONSUMER CULTURE COLONIAL STRENGTH ECONOMIC The availability of luxury Industrial powers used their STRENGTH products at low cost, an influx Industrialization drove of foreign goods through new strong armies and navies consumer capitalism, which trade networks, and higher wages to colonize parts of the world created wealth. It resulted in a led to the rise of the middle rich in the raw materials needed growing divide between rich and classes. The consumer poor citizens, and an even larger revolution created capital that for their factory-made division between industrialized products, in a practice known and unindustrialized could be reinvested. as imperialism. countries. REASONS TO CONTINUE INNOVATING NEW INFRASTRUCTURE SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND AND INSTITUTIONS ECONOMIC CHANGE","1 CHANGE BEGINS Steam engine is developed by James Soho Manufactory opens, 1766. British inventors and Watt, 1765. It is more efficient than It pioneers mass production of a innovators lead the way, range of metal and glass goods mechanizing the textile the Newcomen engine (1712) and using steam power. industry and introducing able to power machines, leading to the factory system. Using raw materials from the the rise of the factory system. overseas colonies and the newly mechanized Sitnhhpfveerienlopcnnmostiesnmwdtgeeoijeanfetvyn1eda7nrer6synm.,5aa, nlnoddwers CsproinmnifnogrdmMill.ilTl,hine Dsyesrtbeyms is adohpirtee,dbubiyltointh1e7r7i1n,disutshtreiafliirzsitnwgactoeur-nptoriwese.red cotton factory processes to AoIfttfordeaNraxdtmpahetoeiS(uotimnnrnaddisdtusihessa\u2019stwpnrTuiieatbhwhl leaoisegWuhceteo,erdaneadosilnvttmhro1iicc7cat7titoh6inne. gos)rf.yree mass-produce cheaper goods, Britain begins to opafsSrnptopdhicinenfenuntsielnsilnxy,gwtgajieluhmentiscounihmlyneldwa,eu1taiet7sdsht7srtt9ythh,o.eecewowxmepaatbaevninirnsefigrosantmhee dominate world trade. t1o7o6ppl9A,eserorsrkpawisaetewbnnsqerry.nikdWueiiigilaRdnrlithngetcebv,srhyeimfannarrwtcadaethdimenre,ea GREAT BRITAIN Barniddgreewvaolut symbSoDWhlaokrrooifnbsrptoyclhsdwoIheI\u2019nsnIiIrsonfeativdcrrienuusrrotcs1ttsct7hresai7edast9hltSb.ReieyIrevtwoAvebnoorbenrlbrculadRrothiimiadovasgneemaers.,n-made FliystimnedxgoootrSfiuelheibnwumlditindiatvgleniedtluyh(ufpeaaaadclotwotueupnterpttaeeeuvrddset rbc1s.y71. 3735)3,ionteizreCsatnraanl osppoerntsi,n1B7r6i1ta. iInt .is enintivreelneytfmefdiaTciihnern1ec7syh8ii6nn,gfianmrcpmraeericpncahriesgonnied.vntesueiinnnc,tt12weio7d0Prn8ouyb3ubdey,gyadHihrnl4sitecn0.nirrg0eroayfnusCernos ratce, 1750 TIMELINES INDUSTRY GOES GLOBAL aRnidchpaarvdesTtrheeviwthaiyckfoursaenseswteearma olofcfoasmt,oetfifvieciteonttrtarnasnsp Britain\u2019s early industrialization gave the CWoailllgiaams fMirsutrudsoecdkbtoy light his home in 1792. country a new economic might and an ability Eventually coal gas replaces candles and to exploit its position on a global scale. Other lamps and is used to oil light up streets, countries soon tried to emulate its success. houses, and factories. Industrialization arose in Britain as the result of a combination of unique and unplanned forces, but it could 17pin9rcov3oed,tfnteuootfcrenftsidiclsoaibeenveyne\u2014dtEClslaalyoibfnWsrtodoetropmdh\u2014naietfrmsgniaboietaneaeyn,rrs,ds; . US be replicated by other countries, where it was implemented by strong governments or by entrepreneurs. The new CottoRnewgvEohiBnuleurrnitotiiCEposnhoengcalblaknimsewehIgrantmiiclnodlhasucbniiosnuntWneirl1tsdir7aiialsn9llvpia9Beimnnenelgisniugm. ortp.ort coal, 1804, North River industrial societies developed in their own way, each with ccSwsHtitotortueenahdmaannsesmAmmolcepfnbtbroosoacrRriiatn.artNvlyi,eevvur1.iews8raeF0itYro7oh,sfretk distinctive features, but they all descended from the British BELGIUM predecessor and shared common elements, such as the importance of coal, iron, steel, and the textiles industry. 1800 Britain tried to protect her advantage by preventing new technology and skilled workers from leaving, but countries determined to compete smuggled out machinery, sent spies to learn British secrets, and bribed entrepreneurs to set up factories abroad. The first countries to industrialize were the ones that were geographically or culturally similar to Britain: Belgium, France, and Prussia were next to develop railways and factories essential for industrialization. 312 THRESHOLD 8","James Young begins distilling oil in 18501t8o5wt3arraasnAdhdiempuewssiriteacrhfraiionrnvceds iteuentstaorTiomoa-lkppyenoonatJiwBaeoaprynaeis.ndn 1848 to produce petroleum, paraffin, enatbblheeBeoeusfecnstssegotshisdeeetnefelma,omeernrarilwdsanshpari-glrlcgpoerohwc-orowseredssckidusa.,tlcuettc1ioe8os5n6 and kerosene for use in lamps and for toopiltoihswePeaeresntnemrnidanwjskghooiyoelifernlsvtTfnieaohhsoniE.nleseiddisai1culniw9soiftntTniurhm1teylDc8umires5sueavnrs9i.ktblceleiuoBderra,ylynAmerican lubricating machinery. Pneumatic tire created by Robert Thompson, 1845, makes travel more comfortable. UcrewSS-pPrroinpceellteodnw, 1a8rs4h3i,pwpaoswtheerefdirsby t MwateossastiEpenmueot1hrlnawo8ensp4ofuie7irsrfkbsaiaentcyfrttstrGeAutoerreldefherrulme-eoccdcfaeaondKsntrscutaprnupnctosn. s steam. pttarhdWaendsAelepsttLoslraetraeenrtuvnaatonimt,cilc1aou.sh8nSnthi3dtoiooep7fpnfa,tSeimgtozohSoescpeoGhtrldfhoeiripsre.essssatt fosryFisnrTtadehFnumorcFsa,emtonwrduiacahesreliivrcBzbeahrayliaotliBwissposresaneitsya.yissserihnabnieu1tlwnii8algta4l iiy1nn.eer prporcoSedisuesmciitmteiocpnnhrsoe-aMavnpedasemrrs,ttia1enk8ee6l s5. JAPAN PRUSSIA First rotating electric motor JaRpaapnidinigsnotdivtuuesrttnerdmiabeliynzttahitneio1Mn86eoi8fji. created by Moritz von Jacobi, 1834. Four years later, his improved design was strong enough to power a boat. FoMrtpeeine\u00fcnxnchdthiluilhnestateRiunrxoisdateuliunilezes,nat1f,rta8yLioc3idtln0lroe.i,r,vaiaeennssddthe 3 INDUSTRIAL WORLD RAsaEtlienlleagenmlnasgnlhoidnicp,eo1sem8Ar2oHm9to.eivrreiactfario\u2019osmfirst GatilsiningtendegdutnofriersdtuucseeddeiantthhsefArommewricaartnimCeivdilisWeaasr,ei.n 1860 Driven by the desire to compete, FRANCE Japan and Russia industrialize against a background of domestic social and political upheaval. European powers also compete to secure raw materials in the scramble for Africa. gton, 1825. , Pennsylvania steelworks built by Scotsman Andrew Carnegie ion.\u20131916in 1875. It utilizes the Bessemer system, and the American steel industry greatly expands. First passeng Benz automobile William Cockerill imports er train runs from Stockton to Darlin tpheae1nt8iegntn8hitnt6eFeeer.ifnd,rnIoswteabstwilhssyacilipluKycofohtmaauowrvrebmlauelBu\u2014inrloseaesbtonbdioioizlllben.eniynis opTernans su-pSivbaesrtiaarneraasiolwf Rayuscsoinasttoruincdteudst1r8ia9l1izat a Watt steam engine to suPciRnscatioes1rcsspe8hesee8mfntnu8grosl.aelnIiiarntldrwiRVgsUaaetiyrihnelgwseilioeynfacsniiyrattser,timc . Liege, 1813. Steam power 2 THE REVOLUTION SPREADS 1900 transforms the Belgian coal, Political revolutions in 1830 and 1848 iron, and textile industries. cause social upheaval but spread liberal ideas and new innovations across Europe. The US also starts to industrialize, capitalizing on the rich natural resources of her newly acquired territories, and the pace of change accelerates after the American Civil War ends in 1865. RUSSIA INDUSTRY GOES GLOBAL 313","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION GOVERNMENTS EVOLVE Governments soon realized that industrialization could THE SUBJECTS OF EVERY STATE OUGHT TO increase their country\u2019s wealth\u2014and it changed the way CONTRIBUTE TOWARD THE SUPPORT OF they ruled. They began to work in partnership with THE GOVERNMENT IN PROPORTION TO industry, and this ushered in a new balance of power, as THEIR RESPECTIVE ABILITIES. governments became managers of markets and citizens. Adam Smith, Scottish philosopher and pioneer of the political economy, 1723\u20131790 The process of industrialization saw the nature of government change. Structures that served agrarian civilizations either evolved or were \u25bc Pressures of power PRESSURES ON GOVERNMENTS replaced by new institutions that were developed to manage the wealth Industrialization transformed and power of industrial economies. As the first country to industrialize, society, distributing wealth the British government led the way in facilitating the creation of more far more broadly, and wealth, cooperating with merchants and using its navy to protect their different groups began to overseas interests. Successful commerce led to larger markets and even make demands on greater wealth, so the government began to encourage innovations to governments. meet demand and increase output. Other countries observed that industrialization produced revenues that could be used to fund their RULING CLASSES militaries, and their governments also became increasingly concerned with trying to support industrialists, control the new economies, and Landowning gentry manage the growing numbers of wage workers\u2014all of which led were wealthy and to more bureaucracy and the creation of the modern state. powerful with a strong The way in which modern states evolved varied dramatically. presence in parliament France created a completely new bureaucracy after the social and political revolution of 1789 swept away the institutions associated Government with its ancien r\u00e9gime. Britain already had an established needed to adapt in a representative assembly and gradually developed other institutions over time. To ensure the loyalty of their world increasingly citizens, leaders began to develop national ideologies, dominated by commerce and, by 1914, the modern state had begun to shape to appease the different the politics of countries around the world. groups in society who Industrialists gained enough had conflicting demands wealth to demand more and grievances representation in government. They pressed for the adoption of FACTORY SYSTEM GOVERNMENT free trade, so they could accumulate more wealth Wage workers toiled in the new factories for long hours with little pay and sometimes in dangerous conditions. They attacked the industrial machines, and organized unions and strikes to campaign for better working conditions and wages","1939 WORLD 1950s WAR II \u25b6 The new establishment Military service was Income tax had often Governments were forced to introduced by modern been a temporary adapt to manage the growing states, replacing hired measure in times of war wealth and power of industrial mercenaries with citizen but it was permanently economies. To do so, they armies and universal introduced during the increasingly developed the conscription 19th century institutions of modern states: citizen armies, taxation, and Subjects transformed into citizens as The modern state services that included the power of the modern state reached demanded loyalty and infrastructure, protection, far more directly into their lives and military service from its education, and hospitals. they began to participate in government citizens. In return, it gave them the right to vote and Elections gave citizens GOVERNMENT promised to look after the right to vote, their welfare and health although universal suffrage was a slow and uneven process New services, such as education and health systems, were provided by governments to appease and retain the loyalty of their citizens THEM ODERN STATE SCHOOL SHOPS Middle classes, \u25c0 Wider electorate including shop owners The French Revolution and merchants, called showed governments for new rights against across Europe that aristocratic monopolies, reforms were needed to and electoral reform appease their citizens. The British Reform Bill of 1832 broadened the property qualifications for suffrage to include small landowners and shopkeepers. MERCHANT SHIPS 315","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION CONSUMERISM TAKES OFF Industrialization meant that land was no longer the only source of wealth. It became possible to generate wealth through manufacturing and trading goods. During the late 18th century, the middle classes grew, leading to a new emphasis on upward mobility and consumption. \u25bc Consumer culture Industrialization brought improvements classes were not a homogeneous group but \u25b2 Household items for everyone With the advent of the in transport and manufacturing technology, a broad band of the population, which fell Expansion in the pottery industry increased department store, which increased the availability of consumer between the aristocracy and the workers. consumer choice, and laborers who once ate from customers could buy products. This, combined with increased At the lower end were the storekeepers and metal platters dined from Wedgwood porcelain. an astonishing array of international trade, brought an at the top were the capitalists who owned goods all in one place unprecedented array of new goods to the companies. They included businessmen the role the government should play in its and shopping became domestic market. Rising prosperity and and entrepreneurs, doctors, lawyers, and management. They wanted an economy a leisure activity. social mobility allowed the middle classes teachers. The emergent middle classes all unfettered by government restrictions, as to increase their ranks and more people had shared a common interest in the expansion they thought this was the best way to foster a disposable income to spend. The middle of the economy and held specific ideas about individual achievement. They also shared 316 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS common values: they believed that through these status symbols were within the Cocoa bean hard work and self-reliance it was possible financial reach of many. The dizzying \u25c0 Chocolate to achieve economic success. array of goods on offer included temptations textiles, furniture, clothes, hats, Once the favored The notion of self-improvement was a china, books, jewelry, lace, perfume, drink of the aristocracy, key part of middle-class culture. As they rose and food. Middle-class wives filled chocolate became up the social ladder, and in order to ensure their homes with new material accessible to the the aristocracy no longer had an unfair possessions and purchased general public, and advantage, the middle classes campaigned fashionable clothing to display manufacturers targeted for electoral reform and free trade. These their husbands\u2019 financial success. women and children in were seen as the necessary conditions to advertising campaigns. make it possible for anyone to succeed Wages were high in 18th- through their own efforts. century Western Europe, \u25c0 Luxury and slavery especially in Britain, which meant Imports of raw cotton, In Britain, the middle classes converted that even members of the lower sugar, rum, and tobacco economic success into political power classes could afford some of came from slave with the 1832 Reform Act, as a more these consumer goods. Most plantations in the aspirational society began to demand 18th-century towns had taverns Caribbean, where and expect more from the government. offering cheap meals, and African slaves were the coffee houses where coffee and primary source of labor. CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION chocolate could be consumed The middle classes often aspired to the and ideas could be exchanged. consumption patterns of the aristocracy. Clothing and household possessions were Greater purchasing power a way of communicating one\u2019s social and a gradual fall in prices position and by the end of the 18th century led to rising demand for new consumer products, which in turn fueled the economies of department stores, which opened in industrializing countries. These Paris in the 1830s, Russia in the 1850s, commodities were made affordable and Japan in the 1890s. by slave labor, with over 11 million slaves producing the goods that flowed With the rapid growth of towns and into Europe\u2019s ports. These slaves were cities, by the 19th century shopping had part of a system known as the \u201ctriangular become an important cultural activity, as trade\u201d: European merchants transported a shift in behavior meant people began slaves from Africa to work on plantations buying for fashion rather than necessity. in the Americas and the Caribbean, and Storefronts displayed mirrors, bright lights, then transported the commodities colorful signs, and advertisements, and all produced by the slaves back to Europe. of their products to entice shoppers inside. Many stores tried to appeal to the wealthier ADVERTISING AND ASPIRATIONS end of the market, but cheaper mass- manufactured goods and an abundance English entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood of food markets made shopping a cultural noticed the way aristocratic fashions activity open to every class. slowly filtered down through society. He sold tea services to the British Queen, and his \u201cQueen\u2019s Ware\u201d became a must- have item among the middle classes. Wedgwood realized that he needed to convince consumers they wanted to buy his wares, and that consumers were primarily women. He opened a showroom where women were encouraged to meet, drink tea, and be shown his new ranges of china. His pottery reached every industrial market in Europe and North America. He is often considered the father of modern advertising. Wedgwood\u2019s marketing genius had a knock-on effect in London and then abroad, as retail outlets made products more easily available to the consumer. This was manifest in the growth of CONSUMERISM TAKES OFF 317","P opular catchphrases of the American actions of the revolutionaries launched but it also brought about a general shift in and French revolutions, the concepts a sea change in Western politics. People consciousness. The existence of universal of liberty, equality, and fraternity were began to demand freedom from the natural rights became part of a new, more drawn from 17th and 18th century oppression of absolute monarchies and empathetic world view, which fed into the Enlightenment ideals of reason, knowledge, imperial overlords and wanted a new development of the modern state. and the freedom of people to improve their social contract in its place. On a practical condition. The marriage between the level, this included greater representation INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE philosophies of the Enlightenment and the in government and the right to own land, These principles were first asserted by Thomas Jefferson, a key figure in the BIG IDEAS American War of Independence and author of the 1776 Declaration of EQUALITY Independence. The Declaration stated AND FREEDOM that all men are born free, are equal before the law, and have natural rights Revolutionary ideas promoting liberty, equality, and fraternity were to property, life, and liberty\u2014ideas introduced to the industrializing world in the late 18th century, after that remain central tenets of democracy revolutions in France and America dismantled established aristocratic today. Democracy itself was not a new regimes. These ideas echoed through the politics of the 19th century concept: it had been established in ancient and became central to modern beliefs about human rights. Athens around the 5th century BCE, and was rediscovered during the Renaissance. The Athenian experience helped inspire revolutions against absolute monarchies, such as in France. The Declaration of Independence\u2014 and the American revolution itself\u2014was heavily influenced by international figures: English philosopher John Locke argued that legitimate governments needed the consent of the governed; writer and activist Thomas Paine advocated for the right to revolt against a government that did not protect its citizens\u2019 needs. They published their arguments in polemical pamphlets, distributed through a revolutionary exchange network, including men who 200 COPIES OF THE AMERICAN DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WERE PRINTED AND DISTRIBUTED \u25c0 The gift of liberty had participated in both the American The Statue of Liberty was built and the French revolutions, such as the by a French architect as a gift to Marquis de Lafayette\u2014a French hero of the United States from France. the American war. This ensured that ideas, It became an icon of the United such as Paine\u2019s Rights of Man (1791), reached States and a symbol of freedom. an international audience. The spread of ideas between America and France was the most important political exchange network of the time. America showed the world what was possible: many Frenchmen helped in its liberation from British rule and returned home influenced by what they had seen. After France\u2019s own uprising, the Marquis de Lafayette enlisted help from Thomas Jefferson\u2014in Paris at the time\u2014to pen the Declaration of the Rights 318 THRESHOLD 8","of Man and of the Citizen. The American humans have certain inalienable rights. TO DENY PEOPLE THEIR HUMAN and French revolutions revealed how The government\u2019s role would be to powerful uncensored ideas could be. recognize and secure the rights and RIGHTS IS TO CHALLENGE THEIR property of its citizens, and it would be The exchange of Enlightenment ideas formed by elected, tax-paying citizens. VERY HUMANITY. was encouraged among the bourgeoisie, Women, slaves, and foreigners were not the middle class who led the French included. However, in the aftermath of Nelson Mandela, South African civil rights activist, 1918\u20132013 revolution. They were ambitious and the French revolution, a new consciousness well-read, schooled in the theories of began to spread through Europe. Many throughout the 19th century. Progressives Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire, people developed an empathy with the across the world believed that the universal, the thinkers known as the \u201cphilosophes\u201d plight of others\u2014progressive thinkers equal, and natural human rights espoused who advocated the uncensored exchange called for the reform of prisons, an end in the Declaration would overturn all of ideas and freedom of the press. The to harsh sentences, and the abolition of undemocratic forms of rule. Sim\u00f3n Bolivar philosophes spread their views through slavery. France was first to abolish slavery (1783\u20131830), the liberator of Spanish the Republic of Letters, a community in 1794; Britain and America followed Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and of European and American intellectuals in 1807 and 1808, respectively. By 1842, Columbia, openly admired the French who communicated through letters, the Atlantic slave trade was over. Revolution. Hindu reformer Ram Mohun essays, and published papers. Roy (1772\u20131833) argued for freedom of The human rights ideal played an speech and religion as natural rights in In the 17th and 18th centuries, important role in Europe in 1820, 1830, condemning India\u2019s caste system. And Enlightenment thought led to a shift and 1848 when revolutionary activity during the late 19th and 20th centuries, away from religious dogma toward educated Asian and African leaders argued scientific experiment and empirical 10,000 AFRICAN SLAVES that European colonization contravened modes of thought. Scientific progress WERE FREED AFTER THE the human rights of the indigenous people. and technological innovation helped Eventually the principle became enshrined incubate the industrial revolution in FRENCH REVOLUTION in the first article of the United Nations Britain. The exchange of broader 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Enlightenment ideas was encouraged broke out across the continent. Thinkers Rights, which set out to protect the among the middle classes of Europe from both the right and the left, the two fundamental rights to which all peoples\u2014 through \u201csocieties of thought\u201d such as sides that defined modern politics, echoed no matter where they come from\u2014are reading rooms, coffee houses, Masonic the principles of the Declaration of the Rights inherently entitled. lodges, and scientific academies. Coffee of Man and of the Citizen and argued that houses became famous meeting places the ideals of universal rights justified their for later revolutionaries such as Karl political action. Crucially, the Declaration\u2019s Marx and Friedrich Engels, key figures clause that \u201cthe source of all sovereignty of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. They resides essentially in the nation\u201d was harnessed the power of the rotary press, evoked constantly during the rise of invented in 1843, which enabled the nationalism and the formation of the mass-production of print books and modern nation states of Europe. newspapers. Marx\u2019s own newspaper, the Rheinische Zeitung, reported on the events A key principle of the Declaration of of the 1848 uprisings, and helped to spread the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, that the revolutionary message to the masses. \u201call human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights,\u201d spread widely THE LEGACY The American, French, and other revolutions of the 19th century were all based on the Enlightenment idea that WE HOLD THESE TRUTHS TO BE SELF-EVIDENT, THAT ALL MEN ARE CREATED EQUAL... Thomas Jefferson, 1743\u20131826, Declaration of Independence EQUALITY AND FREEDOM 319","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION NATIONALISM EMERGES The second half of the 18th century was a period of immense revolution, in both social and political terms. These profound changes in the world order led to the formation of new nation states and a growing sense of nationalism, as countries began to assert their individuality. \u25bc Unifying force The roots of modern nationalism can be state as a united community enjoying equal In 1871, Chancellor traced back to the political philosophy of rights under a Constitution. The French Otto von Bismarck John Locke in 17th-century England, with revolutionaries introduced a centralized finally achieved his its emphasis on the individual and his rights, administrative bureaucracy with uniform aim of bringing and the human community. It was also laws, and established French as the common 300 small kingdoms influenced by the unprecedented social language of the land. and principalities changes brought about by the industrial together to form a revolution and by the liberal ideals of the NEW NATION STATES unified Germany. Enlightenment philosophers. Essentially, The growing sense of nationalism in Europe modern nationalism demanded loyalty sparked struggles for independence in to one\u2019s country and embodied a sense Greece and Belgium (where there was a of common identity and history shared successful revolution against Dutch rule). In by rulers and citizens alike. 1848, revolution once again erupted across Europe, as huge swathes of the populace Unity under a free and equal democracy vented their dissatisfaction, demanding was central both to the liberal nationalism of national unification and constitutional the American Revolution of 1776, and to the reform. The Kingdom of Italy was finally outbreak, in 1789, of the French Revolution, created in 1861 and Germany in 1871, but which paved the way for the modern nation these two unifications came at a cost. Absolute monarchies were re-established and liberal institutions such as the popular press were persecuted. A misplaced blend of nationalism and beliefs about racial superiority led European nations to colonize many countries in the late 19th century. Culturally, nationalism often took the form of a celebration of a nation\u2019s history, culture, and achievements. Proud of their rapid modernization, the great industrial nations of the world hosted impressive international trade exhibitions to show off their latest manufacturing\u2014the supreme expression of confidence in their nation. PATRIOTISM IS WHEN LOVE OF YOUR OWN PEOPLE COMES FIRST; NATIONALISM, WHEN HATE FOR PEOPLE OTHER THAN YOUR OWN COMES FIRST. Charles de Gaulle, former President of France, 1890\u20131970 320 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS Patriotic display The Great Exhibition of 1851, in Britain, was the first international exhibition of manufactured products, as well as a display of national pride. NATIONALISM EMERGES 321","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE Resources Privately-owned manufacturing industry Tea, sugar, cotton, mass-produces rubber, silk, gold, goods for foreign spices, tobacco, and domestic wood, rice, coffee markets Crops grown for export to mother country Directly or indirectly-ruled Profits flow into FACTORY colonies supplied their mother country and mother countries with raw economy expands Government encourages materials for use in industrial innovation and manufacture entrepreneurship, and helps to open new markets RICE Profit COFFEE Colonies provide a cheap labor source after the abolition of slavery SPICES Manufactured goods COTTON GOVERNMENT from mother country imported at lower prices to undercut domestic industries Textiles, iron, steel, MOTHER COUNTRY machinery, guns TEXTILES Manufactured goods COLONIES Capitalism Import \u25b2 How the economy works Capitalism, or a free market s As countries began to industrialize, economy, is an economic model Communism governments took a more active role in where the means of production are The counterpoint to capitalism, If there are trade barriers in managing industry and the wealth it privately owned. Government control communism is an economic model place, countries often have created. Industrialized nations colonized can range from minimal to more based on state or common ownership other countries in order to secure raw of the means of production, the to pay a tariff, or tax, on materials for use in the manufacture of heavily interventionist. absence of social classes, and an their imports. Retaliatory goods, and to secure markets for the even distribution of the profits finished goods. Trade barriers determined tariffs often stop the flow of goods between rival from industry. international trade industrialized nations. 322 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS Mercantilism BY 1913, THE UNITED STATES, Government regulates GERMANY, THE UNITED KINGDOM, the economy to secure a larger share of international FRANCE, AND RUSSIA PRODUCED wealth by maximizing 77 PERCENT OF THE WORLD\u2019S exports and minimizing imports through tariffs. MANUFACTURED GOODS MERCHANT SHIP TRADE BARRIERS Protectionism Manufactured Trade barriers are government Government restricts goods exported to restrictions on international trade, international trade to other industrialized such as tariffs (to make imported goods protect domestic industries nations more expensive than domestically- from potential rivals\u2014tariffs, produced ones), quota limits on the subsidies and import TRADE BARRIERS number of imports, or outright embargos quotas, and exclusion or bans on trading with certain countries. These barriers make international from the market. trade more difficult or expensive, THE INDUSTRIAL or prevent trade altogether. ECONOMY Ex ports When trade barriers RIALIZED COMPETITOR The industrial revolution created new possibilities for are in place, countries countries to increase their wealth. Nations adapted to cope aim to sell goods to competitor countries with the corresponding increase in international trade, and while buying as little the pitfalls that came with it. as possible in return Before the industrial revolution, mercantilism had been the dominant FACTORY European economic model. In this approach, a nation encouraged exports and discouraged imports, with the belief that the world\u2019s INDUST wealth was finite. However, the introduction of mass production on an industrial scale increased economic output, and showed it was possible to create new wealth. Industrialists realized they could make more money by importing cheap raw materials from unindustrialized countries and manufacturing them into goods they could sell to both foreign and domestic markets. With this increase in both production and profit, for a time it became beneficial for countries to trade freely with each other. Industrialists pressured governments to adopt a policy of free trade\u2014trade without barriers or government interference, where imports are tariff-free and exports are not subsidized. This was the start of a period of great wealth accumulation, the founding of new financial institutions, and the birth of capitalism\u2014a term coined by economist Adam Smith\u2014which remains the dominant economic model for industrializing countries today. However, as well as increasing the flow of goods and wealth between nations, the consequences of free trade can include economic instability, exploitation, and clashes over the sources of wealth\u2014colonies, markets, and raw materials. To counteract this, governments create trade barriers to try and protect their interests; this can result in cyclical periods in which trade increases or decreases between nations. THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY 323","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION Gunboat diplomacy Samurai warriors row out to meet an American \u201cblack ship,\u201d which introduced Japan to gunboat diplomacy and made its 17th-century weaponry instantly ineffective. 324 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS THE WORLD OPENS TO TRADE The 19th century marked a major turning point for world trade, as industrialized nations sought to expand their commercial reach. It was not always a peaceful process, but it laid the foundations of the modern international economy. In the 1840s, the policy of free trade\u2014trade BETWEEN 1809 AND 1839, without government interference or tarrifs on imports or exports\u2014led to a period in BRITISH IMPORTS DOUBLED which industrializing nations were able AND EXPORTS TRIPLED to accumulate great wealth. Factories enabled the cheap and rapid production arrival of the more technologically advanced of an unprecedented array of products for Americans encouraged Japan\u2019s own domestic and foreign markets, as a rising industrialization and path to modernity. demand for consumer goods, in turn, fueled more economic growth. This expansion of Following their victories in the Opium world trade by the industrializing powers Wars, the British government imposed a of Britain, and later western European series of treaties on China that gave Britain countries and North America, eventually favored and unequal trading privileges. resulted in the need for each world power Japan signed a similar treaty with the United to protect their own economic position. States, and other industrialized European powers also followed suit, imposing unequal CONTROLLING MARKETS treaties on trade with Latin America and the The most rewarding and efficient form Middle East. Countries wishing to trade had of free trade was to control both the raw materials and the markets. This was often to set low tariffs on European achieved by force, as the growing disparity imports and adopt legal in technologies between industrialized measures favorable to nations and the rest of the world soon European interests. showed. Historically, countries such as Japan and China had been largely unwilling to \u25c0 Opium pipe import European goods: they did not need or Imports of British opium want them. Britain imported tea from China led to widespread but\u2014other than silver acquired by selling addiction in China, slaves from Africa to Spanish colonists in the resulting in the Opium Americas\u2014had nothing to offer the Chinese Wars of 1839\u201342 and in exchange. With the abolition of slavery 1850\u201360. After being the supply of silver dried up, so Britain defeated, China was began selling Chinese opium instead. forced to open more China\u2019s resistance to the exploitation of ports to foreign trade. its people sparked two Opium Wars in the mid-19th century. America also adopted a policy of armed intervention in the East, regarding Japan as a backwater where its traders could open up new markets. In 1853, four American gunboats entered the prohibited waters of Edo Bay, Japan. Bristling with modern weaponry, the black ships intimidated the Japanese into opening their borders to trade with America and Europe. The THE WORLD OPENS TO TRADE 325","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION \u25bc The Gatling gun Hand crank, or \u201chopper,\u201d drops Richard Gatling justified his 1861 fresh ammunition into the gun\u2019s invention of the rapid-fire gun on humanitarian grounds. He claimed chambers using gravity. The it would save lives by reducing the multiple barrels turn with a hand carnage on the battlefield and shortening the length of wars. crank on the gun\u2019s side and a solider feeds the ammunition into the top-loading \u201chopper\u201d Cyclic multibarreled design allows a cartridge to be automatically loaded and fired from each barrel before being given a brief moment to cool, enabling rapid fire without overheating WHATEVER HAPPENS WE HAVE GOT THE MAXIM GUN AND THEY HAVE NOT. Hilaire Belloc, Anglo-French writer and historian, 1870\u20131953 326 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS WAR DRIVES INNOVATION New innovations that increased the effectiveness of war machines made the \u201cscramble for Africa\u201d possible. This rapid colonization of the continent by the powers of Europe was justified by racist ideology, and had the search for raw materials at its heart. Industrialization and the need for raw powers to annex territory. International \u25b2 Colonial control materials and new markets were important rivalries became a factor in the land-grab Askari soldiers were drivers of imperialism. Notions of cultural that followed and, in the ensuing scramble, African troops hired and racial superiority were also used to the borders of the continent were drawn and trained by European justify it; many 19th century Europeans up on maps in European boardrooms. powers. Native troops believed they were duty-bound to bring Strong armies were a crucial factor in were crucial in keeping civilization to the nonwhite world. As they European empire-building, and the colonies under control. increased their power and productivity at development of new military technologies In Africa there were home and abroad, European perceptions was a consequence of industrial innovation. often up to 200 Askari of the world begun to change. Racist soldiers to every seven thinking came to be expressed in scientific The machine gun, developed by European officers. terms and the Darwinian concept of the Richard Gatling and perfected by survival of the fittest was applied to society. Hiram Maxim, showed that in modern Europeans argued it was natural for them warfare, military technology was to displace those they considered \u201cinferior\u201d paramount. British soldiers used the or \u201cbackward\u201d races. Maxim gun to slaughter over 10,0000 Sudanese Mahdists in the 1898 Battle BATTLEFIELD BREAKTHROUGHS of Omdurman, in which the British Industrialization also provided the means suffered less than 50 casualties of their for colonization: technological innovations own. The machine gun also provided were key. The steamboat and quinine, a reminder that the people of Africa which helped prevent malaria, allowed did not simply acquiesce to imperial European traders unprecedented access rule. When Ethiopia successfully repelled to the interior of sub-Saharan Africa. Italian attempts to colonize it in 1896, This opened up a treasure trove of raw it was the first time a European power materials, but trading with local economies had been defeated in Africa and a led to crises, which prompted European wounding blow to the notions of racial superiority of Europeans. \u25c0 Winning weaponry Ethiopian Emperor Menilek II decimated Italian troops in 1896 using modern guns he had bought in Europe. WAR DRIVES INNOVATION 327","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION \u25b6 The 20th century imperial world British settlers In 1800, European powers and their immigrated to Canada colonies covered one third of the globe; during the 19th century by the dawn of the 20th century, they had carved up much of the world. The British Empire was by far the largest empire in terms of land and population. The United States received immigrants from all over Europe, particularly Britain. It supplied European markets with cotton, tobacco, wood, rice, and furs Gold deposits and the promise of precious and semiprecious minerals including diamonds, in West Africa, caused European colonists to set up gold and gem mines. Coffee and other raw materials, including Palm oil, rubber, and ivory were among Sub-Saharan Africa provided cocoa, bananas, sugar, rubber, silver, and the raw materials European countries many resources, including tin, copper, were produced in Latin America sought to secure from Africa for use in copper, rubber, ivory, iron, after former Spanish and Portuguese manufacturing goods. Palm oil was used ebony, spices, and molasses colonies gained independence. in soap, candles, and lubricants. Brazil was a former Portuguese colony In 1800, much of Latin America was part of the Spanish empire, but these regions had gained independence by the early 20th century BRITAIN RUSSIA BELGIUM GERMANY FRANCE Duration: 1603\u20131949 Duration: 1721\u20131917 Duration: 1885\u20131962 Duration: 1871\u20131918 Duration: 1870\u20131946 Britain began its process of At its peak in 1866, Russia Belgium gained independence Germany used its new navy, Bruised by defeat in the overseas control through had the second-largest from the Netherlands in 1830. built to compete with Britain, Franco-Prussian war of 1870, trading posts, which led to empire in world history, The Congo was its largest to colonize parts of West France acquired colonial colonial expansion across with territories in its control colony and was over 75 times Africa and the South Pacific possessions in Africa, the the world and the largest extending from eastern as big as Belgium itself. during the late 19th century. Pacific, and Southeast Asia empire in world history. Europe right across Asia. from 1871. 328 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS Sugar from Indian plantations COLONIAL became an important export for EMPIRES GROW the British Empire. Once a luxury item, as sugar became available to Raw materials for industry, land for settlers, and ordinary people in Europe, demand for it increased. markets for surplus goods were all factors that drove the Nutmeg and cloves were among imperial expansion of the 19th century, as European the spices produced in Indonesia for the Dutch empire, along with countries began to dominate the world. sugar and coffee. Competition between imperial powers was fierce and colonies became a symbol of prestige. Large areas of arid, sparsely populated land were often annexed simply to prevent a rival from doing so. As political rivalries and mistrust grew in Europe, colonial wealth was used to control the empires and build up arms. Once colonies were established, the mother country had to work out how to keep control of its new territory. Often this took the form of indirect control\u2014collaboration with indigenous leaders in Asia and Africa was a vital part of European rule. Imperial military intervention only occurred in unstable regions or places with no pre-existing central control. However, people living in the Americas, Africa, India, and Southeast Asia often experienced racial prejudice, political oppression, and violence at the hands of imperial powers. In the Belgian Congo, the families of workers were held hostage and raped and murdered if the rubber quota was too low. Some indigenous peoples, including the New Zealand Maori and Australian Aborigines, were killed, displaced, or fell victim to European diseases. From the early 20th century, colonized countries began to gain independence. This process picked up momentum after World War II, when European nations no longer had the wealth, means, or inclination to control faraway territories. The newly independent nations inherited none of the wealth of their past rulers, and were left to create their own institutions. Some have been highly successful; others were plagued by corruption and poverty. Cotton produced in British settlers immigrated EUROPEAN POWERS CONTROLLED India was shipped to to Australia during the 19th AROUND 85 PERCENT OF THE Britain where it was used century, easing overcrowding WORLD\u2019S LAND BY 1914 to make textiles. Britain and social unrest at home exported its cloth back to India, undercutting the prices of locally produced textiles. ITALY PORTUGAL NETHERLANDS JAPAN SPAIN Duration: 1861\u20131947 Duration: 1415\u20132002 Duration: 1543\u20131975 Duration: 1868\u20131945 Duration: 1402\u20131975 Italy colonized Eritrea, Libya, The first global empire, with Building up indirect colonial Japan demonstrated a growing Spain gained control of large and part of Somalia. The territories across several control via the Dutch East and military strength by defeating parts of Latin America by the empire ended in 1947 as Italy continents, Portugal\u2019s was the West India Companies before Russia in the 1904 Russo- 18th century, but by the 20th was forced to abandon its longest-lasting European 1800, the Dutch empire Japanese war and winning century had lost almost all colonies in the aftermath of colonial empire, spanning reached its height during the Korea in the process. of its territories. World War II. almost six centuries. 19th century. COLONIAL EMPIRES GROW 329","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION Factory life The working class labored on the factory floor, supervised by their middle-class bosses, and surrounded by new machines they were often forced to clean during their lunch break. 330 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS SOCIETY TRANSFORMS Industrialization changed every aspect of life for working people. Dangerous and unregulated working conditions existed in factories and workers often lived in overcrowded slum towns, until widespread government reforms improved the plight of this new working class. As factories replaced farms and fields, and unhealthy housing. These conditions all the men, women, and children of the encouraged the spread of disease, and waves peasantry seeking employment were of cholera broke out across India, Europe, exposed to an unprecedented level and North America. An 1832 French study of social and technological change. into cholera showed the link between slums, poverty, and poor health, and English THE PLIGHT OF THE POOR physician John Snow demonstrated that The middle classes were the real winners cholera was spread via contaminated of industrialization; in Britain, the 1832 drinking water in 1849. Reform Bill even gave middle-class men the vote. The laboring classes suffered most. Armed with this knowledge, governments Workers toiled for at least 13 hours began to take action, introducing sewage a day in factories, and hearing loss, lung systems, running water, and trash collection disease, and severe injury were common. into cities. Across Europe and North There was no legal protection for workers: America, other social and political reforms the middle-class factory overseers and owners were enacted. Labor laws provided were king. It was these brutal economic protection for workers, with improved safety inequalities that stoked the wave of regulations, and education became revolutionary activity that broke out across compulsory for children. Europe in 1848, mobilized in part by German philosopher Friedrich Engels, who described the misery of factory workers in The Condition of the Working Poor. THE NEW CITIES \u25c0 Cholera medicine By the end of the Workers lived in slum towns that grew up 19th century, cholera around factories. The rise in urbanization epidemics no longer was everywhere: by 1850, 50 percent of appeared in Europe England\u2019s population were living in cities; and North America. Germany reached this level by 1900, Standards of living America by 1920, and Japan by 1930. rose, sanitation practices Industrial cities in every country suffered improved, and similar problems: overcrowding, pollution, permanent boards of a lack of running water, no waste disposal, health were established. THE WATER\u2026 IN FRONT OF THE HOUSES IS COVERED WITH A SCUM\u2026 ALONG THE BANKS ARE HEAPS OF INDESCRIBABLE FILTH\u2026THE AIR HAS\u2026 THE SMELL OF A GRAVEYARD. Henry Mayhew, journalist and campaigner for better housing, 1812\u20131887 SOCIETY TRANSFORMS 331","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION EDUCATION EXPANDS Education plays an essential part in collective learning and innovation. Realizing its importance, many governments introduced widespread reforms to make education compulsory after the mid-19th century. By 2000, 80 percent of the world population could read and write. The importance of literacy has a long reason, knowledge, and the free exchange \u25b2 Textbook learning history. European literacy levels had risen of ideas. Individual reformers worked The school system in America was largely private steadily from the 16th century, especially to rouse popular support for new until reforms in the 1840s began to introduce in France, Germany, and Britain. A society government intervention in slavery, public public schools and standardized textbooks. that valued knowledge and ideas fitted with health, and education. Intervention was the Age of Enlightenment beliefs that drove needed to appease citizens after the 1848 before can read and write\u2014and contribute industrialization. In Britain, hundreds of revolutions; the middle classes demanded to growing networks of exchange and schools were opened in the early 18th reform and the working classes seemed collective learning. However, even today, century to cope with the rising population. poised to revolt. Governments realized an access to education is not equal; illiteracy However, there was great disparity between educated nation would keep the military is highest in the some of the poorest parts people with access to education and those strong, encourage patriotism, and reduce of the world, and also among women. without. Education had to be paid for the desire for rebellion. From 1870, In 2011, three-quarters of all illiterate during the 18th century and therefore compulsory state-run school education adults lived in southern Asia, the it was not available to the working class. spread across western Europe and into Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa. Neither was education considered the northeastern states of America. Other Furthermore, two-thirds of the world\u2019s important for women\u2014working-class countries outside Europe set up education 774 million illiterate adults were women. women were expected to work from systems after 1900, including China, childhood, while middle-class women Egypt, and Japan. These were partly THE INFORMATION AGE were only schooled until they married. created to encourage patriotism and also Education is an important tool in to imitate the institutions that had helped disseminating information and knowledge EDUCATED NATIONS make the western empires so powerful. at an individual level. Throughout human In the 19th century, ideas about education history, as collective learning has increased, began to change. This arose partly from Improved access to education has Enlightenment ideals about the value of allowed world literacy to rise steadily over the last 150 years. More people than ever \u25b6 Improving MORE THAN 83 PERCENT OF child welfare THE GLOBAL POPULATION In Britain, industrialization led WAS LITERATE IN 2016 to young working- class children toiling networks of exchange have expanded in factories and mines, and their power has grown at faster rates, until government enabling information to accumulate more reforms prohibited and more rapidly. Today, we are living this. The Education in what could be described as the Act of 1880 introduced Information Age. The Digital Revolution compulsory schooling has led to a shift from an economy driven up to the age of ten. by traditional industry to one based on computerized information. In this information society and knowledge-based economy, it is flows of information that 332 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS \u25c0 Primary education In 1994, the government of Malawi, Africa, introduced free primary school education, but dropout rates remain high, especially for girls. This is often the case in many poor countries in sub-Saharan Africa, where children work to supplement the family income. drive profit making. Globalization saw THE PURSUIT OF INNOVATION industrialization, it profited from major the world zones become connected, scientific and engineering breakthroughs. and now the control and movement Education, as a form of collective learning, In the 19th century, governments and of information and wealth has started is crucial for innovation. During the 20th businesses realized science was a crucial to blur national boundaries even more. century, for many industrialized societies source of innovation, wealth, and power, Of the top 100 economies of the world one of the main drivers of innovation was and began to take an active role in ranked by Gross Domestic Product the pursuit of innovation itself\u2014often, as in promoting and organizing scientific (GDP) in 2009, 60 are countries and the past, with the support of governments, research. By the 20th century, innovation the rest are companies, many of them business, and educational institutions. in science and technology had proved to multinational oil and gas companies such During the 17th century, when the first be fundamental components of military, as Sinopec and Shell, and technology and scientific societies were founded in Europe, political, and economic power for communications companies such as Apple the British government offered incentives industrialized nations. and Samsung. Never has information for innovation, and in the first century of been so important. PER CENT (%) 100 \u25c0 Education for all In recent years, the growth of the 90 This graph shows the software and biotechnology industries 80 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 percentage of the population has placed a new emphasis on the need 70 aged 15 and over that for highly skilled labor. Industrialization 60 attended formal education. created a system like a pyramid, with large 50 amounts of unskilled labor at the bottom 40 KEY and a small number of capitalist business 30 Western Europe leaders and creative classes at the top. 20 Eastern Europe Education may be the key to moving 10 United States toward societies in which the pyramid Latin America and is inverted: if more people have access 1860 Caribbean to a good level of education, they can East Asia participate in high-value jobs at the top Sub-Saharan Africa of the pyramid, while automation reduces South and Southeast the need for large numbers of people to Asia perform unskilled tasks. Middle East and North Africa World literacy rate (percentage of population) EDUCATION EXPANDS 333","TIMELINES MEDICAL ADVANCES From the late 18th century, there was a great acceleration Eftohresruirsguicsaeldpfaitrisetnatss,a1n8a4n6a.eItstisheretpla in medical knowledge in industrializing countries, as scientific research, innovation, and disease prevention allowed people to live longer and healthier lives. As expanding trade networks and urbanization brought people cedicb, ryecvholluotrioofnoirzmin.g pain management into closer contact than ever before, diseases spread. Edward Jenner\u2019s breakthrough smallpox vaccination, in 1796, was warily Chloroform vatchiceisnd1dia8setGie5emoar0osns;mesn isftPtsoahrrsceatratoeaeurusbdyri,eebgdswyobhaeLiynscoadhouisasnstpnttaPeotachierspfstraietcxo.uhdora,rutigcanaesnipsemc,ific considered a medical miracle. During the 19th century, germ theory inhaler Repfoabrtmiye1Fsn8lWti5onc4raaahe,nrrndy,decguleseiirneaaiNntdnnrgeiiottgotadahhtnumteioidcnoCnegddriaeinmlrehneionansnupristianlsg. and the discovery of bacteria eventually led to safer surgery and an understanding of the importance of sanitation in public areas. New DRUGS AND DISCOVERIES AND innovation gave physicians practical tools to help them diagnose ANAESTHESIA BREAKTHROUGHS ailments. Medical innovation and improved knowledge had a positive impact on health, especially for the very young and very old. The 20th century was marked by an explosion in medical technology, as health systems tried to keep up with the epidemics, famines, and wars of the modern age. Scientific research of the new millennium led to stem cell research, the sequencing of the human genome, and the ability to create new life. The internet made details of these medical breakthroughs widely accessible, as well as providing an ever-growing resource for the sharing of medical knowledge\u2014for both practitioners and patients. INSTRUMENTS, 1s8uA5fsf2sb,peyirpairrtidnniehnpsegaarsetcwdayoraIisvneuumgeltne.isenfnhseedeaeiwvdscscezaiitussiznrSheoegeedne,,mdo1nhm8sae4lnw7i.dwtseihs INNOVATIONS, AND TECHNOLOGY Stethoscope diaItgfrnreotomoms1atliia8iscnb1tpstey6oanaS,Rtoeitvteeleoni.nnttaathetbhl\u2019soLleescasscheoodenuposnntece.d,tcosinirnvsented 1800 ngd Jmeannnyelri,v\u201ceTs.he Father of Immunology,\u201d GERMS, DISEASES, Carbolic acid AND VACCINES spray Cainrb1865, otolickiallcgiderismfsirasnt dusreedduacseanthaenrtiisskepotficinbfeycJotisoenp.h Li ster, instriunSs1mtEp8eerrr8nenitlsa6i,stdzitvsaoohoitifiKtinpnmoorhtnfcBerefnohesvoetaiutrorecudnnufegtbtnduiidstehTydcmboretuehaaeconrefnhc.1undttgl8eibbienfo8b,iaarcsie0ccyiaottssdll,eeoarrbhiignyeaayl.dRtpic\u2014ohnhbagtoelrctearuase vvaacccciinnaattiioonnbisecdoemveelsopweiddebsypEredawda,rsavi 1775 Smallpox 1796, and 334 THRESHOLD 8","First \u201ctest tube\u201d baby is born, Commercial magnetic rmt1emHHal9hIiaanreg9tVyrkh6ie.alendypfdWByeeaymds(ccrot2ttiroiHe0torvp1Aainnel0iinAticanttyRonthtrrhuTiea)aorntsttedeArltIoiuierecncDdose.oStv-din,ortraalol 1978, after the in vitro fertilization resonance imaging (MRI) scanners, which of an egg outside the body, use magnets and radio enabling people who could not waves to form an image of a patient\u2019s conceive to have children. body and organs, aid diagnoses of internal abnormalities, 1981. CoGmopduf(trCeedAyroiTcHzt)eoodsurcsasnauxtsnocfinaihelleolatrdcos,damt1teue9vom7eagl0boro.narpIspoteirhadnmyllpboayalwittisieensts. res0egarecnhe.s inHhuummaann DGNenAo,m2e00P3ro, ijsecant puanpperreicdeednetniftyeidngretshoeu2r0c,e0a0n0d\u2013b25as,0is0for gretaotethrBefierAmthmacleeoraicncnotadrnnottmrlThopoealpidro\u201clhaklsvyyefeesoFxotirc,irvurfi1aeaswaarc9rtnelmao36srCrpu,eim0r5lehicvy,e0rrceoldfip0eensoluolstarhairsmudtaenefintaiuoelnnberdlBnitgyahna.et\u201dsStergraeonaaocndaruhtrstdypth,erlaAa1ann9rf.trs6sipc7la.annt 2000 A3hDulisvmpcibnraiaeiegnnnpacEtetbaeoiaobstrlwtreituoeuhtsitctnsolstootbaeihtopnuh\u2019lmrselvrgsseseoouaadiaaildwnkgncpnkieujgscne2dpeceiiic0nmcsnesrat1eted,ipesW4olt2vleloh,nsape0l.enesniernn1ystaooa5tstdmftdft.hiAnrauhIoeytgfcemrifesisucdpptaurarekerfaetidled.lisrcotef d 19t5o3dD,WilNaegaaAndtsoiinossgnedtadeonsiscadergaFibrsreaeeansdtceebiarsyraClJbyarimoilcinteky.s, Cardiac litoynoefdcflroonimnagnhaudmulatnclieflle,. 19 96, SURGICAL pacemaker PROCEDURES doctors iuptInpthCsunrieesloaosshardevedensaulaitectiairmoceocttdnprbrpe,ioetacg1hracau9tatelal5.tamn8tte.aker sDoblrlingsycitehnetiSshtseecplo,stehretfoirtshtemthameomreaetlntiTtcitaotahfaalllalblenoynceiwfdtuaiicibmrpsmsliscaodatobctcdoirvihuceicesbesrt,utseoicostmdraimpsnbpgrtgeyrfoooiaAtstvmrtf3ilahoneaDnexrgkstatpetiphcnhrale,ideann2penthe0eratex1dtFa5aiellc,etnthmt.oinfgminill1io9n2s8. , diaetrimoannthpehryasipciysatreWeilvheenltmualRloynutsgeedn,t1o8tr9e5,atcchaanncgiern.g the way Electron leTahdesatonttihbieotmiacsspeprniocdilulictni,oancocid microscope vdiEinroluvecesctenotstrreosfdontroimntsh1iece9erf3obi1rsas,cctaottlelipomreiwaeiis.anngd Xex-raamyisnaerpeadtiisecnotvs.eXre-drabyysGas ra 1900 German Paul Ehrlich releases drug treatment for syphilis in 1910\u2014a major breakthrough in chemotherapeutic medicine. The \u201cABO\u201d blood groups are described by Karl Landsteiner, 1900, leading to safe blood transfusions. Ronald Ross discovers that mosquitoes carry malaria and publishes his findings in 1897. This allows him to develop \u201cvector control\u201d to help eradicate malaria-carrying mosquitoes. MEDICAL ADVANCES 335","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION THE AMERICAS INDUSTRIALIZED ZONE Transportation UNINDUSTRIALIZED ZONE Falling transportation and communications PACIFIC ISLAND SOCIETIES costs underpin international trade from 1900 1820 onward. The price of inland FOUR WORLD ZONES The four world zones had become two transportation drops by 90 percent By the start of industrialization zones: an industrialized zone, made rich between 1800 and 1910; transatlantic in the 18th century, European through mass-production, and a poorer transportation costs fall by 60 percent explorers had already connected unindustrialized zone that was exploited for between 1870 and 1900. the four world zones. raw materials, labor, and land. AFRO-EURASIA AUSTRALASIA ROAD TO GLOBALIZATION Trade agreements Decolonized countries begin to make trade The merging of the world into two zones resulted in a worldwide agreements based on mutual advantage. Many of these countries adopt a free-trade exchange network of trade, capital, migration, culture, and model, which leads to a new transnational economic dynamic. knowledge in a process known as globalization. LATE 20TH\/EARLY 21ST CENTURY Globalization is not a modern concept: global exchange networks expanded Many unindustrialized nations become greatly after the Age of Discovery, which spanned the 15th\u201318th centuries cogs in a global manufacturing machine, and opened the new world to the old. During this period, money, people, assembling products from raw materials crops, ideas, and diseases traveled between the two worlds, mostly to the shipped in from around the world. benefit of the countries of Western Europe. This model of globalization sped up during 19th-century imperialism, and, by the end of the century, large THE COUNTRY THAT IS MORE colonial empires connected specialized regions of industry and agriculture DEVELOPED INDUSTRIALLY ONLY within a new world economy focused on accumulating capital. SHOWS TO THE LESS-DEVELOPED THE IMAGE OF ITS OWN FUTURE. Alongside industrial technologies, including the telegraph and railways, the new organizational structures of the modern state were introduced Karl Marx, German philosopher, economist, and sociologist, 1818\u201383 to the unindustrialized world, including legal systems and state bureaucracy. As countries in the unindustrialized zone developed distinctive specializations\u2014like the growing and exporting of tea\u2014they did so under a system that came with its own rules, regulations, and language. After decolonization in the 20th century, those colonies able to grow their own economies did so with the guidebook left behind by empire. By the 21st century, innovation in communications technology had become as important as transportation in creating modern globalization: cheap and efficient containerization contributed to the rise of China as an economic superpower, and fiber optics and broadband helped establish India as a global services hub. The innovations continue today, as ever more advanced smartphones connect the world\u2019s population, and a new global culture begins to emerge. 336 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS Resources Migration In the 19th century, industrial powers Innovative new forms of introduce free-market capitalism to the world. transportation help to increase Empires seize resources, subordinate labor, the migration and movement of and turn the globe into a vast agricultural peoples around the world. resource for western Europe. The Irish potato famine and overcrowding in Britain lead to mass immigration to the colonies, along with imperial bureaucrats and migrant workers.\u00a0 Cultural exchange The movement of people creates opportunities for cultural exchange in all areas of life, including social customs; academic and business culture; religious and political ideologies; literature, music, and art; clothes and beauty; eating customs and food. Financial institutions New players Foreign investment AFTER WORLD WAR II The rise of powerful financial The fall of the Soviet Union Trade agreements encourage Modern globalization begins as capitalism and institutions, such as the and the opening of China bring multinational corporations from liberalizing of trade create new world economies International Monetary Fund, new economic players to the industrialized nations to invest directly increasingly controlled by multinational leads to investment deals for global capital market, resulting in unindustrialized economies. This corporations and powerful financial institutions. industrializing countries, which in a surge of international prompts increased privatization and come with obligations attached. transactions and investment greater foreign ownership of\u00a0assets in This creates a more integrated in postcommunist economies. unindustrialized countries. global financial system. Movement Industrial development The removal of trade barriers Global capitalism enables the and even cheaper transportation industrialization of many countries in expands human migration for work the unindustrialized zone and the purposes. This leads to a larger creation of wealth through the cultural exchange and the rising manufacture of cheap consumables economy of remittances\u2014money for the market. This leads to more sent from a foreign worker back to employment opportunities and a their home country. reduction of people living in poverty.\u00a0 Cultural homogeneity The rise of a global services economy, improvements in communications technology, and the spread of multinational corporations all help promote cultural homogeneity, where brands, music, television, and food are found and recognized all over the world. ROAD TO GLOBALIZATION 337","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION \u25bc Engine of change The steering handle A gas-fueled combustion engine was built by Karl turns the front wheel to Benz to power his \u201chorseless carriage\u201d in 1885. The control direction, while following year, he created the Benz \u201cPatent- Motorwagen\u201d\u2014the world\u2019s first automobile. It the engine powers the shared many features with cars today. two back wheels The surface carburetor, invented The water tank cools the by Benz, is a device that blends air engine. This new invention, and fuel. Benz used the oil as well as two others\u2014an byproduct benzine as a fuel and electric ignition and the carburetor mixed air with differential gear\u2014are found benzine vapor. It could hold in every car driven today 1 gallon (4.5 liters) of fuel A crankshaft with a large horizontal flywheel that is used to start the engine 338 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS ENGINES SHRINK THE WORLD Transport played a key part in the spread of industrialization. In the last two centuries, railways, steamships, and airplanes\u2014and innovations in communication\u2014have vastly increased the rate and speed at which people exchange goods, ideas, information, and technology. By the late 19th century, railway tracks crisscrossed Europe and America, greatly accelerating the exchange of goods, people, and ideas, as well as making travel more widely available. Rail networks lowered the cost of moving goods between the manufacturer, retailer, and buyer, which, in turn, reduced the cost of consumer goods. The ability to move raw materials and manufactured goods across land and sea at relatively rapid speeds and low costs was as significant to the success of early industrial economies as it is today. NEW TRANSPORT CONNECTIONS goods and people. Commercial air travel \u25b2 Cars for the masses Just as coal fueled 19th-century railways, the took off after World War II, as wartime The introduction of fast transport revolution of the early 20th aviation experts turned their attentions to and efficient assembly century would not have been possible creating a peacetime aviation industry. This lines in factories without the wide-scale availability of fossil sped up the transport of people and mail. reduced production fuels. Innovative new uses of oil and gas People began to travel more for a variety costs and enabled included the invention of the internal of reasons, including business and leisure, goods, such as the Ford combustion engine\u2014which burned oil\u2014 which increased networks of exchange. Model T, to be sold at and led to the development of automobiles Innovations in transportation drove growth affordable prices. and jet planes. In 1913, entrepreneur and in turn led to more innovation. Henry Ford devised an assembly line to mass-produce the first affordable motorcar. In the early 1960s, humans invented This was the start of consumer capitalism, rockets that could carry them into space. as workers became the target market for The Soviet Union was first to launch a goods they were making, which would human into space, and in 1969 the United once have seemed like luxuries. States landed a man on the moon. As the world became increasingly accessible\u2014 Ford\u2019s vision to put a car in every with more goods, people, and ideas being driveway transformed modern Western exchanged than ever before\u2014it also began society as governments built roads and to appear much smaller. traffic systems to accommodate cars. In the 1950s, oil-fueled cars, buses, and trucks became vital to the transportation of IF I HAD ASKED PEOPLE WHAT THEY WANTED, THEY WOULD HAVE SAID \u2018FASTER HORSES.\u2019 Henry Ford, American industrialist and founder of the Ford Motor Company, 1863\u20131947 ENGINES SHRINK THE WORLD 339","British postal delivery service, made TELEGRAPH AND Telegraph system developed available from 1635, uses horse-mounted TELEPHONE by Samuel Morse, 1837, sends postmen to deliver mail, allowing people messages via electrical who are living in different places to relay antiAcmcaebrilcea,1a8n6d6E, uernoapbele. sMeeigshsatgweosrhdasdapmreinvuiotuestloy btaekternan1s0mdiatytesd telegraph lines using Morse information at a reasonable speed and code, revolutionizing long- with some degree of predictability. distance communication. 1780 UlnebitfrtsoieeKnrrrgmisvniitngcoPgdeeboatnenomnspayeafennPfoodtoprfsIdlorteaer, ib1lona8lnnet4ehdp0e.po,eUsantlnalnoiltywe, ds POSTAL SERVICE NEWS AND BROADCASTING Royal Mail stage coaches are protected by guards from Typewriter invented by 1784, creating a more secure Charles Thurber, 1843, British postal service. becomes widely used in offices and business VISUAL communication. SIGNALING Foreign post offices are 1800 opened in Chinese ports in telbfeilecnacobgdsoIysyu,tmnssCtavatmllreelniaSuyoadeunmleiiwdscaodmseftagabttehipCmy.heoehhefswnaoissarrpasvepitgiense,gis1tn7vo9e2n.ted by ship. 1844 following the Opium betTrwaenesnatl Wars. This lays the foundation for China\u2019s first national mail service. TIMELINES NEWS TRAVELS Signal lamps utilizing FASTER a form of Morse code, 1867, allow British The desire to communicate and connect with those naval ships to transmit around us is an important part of the human story. The messages across technology we use to do this has changed vastly since long distances. our ancestors began painting their stories on cave walls, largely due to innovations that date from the 18th century. Telephone The cornerstone of any form of communication is its ability to bring Telephone, patented by people closer together, and in the 21st century the World Wide Web Alexander Graham Bell in has completely reshaped the way billions of people create and share information on every topic imaginable. And where early forms of 1876, becomes the most telecommunication, such as the telephone, allowed for one-to-one widespread communication correspondence, today\u2019s online world is geared toward wide\u2014 often global\u2014dissemination. This can include anything from system of the modern age. a concise political comment on Twitter to a lengthy news article updated in real time. Pthoobnootghrraepchoird a dussttrdye.vice ndnvpelanytebdabcky Tsohuonmda, strEadnissfoonr,m1i8n7g7t,hisetmheufsiirc in Perhaps more than anything, it is speed that now defines Telegraph communication. News that once took days or even weeks to deliver by letter on a ship or train can now be transmitted via email or a Wireless telegraph, invented by Facebook post in a matter of seconds. Alongside this rapid exchange Guglielmo Marconi in 1895, is the first step of data comes the sheer volume of information: with 24-hour television news coverage now ubiquitous, and social media in the hands of billions toward modern, long-distance radio. of smartphone users, global communication networks today are more complex and varied than ever before. 340 THRESHOLD 8","wRaoytaforyr ipnrdinustitnrigalp-srceasslebpercinotminegs,wesidpeelcyiaalvlyaialatbnleew, 1s8p4a3p,earns.d paves the Telstar 1 satellite Ltoivoevfeoro1t0a0gemoilflitohneTmVovoienwlaenrds ianrgou beams television, phone calls, and fax messages across the Atlantic Ocean for the first time in 1962, opening up new and faster methods of global communication. Telstar 1 tobidnuaP1siylr9e,tetr4ih-nv6cesie;cipdulelhenuisollcianklaareerumssmnawoconbhebdreiileltdeeruuitpnsechulkteoahsplne.lyheUosSne Mobile nd thine1w9o6r9ldis. broadcast phone Radio broadcasts are made in over 15 countries in 1939, ONLINE WORLD mobile1stt9pa(e7lrh23teF,ikobproTsPgnifehs)bre,hgtrt,ioiyonesnhjslatwirwyla.eieaehpienlcnibgeleadetAgnhaevhsitnsveAenhelmecgesAdddeniot4vgs.tnmiaehs4lmooennabbpiccnglwueyeeotaidfeysNreRfesdetoimesrlanweiitloa.v1hrre9ekcr.6he9d Cb1aae9brgo8lienu0snN, ud2es4-wth-hheseroN-iuncerlgotsicwnaktoaenrllenkitwe(ewCsnNceeorwNavse)orifnage. from Vatican City to the acmro1os9rbse4et8wght,eieinmdlFeceiiavnoflkyitutseihannieovetgnranUny-ilmn.eaSewbiiwnnlseustceasts Global Positioning Soviet Union, leading to a Satellite (GPS) is launched growing worldwide audience BBC offers first regularly in 1987, making satellite-led scheduled television of radio listeners. service in 1936, which navigation possible. includes sports, dramas, and cartoons. World Wide Web, The first online transatlantic chat, launched by Tim 1988, occurs between users in Finland and the US, giving birth Berners-Lee in 1989, to the modern chat service. today allows billions of World\u2019s first national people to communicate Wi-Fi symbol WikiLeaks, a broadcasting organization, Wcoia-nvwFania,ielyoacbrttoiWlveriietinryme,1lboe9ets9ecs9ooi,nmnptlaeeinvrsneineagtctcheess. \u201cwhistle-blowing\u201d the British Broadcasting with each other. website, releases Corporation (BBC), is founded thousands of classified in 1927, to provide a television Goog1le9e,9ndt8hga,ietnwpaiWeernsab,otenii-emiksabndriralipn2acssfe0eeuiahndd0tsnicg1ftsaecr,ea,eneahaarpeaclewldsfyarordcpcobweildhmeeoiisnle,epiotmtrdeonydusleiil.nadtieifltionuiutgssneucdraosel ntdhteent. documents about and radio service. world governments in 2010. First true television images are projected in 1926 by inventor John Logie Baird. necetesedtbuept iwneeGrnedaitffBerriteanitn iusne1rs8.79 allows 2000 Tpehleopnheocnaellsetxochbaencgon Baird television largeoAfpimnuplltteeiss-ritehaProacvrhFtiuieaocciocenhnnete,fs,bhoclnoraroatooeptlmukeeuae,naosttnnicveasskreoahntrseusnettsyoiodohteStpwnierilskhaiitmsnyeanndhpmtkce2fpeeaoerroi0sruifn\u2014rno0ebmsealecttin7ine,mmcydaal\u2014pluieisphhusannnipgaloslln.eiacs2ntsocuae0aatbnwat0iecanol6ohlra.denykn,vtidi,dhnd2aegt0oe0cn3a.allbsles WhatsApp has over one billion 1900 ABb.etWeFelltiliwreansptetsNheotonrenanwAinenlYsecScoxaaoralnknlnmtFadinrneaadrdennGeTctiirhansaoclh1moa9.ma1s5 users by 2016, making it the most First radio broadcast of popular global voice and music is transmitted text-messaging by inventor Reginald Fessenden application for in the US, 1906. smartphones. BBC television iPhone station, 1936","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION SOCIAL NETWORKS EXPAND The first telephone, invented in 1876, connected two callers across seas and continents. Today, innovation has led to the creation of the smart- phone, which can connect to wireless internet. This technology has resulted in the largest and most complex exchange network ever created. The late 20th and early 21st centuries 3.2 billion online users, 2.1 billion had against the leaders of Tunisia, saw the arrival of breakthrough digital social media accounts. At the most Egypt, Bahrain, and Libya. In and communications technologies, each basic level, people use social media to Tunisia, in 2011, spontaneous of which plays an important function keep in touch or to share their views protests broke out when street in connecting people and spreading with the world, but it has also grown vendor Mohamed Bouazizi set fire information and ideas. The internet to support diverse networks and even to himself after being harassed by disseminates news and information; social protest movements. government officials and mobile phone media connects individuals and enables footage of the protest was posted on them to organize; mobile phones make Unlike conventional news channels, the Facebook. Sharing this footage encouraged it possible to photograph and record what spread of ideas and images via social media others to join in, and the subsequent riots is happening and share it with a global can be beyond any authority\u2019s control. were coordinated via Twitter. audience. Social networking has become Social networks can be used to motivate a global phenomenon: in 2015, of the individuals to support a collective. This Countries with less developed transport- was seen during the Arab Spring uprisings ation and communication infrastructures are also able to access social networks. BY GIVING PEOPLE THE POWER TO SHARE WE ARE MAKING They not only benefit from this technology THE WORLD MORE TRANSPARENT. but are able to innovate using it. In Kenya, an application called M-Pesa was invented Mark Zuckerberg, cofounder of Facebook, 1984\u2013 to allow users to transfer, deposit, and withdraw funds via their smartphone. This enables them to send money directly to their village or remote family in minutes rather than the days it would take to travel. \u25bc Expanding networks Multimedia messaging enables Cheaper mobile phones Since the invention of people to send color messages connect people in the first mobile phone and animations, and eventually developing countries in 1973, the speed of technological innovation photos and videos increased and resulted in the creation of an array of devices that connect people all over the world in different ways. 1973 TEXT 1996 CALLS 1992 INTERNET The invention of the Mobile phones become Text messaging makes it Mobile phones become mini mobile phone makes small enough to hold in possible to communicate computers with increased it possible to make one hand, making them in situations when voice calls anywhere much more portable calls are not available functionality that allow users to connect to the internet 342 THRESHOLD 8","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS \u25c0 Crowdfunding initiatives Social media platforms have provided a new way for groups and individuals to secure investment. Crowdfunding has supported anything from art projects to innovative new products, such as a 3D printer. \u25b2 Political activism Social media provides direct access to history- making events as they occur. It played a central role in the 2011 Occupy protests around the world from Wall Street, in New York, to Hong Kong as activists used social media both to organize themselves and to keep the world updated. \u25b2 New opportunities \u25c0 Saving lives Cheap mobile phones in countries with little Medical appeals, such as campaigns for organ or no landline infrastructure transformed donation, often receive a generous response. In communications. In Africa, 3G internet 2016, a plea on social media dramatically increased coverage has enabled new trade, online the stem cell donor list when internet users united to banking, and access to information about help a girl with leukemia, using the hashtag \u201cMatch4Lara.\u201d health and medicine, reducing the need for people to travel long distances. Smartwatches, such as the Apple Watch, allow wearers E-mail is available on smartphones, meaning to make calls and send people can send e-mails e-mails from their wrist on the move Blackberry Messenger 4G internet enables faster enables video and voice calls data transfer speeds, as well as instant messaging via the internet enabling people to send and receive information quicker Apple\u2019s iPhone, 2007, uses a multi-touch screen allowing than ever before users to zoom in and view content in more detail 2000 Amazon\u2019s Kindle, originally CAMERA designed for reading eBooks, connects to Cameras make it possible wireless internet to photograph and video Laptops, like Apple\u2019s Macbook events as they occur Pro, are able to make video calls using free applications, such as Skype, connecting people across the world SOCIAL NETWORKS EXPAND 343","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION The 20th century was characterized by the sharp acceleration in the pace and scale of change. Industrialization and economic growth increased the ecological power of humans over the biosphere and led to extraordinary population growth and consumption of Earth\u2019s resources. The extraordinary pace of change during years, the human population has been collective control over the resources the 20th century marked an entirely new through a period of spectacular growth: of the biosphere. The acceleration of period in human history and in the history in 1800, there were 900 million people in technological change is the primary of human relations with other species and the world; by 1900 there were 1.6 billion; cause of this transformation: innovation with Earth itself. Population growth is a by 2000 there were 6.1 billion; and today has made it possible to provide enough measure of a species\u2019 ecological power, the world population has reached over resources to sustain a growing population. as it is dependent on there being enough 7 billion. At the same time, people started One area where innovation and resources to support it. Over the last 250 living for longer and the average life technological change has been crucial expectancy doubled during the 20th is food production. PALEOLITHIC ERA 2,000 KILOCALORIES century. This exceptional growth is partly because new innovation has increased our INNOVATIONS IN FOOD Since 1900, food production has outpaced MODERN ER A AGRICULTURAL ERA 10,000\u201312,000 \u25bc Unlocking more energy population growth and there has been a 200,000 KILOCALORIES New innovations in the early 20th century made six-fold increase in grain production. This it possible to harness the power of oil and natural is because crops began to be farmed on an KILOCALORgIEeaSvse, rmPbaaeklefioanorrlgioetm.huCinocdoreemr1ae0p,n0oaerutrerigmdeyntecoeshrohgeuiyagrpchaoleynnr,casaevunasmtidlopamrtbsioloeinnsttihtsohafen industrial scale: massive fossil-fuel-driven machines dug dams and irrigation canals. this energy comes from fossil fuels. Chemical fertilizers increased the productivity of the land and enabled an area of arable land to produce around three times more food. Scientific innovation in the 1970s led to the creation of genetically modified grains that were engineered with useful genes from other species to produce crops that need less fertilizer or contain natural protection against pests. In the agrarian era, most people were farmers and only a tiny elite\u2014less than 5 percent of the population\u2014consumed luxury goods. Today, around 35 percent of the global workforce works in agriculture and produces enough food to support the nonfarming communities in industrialized nations, where a new, much larger global middle class enjoys unprecedented wealth and consumer goods. AS A SPECIES WE ARE USING 24 TIMES AS MANY RESOURCES AS WE USED 100 YEARS AGO","1939 WORLD 1950s ANTHROPOCENE 1970 DIGITAL 1973 OIL 1989 WORLD WIDE 2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL WAR II EPOCH BEGINS AGE CRISIS WEB INVENTED CRISIS \u25b6 Fuel consumption BILLIONS OF PEOPLE 8 800 EXAJOULES OF ENERGY Population growth has 7 700 increased steadily in line 6 600 with global energy use 5 500 as humans unlocked the 4 400 power of new forms of 3 300 energy over time. 2 200 1 100 KEY Wood 1800 2000 Today Coal Oil Natural gas Hydroelectric Nuclear Population growth 1850 1900 1950 RISING CONSUMPTION encouraged investment in production and 12 times from 1913 to 1998. However, \u25bc Waste products research. For example, the synthesis of this growth has not always been equal: by In 1900, the world During the second half of the 20th century, plastic, a cheap new material, cut the costs 1900, the world had been divided into those produced about 0.55 rates of innovation accelerated so rapidly, of production. As more people were able to countries that had industrial economies million tons (0.5 million and were so widespread, that the world purchase once-expensive consumer goods, and those that did not (see pp.336\u201337). metric tons) of solid was entirely transformed. One consequence the cost of production fell, and even more Industrialization raised the wealth of waste per day. In 2000, of this change was consumer capitalism: people were able to buy them. Europe and North America but led to a this had increased six- populations of industrialized regions rapid decline in the wealth of East Asia. fold to around 3.3 enjoyed high levels of wealth and material Today, not only are there more people million tons (3 million affluence. In 1900, oil lamps, steam- than at any other point in human history, Meanwhile, resources such as food are metric tons) per day. powered trains, and unrefrigerated goods but they are also consuming more than not distributed equally: 800 million people were the norm. Within just 50 years, pipes ever before: the average consumption of in the world, mostly people living in poor and cables brought electricity into homes, each individual person is rising dramatically, undeveloped countries in Asia and sub- providing light and heat and powering all made possible by the energy from fossil Saharan Africa, do not have enough to eat. domestic technologies that have transformed fuels. Meanwhile, consumer products are At the same time, around one-third of all modern life: washing machines, dishwashers, cheaper, easier to purchase, and more food produced each year is wasted. INFINITE GROWTH OF MATERIAL CONSUMPTION IN A FINITE WORLD IS AN IMPOSSIBILITY. Ernst Friedrich Schumacher, German economist, 1911\u201377 radios, televisions, stereos, telephones, and disposable, all of which leads to huge computers gradually became everyday items amounts of waste. This waste includes that were frequently marketed and sold to materials such as plastics and electronic the workers who produced them. Advertising waste from computers, mobile phones, and (see pp.316\u201317) and marketing convinced televisions. The mass-manufacture of these consumers to buy these products and bank items produces greenhouse gas emissions, loans made them available to those who and more emissions are created during could not otherwise afford such goods. the process of disposing of them. The fossil fuel revolution also UNEQUAL GROWTH brought electricity into factories, where One widely accepted measure of growth further technological innovation meant is Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which that methods of production became measures the total production of all cheaper. This made goods more affordable countries. World GDP increased almost and expanded markets, which, in turn, GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION 345","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION Burning coal Burning coal can \u25c0 Coal produces greenhouse cause acid rain, Coal is cheaper to extract than the other gases and contributes which damages soil fossil fuels and still relatively abundant: around 70 countries worldwide have coal reserves that to global warming ESLUECBSTTRAICTAIOLN are financially worth recovering. The biggest reserves are in the United States, Russia, China, and India. However, burning coal releases greenhouse gases that damage the environment and contribute to global warming. Used in steel and cement production FACTORY \u25bc Oil The most versatile fossil fuel, oil is also the one scientists predict we are running out of the fastest: some estimates say resources will run dry in just 55 years if we continue to use it at the current rate. Top producing oil countries include Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United States, Iran, and China. Dangerous POWER STATION IMPACT OF OIL to mine More abundant Used for diesel Used to generate than the other to fuel vehicles, electricity for fossil fuels which can domestic use pollute cities Cleaner burning than coal but still releases harmful greenhouse gases COAL MINE Oil is manufactured to make chemicals, IMPACT OF COAL synthetic rubber, and plastics FACTORY Used for central heating systems JUST AS FOSSIL FUELS FROM CONVENTIONAL SOURCES ARE FINITE\u2026 THOSE FROM DIFFICULT SOURCES WILL ALSO RUN OUT. David Suzuki, Canadian scientist and environmental activist, 1936\u2013 346 THRESHOLD 8","2001 9\/11 2008 GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS Cleanest-burning fossil fuel, emitting 70 percent \u25c0 Natural gas and shale gas less carbon dioxide than These two types of natural gas are found oil or coal in many countries worldwide. The highest reserves of natural gas are located in Used in the Qatar, Iran, Russia, the United States, and manufacture of Saudi Arabia. Leading producers of shale plastics and gas are China, the United States, Mexico, chemicals Australia, Argentina, Canada, and Algeria. Gas could alleviate dependence on foreign FACTORY countries to supply energy but there are environmental and safety concerns about HOUSES Shale gas is widely its extraction, and shale gas is not a available and drilling renewable resource. Burned as a domestic for it could bring fuel for heating and down the cost of Soil cooking and to natural gas overall generate electricity Water Drilling, or \\\"fracking,\u201d for Natural gas is found shale gas can cause close to the surface and explosions as the gas is sometimes associated is highly flammable with oil deposits Used as a jet fuel GAS WELL Shale gas is natural gas found OIL RIG deep underground in sediment Water and chemicals rock that is hard to reach and used in fracking can more dangerous to extract contaminate the water table and FINDING THE aquatic habitats ENERGY IMPACT OF GAS The control and consumption of energy, in the form of fossil fuels, has driven the growth of industrial societies Drilling for oil on and powered technological innovations. However, burning offshore oil rigs can fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases that are harmful be dangerous for to the environment. These fuels also exist in finite quantities, workers creating a need to find alternative sources of energy. Oil spills can be Coal, oil, and natural gas are the three major fossil fuels\u2014they are catastrophic for derived from plant and animal fossils that are millions of years old and marine life take millions of years to form (see pp.148\u201349). Starting with coal, these fuels powered modern industrialization, but they are being depleted at TANKER an ever increasing rate. In the 20th century, when oil replaced coal as the world\u2019s leading fossil fuel, governments and industrialists joined Easy to store and forces to find and control new oil fields. The interdependence between transport, especially governments, energy companies, and the supply and control of oil shapes in liquid form world politics today. Meanwhile, shale gas, a form of natural gas, is predicted to become an important new source of energy. It is found domestically in many countries, and may reduce or even eliminate their potential dependence on foreign nations for energy. FINDING THE ENERGY 347","1750 THE INDUSTRIAL 1789 DECLARATION OF 1830 STEAM AGE 1869 DNA 1880 ELECTRICAL 1914 WORLD 1930s GREAT REVOLUTION BEGINS THE RIGHTS OF MAN ISOL ATED AGE WAR I DEPRESSION NUCLEAR OPTIONS During the 20th century, a global network of scientists discovered ways to harness nuclear energy, and in World War II deployed it with devastating immediate and long-term effects. In 2016, nuclear power provided almost 15 percent of the world\u2019s electricity. Warfare often drives innovation. \u25c0 Radioactive energy source The atomic bombs dropped Uraninite is a highly radioactive ore of on the Japanese cities of uranium that is mined to provide Hiroshima and Nagasaki an energy source that powers in 1945 demonstrated the nuclear plants. terrifying power of the world\u2019s ultimate weapon. in 56 countries worldwide, It remains the most where they were used for devastating technology research and training, unleashed by one materials testing, medicine, industrialized power on another, and industry. and the fear it inspired\u2014that any nation with a bomb could destroy another at the ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS touch of a button\u2014helped to create the The pros and cons of nuclear power Cold War that dominated the late remain a topic of heated debate. 20th century. There are concerns that any country building a nuclear reactor has the power ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCE to create a nuclear weapon. Arguments During the 1950s, concerns about an that nuclear power stations have lower overreliance on fossil fuels brought emissions than those run by fossil fuels peacetime usage of nuclear energy to are met by concerns about the disposal the fore. The first electricity-producing of radioactive waste and the toxic nuclear power plant opened in the Soviet pollution created by mining uranium. Union in 1954 and the industry spread Safety is also a concern, after serious rapidly in the 1960s. Nuclear power accidents occurred in Fukushima, Japan, became even more politically important in 2011, and Chernobyl, Ukraine, in 1986. when skyrocketing prices brought about Chernobyl affected over 40,320,000 acres by the Middle East oil crises of the 1970s (16,316,900 hectares) of land and there caused countries, such as France and are 148,274 invalids on the Chernobyl Japan, to reduce their reliance on fossil registry, while Fukushima displaced fuels. By the year 2000, nuclear power over 160,000 people. Nuclear accidents accounted for 80 percent of France\u2019s also devastate rural areas, as contaminated electricity and 40 percent of Japan\u2019s. land can no longer be used for agriculture. Engineers are working on developing safer Nuclear power has other important and more efficient power stations for civil and commercial uses. By 2016, 240 the future. smaller nuclear reactors were in operation A WORLD FREE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS WILL BE SAFER AND MORE PROSPEROUS. Ban Ki-moon, Secretary-General of the United Nations, 1944\u2013 348 THRESHOLD 8"]