Big History

1612 1624 1638 1659 Russia expels Polish invaders and Shah Abbas takes Baghdad, Mosul, Ottoman sultan Murad IV retakes The Peace of the Pyrenees ends the elects the first Romanov czar, and Mesopotamia from the Baghdad from the Safavids; the Franco-Spanish war; as Spain’s New Mikhail, in 1613. Ottomans; the Ottoman-Safavid ensuing Treaty of Qasr-i-Shirin ends World revenues and influence fade, conflict continues until 1639. the Ottoman-Safavid conflict of France becomes Europe’s major 1616 1628–1639, granting Mesopotamia power, embodied by Louis XIV (“the Manchu leader Nurhaci declares 1625 to the Ottomans. Sun King”) and his lavish court. himself Great Jin (khan) of China, The Dutch found a colony in North founding the Qin dynasty; he America named New Amsterdam 1642–1651 1660 declares war on Ming rule in 1618. (modern New York); they purchase English Civil War: Charles I’s Restoration of England’s monarchy Manhattan Island from the Lenape insistence on the “Divine Right” follows the fall of the Commonwealth 1618 tribe for 60 guilders (C.$1,000). of kings to rule with absolute power and the return of Charles II from A Bohemian Protestant revolt against and to raise taxes without consulting exile in France. The Royal Society is Habsburg rule breaks out; Protestant 1630 parliament pits Parliamentarians founded in London to advance the and Catholic interventions ignite the Sweden enters the Thirty Years War: (Roundheads) against Royalists understanding of science; granted its Thirty Years War, which spreads Sweden’s Lutheran king Gustavus (Cavaliers); Charles is tried for royal charter by Charles II in 1662, it across Europe. England’s first Adolphus crushes the army of the treason and executed in 1649; is the world’s oldest scientific society shipment of African slaves to its Holy Roman Emperor at Breitenfeld England becomes a Commonwealth still in existence. The Peace of Oliva American colonies arrives at in 1631, but dies in battle in 1632. under Oliver Cromwell, and the ends the Northern War between Jamestown, Virginia. defeat of Charles’s son ends the war. Brandenburg, Poland, Austria, and 1633 Sweden; Poland gives up its claims 1620 Shogun Iemitsu restricts foreign 1642 to Estonia and Livonia. The Mayflower sails from Plymouth, travel and trade, beginning a long Dutch sailor Abel Tasman is the first southern England, carrying the period of Japanese isolation (to 1853). European to discover Tasmania and 1661 Pilgrim Fathers—102 Puritans and New Zealand; he claims Tasmania Louis XIV assumes personal rule of Protestant separatists seeking a new 1635 for the Dutch, but is sent back to sea France on the death of Cardinal life in the New World; they arrive The Treaty of Prague restores the by New Zealand’s Maori warriors. Mazarin, his chief minister. near modern Boston in Cape Cod in 1627 boundaries of the Holy Roman November, endure the harsh winter Empire and gives Lutheranism 1644 1664 with American Indian aid, and privileged status as a religion; France Manchus overthrow China’s Ming The Second Anglo-Dutch War found the Plymouth Colony. enters the Thirty Years War, waging dynasty and install the first Manchu begins; the English seize New war on Habsburg Spain in 1635 and Qing emperor in Beijing; they win Amsterdam from the Dutch. 1623 on the Holy Roman Empire in 1636. control of all China by 1681, and the Cardinal Richelieu becomes chief Qing dynasty rules China until 1912. 1666 minister of France; he is determined ▼ A jewel of Mughal architecture, the Taj The Great Fire of London destroys to destroy the military power of the Mahal in Agra, India, was built in 1634–53 1648 the medieval heart of the city. Habsburgs, Huguenot opposition, by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum in memory The Peace of Westphalia that ends The French Academy of Sciences and the power of the French nobility. of his beloved third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. the Thirty Years War in Germany is founded in Paris; it becomes the fatally undermines the authority of Royal Academy of Sciences in 1699 the Holy Roman Emperor. and moves to the Louvre Palace. 1648–1652 1668 France—exhausted by war and by Portuguese independence is peasant uprisings brought about by conceded by Spain. The Treaty failed harvests and punitive taxes— of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the War of collapses into civil war; the Fronde Devolution (1667–1668): the triple rebellion begins with parliament’s alliance of England, Sweden, and the protest against the king, then the Dutch forces Louis XIV to abandon aristocracy’s, but the crown survives. French claims to the Spanish Netherlands. The English East India 1652 Company gains control of Bombay. Cape Town, South Africa, is founded as a supply camp for the Dutch East 1673 Indies Company. The first Anglo- French-Canadian explorer Louis Dutch War breaks out; ending in Joliet and French Jesuit Jacques 1654, it is followed by two more in Marquette travel down the 1665–1667 and 1672–1674; all three Mississippi River; they confirm that are naval wars, fought for control of it leads to the Gulf, not to the Pacific the seas and shipborne trade. as expected. English explorer Gabriel EARLY MODERN WORLD 399

Arthur crosses the Appalachian 1685 ▶ Louis XIV, the Sun King, into a powerful empire. The mountain chain via the Cumberland The Edict of Fontainebleau declares ruled France as absolute Agricultural Revolution begins in Gap; this becomes the principal Protestantism illegal in France, monarch for 72 years and is England when Jethro Tull invents route to the west in the 18th century. overturning the 1598 Edict of shown in his coronation the horse-drawn seed drill. Nantes; thousands of Huguenots flee robes in this 1701 portrait 1672–1678 France, chiefly to England, the by Hyacinthe Rigaud. 1704 Franco-Dutch War: backed by Dutch Republic, and Prussia. British inventor Thomas Newcomen England and Sweden, Louis XIV 1698 develops an improved version of invades the Dutch Republic; the war 1686 The London Stock Thomas Savery’s steam engine; the ends with the Dutch granting New The League of Augsburg is formed Exchange is formed. first Newcomen engine is installed in Amsterdam (New York) to England as a Protestant Grand Alliance to English inventor 1712 to pump water from a mine, while France gains border territories counter Louis XIV in the Nine Thomas Savery patents and the new technology develops in the Spanish Netherlands. Years War (1688–1697). an early version of the rapidly to power the Industrial steam engine. Revolution. The Boston News-Letter, 1675–1676 1687 North America’s oldest continuously First Indian War: Metacomet (“King English physicist Isaac Newton’s 1699 published newspaper, is launched; Philip”) leads Algonquian tribes Principia Mathematica establishes the Mughals suppress a Boston is emerging as the New against English colonists in New universal law of gravity; his work Sikh revolt in the Punjab; World’s principal port for the England; the Treaty of Casco awards dominates scientific thinking on the the Mughal Empire Atlantic slave trade. tribes an annual measure of corn for physical universe for C.300 years. is now at its zenith, each family settled on Indian lands. controlling all but the tip 1707 1688 of India’s subcontinent. The death of the emperor Aurangzeb 1680 In the Glorious Revolution, England’s heralds the decline of Mughal India. The Pueblo people in the colony Protestant parliament deposes James 1700–1721 The Acts of Union unite Scotland of New Mexico revolt against the II in favor of William III and Mary Great Northern War: Charles XII, and England as Great Britain. Spanish occupiers, who are of Orange; James flees to France, just 15 when he came to the Swedish determined to crush local religious lands in Ireland in 1689, and in 1690 throne in 1697, blocks attempts by 1712 practices; the Spanish return with is defeated at the Battle of the Boyne. Baltic rivals to end Swedish pre- Pennsylvania Quakers petition for overwhelming force in 1692. eminence by defeating Danish, slavery to be abolished, but are 1689 Russian, and Polish-Saxon forces. refused; the first measure to free 1682 William and Mary are crowned joint slaves is only passed in 1780. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, is Protestant monarchs of England. 1700 founded by the English Quaker and The Treaty of Nerchinsk settles Spain’s childless king Charles II dies, 1713–1714 philosopher William Penn. Robert Sino–Russian borders. having nominated Philip of Anjou, The War of the Spanish Succession de La Salle navigates the Mississippi grandson of Louis XIV, to be his ends: the Treaties of Utrecht in 1713 River to its mouth and claims 1693 heir; Europe’s alarm at the increase and Rastatt in 1714 seek to balance Louisiana for France. Louis XIV The eruption of Mount Etna triggers in French power escalates. moves the French court from Paris to an earthquake that devastates Sicily, Versailles; the vast palace symbolizes southern Italy, and Malta; the vast 1701 his absolute power as monarch. cloud of ash exacerbates the bitter The War of the Spanish Succession winters and wet summers of Europe’s erupts (1713–1714): the English and 1682 Little Ice Age, causing crop failures Dutch back Austria’s claims to the Peter I (“the Great”) becomes czar of and famine across Western Europe. Spanish throne in a Grand Alliance Russia; determined to reshape Russia against the unification of the French as a western European power, he 1694 and Spanish thrones; Louis XIV builds a new capital at St. Petersburg, The Bank of England is established, sends troops into the Spanish abolishes the titles of boyars (nobles), transforming the country’s ability to Netherlands to defend them from the centralizes government, introduces finance wars and imperial expansion. English and Dutch and recognizes sweeping reforms to modernize every James III, son of the exiled James II, aspect of Russian society, restructures 1690 as king of England in place of the the army, creates a navy, and pursues China’s Qing dynasty launches its Protestant William and Mary. an aggressive foreign policy. conquest of Outer Mongolia, beginning a period of expansion that 1701 1683 sees China’s empire almost double in West Africa’s Asante (Ashanti) The Ottoman siege of Vienna is size by the end of the 18th century. confederation of city-states defeats lifted by the Polish-Imperial army led Denkyira to gain independence by the Polish king Jan III Sobieski at 1696 and establish the Asante kingdom; the Battle of Kahlenberg; Ottoman The English establish a trading post exploiting its military prowess and power in the Balkans collapses. of Fort William in Calcutta, India. the Atlantic coastal trade, it grows 400 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

power in Europe by separating the Empire; in 1729 the Afghans are service; the Prussian army grows to 1739 French and Spanish crowns; Austria forced back to Kandahar by Afsharid become the fourth largest in Europe. Nader Shah’s Persian force defeats receives the Spanish Netherlands, Persians under Nader Shah. 1735 the Mughals at Karnal, occupies and Britain is ceded Newfoundland, John Harrison of Britain unveils his Delhi, and leaves laden with booty, Nova Scotia, and Gibraltar. 1724 marine chronometer; this is the first including the Mughal emperor’s The Kingdom of Dahomey (in what portable clock that can keep time at Koh-i-Noor diamond; Persia now 1715 is now Benin, West Africa) becomes sea, enabling navigators to work out controls all territory north and west First Jacobite Rebellion: supporters the principal supplier of slaves to their longitude over a long voyage. of the Indus River. The Ottoman of the deposed Stuart king James VII European traders. The Code Noir 1736 and Habsburg Empires sign the of Scotland ( James II of England) is introduced in the French territory Nader Shah, founder of the Afsharid Treaty of Belgrade, stabilizing the oppose the succession of George I of of Louisiana: it stipulates basic dynasty, is crowned shah of Persia, Ottomans’ position in the Balkans. Hanover to the British throne; they rights for slaves, such as food and ending Safavid rule in Persia. French French brothers Pierre and Paul are defeated at Preston, and James’s clothing, but it also legitimizes explorer and scientist Charles Marie Mallet are the first Europeans to heir, Prince James Francis Edward cruel punishments. de La Condamine is the first cross North America’s Great Plains Stuart (the “Old Pretender”), flees to European to discover the flexible and open up a route from the France in 1716. 1727 rubber that the Maya have long been Mississippi River to Santa Fe. Coffee growing begins to emerge making in Ecuador; he sends samples 1715–1717 in the Caribbean and in South of processed rubber to Paris. 1743 Yamasee War: the Spanish establish America; the first coffee plantation is 1737 French brothers Louis Joseph and several missions in Texas and started in Brazil by the Portuguese, The Maratha Empire extends its Francois de La Vérendrye are the enourage the Yamasee and other using seeds from French Guinea. control over northern India, at the first European explorers to see North tribes of American Indians to attack expense of the Mughal Empire. America’s Rockies, during their bid British settlers in South Carolina. 1728 to reach the Pacific coast. Hindu Marathas, striking out into ▲ An Asanti comb carved in wood shows 1717 India’s Deccan region, defeat the women suckling infants, a symbol of 1745 First performance of Handel’s Water Nizam of Hyderabad. Danish-born fertility. The Asanti culture established a Second Jacobite rebellion of the Music, a masterpiece of the Baroque Vitus Bering is commissioned by kingdom in Ghana, West Africa, in 1701. Stuarts against Hanoverian rule in period, in London. English pirate Russia to explore the Siberian coast Britain: the French-backed “Young Edward Teach (better known as and discovers the strait that separates Pretender” (Prince Charles Edward Blackbeard) begins plundering ships Siberia from Alaska (now named the Stuart, or “Bonnie Prince Charlie,” in the Caribbean. Bering Strait); he first sees the coast grandson of the deposed James II) of Alaska on a second voyage in 1741. gathers support in Scotland, but his 1720 highlanders are massacred by British The Treaty of the Hague ends the 1729 troops at Culloden in 1746. War of the Quadruple Alliance China tackles a steep rise in opium (1718–1720): Philip V of Spain addiction by banning the sale and 1747 abandons claims to Sicily and smoking of opium, which Britain is Nader Shah is murdered, weakening Sardinia, the French return territory supplying from India in exchange for the Persian Empire; Ahmad Shah in Pensacola, Florida and in the Chinese goods; European opium Durrani founds the independent state north of Spain to Philip, and Texas smugglers remain a major problem of Afghanistan. In West Africa, the is confirmed a Spanish possession. for China into the 19th century. Yoruba of the Oyo Empire invade In Tibet, Qing warriors oust the Kingdom of Dahomey and force Zunghar Mongols, install a new 1730 it to pay tribute. Dalai Lama, and make Tibet a The Arabian state of Oman expands tribute-paying protectorate. its dominions in East Africa by 1748 driving the Portuguese from Kenyan Punjab is invaded by Afghans. 1721 and Tanzanian coasts and gaining European powers sign the Peace of The Treaty of Nystad ends the Great control of Zanzibar. Aix-la-Chapelle, ending the War of Northern War (1710–1721): Sweden the Austrian Succession (1740–1748): cedes Baltic ports to Russia. Peter the 1733 Maria Theresa is confirmed as heir Great is proclaimed emperor of all The colony of Georgia is founded; it to the Habsburg thrones in Austria Russians. In the Pacific, Dutch is the last of the Thirteen Colonies and Hungary. explorer Jakob Roggeveen discovers established by Britain on North Easter Island and sights Samoa. America’s Atlantic coast. In England, 1749 John Kay invents the flying shuttle, The Kingdom of Mysore rises to 1722 which revolutionizes weaving and prominence in south India. Halifax Afghans rout Persian forces, the textile industry. Prussia’s King is founded by Lieutenant General overthrow the last Safavid shah, and Frederick William I (the “Soldier Edward Cornwallis, consolidating assume control of the Persian King”) institutes compulsory military the British presence in Nova Scotia. EARLY MODERN WORLD 401

INVENTION ● 1088 The first mechanical clock, designed ● 1687 Newton publishes his laws of AND DISCOVERY by Su Song in China, uses a water wheel, motion and universal law of gravitation. not clockwork. Over the course of human existence, basic human needs—from ● 1752 The lightning rod is invented by the need to eat, keep warm, and survive, to the urge to obtain ● 1202 The Italian mathematician Fibonacci Benjamin Franklin, scientist, politician, and apply knowledge—have inspired tens of thousands of introduces the Hindu numerals 0–9 to and founding father of the US. inventions and discoveries. These have transformed the way Europe and invents algebra. we live, think, and communicate with one another. See also ● 1753–1758 Sweden’s Carl Linnaeus the scientific advances in astronomy and space described ● c.1250 The first magnifying glass made for formalizes binomial nomenclature in on p.411 and in medicine on pp.422–23. scientific study is designed by Roger Bacon taxonomy (biological classification). in England. ● c.3.3 MYA Early human ancestors ● c.2100 BCE A lunisolar calendar is ● 1766 British chemist Henry Cavendish make stone tools. developed by the Babylonians. ● c.1454–1455 The first major book to be discovers the gas hydrogen. produced on a printing press with movable ● c.1.8–0.5 MYA Making fires enables ● c.1400 BCE The first alphabetic script is type is the Gutenberg Bible in Germany. ● 1769 Scottish inventor James Watt patents his version of the steam engine, early humans to cook, keep warm, devised by quarry workers in Sinai, Egypt. ● 1492 The oldest surviving globe is Martin launching the Industrial Revolution. of Bohemia’s Erdapfel (“Earth apple”). and ward off predators. ● 1771 British industrialist and inventor ● c.1590 The compound microscope is Richard Arkwright opens the first ● c.1000 BCE The smelting of iron becomes invented by rival spectacle-makers Hans factory, a water-powered textile mill. Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen in the ● c. 0.8 MYA Rafts or boats are built for common in the Middle East. Dutch Republic. ● 1778 Oxygen is named by French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, who migrations to Australasian islands. ● c.1600 Italian scientist Galileo Galilei identifies its role in combustion. demonstrates that the frequency of sound ● c.600 BCE A world map is incised on a waves determines pitch. ● 1779 Dutch physician Jan Ingenhousz discovers plant photosynthesis. ● c.43,000 YA The oldest known mines Babylonian clay tablet. ● 1632 The slide rule invented by English mathematician William Oughtred allows ● 1783 The first manned flight is in a hot are dug in Africa and in Europe. complicated calculations to be easily air balloon built by Joseph and Etienne carried out. Montgolfier in France. ● c.575 BCE The discovery of magnetism is ● c.18,000 YA Pottery vessels are used attributed to Thales of Miletus, a Greek for food storage in China. city in Anatolia. ● c.10,500 BCE Agriculture begins in ● 384 BCE The birth of Aristotle, the Greek Mesopotamia, where wild cereals are philosopher and scientist who teaches domesticated; the first farm animals that knowledge is gained from evidence. ● 1634 Probability theory is developed by ● 1800 Italian scientist Alessandro Volta French mathematicians Blaise Pascal and invents the battery. are sheep, domesticated c.9000 bce. Pierre de Fermat. ● c.300 BCE Euclid sums up ancient Greek ● c.8700 BCE Copper is used to make geometry in The Elements. small items such as a pendant found ● 1638 Galileo formulates the law of falling bodies (that in Mesopotamia. Gold is known from ● c.200 BCE Steel is produced in India by bodies of the same material falling through the same c.4700 BCE, silver from c.3000 BCE. smelting iron and other materials. The medium go at the same speed, regardless of mass). invention of the compound pulley is ● c.5500 BCE Irrigation is developed by attributed to Archimedes, the Greek Sumerian farmers in Mesopotamia. mathematician also credited with the laws of buoyancy and levers. ● c.3500 BCE Carts first use solid ● 1643 The mercury barometer is invented by wheels. Silk weaving begins in China. ● c.105 CE Papermaking is credited to Italy’s Evangelista Torricelli. Cai Lun during China’s Han dynasty. ● c.3300 BCE Writing is invented in Sumer, developing from pictograms ● 876 CE A symbol for zero is used by ● 1647–1648 Blaise Pascal demonstrates atmospheric to cuneiform script by 2900 BCE; Indian mathematicians. pressure and proves his prediction that it decreases Egypt invents hieroglyphs c.3200 BCE. at higher altitudes. Bronze, the first alloy, is made from ● c.1041–1048 The first movable type ● 1672 English physicist Isaac Newton describes light’s copper and tin in Asia Minor. system is invented by Bi Sheng in China. spectrum of colors. ● c.2500 BCE Plumbing in the cities of ● 1044 The earliest recorded recipe for ▲ Warriors prepare for battle in an Assyrian relief from the Indus Valley (Pakistan) brings gunpowder comes from China, and the Ashurbanipal’s palace at Nineveh, Mesopotamia (ancient public water supply and sanitation. first record of a magnetic compass. Iraq), c.645 BCE. Disk wheels were invented in Mesopotamia c.3200 bce; spokes made the wheels lighter, ideal for the fast horse-drawn chariots that first appeared c.2000 BCE. 402 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

● 1801 French weaver Joseph Marie ● 1864 Pasteurization is invented by French Jacquard controls his new mechanical chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur loom with cards punched with holes (later adapted for early computers). ● 1866 The laws of heredity are explained by Austrian scientist Gregor Mendel. ● 1801–1804 The first steam railway locomotive is developed by British ● 1869 Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev engineer Richard Trevithick. presents his Periodic Table of elements. ● 1809 British chemist Humphry Davy ● 1877 Thomas Edison’s phonograph both demonstrates the arc lamp, the first records and reproduces sound in the US. electric light. ● 1820 Danish physicist Hans ● 1878 The electric bulb is patented by ▲ Satellites orbiting Earth play a vital role in global communications. The first Christian Ørsted finds that electric Joseph William Swan in Britain; Edison soon satellite was launched in 1957; today, more than 2,000 satellites relay vasts develops electric lighting for public use. amount of data for the internet, GPS navigation, weather forecasts, and more. currents produce a magnetic field. ● 1885 German engineers Gottfried Daimler ● 1912 The theory of continental drift is ● 1960 The first laser is built in the US ● 1821 The first electric motor, built and Karl Benz independently build the first proposed by German geophysicist Alfred by physicist Theodore H. Maiman. by British scientist Michael Faraday, automobiles powered by a high-speed Wegener, paving the way for the uses electromagnetic rotation to turn internal combustion engine. understanding of plate tectonics. ● 1961 The first industrial robot is used electrical into mechanical energy. by General Motors in the US. ● 1893 Sigmund Freud and Joseph Breuer’s ● 1913 The structure of the atom is ● 1822 The first programmable On the Physical Mechanism of Hysterical described by Danish physicist Niels Bohr. ● 1971 In the US, computer programmer computer is a difference engine Phenomena launches psychoanalysis. The first moving assembly line is installed Ray Tomlinson sends the first email and designed as a calculator by British by Ford Motor Company in the US. Intel make the first microprocessor. mathematician Charles Babbage. ● 1895 The wireless telegraph built by Italy’s Guglielmo Marconi paves the way for the ● 1917 French physicist Paul Langevin ● 1973 IBM and Xerox each develop ● 1823 Human fossils are discovered development of radio technology. demonstrates a forerunner of sonar to prototypes of personal computers, and by British geologist William Buckland. detect underwater submarines. the first telephone call from a handheld ● 1898 Radium, a highly radioactive metallic cellphone is made in the US. ● 1824 In France, the greenhouse element, is discovered by Polish-French ● 1926 Television transmission is first effect is discovered by mathematician physicist Marie Curie and husband Pierre. demonstrated by Scottish inventor ● 1974 A barcode containing a UPC Joseph Fourier, and blind teen Louis John Logie Baird. (Uniform Product Code) is first used in Braille devises the Braille alphabet. ● 1900 Quantum physics is born when the US on a package of chewing gum. German theoretical physicist Max Planck ● 1935 The first practical radar system is ● 1826 The earliest surviving proposes that radiation comes in discrete designed by British physicist Robert ● 1977 The world’s ocean floors are photographic prints are made in packets (quanta) of energy. Watson-Watt to detect aircraft. mapped by American geologists Marie France by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. Tharp and Bruce Heezen. ● 1903 In the US, inventors Wilbur and ● 1937 The first viable jet engine is trialed ● 1827 French engineer Benoît Orville Wright make the first sustained by British engineer Frank Whittle. ● 1990 The World Wide Web is created Fourneyron invents the water turbine. controlled powered flight in an airplane. by British computer scientist Tim ● 1940–1944 Scientists in the US discover Berners-Lee at CERN in Switzerland. ● 1831 Electromagnetic induction ● 1905 German physicist Albert Einstein’s that DNA is the hereditary molecule in is discovered by British scientist Special Theory of Relativity revolutionizes most living organisms and is the chemical ● 1994 The first smartphone is released Michael Faraday, who builds the our understanding of space and time; his basis of genetic information. by BellSouth Corporation in the US. first electric generator. General Theory follows in 1915. ● 1945 The atomic bomb is built in the US ● 1996 The creation of Dolly the Sheep ● 1834 The first refrigerator is built ● 1907 Bakelite, an early plastic, is invented by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer for in Scotland is a milestone in cloning. by American inventor Jacob Perkins. by the chemist Leo Baekeland in the US. the Manhattan Project. ● 2009 The first Android-based tablet ● 1837 The electric telegraph is ● 1910–1915 American geneticist Thomas ● 1947 Radiocarbon dating is invented computers are released, followed by patented in the US by inventor Hunt Morgan links the inheritance of a by American chemist Willard Libby. Apple’s first iPad in 2010. Samuel Morse. specific trait with a particular chromosome. ● 1958 American scientist Charles Keeling ● 2012 Physicists at CERN find evidence ● 1859 The theory of evolution ● 1911 Nuclear physics begins when New begins to monitor atmospheric carbon that supports the existence of the Higgs through natural selection is published Zealand-born Ernest Rutherford discovers dioxide; his findings reveal the impact of boson, an elementary nuclear particle by British naturalist Charles Darwin. the atomic nucleus. C02 emissions on our planet. that gives all other particles their mass. INVENTION AND DISCOVERY 403

The World in 1850 Prussia Alaska Greenland Russian Empire Qing Empire Japan Mountains Iceland Ottoman Empire United States of America Britain and possessions Austrian Empire HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY France and possessions Napoleon's French Empire 1812 Denmark and possessions Muhammad Ali's possessions 1840 Spain and possessions United Provinces of Central America Portugal and possessions 1823–38 Netherlands Great Colombia 1819–30 and possessions Persia Great CANADA NEWFOUNDLAND Lakes St. Pierre and Miquelon ▶ The World of Empires in 1850 Rocky St. Lawrence By 1850, Russia and the United States had Missouri expanded to span their respective Chicago Mountains New Boston CAPE BRETON ISLAND continents. Most of Latin America had Richmond York PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND gained independence. European powers California U NO IFT AE DM ESRTIACTAE SNew NOVA SCOTIA were colonizing Africa and had settled Mexico Australia and New Zealand, while Mughal NEW BRUNSWICK India had fallen under British control. The Ottoman Empire still controlled much of ppalachian Azores North Africa and the Middle East. China’s Qing Empire remained large but could not Mississippi A block new, European-controlled ports. Rio T e x a s Bermuda Madeira Grande Florida ATLANTIC OCEAN Canary Islands MEXICO Havana Bahamas CUBA Mexico DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Arguin Island Puerto Rico HAITI VIRGIN ISLANDS St. Martin Jamaica Barbuda FUTA TORO Antigua BRITISH HONDURAS W e s t I n d i e s St. Louis Bonaire Guadeloupe CAPE VERDE Gorée HONDURAS Curaçao St. Lucia ISLANDS Bathurst Dominica Cacheu GUATEMALA MOSQUITOAruba Martinique EL SALVADOR PROTECTORATE Barbados Bissau NICARAGUA St. Vincent Grenada FUTA JALLON COSTA RICA VENEZUELA Tobago Trinidad Freetown PACIFIC noco BRITISH GUIANA OCEAN DUTCH GUIANA Guiana Andes NEW Hi g h lands FRENCH GUIANA OriGRANADA ParanáMajor areas of disputed/ São Fundecided status WORLD ECUADOR Amazon OF EMPIRES Lima B a s i n Amazon 1750–1914 Major areas of disputed/ rancisco Ascension undecided status PERU EMPIRE OF BRAZIL BOLIVIA A n PARA Rio de Janeiro São Paulo In an age of industrial, scientific, and political revolution, dGUACeYOA NRsGF EEDNETRI NA TECIOHN I factories, steam power, and railways brought unparalleled ATLANTIC prosperity—rapidly to Europe and the Americas, more slowly elsewhere. Traditional monarchies were overthrown in France URUGUAY OCEAN and the United States. Swelling nationalist sentiment brought Buenos Aires independence to much of Latin America and unification to Santiago Italy and Germany. Following demands for political liberation, governments conceded change and enacted political reform. L European powers did not extend these rights to their colonies and made political and economic inroads in independent P regions such as China and Japan, which had industrialized E and reformed more slowly. a t a g o n i a FALKLAND ISLANDS 404 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

Yenisey Lena NORWAY FINLAND R U S S IOb' A N EMPIRE SWEDEN S i b e r i aLMiBvRaeBnrLEIpTcLoohGAnoeIdIUslNtoMeFnrRPARNNUDPECSaETSErNHIiAWs.MBaAteeRrrllKionoPRAUUVSASSieuITnAsRtneaIrAliSNtzAPWOXÜLOBSMARAtNO.NTVYPLTDADeERtAMIeAVBrMsIEAbRuoGrscgoVwolga BADEN EMPIRE Russian conquest in progress G ob Amur WALLACHIA C SWITZERLAND PAPAL Kazakhs BHUTAN i STATES SERBIA Black Sea Beijing PORTUGAL Ya Q I N GSARDINIA Rome MONTENEGRO aspian Sea KHIVA KOKAND Yellow River KOREA JAPAN Constantinople SMALL Nanjing SPAIN KINGDOM E TURKMEN BUKHARA KUNDUZ Tokyo OF THE EMPIR Tig STATES BADAKHSHAN TWO SICILIES Tehran Ionian GREECE Islands E M P I R ELisbon Madrid TUSCANY GIBRALTAR BALKH ris ALGERIA Ceuta MFreeinlniclhplarcoognrqeussest Malta AN Euphrates es TUNIS PERSIA M HNISTAN im OTT O Cairo ala NEPAL n g zi AFGHA MOROCCO Delhi Gang yas BeduinsBAHRAIN OMANBALUCHISTAN Indus S ar s h ara Nile I NDIA Plassey Hong Kong Be b e eg s EGYPT Chandernagore Macao Calcutta BURMA r viceroyalty r Nilo - S a h a r a n Arabian Diu LUANG PRABANG a Peninsula KAARTA Mariana MASINA Tu DAMARGAM SIAM AMNekNonAgM Islands MARADI YEMEN Goa Manila Caroline GOBIR Islands Niger WADAI DARFUR Sudan Madras TENASSERIM Bangkok PHILIPPINE PACIF SEGU MOSSI BORNU ISLANDS OCEA KINGDOMS SOKOTO ETHIOPIA Aden Socotra Pondicherry Marshall New Islands MAMPRUSI KBOINRGGDUOMS p eoples HARARes Nicobar Islands CAMBODIA DAGOMBA ABUJA Ceylon Labuan GuineaP a IC IGALA Kushit MAGUINDANAO N ASANTE ATJEH MALAY BENIN Bantu STATES SULU WDAhHydOaMhEY NEI ATES LIBERIA GOLD Fernando Maldive SARAWAK Islands COAST Po Congo BUNYORO BUGANDA Malacca BRU BUSOGA ST s TORO KARAGWE SAO TOME ANKOLE Singapore ALAY AND PRINCIPE RWANDA RIO MUNI Sumatra M Borneo Libreville TEKE KUBA BURUNDI Mombasa KALUNDE LUBA to Oman Seychelle Islands Batavia DUTCH POSSESSIONS KANIOK KIKONJA Amirante Java AND DEPENDENCIES Zanzibar Islands NGONI Chagos Islands to Oman INDIAN Kilwa OCEAN to Oman ANGOLA LUNDA KAZEMBEBant u s puans KASANJE Madagascar PORTUGUESE TIMOR KIAKA CHOKWE Comoro Islands Nossi-Bé NDULU MBAILUNDU Island BIHE NGONI ST. HELENA LOZI Zambezi GALANGI PORTUGUESE Ste Marie Island KAKONDA EAST AFRICA MERINA WAMBU NDEBELE KINGDOM Mauritius Réunion Kalahari ZSuwazi GAZA OF WINBURG- AUSTRALIAN Desert REPUBLIC COLONIES lu POTCHEFSTROOM Khoisan Darling peoplesGriqua NATAL CAPE Pondo BASUTO COLONY Cape Perth Lord Howe Island Town Adelaide Sydney Melbourne NEW ZEALAND WORLD OF EMPIRES 405

THE WORLD OF EMPIRES 1758 supremacy in North America; during his second voyage and Britain takes Fort Duquesne, the cost of the war has been circumnavigates the continent. 1750 Pennsylvania, from the French, exorbitant, and the participants’ At the Boston Tea Party in North A new colonial boundary between as well as Senegal in West Africa. national debts are high, leading America, merchants dump an East Spain and Portugal in the New Russia’s offensive into Prussia to increased taxation and discontent India cargo of tea into Boston Harbor World recognizes the extent of stalls after the Battle of Zorndorf. at home and in the colonies. in protest of British governance. Portuguese settlement in Brazil. 1759 1764 1774 1751–1780 An Anglo–Prussian force defeats The “Spinning Jenny” is invented by Britain issues the “Intolerable Acts” French philosopher Denis Diderot’s the French at Minden, north English weaver James Hargreaves, in response to the Boston Tea Party, Encyclopédie is a defining work of the Germany; Britain takes the French with multiple spindles for cotton; authorizing punitive measures Enlightenment, cataloging human West Indian island of Guadeloupe cloth production increases eightfold. against the 13 colonies; delegates knowledge in science, philosophy, from France. General Wolfe leads from the 13 colonies form the First politics, and religion. British troops to capture Quebec 1768 Continental Congress and decide and much of French Canada. The Russian–Ottoman War begins, to boycott British goods and trade. 1753 over Russian interventions in Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus 1760 Poland and the Crimea; it ends in 1775–1783 publishes Species Plantarum, laying A slave rebellion breaks out on the 1774, giving Russia the right of free The American War of Independence the foundations for the system of British colony of Jamaica, a large navigation in the Black Sea. English (or the American Revolutionary biological classification used today. sugar producer in the West Indies; explorer James Cook begins his first War) begins with battles at the revolt is suppressed in 1761. voyage to the Pacific, on the Lexington and Concord between 1755 China’s Qin dynasty establishes Endeavour; he maps the complete British troops (“redcoats”) and An earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal control over Mongolian tribes. coastline of New Zealand in colonial forces led by General is one of the deadliest in history, 1769–1770 and the eastern coast of George Washington. killing 60,000–100,000 people. 1762 Australia in 1770. Catherine the Great comes to the 1776 1756–1763 Russian throne; her reign brings 1769 Thomas Paine’s Common Sense In the Seven Years War, Hanover, wide-ranging reform and territorial Egypt’s de facto ruler Ali Bey calls for American independence; Britain, and Prussia clash with expansion. French philosopher al-Kabir deposes the Ottoman the American Declaration of France, Austria, Russia, Saxony, Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes governor and attempts to declare Independence is signed on July 4, and Sweden. The Social Contract, questioning the independence, but is defeated by asserting all men are equal and relationship between governments 1773. In North America, Spanish have the right to “life, liberty 1757 and the governed. Franciscan friars start building and the pursuit of happiness”— The Battle of Plassey wins Bengal a chain of missions along the excluding enslaved Africans. for the British East India Company. 1763 Californian coast. Scottish inventor Prussia defeats Austria at the Battle The Treaty of Paris ends the Seven James Watt patents his improved 1777 of Leuthen to control Silesia. Years War and confirms British version of the steam engine. The Treaty of San Idelfonso confirms Spanish possession of 1771 Uruguay and Portuguese possession of the Amazon basin. The first water- powered textile mill in 1778 England heralds the France enters the American War Industrial Revolution of Independence against the British. that transforms rural On Captain Cook’s third Pacific agricultural economies voyage (begun in 1776), he makes into ones based on the first European contact with manufactured goods, the Hawaiian islands. often made in cities and early factories. 1779 Boer (Dutch-speaking) settlers in ▲ At the Boston Tea Party in 1773, traders dresssed as American Indians dumped 342 chests of 1772 South Africa clash with Xhosa tea from an East India Company ship into the harbor, in protest at British regulations. The recent Poland is partitioned by tribes over cattle raids and access Tea Act allowed the export of tea from India to North America without it being taxed on arrival; Austria, Prussia, and to grazing land and water. this made it cheaper than the tea smuggled in by many colonial merchants, who now faced ruin. Russia, who take over a third of its land. 1780–1782 Tupac Amaru II leads C.75,000 1773 Indians and Creoles against the Captain Cook crosses Spanish colonial regime in Peru. the Antarctic Circle 406 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

1781 1792 ▲ The storming of the Bastille in 1789 was a pivotal moment in the French Revolution. At Yorktown, the last major battle in France abolishes the monarchy, Fearing that troops were on their way into Paris, a mob of around 600 broke into the the American War of Independence, pronounces itself a republic, and prison, a hated symbol of a despotic monarchy, to seize its stores of ammunition. George Washington and his French declares war on Austria, Prussia, allies defeat the British. and Piedmont. The monarchies of makes him First Consul. Britain 1803–1807 Holland, Spain, Austria, Prussia, assumes control of south India. The War of the Third Coalition pits 1783 and Russia form the First Coalition Britain—joined by Sweden, Russia, The Russian Empire annexes against revolutionary France, and C.1800 Austria, and Prussia—against Crimea. The first manned flights are joined by Britain in 1793; the The Romantic cultural period in France; it is one of a series of of a hot air balloon made by the War of the First Coalition ends in Europe emerges, in reaction to the conflicts that make up the Montgolfier brothers take place in victory and territorial gains for rationalism of the 18th-century Napoleonic Wars (to 1815). Paris. Britain recognizes American France in 1795. Enlightenment; Ludwig van independence in the Treaty of Paris. Beethoven, the German early 1804 1793 Romantic composer, finishes his Napoleon crowns himself Napoleon I 1784 Louis XVI is guillotined in January, popular Moonlight Sonata for solo and assumes the title Emperor of Under the India Act, the British and then Queen Marie Antoinette piano in 1801. France; the Napoleonic Code is government takes direct control of in October; during Maximilien introduced throughout French Indian territories, separates rule Robespierre’s “Reign of Terror” 1803–1805 territories and declares all men from trade, and places the East (to 1794) 17,000 alleged enemies The United States almost doubles equal, ending hereditary nobility. India Company under closer of the revolution are executed. in size when it buys French territory government scrutiny. between the Mississippi River and 1805 1793 the Rocky Mountains in the To counter Napoleon’s imperial 1787 Eli Whitney’s cotton gin speeds Louisiana Purchase; the territory ambitions in Europe, Austria joins Sierra Leone, West Africa, is up the process of combing cotton, is extended south to New Orleans Britain and Russia in the War of established for freed slaves from greatly increasing the production in 1804. Meriwether Lewis and the Third Coalition (to 1807): Britain and its colonies, and the of cotton in the American south. William Clark become the first Britain defeats the Franco–Spanish Committee for the Abolition of American explorers to cross the new, fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar; the Slave Trade is established in 1794 western portion of the US, and reach France defeats Russia and Austria Britain. The American constitution France abolishes slavery, ending the the Pacific coast in 1805. at the Battle of Austerlitz. is approved; it is the oldest written Haiti rebellion. A Polish uprising constitution still in use. The first against further partition by Russia steamboat sails on the Delaware and Prussia leads to a third partition River, designed by American in 1795; Poland ceases to exist. inventor John Fitch. 1795 1788 The Directory governs France The First Fleet transports British (to 1799), replacing the Committee convicts to Botany Bay, Australia; of Public Safety. The British seize over the next 50 years, nearly Dutch territory in the Cape of 60,000 people settle in Australia. Good Hope, South Africa. 1789 1798 George Washington is elected first The Society of United Irishmen president of the United States. stages the Wexford uprising against The French Revolution begins: British rule in Ireland; French the newly formed National support is intercepted by British Assembly takes the Tennis Court troops, and the revolt collapses. The Oath, vowing to produce a War of the Second Coalition (to constitution for France; Parisians 1802) is led by Britain, Austria, and storm the Bastille prison on July 14. Russia against France. French commander Napoleon Bonaparte 1791 invades Egypt; his fleet is destroyed Louis XVI and the royal family flee by the British navy under Horatio Paris but are caught at Varennes Nelson at the Battle of the Nile. and sent back, losing the king his people’s trust. A large-scale slave 1799 revolt begins in Haiti, in the French End of the French Revolution: colony of Saint-Domingue, led by Napoleon stages a coup d’etat that Toussaint Louverture. overthrows the Directory and WORLD OF EMPIRES 407

▲ Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow in the brutal Russian winter of 1812 marked a Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa humiliating defeat. Decimated by extreme temperatures, food shortages, typhus, dysentery, Rica) declare their independence as and Russian attacks, only 30,000 of the 500,000-strong Grande Armée survived. a federal republic. Simón Bolívar is named president of Peru; Spanish 1806 Britain and the United States, British 1816 rule ends in 1824. Napoleon abolishes the Holy Roman troops burn the White House in In South America the independent Empire, goes on to defeat Prussia, Washington, D.C. In Arabia, United Provinces of the Rio de la 1825 and imposes the Continental System Egyptian forces recapture the holy Plata are set up; Argentina declares Bolivia gains independence from of embargoes against British trade. city of Medina from the Wahhabi its independence from Spain. In Spain. In Britain, the Stockton to and reinstate Ottoman rule; they southeast Africa, Shaka becomes Darlington railway line is the first 1807 retake Jeddah and Mecca in 1813. chief of the Zulu nation; he absorbs to use a steam locomotive, designed Russia is defeated and allies with conquered tribes into a vast empire. by George Stephenson, to pull France, ending the Third Coalition. 1813 a passenger train. Britain abolishes the slave trade. At the Battle of the Nations at 1818 Leipzig, allies including Britain, Chile’s independence from Spain 1826 1808 Prussia, and Russia defeat France. is secured at the Battle of Maipu. French inventor Joseph-Nicéphore Napoleon, now in control of most In the South American fight for Niépce takes the first photograph. of Western and Central Europe, independence, Simón Bolívar 1819 declares his brother, Joseph invades Venezuela, captures The United States buys Florida 1827 Bonaparte, the new king of Spain; Caracas, and is proclaimed from Spain. Colombia becomes Britain, France, and Russia demand this triggers the Peninsular War Libertador (Liberator). a republic, with Simón Bolívar as independence for Greece; when the (to 1814) between the Napoleonic president. Stamford Raffles founds Ottomans refuse, the allies sink empire and the allied powers of 1814 the city of Singapore as a base for three-quarters of the Ottoman Britain, Spain, and Portugal. Anti-French allies occupy Paris; Britain’s East India Company in fleet at the Battle of Navarino. Napoleon is exiled to Elba and the Malay peninsula, challenging 1810 Louis XVIII, brother of the Dutch dominance of the trading 1828 The outbreak of the Mexican War beheaded Louis XVI, is placed routes between China and India. Uruguay’s independence is of Independence starts a series on the French throne; the Congress recognized by Brazil and Argentina. of revolts against Spanish rule; of Vienna is convened to agree on 1821 Russia acquires Armenia and by 1826, all Spanish mainland the future of Europe. The Greek War of Independence declares war on the Ottomans. colonies in South America gain against the Ottomans begins, independence. Russia reopens trade 1815 ending in 1832. Mexico achieves 1830 with Britain, withdrawing from Napoleon escapes from Elba and independence, Panama joins Gran The French invade Algeria and Napoleon’s Continental System. returns to Paris at the start of the Colombia, and José de San Martín take control. The July Revolution “Hundred Days”; defeated by British declares Peru independent. in Paris topples the French Bourbon 1812 and Prussian forces at the Battle of monarch Charles X and crowns Napoleon invades Russia and Waterloo, he is exiled to St. Helena, 1823 his cousin Louis-Philippe, Duke occupies Moscow, but is forced to where he dies in 1821; the French The United Provinces of Central of Orléans. The Belgian Revolution retreat. In the War of 1812 between monarchy is restored. America (Guatemala, El Salvador, begins, demanding independence from the Netherlands. A wave of rebellion and social unrest sweeps through much of Europe, calling for political reforms. In the United States, the Indian Removal Act strips American Indians of legal rights and forces them to leave desirable territory in the southeast and relocate along the “Trail of Tears” to west of the Mississippi. 1831 Belgium wins independence and elects Leopold I as king. Russia annexes the Duchy of Warsaw. 1832 The Treaty of London creates an independent kingdom of Greece and installs a monarchy. 408 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

1833 begins; Mexico surrenders in 1847; 1856–1860 abolishing slavery in the south; in 1848 the Treaty of Guadalupe In the Second Opium War, Britain Union capture of Vicksburg and Britain’s Slave Emancipation Act Hidalgo grants a vast swathe of and France declare war on China; New Orleans; Confederate defeat at bans slavery in the British Empire Mexico's territory to the United treaties call for China to open more Gettysburg, the war's biggest battle. and the Factory Act prohibits the States, including California. ports and legalize opium imports. • 1864: General Ulysses S. Grant is employment of children under nine. made commander-in-chief of the 1858–1871 Union forces; Union general 1836 1848 The Wars of Italian Unification William T. Sherman’s “march to the Texan rebels are defeated at the California finds gold, prompting continue the Risorgimento led by sea” destroys railway lines and towns Battle of the Alamo but recover and the Gold Rush (to 1855). Karl Marx Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia. force Mexico to recognize the new and Friedrich Engels publish The Garibaldi in 1848: France and • 1865: Union troops capture the republic of Texas; it becomes the Communist Manifesto. The “Year of Piedmont-Sardinia form an alliance Confederate capital of Richmond; 28th state of the United States in Revolution” sees political upheaval to end Austrian rule in Italy; Victor Confederate general Robert E. Lee 1845. The first wagon train brings in France, the Austrian Empire, Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia surrenders on April 9, ending settlers west along the Oregon Germany, and Italian states: France is declared king of Italy in 1861; America’s deadliest war: 600,000 Trail; later wagon trains begin overthrows the monarchy, forms Rome becomes the capital in 1871. men are dead, 500,000 are injured. to head to California in 1841. the Second Republic, and elects On April 14, a Confederate Napoleon’s nephew as president. 1859 assassinates President Lincoln. 1838 Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Guatemala, Honduras, and 1850 Species by Means of Natural Selection 1862 Nicaragua become independent. The Taiping rebellion begins in explains the process of evolution. Otto von Bismarck becomes prime At the Battle of Blood River, South China: fighting lasts till 1864 and minister of Prussia; he builds up Africa, Boers massacre Zulus. claims 20 million lives. The Great 1861 the army and masterminds the Exhibition in London attracts six Serfdom is abolished in Russia. unification of Germany in 1871. 1839–1842 million people to view agricultural Abraham Lincoln takes office as Japan expels foreigners. In the First Opium War, China and manufacturing displays from president of the United States; fails to block the British importing around the world; Britain's empire states in the rural south defy federal 1866 opium; the Treaty of Nanking opens is the largest in history, and covers government and assert their right to Prussia defeats Austria in the Seven five Chinese “treaty ports” to British one quarter of the globe by 1922. own slaves; they secede from the Weeks War. trade, and cedes Hong Kong. Union and form a Confederacy 1852 under Thomas Jefferson. 1867 1839–1842 In South Africa, the independent Prussia unifies 22 states under the In the First Anglo-Afghan War, Boer republic of Transvaal is 1861–1865 North German Federation, with Britain seeks to curb Russia’s recognized by Britain; the Orange Prussia at the helm. The dual growing influence over Afghanistan. Free State is recognized in 1854. THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR monarchy of Austria-Hungary is The war opens with a Confederate established, under Franz Josef I of 1840 1853–1856 attack at Fort Sumter. Austria. Karl Marx publishes the The Treaty of Waitangi obliges • 1862: Confederate defeat at Shiloh; first part of Das Kapital. The US Maoris to accept British rule in In the Crimean War, Russia Union defeat at the second Battle of purchases Alaska from Russia. New Zealand, following the first disputes Ottoman territory; the Bull Run; Union victory at Antietam. shipload of British settlers in 1839. Ottomans are joined by Britain • 1863: President Lincoln signs the 1868 and France, and win the war; field Emancipation Proclamation, Japan overthrows the Tokugawa 1842 hospital reforms by British nurse shogunate, ending the Edo Period, The Webster–Ashburton Treaty Florence Nightingale in the Crimea and restores imperial rule; during settles the US–Canadian border. lead to far fewer deaths from Meiji Tenno’s reign (to 1912), Japan disease in wartime. ends its isolationism, implements constitutional government, and starts 1844 1856 to modernize its infrastructure. In the United States, Samuel Morse Britain’s Henry Bessemer invents send the first telegraph message; the a new process for producing steel, 1870 first transatlantic telegraph cable is greatly reducing its price. laid in 1858. The Fifteenth Amendment to the US 1856–1858 Constitution extends the right to vote 1845–1852 In the Indian Mutiny, native to freed slaves. The Franco-Prussian The Irish potato famine kills more troops (sepoys) rebel against British than a million people. officers; the revolt is crushed, the ◀ A Civil War eagle drum displays the last Mughal emperor is exiled, American bald eagle and the stars of 1846 and control of India passes from the 13 federal Union states on a blue Japan refuses American demands the East India Company to the background for an infantry regiment. to open its ports to foreign trade. British crown, ushering in the The US–Mexican War over Texas period known as the Raj (to 1947). WORLD OF EMPIRES 409

War begins: Paris is beseiged, 1894 ▲ The Wright Flyer takes to the air at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903. In the first Napoleon III surrenders, and the Ottomans massacre successful sustained powered flight in an airplane, Orvilee Wright flew 40yd (37m) in Third Republic is proclaimed. nationalist Armenians: by 12 seconds; later that day his brother Wilbur flew 284yd (260m) in 59 seconds. 1897, C.250,000 are killed. 1871 1904 1910–1920 The Franco–Prussian War ends. 1894–1895 Britain and France sign the Entente In the Mexican Revolution, calls for France cedes Alsace Lorraine to After the First Sino– Cordiale; in 1907 they sign the democracy and land reform spiral Germany; Wilhelm I of Prussia Japanese war over Triple Entente with Russia, to into civil war between revolutionary becomes emperor of Germany and competing interests in counter the Triple Alliance of 1882. factions and the military, ending names Bismarck as chancellor; the Korea, China recognizes with a new constitution in 1917 Paris Commune revolt is put down. Korean independence 1904–1905 and presidential elections in 1920. and cedes Formosa In the Russo–Japanese War, Japan 1876 (Taiwan) to Japan. attacks Russian warships and forces 1911 At the Battle of Little Big Horn, Russia to leave Manchuria. An uprising in China leads to the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors kill 1895 collapse of the Qin dynasty; Sun Lt. Colonel George Custer and his The first motion picture, 1905 Yat-sen becomes the first president troops, during the Indian Wars lasting 46 seconds, is Revolution forces Czar Nicholas II of of the Chinese Republic. against forcible relocation. shown by brothers Auguste and Russia to grant limited concessions, Nicolas Lumière in Paris, France. including the creation of an elected 1912 1877–1878 legislature, the Duma. Sweden The luxury liner RMS Titanic sinks Russia declares war on the Ottoman 1896 recognizes Norway’s independence. on its maiden voyage. Empire; Serbia, Romania, and Emperor Menelik II defeats the Montenegro gain independence; Italian army at the Battle of Adowa, 1907 1912–1913 Bulgaria is granted some autonomy securing Ethiopia’s independence. Australia, Canada, and New First Balkan War: backed by and put under Russian authority. Zealand become self-governing Russia, the Balkan League is 1898 dominions of the British Empire. formed by Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, 1881 The USS Maine is blown up in Cuba, and Montenegro and defeats the Britain recognizes the Boers’ South triggering the Spanish–American 1908 Ottoman Empire, which loses all African Republic in Transvaal. War; Spain grants independence Young Turks demand reform in the its remaining territory in Europe. The assassination of reformist Czar to Cuba, and cedes Puerto Rico, Ottoman Empire; as the empire Alexander II triggers an anti-Jewish Guam, and the Philippines to the falters, Austria-Hungary annexes 1913 pogrom in Russia; many Jews to US. The US also annexes Hawaii. Bosnia-Herzegovina and Bulgaria Second Balkan War: the Balkan Western Europe, the United States, wins recognition of its independence. League implodes and Greece and and Palestine. 1899–1902 Serbia defeat Bulgaria; Serbia’s In the South African (Anglo–Boer) 1910 territorial ambitions and alliance 1882 War, up to 25,000 women and Portugal overthrows its monarchy with Russia alarm Austria-Hungary The Triple Alliance is formed by children die in British concentration and proclaims a republic. China and Germany. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and camps; defeated by “scorched invades Tibet. Japan annexes Italy against France. Unrest in earth” attacks, the Boers recognize Korea. The Union of South Africa 1914 Egypt prompts British occupation. British sovereignty in South Africa. is founded as a dominion of the The assassination of the Austrian British Empire; it becomes a archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1884–1885 1900 sovereign republic in 1961. Sarajevo ignites World War I. The Berlin Conference stimulates Immigration swells the population the “Scramble for Africa”: Belgian to C.75 million in the US. Nigeria king Leopold I acquires Congo, becomes a British protectorate. and the European powers in Berlin In the Boxer Rebellion against gradually partition almost all of foreigners in China, an international Africa among themselves by 1914. relief force occupies Beijing; Russia occupies southern Manchuria. 1885 The first automobiles are built by 1901 Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz. Texas strikes “black gold” with an oil well at Spindletop; the US 1889 becomes the world’s leading oil Brazil is declared a republic. producer and soon enjoys the first modern consumer boom. The 1893 Commonwealth of Australia is New Zealand is first to grant voting proclaimed. Britain’s Queen rights to women. Victoria dies, after a 63-year reign. 410 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

ASTRONOMY identifies radio waves from the Milky Way Buzz Aldrin become the first humans as a source of static; Grote Reber builds to land on the moon. the first radio telescope dish in 1937. ● 1971 In Canada, Charles Thomas AND SPACE ● 1948–1949 The Big Bang theory is Bolton is first to discover a black hole. developed in the US by theoretical ● 1977 NASA launches the Voyager 1 Ever since early humans first gazed at the skies, we have physicist George Gamow’s description probe; heading to the edge of the solar speculated about Earth’s origins and its relation to the sun, of cosmic nucleosynthesis and by his system, it travels farther into space moon, and stars. We have built prehistoric monuments to mark associates Ralph Alpher and Robert than any other humanmade object. the passage of time, developed theories to explain the motions Herman’s prediction of cosmic of the planets, invented telescopes to peer into space, launched microwave background radiation. ● 1981 The first reusable spacecraft is NASA’s space shuttle Columbia. spacecraft, and investigated the forces that shape the universe. ● 1954 CERN, the European Organization ● 1990 The Hubble Space Telescope for Nuclear Research, is established in (HST) is launched into a near-Earth orbit to record clear images of deep Geneva, Switzerland, building high-energy space from 340 miles (547km) above Earth’s atmosphere. ● c.8000 BCE The oldest known ● 1609–1619 German astronomer Johannes particle accelerators to study the basic calendar is a megalithic site in Kepler’s laws of planetary motion describe constituents of matter. ● 1995 A satellite-based GPS (Global Positioning System) is completed by Scotland that marks the 12 lunar the planets’ elliptical orbits around the sun. the US Department of Defense. months of the year. ● 1957 Sputnik I, the world’s first satellite, is ● 2000 The first crew arrives at the International Space Station (ISS) to ● 1610 In Italy, Galileo Galilei uses his launched into space by the Soviet Union, conduct experiments in space. ● c.3000 BCE Mesopotamia devises the superior telescope to observe Jupiter’s triggering a “space race” with the US. ● 2014 The European Space Agency's earliest calendar with a 360-day year, moons and the phases of Venus as it orbits space probe Rosetta carries the lander Philae, the first to land on a comet. consisting of twelve 30-day months. the sun, and supports heliocentrism. ● 1958 The first communications satellite is launched by the US, which also establishes ● 2015 In the US, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave ● c.2000–1500 BCE Egyptians and ● 1668 The first reflecting telescope is built the National Aeronautics and Space Observatory (LIGO) detects a form of Babylonians produce star charts, by English physicist Isaac Newton. Administration (NASA). cosmic radiation predicted by Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity. mapping the heavens and dividing them into sections, or “zodiacs.\" ● 1687 The universal law of gravitation is ● 1961 The first human in space, Soviet published by Isaac Newton in England. cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin orbits Earth. ● c.360 BCE Mathematical models of ● 1705 British astronomer Edmond Halley is ● 1962 NASA’s Mariner 2 is the first planetary motion around Earth are attributed to the Greek astronomer first to predict a comet’s return: Halley’s spacecraft to study another planet, Venus. Eudoxus of Cnidus. comet makes a 76-year orbit of the sun. ● 1969 On NASA’s Apollo 11 mission, ● c.150 CE The ancient Greek model of ● 1781 British astronomer William Herschel American astronauts Neil Armstrong and a geocentric universe, placing Earth discovers the planet Uranus, using a at the center of the solar system, is homemade telescope; he also studies recorded by Roman astronomer and the evolution of stars and classifies them. geographer Claudius Ptolemy in his Almagest, which is later translated ● 1846 Germany’s Johann Gottfried Galle into Arabic and Latin. discovers the planet Neptune. ● 1420 Persian astronomer Ulugh Beg ● 1905 German physicist Albert Einstein’s ▲ Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made the first manned space flight in 1961, when builds an observatory in Samarkand special theory of relativity describes the Vostok 1 orbited Earth in 108 minutes. The first man in space, Gagarin was and measures the tilt of Earth’s axis relationship between space and time; he awarded his country’s highest honor—the title “Hero of the Soviet Union.” to within 1/100th of a degree. explains the effect of gravity on spacetime in his general theory of relativity in 1915. ● 1543 Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus suggests that Earth ● 1927 The Big Bang theory originates with orbits the sun and not vice versa, Belgian astronomer Georges Lemaître. supplanting Ptolemy’s geocentric universe with a heliocentric one. ● 1929 In the US, astronomer Edwin Hubble calculates that the Universe is expanding ● 1608 The first refracting telescopes and has more than 100 billion galaxies. are credited to Dutch spectacle- makers Hans Lippershey, Zacharias ● 1933 Radio astronomy begins in the US Janssen, and Jacob Metius. when telephone engineer Karl Jansky ASTRONOMY AND SPACE 411

The World in 1950 Norway and possessions AlaskaMountains Greenland United Kingdom Belgium and possessions CANADA ICELAND and possessions France and possessions Italy and possessions Denmark and possessions Spain and possessions New Zealand and possessions Portugal and possessions Netherlands Australia and possessions and possessions West Germany US and possessions Japan and possessions controlled by European Axis powers 15 November, 1942 controlled by Japan 15 November, 1942 ▶ The Modern World in 1950 Rocky Great St. Lawrence ST. PIERRE AND European decolonization had begun, as Lakes MIQUELON India became independent in 1947 and UNITED STATES Ottawa Israel in 1948, but much of Africa remained under European control for a further 10 OF Miss Chicago MounWtaiansshNingewtonYDorCk to 20 years. In Europe, the European Coal Grande and Steel Community would be founded ouri in 1952, beginning a process of integration Appalachian that ultimately led to the European Union, Los Angeles A M E R I C Ai Azores composed of 28 countries by 2013. Mississipp Madeira Bermuda Rio A T L A N T I C OCEAN Canary Islands MEXICO Bahamas Turks and Caicos Islands SPANISH SAHARA Pearl Harbor CUBA DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Puerto Rico Hawaiian Islands VIRGIN ISLANDS Mexico City JAMAICA HAITI St. Martin BRITISH HONDURAS LEEWARD ISLANDS HONDURAS GUADELOUPE CAPE VERDE ISLANDS GUATEMALA Netherlands MARTINIQUE BARBADOS EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA Antilles WINDWARD ISLANDS GAMBIA TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO PORTUGUESE CLIPPERTON COSTA RICA CANAL ISLAND ZONE GUINEA P A C I F I C PANAMA VENEZUELA BRITISH GUIANA SIERRA DUTCH GUIANA LEONE rinoco Andes OCEAN OCOLOMBIA Guiana Highland FRENCH GUIANA São F Christmas Galapagos s Island Islands to Ecuador Phoenix ECUADOR PERU A m a z o Anmazon ASCENSION Lima Basin MODERNIslands ATLANTIC WORLD B R A Z I L rancisco OCEAN WESTERN SAMOA trusteeship AMERICAN SAMOA 1914 ONWARDFRENCH POLYNESIA BOLIVIA A Gran Chaco Paraná Cook n PAR Rio de Janeiro Asunción São Paulo Islands AGUAY TONGA Pitcairn San Felix Island des to Chile European global dominance was shaken byIsland two World Wars San Ambrosio CHILE Island that devastated the continent. Unable to afford or defend to Chile them, European powers granted their colonies independence. Juan Fernandez Islands Santiago Buenos URUGUAY Kermadec Islands to Chile Aires Communism fueled the Russian Revolution and found fertile ARGENTINA ground in countries such as China, which had suffered at the hands of European imperial ambitions. The Cold War Patagonia between the communist USSR and its allies and capitalist- leaning countries such as the US threatened the world with nuclear annihilation for over 40 years. Following the collapse of the USSR in 1991, hopes for global peace were dashed FALKLAND as regional wars erupted, and new problems such as radical, ISLANDS violent movements within Islam challenged world leaders. 412 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

AY Yenisey Lena WN NOR Siberia SWEDE FINLAND Ob' aspian Sea Leningrad UNION OF SOVIET Eu UNITED DENMARK WEST GERMANY NileVolga Amur KINGDOM EAST GERMANY AMoscow S O C I A L I S T R E P U B L I C S IRELLASoNPnDAdMoPInNaaFdriRrsidALNNBUSEECWXLTEG.HIT.R.BZAWo.eUmreSlIieTsnTtRCAIAZPYALEOULYCVGBLHHOiAAeUSONnNLNSAInADLVGWaROIGAOVRaRMrAEYsEBKAaCUwINAELIAGARIBIsTAtlaancUbkAuRSnlekaKaraE YTUNIS MONGOLIA C G o b i Dairen Chinese-USSR condominium PEOPLES REPUBLICBeijing PORTUGAL NORTH JAPAN KOREA SFTGHANISTAN OF CHINA Yan’anYello T Hw River Seoul Tokyo Yangzi SOUTH Hiroshima TangGieIBr RALTAR TIBET KOREA SPANISH MOROCCO MALTA SYRIA Tehran Kabul Communist ShanghaiNagasaki CYPRUS MOROCCO LEBANON IRAQ IR AN Chinese conquest Jerusalem phrates in progress IFNI El AlameIiSnRAEL KUWAIT Lahore ALNahorei m es s Delhi al NEPAL BHUTAN PACIFIC ALGERIA H OCEAN Cairo A I Gang SIKKIM Sah LIBYA JORDAN PAK aya s Ryukyu Islands US military administration temporary UK-France Indu administration EGYPT BAHRAIN I N D I A PAKISTAN Hong Kong ara QATAR TRUCIAL Macao REPUBLIC OF S A U D I OMAN CHINA ARABIA Calcutta (TAIWAN) MAN BURMA ERITREA Arabian Bombay VIETNAM member of French Union Mariana temporary UK Peninsula O Goa Islands administration LAOS FRENCH MALDIVE ISLANDS AILAND member of French Union WEST AFRICA Bangkok Mekong YEMEN ADEN Manila Niger ANGLO- PROTECTORATE GUAM Madras CAMBODIA TRUST TERRITORY Sahel CAMEROONS EGYPTIAN Socotra member of French Union OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS trusteeship SUDAN FRENCH SOMALILAND CEYLON PHILIPPINES Marshall NIGERIA BRITISH Islands TOGO SOMALILAND trusteeship BRITISH FRENCH ETHIOPIA NORTH BORNEO EQUATORIAL SOMALIA LIBERIA BRUNEI Caroline AFRICA trusteeship Islands CAMEROONS MALAYA trusteeship SARAWAK GOLD SPANISH Congo COAST GUINEA ANDA Sumatra BELGIAN UG KENYA Singapore CONGO Borneo NETHERLANDS N SAO TOME RUANDA- INDONESIA NEW GUINEA AND URUNDI TERRITORY OF trusteeship SEYCHELLES Jakarta PRINCIPE ZANZIBAR Java New NEW GUINEA TANGANYIKA Guinea trusteeship Chagos Islands Solomon trusteeship Islands NYASALAND I N D I A N Cocos Islands PORTUGUESE PAPUA COMORO ISLANDS TIMOR Christmas ANGOLA Island ST. HELENA NORTHERN QUE OCEAN RHODESIA MOZAMBI MADAGASCARMAURITIUS NEW SOUTHERN HEBRIDES RHODESIA RÉUNION New BECHUANALAND Caledonia protectorate SWAZILAND AUSTRALIA SOUTH AFRICA Darling Lord Howe Island BASUTOLAND Sydney Canberra Auckland Cape Town NEW ZEALAND MODERN WORLD 413

THE MODERN WORLD to dig trenches; by the end of the ▶ Lenin points the way forward 1917 war, the trenches would stretch above the red flag of communism The Russian Revolution erupts: food 1914–1918 WORLD WAR I 25,000 miles (40,000km) if they in a Soviet poster idealizing the riots, strikes, and a military mutiny Archduke Franz Ferdinand is shot were laid end to end. revolutionary fervor of 1917. force the czar to abdicate; a liberal by a Bosnian Serb in Sarajevo on government is formed under June 28. World War I begins on 1915 1917 Alexander Kerensky; civil war July 28, when Austria–Hungary • German U-boats begin attacks • The US declares war on breaks out when the Bolsheviks declares war on Serbia; Russia on merchant ships in British waters; Germany after discovering under Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and mobilizes in Serbia’s defense. the liner RMS Lusitania is sunk off the Zimmerman telegram Leon Trotsky seize power. Germany declares war on Russia the west coast of Ireland and 1,200 from the German foreign and France, and invades France via crew and passengers are drowned, minister urging Mexico to 1918 Belgium; Britain declares war on including 128 American citizens. reclaim Texas, New Mexico, Czar Nicholas II and his family are Germany and sends the British • Poison gas is first used by Germany and Arizona from the US. shot; Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates Expeditionary Force (BEF) to France. during the Second Battle of Ypres. • The British begin a new and Germany becomes a republic; • On the Western Front, in Flanders • Allied troops land at Gallipoli in push at Ypres; fought in a Charles I’s abdication brings the and France, British, French, and the Dardanelles, but face tough sea of mud, the campaign Austrian Empire to an end. Belgian armies face those of Turkish resistance, suffer almost ends at Passchendaele. Germany; on the Eastern Front 250,000 casualties, and begin to • The Balfour Declaration 1918–1919 in Poland, Galicia, and Serbia, evacuate in December. commits Britain to a The Spanish influenza global Russian armies face those of • Italy joins the Allies, declaring war homeland for the Jews in pandemic kills more than 50 million Germany and Austria–Hungary. on Austria–Hungary. Palestine, without consulting people. • The conflict becomes global: the • The Armenian genocide begins: by Britain’s Arab allies. Ottoman Empire enters the war on 1922, the Turks massacre or deport • Russian revolutionaries proclaim a 1919 the side of Germany and Austria– around 1.5 million Armenians. unilateral armistice to withdraw The Paris Peace Conference sets the Hungary (the Central Powers); from World War I. terms for treaties with the Central British troops invade Turkish-ruled 1916 Powers, dismantling the German, Iraq and German East Africa; Japan • On the Western Front, huge 1918 Austrian, and Ottoman Empires, joins the Allies (Britain, France, and offensives cause mass casualties • Under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk redrawing national boundaries in Russia) by attacking German (400,00 at Verdun, more than a between Russia and the Central Europe, and imposing substantial holdings in China and the Pacific. million at the Somme), with little Powers, Russia exits the war and war reparations on Germany. A new • On the Eastern Front, German territory gained. loses Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, German constitution establishes the troops crush the Russian Second • The Sykes–Picot agreement Finland, and the Baltic states. Weimar Republic. The Turkish War Army at Tannenberg. between Britain and France agrees • The Allies check Germany’s Spring of Liberation (to 1923) asserts • Unable to strike a decisive blow the postwar division of the Middle Offensive, which had reached the Turkish independence. and advance on the Western Front, East in the event of the Ottoman Marne, and launch a counter- Allied and German troops start Empire’s defeat. offensive, which breaches the 1919 Hindenburg Line defenses. The Third International, or ▲ Known as the Harlem Hellfighers, troops of the 369th Infantry Regiment from the • The Ottoman Empire signs an Communist International (known US Army's 93rd Division arrived in France in 1917 and fought under French command armistice on October 30, Austria as Comintern), is set up to promote in the trenches along the Western Front in 1918. More than one million American on November 3, and Germany on soldiers served in World War I, including nearly 380,000 African Americans. November 11, ending World War I. • The total number of military and civilian casualties is c.37 million, including 15 million dead. 1915 US marines occupy Haiti (to 1934), and the Dominican Republic in 1916 (to 1924), to restore order and secure American influence in the region. 1916 In the Mexican Revolution, Francisco Pancho Villa makes a cross-border raid into the United States, provoking a US military expedition into Mexico. The Irish nationalists’ Easter Rising against British rule is crushed. 414 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

communism worldwide. Benito 1923 1926 Crash in the US ruins stock market Mussolini founds the Fascist party in The Turkish republic is founded; Scottish inventor John Logie Baird investors and leads to a severe global Italy. The first nonstop transatlantic President Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) gives the first public demonstration economic downturn; the Great flight is made by British aviators embarks on a series of radical of television images. Reza Khan Depression lasts until the late 1930s. John Alcock and Arthur Whitten reforms to turn Turkey into a Pahlavi crowns himself shah and sets Brown. In Britain, Ernest Rutherford modern secular state. Germany out to modernize Iran; his dynasty 1930 splits the atom in the world’s first is unable to pay war reparations; rules until 1979. Military coups seize Peasants in the Soviet Union resist artificially created nuclear reaction. hyperinflation leads to currency power in Poland and Portugal. the mass collectivization of farms; collapse; Adolf Hitler, leader of hundreds of thousands of peasants 1920 the National Socialist (Nazi) Party, 1927 are sent to gulags (forced labor The US brings in prohibition (to attempts to grab power in the Chiang Kai-shek purges Chinese camps). Ho Chi Min founds the 1933) and grants women the vote. Munich putsch and is briefly communists. In the Soviet Union, Vietnamese Communist Party. In the Irish War of Independence (to imprisoned in 1924. A military coup Stalin has his rival Leon Trotsky Gandhi mounts a campaign of civil 1921), Ireland declares independence in Spain establishes a dictatorship expelled from the Communist Party; disobedience and leads the Salt from Britain, which deploys the under Miguel Primo de Rivero. Trotsky is exiled in 1929 and March to challenge government “Black and Tans” against the Irish assassinated in Mexico in 1940. monopolies and British rule in India. Republican Army (IRA). Russia 1924 invades Poland but the Red Army Lenin dies; Josef Stalin is leader 1927 1930 is driven back outside Warsaw. The of the Soviet Union. Mohandas American aviator Charles Lindbergh The collapse of the world economy League of Nations is established. Gandhi, or Mahatma (“Great Soul”), flies solo across the Atlantic. In the triggers mass unemployment and becomes leader of India’s National US, a consumer boom boasts one political extremism: Hitler’s Nazi 1921 Congress in the drive for self-rule car for every six Americans. The first party wins 107 seats in the Reichstag, Six million die in Russia's famine; and an end to the British Raj. talking motion picture, The Jazz Singer, becoming the second largest party in Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP) is released. Oil is discovered in Iraq. Germany; an army revolt in Brazil allows a partial return to capitalism. 1925 brings Getúlio Vargas to power. The Communist Party of China Italy becomes a one-party state 1928 (CPC) is founded. Germany’s war under Mussolini, who takes Stalin launches a Five Year Plan 1931 reparations are set at 132 billion dictatorial powers and the title Il to transform the Soviet Union Revolution overthrows the monarchy Deutschemarks. The Anglo-Irish Duce (The Leader). The Chinese into a major industrial country. in Spain. Japan occupies Manchuria; Treaty settles the division of Ireland nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen dies; Kuomintang forces take Beijing and it installs a puppet government in into the Irish Free State and he is succeeded by Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang Kai-shek declares a national 1932 under Pu Yi, China’s last Northern Ireland, with separate In Syria and Lebanon, nationalists government of China; communist emperor, who was deposed in 1912. parliaments in Dublin and Belfast. revolt against the French mandate resistance led by Mao Zedong but are suppressed by 1927. The continues in remote rural areas. 1932 1922 Locarno Pact paves the way for the The kingdom of Iraq is declared Russia’s civil war between the restoration of normal relations with 1929 independent of Britain and the “Reds” of the Bolshevik government Germany and for Germany to join Riots in Palestine: Arab attacks on kingdom of Saudi Arabia is founded. and “White” counterrevolutionaries the League of Nations in 1926. Jewish immigrants. The Wall Street More than 12 million people are ends in victory for the Bolsheviks; the unemployed in the US: Franklin D. former Russian Empire becomes the Roosevelt promises “a new deal” Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and is elected president. In Germany, (USSR). Turkish nationalists are the Nazis become the largest single at war with Greece and emerge party in fresh elections to the victorious, with widespread Reichstag but continue to be deportations on both sides. excluded from government. 1922 1932–1933 Soviet collectivization results in the Britain declares Egypt independent. “Great Famine” in grain-growing The Anglo-Irish treaty is bitterly regions; 6–8 million peasants disputed during the Irish Civil War die over the winter, including (to 1923) but the Irish Free State 4–5 million in Ukraine. comes into effect, as a self-governing dominion of the Commonwealth; ◀ The first soup kitchen for the hungry Northern Ireland remains part of and homeless was opened by gangster the United Kingdom. James Joyce’s Al Capone in Chicago during the Great modernist novel Ulysses is published Depression of the 1930s, when 12 million in Paris. Mussolini marches on Americans (a quarter of the normal labor Rome with his Blackshirts and heads force) were unemployed. Italy’s new Fascist government. MODERN WORLD 415

1933 1936 ▲ Adolf Hitler salutes his troops during the Reichsparteitag (National Party Convention) Hitler becomes chancellor and is Europe slides toward war: Germany in Nuremberg, Bavaria, in 1938. The Nuremberg rallies staged annually from 1933 to 1938 soon given dictatorial powers. The sends troops into the demilitarized were designed to show Germany united behind the Führer as he addressed more than half Nazis organize a national boycott of Rhineland; alarmed, Britain and a million members of the Nazi party, the army, and the Hitler Youth. Jewish shops and businesses; the first France begin expanding their Nazi concentration camp opens at armed forces. Italy annexes Ethiopia; 1937 • The Soviet Union and Germany Dachau; the Gestapo secret police is Haile Selassie warns the League The Hindenburg airship explodes sign the Molotov-Ribbentrop formed; students burn “un-German” of Nations “It is us today; it will be on arrival in the US, ending luxury nonaggression pact. books; all other political parties are you tomorrow.” Germany and Japan airship travel; American aviator • Germany invades Poland on banned. Germany quits the League settle the Anti-Comintern Pact. Amelia Earhart and copilot Fred September 1, sparking World War II. of Nations. Noonan disappear over the Pacific • Britain and France declare war on 1936–1938 during their around-the-world flight; Germany on September 3. 1933 The Great Terror show trials of “Old British engineer Frank Whittle • Germany and the Soviet Union In the US, the National Recovery Bolsheviks” launch Stalin’s purge of successfully trials his turbo jet engine. partition Poland. Administration launches New Deal the Communist party, government • The Soviet Union attacks Finland. policies, such as work creation officials, army leaders, intellectuals, 1938 schemes, but tariffs and other and peasants; between 680,000 and Germany annexes Austria in the 1940 nationalist policies block global two million people are killed. Anschluss (Unification), breeching • German forces invade Denmark, recovery and the World Economic the peace terms of 1919. Hoping to Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Conference fails to achieve a global 1936–1939 avoid war, Britain and France sign Luxemburg, and France. response to the Depression. The Spanish Civil War: following the Munich agreement allowing • Italy declares war on Britain the election of the left-wing Popular Germany to annex Sudetenland and France. 1934 Front, a military revolt led by from Czechoslovakia. On • The first mass transport of Hitler purges critics in the Night General Francisco Franco escalates Kristallnacht (the Night of Broken prisoners arrives at the Auschwitz of the Long Knives; he becomes into civil war between Franco’s Glass), Jewish homes and businesses concentration camp in Poland. Führer (leader) of Germany after Nationalist rebels, backed by are attacked in Germany and • The French government signs President Hindenburg dies. Austria’s Germany and Italy, and Republicans Austria. Japan declares a New Order an armistice with Germany and dictatorial chancellor Engelbert loyal to the government, backed by in East Asia; the US provides relocates to Vichy. Dollfuss bans the Nazis in Austria the Soviet Union and International financial backing for Chiang • In the Battle of Britain, the Royal and their attempted coup is blocked. Brigades of volunteers from Europe Kai-shek’s army against Japan. Air Force (RAF) blocks the German The Soviet Union joins the League and North America; Franco emerges Luftwaffe’s attack; Hitler abandons of Nations. as victor and dictator. 1939–1945 WORLD WAR II plans for an invasion of Britain. • Slovakia declares independence, • The Blitz (Blitzkrieg, or lightning 1934–1935 1936–1939 Germany occupies Prague, and war) begins: the Luftwaffe’s mass In the Long March in China, Mao The Arab Revolt in Palestine, a Czechoslovakia ceases to exist. bombing raids on British cities Zedong and his communist forces British Mandate: in 1937, a British • Britain and France pledge to continue until 1941; Allied bombers evade Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist royal commission proposes a support Poland if it is attacked. retaliate with raids on Germany. army by retreating from Jiangxi to partition of Palestine between Arabs • Hitler and Mussolini sign the Pact • The US introduces the first Shaanxi, a journey of around and Jews, but the plan is abandoned; of Steel military alliance. peacetime conscription in its history. 6,000miles (10,000km). instead, quotas are set in 1939 to • Japan turns to naval-led expansion • Japan allies with Germany and restrict Jewish immigration. in the Pacific and Southeast Asia. Italy in the Axis against the Allies. 1934–1937 On America’s Great Plains, drought, 1937 intensive farming, and giant dust The Neutrality Act is one of several storms strip the land of topsoil in in the 1930s that seek to avoid the Dust Bowl; thousands of destitute American entanglement in foreign farmers migrate west to California. conflicts. Guernica is bombed by German aircraft supporting the 1935 Nationalists in Spain. The Second Hitler introduces conscription Sino-Japanese War breaks out: (banned by the Treaty of Versailles) Japan’s massacre of troops and and anti-Semitic Nuremberg Laws civilians at Nanking, the Chinese deprive Jews of German citizenship nationalist capital, shocks the US. and ban marriage and sex between Brazil’s President Vargas warns of a Jews and non-Jews. Italian troops communist coup, brings in the Estado invade Ethiopia; Emperor Haile Novo (New State) constitution, and Selassie leads a stout resistance rules as dictator until 1945. Italy and economic sanctions are imposed resigns from the League of Nations on Italy. and joins the Anti-Comintern Pact. 416 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

1941 • Facing superior US naval forces in The Indian Congress demands full Jewish and Arab states. American • Operation Barbarossa opens the the Pacific, Japanese naval pilots start independence from Britain. Josip test pilot Chuck Yeager is the first German invasion of the Soviet to mount kamikaze suicide attacks. Broz Tito, leader of Yugoslavia’s person to break the sound barrier. Union; Leningrad is surrounded. • Hitler launches a final German resistance, becomes president of • On December 7, Japan attacks the offensive at the Battle of the Bulge in a socialist federal Yugoslavia. The 1948 US naval base at Pearl Harbor, the Ardennes; German tanks break United Nations (UN) forms; the UN Gandhi is assassinated. South Africa Hawaii, and invades the Philippines through the American front line but General Assembly meets in 1946. introduces apartheid. The new state and European colonies in Southeast are defeated by a counter attack. of Israel repulses invasions by five Asia in order to dominate the Pacific; 1946 Arab states in the First Arab–Israeli the US enters the war. 1945 Churchill describes the threat of War. The Soviet blockade of Berlin • At the Yalta Conference, communism as an “iron curtain” is the first crisis of the Cold War. 1942 British prime minister Winston falling across Europe; communist Burma and Ceylon become • Berlin’s Wannsee Conference briefs Churchill, US president Franklin D. governments are set up in Bulgaria independent. Korea is partitioned. senior officials on the systematic Roosevelt, and Soviet premier Josef and Albania (1946), Poland and The UN adopts the Universal deportation and extermination of Stalin meet to discuss Europe’s Romania (1947), Czechoslovakia Declaration of Human Rights. Jews across Europe; six million Jews postwar reorganization. (1948), and Hungary (1949). Civil are killed by 1945, two-thirds of • The Red Army reaches Berlin, war resumes between China’s 1949 Europe’s Jewish population. Hitler commits suicide, and communists and nationalists. East and West Germany are set up, • At the decisive Battle of Midway in Germany surrenders on May 8, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos rebel the former as part of the Communist the Pacific, the US navy repulses ending the war in Europe. against French rule, triggering the Bloc. The North Atlantic Treaty Japanese aircraft carriers. • The Potsdam Conference divides First Indochina War (1946–1954). Organization (NATO) is formed as • In the Battle of Stalingrad (to 1943), Germany, Austria, Berlin, and an alliance for mutual defense. Eire German troops enter the city, only to Vienna into four occupation zones 1947 becomes the Republic of Ireland. be encircled by Soviet troops; few and assigns parts of Poland, Finland, Pakistan and India become The Soviet Union tests its first atomic survive their subsequent captivity. Romania, Germany, and the independent: their partition triggers bomb. Indonesia gains independence This is the biggest defeat in the Balkans to Soviet control. widespread violence. The US after a four-year war against the history of the German army, and • The US drops the world’s first sponsors the European Recovery Dutch. China’s civil war ends in marks the turning point of the war. atomic bombs on the Japanese cities Plan, or Marshall Plan, to boost victory for the Communists; Mao • In North Africa, German troops of Hiroshima on August 6 and postwar Europe’s shattered declares the People’s Republic of under Erwin Rommel reach the Nagasaki on August 9. economies. The UN agrees to the China; Chiang Kai-shek and his borders of Egypt; they are defeated • Emperor Hirohito announces partition of Palestine into separate Nationalist troops flee to Taiwan. at El Alamein and pushed back Japan’s surrender on toward Tunisia. August 15, ending the war in the Pacific. World 1943 War II is the deadliest • The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in conflict of all time: more Poland is defeated. than 60 million civilians • At Kursk, the largest tank battle in and military personnel history ends in a decisive victory for are killed. the Soviets, leading to significant • The Nuremberg trials advances by the Red Army. of leading Nazi war • US and British troops land in criminals begin. Sicily; Mussolini is removed from power and Italy surrenders. 1945 1944 As World War II draws • Leningrad’s 900-day siege is lifted. to a close, Ho Chi Minh, • Polish troops take Monte Cassino, leader of the Viet Minh breaking through the German nationalist coalition, defensive line in Italy; Rome falls declares Vietnam an to the Allies. independent republic. • The Normandy landings on D-Day ( June 6), launch the Allied invasion ▶ A D-Day landing craft of occupied France. approaches Omaha Beach, • Hitler survives an assassination Normandy, on June 6, 1944 attempt by officers and high officials. to begin the liberation of • Supported by French resistance Occupied France. Around fighters, General Charles de Gaulle’s 130,00 Allied troops were Free French forces liberate Paris. landed at Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword as part of Operation Overlord. MODERN WORLD 417

1950 1955 death. General de Gaulle forms the Washington. President Kennedy Senator Joseph McCarthy instigates The Warsaw Pact unites the Eastern Fifth Republic in France and is is assassinated. The Federation of a witch-hunt for alleged communists Bloc in a military alliance to counter elected president. The North Malaya becomes Malaysia (including in the US (to 1954). North Korea NATO in the West. A coup ousts American Space Agency (NASA) is Singapore, Sarawak, and Sabah). invades South Korea: the Korean President Juan Perón in Argentina. founded. Boeing 707, the first Kenya gains full independence. War (to 1953) is the first major armed In the US, Rosa Parks electrifies the long-haul commercial jet airliner, confrontation of the Cold War, with Civil Rights movement when she begins flights across the Atlantic. 1964 US and UN troops supporting the breaks Alabama’s race laws by The UN sends troops to Cyprus, South while the Soviet Union and refusing to give up her seat on a bus 1959 where violence between Greek and China back the North. China for a white man. South Vietnam In the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Turkish Cypriots escalates. In the occupies Tibet. rejects reunification with communist Castro becomes the first communist US, the Civil Rights Act creates North Vietnam and is declared a head of state in the Americas. A equal rights for all, regardless of race, 1952 republic; the US declares its support Tibetan uprising is crushed by religion, or color. Nelson Mandela, East Germany closes its border with against Viet Minh sympathizers, China; the Dalai Lama and 80,000 a prominent figure in the anti- West Germany. A military coup or “Viet Cong” (Vietnamese Tibetans flee to India. Guerrillas apartheid struggle, is sentenced to takes power in Egypt. The Mau Mau Communists), in the South; the from North Vietnam invade South life imprisonment in South Africa. Rebellion (to 1960) opposes British Vietnam War lasts until 1974. Vietnam; two US soldiers are killed. rule in Kenya. The US tests the first Alaska and Hawaii become the 49th 1965 hydrogen bomb. 1956 and 50th states of the US. The US launches a massive bombing Hungary’s uprising is crushed by a campaign against North Vietnam 1953 Soviet invasion. Egypt’s President 1960 and lands troops for the first ground Stalin dies. A coup driven by the US Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, The decolonization of Africa offensive in South Vietnam. The and UK ejects Iran’s prime minister prompting the Suez Crisis; an sees 12 French colonies gain Indo-Pakistan War over Kashmir to strengthen the shah and privatize Anglo–French invasion of the canal independence, as well as Congo (from ends with a UN ceasefire. the oil industry. The double helix zone fails. Morocco and Tunisia gain Belgium), and Nigeria and Somalia structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic independence from France, and (from Britain). The Organization of 1966 acid) is discovered by Francis Crick Sudan from Britain. the Petroleum Exporting Countries Mao launches the Cultural and James Watson. Edmund Hillary (OPEC) is founded. John F. Kennedy Revolution to rid China of “impure and Tenzing Norgay scale Mount 1957 is elected US president. elements”; by 1976, 1.5 million people Everest, the highest point on Earth. The Treaty of Rome establishes the are killed and much of China’s European Economic Community 1961 cultural heritage is destroyed. 1954 (EEC), with six members. Malaya Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin is French rule in Indochina ends: Laos, becomes independent. The Space the first man sent into space. A 1967 Cambodia, and partitioned Vietnam Age begins with the Soviet launch military coup is staged in South Army officers seize power in Greece become independent. USS Nautilus is of the Sputnik 1 satellite. President Korea. South Africa leaves the and impose martial law. In the the first nuclear-powered submarine. Suharto of Indonesia imposes British Commonwealth and becomes Six-Day (or Arab-Israeli) War, Israel martial law, nationalizes Dutch a republic. The Bay of Pigs invasion takes Sinai, Gaza Strip, West Bank, businesses, and expels all Dutch by anti-communist Cuban exiles Golan Heights, and Jerusalem. backed by the US is repulsed. East Nigeria plunges into civil war (to nationals. Ghana German troops build the Berlin 1970) after the secession of Biafra. becomes the first British Wall, closing the border between colony in Africa to gain East and West Berlin. 1968 its independence. The Viet Cong’s Tet Offensive 1962 convinces many Americans that 1958 France concedes independence to the Vietnam War is unwinnable. Mao launches China’s Algeria, as does Britain to Uganda, The assassination of Martin Luther “Great Leap Forward”; Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. King Jr. sparks race riots across the forced industrialization The first communication satellite US. Czechoslovakia’s Prague Spring plunges China into one relays live transatlantic television is crushed by Warsaw Pact troops. of history’s worst pictures. The Cuban Missile Crisis The Ba’ath party seizes power in famines; at least brings the US and the Soviet Union Iraq. NASA’s Apollo 8 mission is the 35 million are worked, to the brink of nuclear war. first manned flight to orbit the moon. starved, or beaten to ◀ Astronaut Buzz Aldrin 1963 1969 walks on the Moon during NASA’s Apollo 11 mission The US–Soviet Test Ban Treaty ends Yasser Arafat becomes leader of the of 1969, photographed nuclear testing in the atmosphere. Palestine Liberation Organization by his fellow astronaut In the US, Martin Luther King Jr. (PLO). Mu’ammar al-Gaddafi Neil Armstrong. addresses 250,000 civil rights deposes King Idris to form the protestors at the March on Libyan Arab Republic. Britain sends 418 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

troops to Northern Ireland when 1974 ◀ In the Vietnam War US refugees. Poland’s government bans sectarian violence escalates; the A bloodless coup restores democracy Army Special Forces relied Solidarity and imposes martial law. Troubles continue until 1998. to Portugal. Turkey invades northern on helicopters as never The first moon landing is made Cyprus; Greek Cypriots flee to the before to carry troops deep 1983 by Apollo 11’s astronauts Neil south. Ethiopia’s emperor Haile into enemy territory. Civil war breaks out in Sri Lanka; Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. Selassie is ousted in a coup. In the government forces defeat the militant US, President Richard Nixon resigns Egypt–Israel Treaty Tamil Tigers in 2009. Sudan sparks 1970 over the Watergate bugging scandal. in 1979. A communist civil war by imposing Islamic Sharia The Nuclear Non-Proliferation coup takes power in (law) on the non-Muslim south; the Treaty comes into effect, ratified by 1975 Afghanistan. Vietnam war ends in 2005, and South Sudan the US, the Soviet Union, Britain, The Vietnam War ends with the fall invades Cambodia in becomes independent. In Lebanon, and 40 other countries. Salvador of Saigon, renamed Ho Chi Minh response to border raids terrorists bomb the US embassy in Allende’s Marxist coalition wins City; North and South Vietnam are by the Khmer Rouge; Beirut, and later the French and the elections in Chile. reunified in 1976. Civil war erupts in peace terms are finally US peacekeeping headquarters. Lebanon (to 1990). Pol Pot’s Khmer settled in 1991. The Soviets shoot down a Korean 1971 Rouge seize power in Cambodia and airliner. The US invades Grenada Brutal dictator Idi Amin seizes power kill more than one million people by 1979 in the wake of a Marxist coup. in Uganda (to 1979). Bangladesh 1979. Indonesia invades the former Khmer Rouge is overthrown in becomes independent from Pakistan, Portuguese colony of East Timor. Cambodia; Pol Pot flees across the 1983–1985 and Qatar from Britain. The People’s General Franco dies; democracy Thai border and begins a guerrilla Ethiopia suffers famine: in one of Republic of China joins the UN. and monarchy are restored in Spain. war. Idi Amin is driven out of the 20th century's deadliest disasters, Microsoft is founded by Bill Gates Uganda. Left-wing Sandinistas more than 400,000 people die, 1972 and Paul Allen. overthrow the US-backed regime millions are left destitute, and a On Bloody Sunday, British troops in Nicaragua. The Shah of Iran is long-running civil war hampers open fire on demonstrators in 1976 ousted: Ayatollah Khomeini returns international relief efforts. Londonderry, Northern Ireland. Mao dies and the Gang of Four from exile and the Islamic republic Black September terrorists kill Israeli stage a coup. Syrian peacekeeping of Iran is proclaimed; 63 hostages are 1984 hostages at the Munich Olympics. troops enter Lebanon. During seized from Tehran’s US embassy. India’s prime minister Indira Gandhi anti-apartheid protests in Soweto, Soviet troops invade Afghanistan to is assassinated by Sikh extremists 1973 South Africa, 176 people are killed suppress an Islamist revolt (to 1989). after troops storm the Golden Under a ceasefire in Vietnam, US in clashes with the police. Temple at Amritsar. A poison gas troops are withdrawn. The IRA 1980 leak at a US-owned pesticide plant extends its bombing campaign to 1977 Black nationalists led by Robert at Bhopal, India, is one of the worst mainland Britain. Chilean president Steven Biko, a prominent black rights Mugabe end white-minority rule in industrial accidents in history. Salvador Allende is killed during leader in South Africa, is tortured Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe. Saddam Scientists identify the HIV virus General Augusto Pinochet’s US- to death in prison. A military coup Hussein launches Iraq’s invasion of responsible for AIDS (Acquired backed military coup. Israel repulses overthrows Pakistan’s government. Iran (to 1988); the war results in Immune Deficiency Syndrome). Arab attacks led by Egypt and Syria more than 1 million casualties. The in the Yom Kippur War; OPEC’s oil 1978 anti-communist union Solidarity is 1985 embargo leads to oil shortages and a Israeli troops enter Lebanon; Israel formed in Poland—the first political Mikhail Gorbachev becomes Soviet global recession. Denmark, Ireland, and Egypt sign the Camp David mass movement in the Soviet bloc. leader and launches radical policies and the UK join the EEC. Accords in the US, leading to the of glasnost (openness) and perestroika 1981 (restructuring). British scientists Greece joins the EEC. President discover a hole in the ozone layer Anwar Sadat of Egypt is assassinated; over Antarctica. Pope John Paul II and US president Ronald Reagan survive assassination 1986 attempts. Iran releases 52 US Ferdinand Marcos, dictator of the embassy hostages after 444 days. Philippines, is toppled. The US King Juan Carlos of Spain survives bombs Tripoli after US soldiers die a military coup. in a Berlin terrorist attack thought to have been ordered by Libya. An 1982 explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear In the Falklands War, Argentina’s power plant in Ukraine releases high invasion of the British Falkland levels of radioactive contamination Islands is defeated. Israel invades that spreads from the Soviet Union Lebanon to expel the PLO but fails to Western Europe. Portugal and to prevent a Phalangist massacre of Spain join the EEC, which legislates to create a single market for trade. MODERN WORLD 419

1987 Walesa becomes Poland’s first 1993 to China. The Asian financial crisis The INF (Intermediate-range post-communist president. Czechoslovakia splits into the Czech leads to an economic slump in many Nuclear Forces) Treaty reduces the Republic and Slovakia. Israel and developing countries. Under the superpowers’ nuclear arsenals. In the 1991 the PLO sign the Oslo Accords, Kyoto Protocol, industrialized First Intifada (to 1993), Palestinians A UN coalition expels Iraqi forces settling mutual recognition and nations agree to cut CO2 and other fight against Israeli occupation of from Kuwait, ending the First Gulf limited Palestinian autonomy under greenhouse gas emissions to combat the West Bank and Gaza. War. The Paris Peace Accords end the Palestinian Authority. Cambodia global warming. the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. restores democracy: Prince Sihanouk 1988 The Baltic republics of Estonia, is elected head of state. 1998 PanAm flight 103 explodes over Latvia, and Lithuania assert their The Good Friday agreement ends Lockerbie, Scotland, killing 270 independence from the Soviet Union. 1994 the Troubles in Northern Ireland. people; in 2003, Libya accepts Boris Yeltsin becomes the first Civil war leads to genocide in India and Pakistan test nuclear responsibility for the bombing. popularly elected president of Russia. Rwanda: Hutu extremists massacre weapons. Serbs and ethnic Albanians After a failed military coup, the 800,000 Tutsis; two million Hutus flee, clash in Kosovo. Indonesia is hardest 1989 Soviet Union suspends all communist fearing retribution. The ANC wins hit by the Asian financial crisis; At Tiananmen Square in Beijing, activities and dissolves into 15 South Africa’s first democratic President Suharto resigns. Oil drops China, troops and tanks fire on countries; Russia, Ukraine, and elections; Nelson Mandela becomes to $11 per barrel, contributing to mostly student protestors calling for Belarus form the Commonwealth of the country’s first black president. Russia’s financial crisis. The US economic and political reform. The Independent States (CIS). Yugoslavia Russian troops enter the Muslim- and Britain bomb Iraq after it ceases Iron Curtain collapses: Solidarity disintegrates: Slovenia and Croatia dominated rebel region of Chechnya to cooperate with UN inspectors is legalized and is elected to power, declare their independence; Slovenia to keep it from breaking away. The US seeking to find and eliminate Iraqi ending communist rule in Poland; repels the Serb-dominated Yugoslav invades Haiti to restore democracy. weapons of mass destruction. communist regimes fall in Hungary, People’s Army in the Ten-Day War; Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Romania, fighting in Croatia ends in 1995. 1995 1999 and East Germany; the Berlin Wall A bomb planted in Oklahoma City Serbian ethnic cleansing of Kosovan is breached and the US and Soviet 1992 by a Gulf War veteran kills 168 Albanians is halted by NATO Union declare the Cold War is over. The Maastricht Treaty on the people. Israeli prime minister bombing. East Timor votes to secede European Union (EU) is signed Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated. The from Indonesia; anti-independence 1990 by 12 states, heralding common Dayton Peace Accord ends the civil rebels supported by the Indonesian South African president F.W. de citizenship and common economic war in former Yugoslavia. Austria, military attack civilians; the Klerk lifts the ban on the African and defense policies. When Bosnia Finland, and Sweden join the EU. government calls for international National Congress (ANC) and frees and Herzegovina seek independence help. A military coup in Pakistan Nelson Mandela. Iraq invades from Yugoslavia, civil war erupts; 1996 incurs international sanctions. Kuwait: UN coalition forces are Serbia attacks Bosnia’s Muslim Civil war erupts in Afghanistan: Russia restarts the Chechen war. sent to the Persian Gulf. Germany population, building prison camps as Taliban rebels capture Kabul and is reunited. Solidarity leader Lech part of its “ethnic cleansing” policy. declare Afghanistan a fundamentalist 2000 Israel ends its 22-year occupation Islamic state. Russia and of South Lebanon. In the Second Chechnya sign a Intifada, intense Israeli-Palestinian ceasefire. Yeltsin wins violence kills more than 3,000 Russian presidential people. The first draft of the elections, only narrowly human genome is completed. defeating communist opposition to his 2001 privatization policy. Four al-Qaeda terror attacks on September 11 kill 2,996 people in the 1997 US. The US and UK attack targets in Afghanistan thought to be hiding Tutsi rebels attack Hutu al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden; refugee camps in Zaire; the war in Afghanistan ends in 2014. Zaire’s government collapses, and thousands 2002 flee to Tanzania. Britain A single European currency, the hands Hong Kong back Euro, is introduced. US-led forces begin a large-scale operation against ◀ Ecstatic crowds from East the Taliban in Afghanistan. Civil and West Berlin celebrate war in Sierra Leone and Angola the dismantling of the Berlin ends. East Timor wins independence Wall in November 1989— from Portugal. Islamist terrorists a potent symbol of the collapse of communism. 420 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

bomb a Bali nightclub, killing more Georgia clash over South ▲ New York City's World Trade Center is struck by the first of two airliners than 200 people. Chechen militants Ossetia’s bid for independence. hijacked by al Qaeda terrorists on September 11, 2001. A third plane flew into the besiege a Moscow theater; 118 people In the US, the Lehman Brothers Pentagon in Washington D.C., and the fourth crashed into a field near Pittsburgh.. die. UN weapons inspectors return investment bank collapses; banks to Iraq; Iraq denies that it has worldwide face insolvency and 2013 Haram kidnaps 276 schoolgirls in weapons of mass destruction; US stop lending, leading to a global France sends military forces to Mali Nigeria. Civil war resumes in Libya troops are ordered to the Gulf. recession. Barack Obama is the to intervene against Islamist forces. between the democratically elected first African-American to be Croatia joins the EU. Syria’s government in Tobruk and rival 2003 elected US president. government denies responsibility for Islamist factions in Tripoli and Civil war erupts in Darfur, Sudan. a chemical attack on Ghouta, and Benghazi. The terrorist group Serbia and Montenegro emerge 2009 pledges to hand over its chemical Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Yugoslavia ceases to exist. In the Israeli troops invade Gaza to halt weapons for destruction. A military (ISIL, or ISIS) seizes territory in Iraq War (to 2011) a US-led coalition rocket attacks by Hamas. coup ousts Egypt’s President Morsi, northern Iraq and Syria; US and invades Iraq and topples Saddam leading to widespread violence. Arab air attacks target ISIS. Hussein’s government; occupying 2010 Al-Shabaab Islamist militants attack forces struggle to contain looting, An earthquake devastates Haiti, a shopping mall in Nairobi, Kenya. 2015 insurgency, and sectarian violence where c.230,000 people die. The Ethnic tensions fuel civil war in Egypt begins airstrikes on ISIS in between Sunni and Shia militias. global recession continues: the South Sudan. Libya. A Saudi-led Arab coalition International Monetary Fund attacks Iranian-backed Houthi rebels 2004 (IMF) offers major loans to 2014 in Yemen. Al Shabaab carries out a Islamic terrorists bomb Madrid: 191 Greece and Ireland, imposing An outbreak of the Ebola virus in mass shooting at Garissa University die. Ten countries join the EU, most austerity measures to tackle West Africa kills 11,000 people by in Kenya. Iran agrees to limit its of them former communist states. government debt. Burma’s 2016. Civil war erupts in Ukraine: nuclear development program in The most destructive tsunami in military regime release pro- the pro-Russian president is ousted; exchange for sanctions relief. Russia history kills more than 200,000 democracy leader Aung San Russia annexes Crimea and invades begins airstrikes in support of the people in 11 countries across the Suu Kyi, ending 20 years spent eastern Ukraine; Malaysia Airlines Syrian government; one of its fighter Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. under house arrest. Flight 17 is shot down over Ukraine, jets is shot down by Turkey. ISIS killing all 298 people on board. Israel destroys ancient sites in Syria and 2005 2011 launches airstrikes on Gaza, followed carries out multiple attacks in Beirut Israel withdraws from Gaza; Syria In the Arab Spring—inspired by a by a ground offensive, after three and Paris. The US and Cuba resume withdraws from Lebanon. Islamist Tunisian who burned himself to Israeli teenagers and one Palestinian diplomatic relations severed in 1961. suicide bombings in London kill death in 2010 in protest at his are kidnapped and killed. The A global pact commits all countries 52 people. Hurricane Katrina hits treatment by police—pro-democracy Islamic extremist group Boko to reduce carbon emissions. New Orleans in the US. rebellions erupt across North Africa and the Middle East. Mass protests 2006 in Egypt lead President Mubarak to Hamas wins parliamentary elections hand power to the army; in Libya, in Palestine. Iran announces it has rebels topple Gaddafi’s regime but produced enriched uranium to make civil war continues as rival factions nuclear fuel. In the Lebanon War, vie for control; Syria’s civil war Israel launches strikes on Lebanon begins with a violent crackdown on after Hezbollah captures two Israeli civilian dissenters. South Sudan soldiers. North Korea holds its first becomes independent of Sudan but nuclear test. Montenegro votes to faces attacks by rebel militias; civil split from Serbia. war breaks out in 2013. US forces kill Osama bin Laden in Pakistan. The 2007 War in Iraq is formally ended. Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. Devolved government returns to 2012 Northern Ireland. Sectarian conflict Egypt’s presidential elections are won between Sunni and Shia militias by Mohammed Morsi of the Muslim escalates in occupied Iraq. The US Brotherhood. The secular National housing bubble bursts, triggering Forces Alliance wins Libya’s elections the financial crisis of 2007–2008. to form a new national congress. School girl Malala Yousafzai is shot 2008 by the Taliban in Pakistan but Kosovo declares independence from survives. Civil war breaks out in the Serbia. Nepal abolishes its monarchy Central African Republic. NASA’s and becomes a republic. Russia and Curiosity Rover lands on Mars. MODERN WORLD 421

MILESTONES ● c.1590 Dutch spectacle-maker Zacharias ● 1691 The microscopic structure of IN MEDICINE Janssen combines two lenses to create the bones is described by the English first compound optical microscope. physician Clopton Havers. Prehistoric fossils and mummies from the ancient world show evidence of early dentistry and surgery, and throughout history, ● 1628 English physician William Harvey ● 1695 Dutch microscopist Antoni van physicians and scientists have continued to work to understand the human body, heal injury, and combat illness. Today, while describes how blood is pumped around the Leeuwenhoek describes human blood many of the world’s most dangerous diseases have been conquered, newly evolving ones continue to challenge us. body in a circuit, in On the Movement of cells and sperm cells. the Heart and Blood in Animals. ● 1714 The mercury thermometer is ● c.1630 Obstetrical forceps are invented invented by German physicist Gabriel in England by a family of surgeons to the Fahrenheit; in 1724 he develops the crown, for use in difficult childbirths. temperature scale named after him. ● 1661 Italian physician Marcello Malpighi ● 1735 Claudius Aymand performs a ● c.2700–2650 BCE The earliest describes the plague that killed as many as publishes his work on the lungs, describing successful appendectomy in London. known physicians are in Egypt: Merit five million people in 165–180 CE. Galen’s capillaries and how these tiny blood vessels Ptah—the first named woman in texts on anatomy and medicine dominate link arteries and veins. ● 1796 “Father of immunology” British science—and Imhotep, who is made Western medicine for the next 1,300 years. physician Edward Jenner carries out the a deity of medicine after his death. ● 1665 English physicist Robert Hooke coins first inoculation against smallpox. ● c.1012 Persian polymath Ibn Sina the term “cell” to describe the smallest units ● c.1600 BCE The Edwin Smith Papyrus (Avicenna) publishes his Canon of of life, which he observes through his ● 1800 Nitrous oxide (an anaesthetic is the first medical treatise to present Medicine, which is used as a medical compound microscope. known as “laughing gas”) is first used by a rational, scientific approach to textbook in the Islamic world and Europe British chemist Humphry Davy. French medicine without magic. Some until the 18th century. ● 1672 Dutch physician Regnier de Graaf anatomist Marie-Francois-Xavier Bichat scholars attribute the text to Imhotep. describes the human reproductive organs. reveals that organs are made of groups ● c.1077 The first medical school in modern of cells called tissues, and identifies ● c.500 BCE In ancient Greece, times is flourishing in Salerno, Italy, and ● 1677 Cinchona (quinine) bark from the 21 different types of tissue. physician Alcmaeon of Croton attracts practitioners from Greek, Jewish, Andean rain forests is listed as a fever asserts that the brain, not the heart, and Arabic medicine across Europe, North treatment in the London Pharmacopoeia. ● 1816 The first stethoscope, invented is the seat of thought and emotions. Africa, and Asia Minor. by French doctor René Laënnec, is a long wooden tube with a single earpiece ● c.420 BCE Greek physician ● 1123 Europe’s oldest for listening to the heart. Hippocrates of Cos stresses the hospital, St. Bartholomew’s, importance of observation and is founded in London, UK. ● 1818 British obstetrician James diagnosis; his theory of the four Blundell performs the first successful humors survives until the 19th ● 1280 Syrian doctor Ibn al-Nafis transfusion of human blood to a patient. century. Physicians still take the links the pulse to the heartbeat and Hippocratic Oath to do their best shows that blood circulates around ● 1831 Chloroform is discovered in the to treat patients, protect them from the body. US, France, and Germany; Scottish harm, and share their medical obstetrician James Young Simpson first knowledge with others. ● c.1285 Eyeglasses (early uses it as a medical anaesthetic in 1847. spectacles) are in use in Italy. ● c.280 BCE Herophilus of Alexandria, ● 1840 British philanthropist and social “father of anatomy,” performs public ● 1543 Flemish doctor reformer Elizabeth Fry founds the dissections on human cadavers and Andreas Vesalius publishes Institute of Nursing in London. describes the brain and the nervous De Humani Corporis Fabrica system. Diocles of Carystus writes (On the Structure of the Human Body); his ● 1841 American surgeon Dr. Crawford the first known work on anatomy. extensive study of dissections establishes W. Long performs the first operation the modern science of anatomy. using diethyl ether as an anaesthetic. ● c.40 CE Roman philosopher Cornelius Celsus publishes On ● 1552 The first anatomical theater is ● 1847 In Vienna, Ignaz Semmelweis Medicine, which covers diet, diseases established in Padua, Italy. introduces the regime of handwashing (including heart disease), surgery, and sterilization of surgical instruments. and pharmacology. ▶ The muscles of the human body are ● 1851 The ophthalmoscope is invented illustrated in profile in this woodcut by German physicist Hermann von ● c.200 CE Galen of Pergamon, engraving from Andreas Vesalius’s seven- Helmholtz for looking inside the eye. physician to the Roman emperor, volume De Humani Corporis Fabrica, 1543. 422 TIMELINES OF WORLD HISTORY

● 1901 The first three major blood groups ● 1948 The World Health Organization ● 1981 AIDS (Acquired immune are described by Karl Landsteiner, an (WHO) is set up in Geneva, Switzerland. deficiency syndrome) is first identified Austrian-American doctor, paving the way The amniocentesis test is developed for in the US. Doctors perform minimally for more successful blood transfusions. fetal abnormalities and infections. invasive “keyhole” surgery, making small incisions and using a fiber optic ● 1905 The term “hormone” is coined by ● 1952 The first open-heart surgery repairs a laparascope to see inside the body. British scientist Ernest Starling to describe a hole in the heart of a five-year-old girl, chemical mechanisms that maintain a stable using a technique to cool the heart ● 1982 The first artificial heart, invented state inside the body. developed by Canadian William Bigelow. by American scientist Robert Jarvik, is transplanted into a patient. ● 1906 German doctor Paul Ehrlich coins ● 1953 The double-helix structure of DNA the term “chemotherapy” in predicting the is discovered by British physicist Francis ● 1984 French scientist Luc Montagnier use of chemical compounds as “magic Crick and American biologist James D. discovers the human immunodeficiency bullets” to kill disease-causing organisms. Watson in Britain, incorporating work by virus (HIV) that destroys immune ▲ This microscope belonged to English ● 1919 The term “homeostasis” is first used Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin. system cells, resulting in AIDS. scientist Robert Hooke, author of the ● 1954 The first successful kidney ● 1986 The first heart, lungs, and liver by American psychologist Walter Cannon Royal Society’s Micrographia (1665). to describe the steady state achieved by the transplant between living patients is transplant is performed in Britain. body through a number of cooperating performed in the US by surgeon Joseph E. ● 1854 British doctor and one of the mechanisms, such as hormones. Murray on identical twins. The electronic ● 2000 American philanthropists Bill founders of epidemiology John Snow clinical thermometer is invented. and Melinda Gates launch the world’s traces the link between cholera and ● 1922 Injections of insulin, the hormone largest private foundation to enhance contaminated water from a pump on that regulates blood sugar levels, are given ● 1955 The first effective polio vaccine, healthcare and reduce extreme poverty. Broad Street, London. to treat a diabetic patient. developed by Joseph Salk, is used in a mass vaccination program in the US. ● 2001 Scientists perform the first ● 1861 French chemist and “father of ● 1928 Scottish biologist and germline gene transfer in animals, with microbiology” Louis Pasteur publishes pharmacologist Alexander Fleming ● 1956 The first plastic disposable syringe is the aim of preventing faulty genes being his germ theory, proving that airborne discovers penicillin, the first antibiotic. patented by New Zealand pharmacist passed on to the next generation. microbes cause decay and disease. Colin Murdoch. ● 1931 German physicist Ernst Ruska and ● 2002 Surgeons in the US view digital ● 1865 British surgeon Joseph Lister electrical engineer Max Knoll invent the ● 1958 American doctor Edward Hon and X-rays transmitted by satellite to guide pioneers modern antiseptics by using scanning electron microscope, which British doctor Ian Donald use ultrasound a knee operation at the South Pole. carbolic acid during surgery. achieves far greater magnification than scanning to check the health of a fetus. optical microscopes. ● 2003 Scientists publish the results of ● 1866 A portable glass thermometer ● 1961 American scientist Marshall the Human Genome Project launched is developed by British physician ● 1932 American cardiologist Albert Hyman Nirenberg cracks the genetic code of in 1990, identifying the DNA sequence Thomas Allbutt. demonstrates an artificial pacemaker. DNA. US surgeons successfully reattach of a full set of human chromosomes. the severed arm of a construction worker. ● 1869 Swiss surgeon Jacques Louis ● 1938 The vaccine for Yellow Fever, ● 2006 A urinary bladder, grown in the Reverdin performs a skin graft. developed by South African virologist Max ● 1967 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) laboratory from a patient’s own cells, is Theiler in the US, is first used in Brazil. is first used to see soft tissues inside the successfully transplanted into the ● 1880 The malaria parasite is body. South African heart surgeon patient to replace a damaged organ. identified by French doctor Charles ● 1940s British surgeon Archibald McIndoe Christiaan Barnard performs the first Louis Alphonse Laveran. pioneers plastic surgery to rebuild the faces heart transplant. ● 2007 Previously thought to have no of pilots burned during World War II. purpose, the appendix is shown to hold ● 1881 The sphygmomanometer is ● 1972 Computed tomography (CT) a back-up reservoir of bacteria essential invented by Austrian physician ● 1940 US army surgeon Austin Moore scanning is used on a patient in London to to the workings of the large intestine. Samuel Ritter von Basch to measure performs the first metallic hip replacement. produce images of human body organs. blood pressure. ● 2013 The US creates the first kidney ● 1942 German neurologist Karl Dussik ● 1978 Louise Brown, the first “test-tube grown in vitro, and Japan creates the ● 1882 German physician Robert describes the medical use of ultrasound as baby,” is born, following conception by first human liver grown from stem cells. Koch discovers the bacterium that a diagnostic tool; Ian Donald develops the in vitro fertilization (IVF). causes tuberculosis. first ultrasound scanners in the 1960s. ● 2015 A bionic hand reconstruction ● 1980 Smallpox becomes the first replaces a hand disabled by injury with ● 1895 German physicist Wilhelm ● 1943 The first kidney dialysis machine is infectious disease to be eradicated, a prosthetic that the patient controls Röntgen realizes that electromagnetic developed by Dutch physician Willem following a major effort by the World with signals from the brain. Surgeons radiation can create X-rays. Johan Kolff. Health Organization. perform a full facial transplant. MILESTONES IN MEDICINE 423

INDEX Ambulocetus 170, 171 armor 284 American Indians 297, 299 art 374–375 Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations and American Indian groups 380 photographs, those in bold indicate the main American War of Independence 318, 320 prehistoric 204–205, 212–213 information for the topic. Americas, the (world zone) see also cave art arthritis 282, 283 A colonization of 329 arthropods 127, 128, 140, 142–143 development of writing 266–267 articulated bones 192 aardvarks 168 early farming in 234, 242, 248 Asia Aborigines, Australian 212, 329 early human dispersal in 195 colonization of 329 acacia trees 168 exploration of 297, 298 development of writing 266 accretion, of planets 71, 78 globalization in 299, 336 early farming in 243 acetate 106 Mesoamerica 234, 244, 294 early human dispersal into 195 Acheulian technology 211 “New World” 296–297, 298, 298 prehistoric map of 363 acid rain 346 prehistoric map of 362 trade routes through 294–295 acidity, of ocean’s surface 353 religion in 274 Askari soldiers 327 advertising 317, 345 amino acids 59, 102 aspirin 334 adzes 232, 284 ammonia 102 Assyrian Empire 368, 378 aerobic respiration 116 amniotes 132–133, 147, 147 asteroids Aetiocetus 171 amoebas 114, 115, 122 asteroid belt 74, 75 “affluent foragers” 230, 231 amphibians 141, 141, 153 meteorites 72–73, 86 Africa evolution of eggs 147 strikes 78–79, 80, 103, 154 extinction of 162–163 Astraspis 132 colonization of 327, 328–329 anatomy, of prehistoric man 190, 199 astronomical clocks 20–21 continental drift 90, 158, 159 Ancient Library of Alexandria 264, 266 Atlantic Ocean 94 development of writing 266 ancient world map 368–369 atlatls 204, 204 early human species in 182, 194–195, 199 Andromeda Galaxy 30 atmosphere, planetary 71, 74 education in 332, 333 anaesthetic 334 on Earth 80, 81, 102, 102 farming in 235, 242–243 angiosperms 160 atomic bombs 348, 349 habitats of 168 Anglo-Saxons 277 atomic mass 63 metallurgy in 280 Antarctica 158, 174, 176 atoms 22, 28–29, 34, 102 modern day 343, 345 Anthropocene Era 350 inside stars 44, 58 prehistoric map of 362–363 antibiotics 112, 335 radiometric dating 88 “scramble for” 327 antimatter 29, 39 Australasia (world zone) 235, 336 see also slave labor antiparticles 34 Australia 158, 195, 220, 299 Afro-Eurasia (world zone) 235, 294, 336 apes 183, 186–187 Aborigines 212, 329 “Old World” 296, 297, 298 Apple Inc. 341 prehistoric map of 363 afterlife 275, 277 Aptian extinction event 163 Australopithecus 184, 184, 186, 189, 206 Age of Discovery 336, 402–403 Arab Spring uprisings (2011) 342, 421 automobiles 313, 338, 339 Age of Enlightenment 304, 319, 332 Arabic records 264 aviation industries 339 Age of Exploration 275, 296–297, 396–397 Araucaria araucana 145 Axial Age 274 Age of Fish 132 archaea 112, 113, 114 axis, Earths 174 Age of Reptiles 154 archaeological techniques 192, 197, 238 ayaté 278 aggression, in animals 240, 241 Archaeopteryx 156, 157 Aztec empire 244, 244–245, 287, 298, 391 Agrarian Era 271, 294, 314, 344 Archean era 84, 85 map of 384 ’Ain Ghazal 256 Archimedes of Syracuse 23, 269 air pollution 352 Archimedes’ screw 269 B air travel 339 architecture 383 Akkadian Empire 288, 370 archosaurs 154 babies 201, 259 Alexander the Great 288, 289, 379 Ardipithecus ramidus 186, 187 Babylon, Mesopotamia 262, 373 algae 100, 115, 115, 122, 137 ard plows 248, 249 back-boned animals see vertebrates allantois 146, 147 arid habitats 147, 152, 153, 272 bacteria 112–113, 114, 115 Allen, Horatio 313 aristocracies 317 Almagest, Ptolemy 23 Aristotle 22–23, 86, 172, 392 evolution of 118 alphabets 264–267 armadillos 167 reproduction of 120–121 amber 150–151, 293 424 INDEX

Bagha Qaghan 285 Brahe, Tycho 25 carbon emissions 348, 352, 357 Bahrām Chōbin 285 brain 126–127, 202 Carboniferous period 140, 148, 152, 158, 176 bartering 291 basket weaving 278 size in Hominins 188–189, 201 climate change in 176 bathymetry 94, 95 Brazil 357 continental shift in 158 bats 109, 142, 142, 143 breastfeeding 201 Carboniferous Rain forest Collapse 163 Bay of Fundy, Canada 82–83 breathing, during speech 202 Carey, Samuel 91 BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) 341 Bridgwater Canal 312 carnivores 154, 156, 188, 211 Beaker people 254 Britain see also diets beans, domesticated 236, 237 Carolingian script 267 Becquerel, Henri 86 coal reserves in 307 cars (automobiles) 313, 338, 339 bees 165, 240, 351 colonization by 328, 406–410 electric 357 Beg, Ulugh 23, 23, 245 cartilage 130, 132, 135 Belgian Congo 329 map 404–405 carts 246, 246 Belgium 312–313, 320, 328 education reform 332, 332 carvings belief systems 274–275 government 304, 314, 325 art 214, 218, 291, 371 industrialization in 304, 310 calendars 244–245, 367 religions 86, 263, 295 invasions of 382, 388 caves 204–205, 212, 213 Benz, Karl 338 manufacturing industry 308–309, 312–313 CAT scanners 335 Bering Strait 195, 195, 362 see also Reform Bill (1832) Catal Höyük, Turkey 256–257 Bessel, Friedrich 29 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) 341 Catholic Church 24, 25, 264 Bethe, Hans 58 British Empire 328 cattle 240 Bible 111, 264 Broca’s area (brain) 202 cave art 208, 209 212–213 Big Bang theory 34–35, 37, 38–39 bronze 217, 280–281, 291 depicting hunting scenes 188, 227 binary systems 57 Bronze Age 20–21, 280, 284, 370 storytelling through 203 biodiversity 220, 350, 351 bubonic plague 292, 293, 293 cells biomass fuels 357 Buddhism 274, 275, 295 complex cells, evolution of 100, 118-119, 120 bipedal animals 142, 156, 186, 201 Burgess Shale, Canada 101, 129 multicellular organisms 100, 122–123 birch bark tar 207, 216, 217 burial practices 207, 218–219, 221 protocells 106, 106, 107 birdman of Lascaux 202–203 see also grave goods single-cell organisms 112–113, 119 birds 133, 147 Byzantine Empire 264, 295, 382 reproduction of 120–121 evolution of wings 142–143, 156–157 C Celtic civilization 379, 387 birth control 335 centipedes 140 Bismarck, Otto von 320 Caesar, Julius 380, 381 Cepheid variables 29, 30, 30 bismuth 59 Cable News Network (CNN) 341 cetaceans 170 Black Death 292, 293 “caching” (bodies) 218 Chaco Canyon 60 black holes 47, 49, 56 calendars 18, 20–21, 244–245, 367 Chalicotherium 133 blood feuds 262 Cambrian-Ordovician extinction 162 Chandragupta Maurya 288 blood groups 335 Cambrian period Chan Muwan, King of Bonampak 260 blueshifts 29, 29 charcoal 149 blue whales 171 beginning of life in 128–129, 128 chariots 284, 287 Bohr, Niels 29 evolution of animals 130, 140, 158 Chauvet Cave, France 212, 212–213 Bolivar, Simón 319 Cambridge University 105 chemical elements 62–63, 354–355 Bolivia 299 cameras 343 Chernobyl nuclear disaster 348 bone (tools) 206, 207, 208, 214 Campbell’s monkeys 203 Chichén Itzá 387 bones 130, 192–193, 218 canals (water) 268, 269, 309, 312 chieftains 259, 261, 277 cannibalism 218 childbirth 201 hyoid bones 192, 202, 202 capitalism 322, 323, 337 child labor 306–307, 309 jaws 135 consumerism 316, 345 chillis 296 limbs, hands, and feet 141, 186–187 carbolic acid 334 chimpanzees 170, 183 wings 143, 157 carbon 89, 102, 148–149 China 253, 336 bonobos 183 within stars 56, 58–59 Book of Genesis 18 carbon dioxide (CO2) 80 astronomy in 18, 60 Boulton, Matthew 308–309 from burning of coal 149 coal reserves 307 bows 209, 284, 285 levels in atmosphere 174, 350–351, 352 conflicts in 284, 325 brachiopods 138 in photosynthesis 114 development of law 263 INDEX 425

China cont. coevolution 165 cratons 84, 85 development of writing 266, 267 coffee 328 creativity 374–375 dynasties 368 coins 291 Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction 163 education reform 332 Cold War 348 Cretaceous period 154, 156 emperors of 261, 278, 279 collagen 130 Crick, Francis 105 farming in 235, 248, 250, 269 collective learning 204–205, 288, 332 crickets (katydids) 109 industrialization 304 colonization 311, 328–329 crinoids 139 medieval period 386–391 crocodiles 163 money used in 290, 291 exploitation of, for trade 311, 322, 336 Cromford Mill 312 religion in 275 opposition to 319, 327 crops renewable energy in 357 pre-industrialization 296–297, 394–395 social status in 277, 277, 278, 278 Columbian Exchange 297 corn (maize) 234, 242, 253 trade in 298, 299, 325 Columbus, Christopher 297, 298 domestication of 236–237 Silk Road 294–295, 275 combustion engines 338, 339 grain 238–239, 250, 293 comets 72, 74, 80 chlorophyll 114 commandments 262, 263 production and harvest of 249, 344 chloroplasts 100, 118, 118 commercial air travel 339 rice 243, 253 choanoflagellates 122 communication see language Crowdfunding 343 chocolate 317 communication technology 336, 340–341, 342–343 Crusades 388, 389, 390 cholera 293, 331, 331, 334 Digital Revolution 332, 403 crust, Earth’s 80–81, 84–85, 92–93 chorion 147 communism 322 Crutzen, Paul 350 Christianity 274, 275, 297, 381 compensation 262 crystals 73, 88–89 complex cells, evolution of 100, 118-119, 120 currencies see money views on afterlife 277 multicellular organisms 122–123 cuticle 140 views on evolution 110 composite particles 34 cyanobacteria 112, 114–115, 115 churches, building of 383 Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scanners 335 cynodonts 166, 167 Cigar Galaxy 60 computers 341, 343 Cynognathus 159 cinema 375 Condition of the Working Poor, The, Engels 331 Cyrus the Great 287 citizenship 287, 315 Confucianism 263, 274, 275, 392 cytoplasm 113 city-states 269, 270–271, 252 Confuciusornis 156 clades, of species 173 constitutions 320 D classical world map 376–377 consumerism 311, 316–317, 339 classification of species 172–172 leading to waste 345 Dalton, John 28, 28 clay 216, 217, 254 continents Darby, Abraham 309 climate change formation of 84–85, 92 dark energy 38 prehistoric era 153, 158, 174–175, 187 shift of 90–91, 150, 158, 159 dark matter 38, 38, 44, 48 convergent evolution 142 Darwin, Charles 86, 110–111, 172, 173 early human dispersal, due to 195, 199, 221 convergent plate boundary 92, 93, 95 Darwin, George 86, 90 ice ages 176–177, 220, 226 cooking, discovery of 216, 217 dating techniques 72, 86–87, 192 leading to extinction 162 Copernican Revolution 23 days, within calendars 244, 367 modern era 350, 352–353, 359 Copernicus, Nicolaus 25, 397 De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Copernicus 25 clocks 244 copper 216, 280, 291 death see also calendars Copper Age 283 clothing 214–215, 282, 283 coprolites 238, 239 burial practices 207, 218–219, 221 as status symbol 278–279, 317 corals 120, 138, 139 grave goods 21, 254, 276–277 CNN (Cable News Network) 341 core samples 187 of Ötzi, mummified man 282–283 CO2 (carbon dioxide) 80 corn (maize) 234, 242, 253 see also diseases from burning of coal 149 domestication of 236, 237 Declaration of Independence (1776) 318 levels in atmosphere 174, 350–351, 352 Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil Law) 263 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, in photosynthesis 114 Cortés, Hernán 296, 397 Lafayette 318–319 coal Cosmic Dark Ages 44, 44 decomposers 112, 115 formation of 148–149 cosmic microwave background (CMB) 38, 38–39 deep-sea vents 106, 106 in industrialization 304, 310, 312, 350 cosmological principle 39 see also ocean habitats mining 306–307, 308 cotton 278, 309, 329 deforestation 221, 272, 299, 351 reserves 307, 346, 347 cowpeas 235 Deinonychus 157 coastal habitats 152, 158 Cran Nebula 60 Demetrius I, King of Macedon 262 coastal settlements 220, 226 democracy 318 Cockerill, William 313 426 INDEX

Denisovans 194, 197, 214 Dunkleosteus 134, 135, 135 elements, chemical 58–59, 62–63 Denkania 145 Dutch colonies 329 embryos 122–123, 146, 147 Denmark 357, 394–395, 404–405, Dutch East India Company 398, 399 emissions, carbon 348, 352, 357 dwarf galaxies 45 Empedocles 22 412–413 dwarf planets 75 empires 328–329 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) see DNA dwarf stars 56, 57 department stores 316, 317 dyes (textile) 214, 215, 278 populations of 252 deserts dying stars 59 rise and fall of 287, 288–298 dykes 268, 269 see also colonization creation of 152, 153, 272 endangered elements 355 irrigation of 268–269 E End-Silurian extinction event 162 deuteron 58 Engels, Friedrich 319, 331 Devonian period 135, 137, 141, 162 Earth engines diapsids 153, 154 formation of 71, 74, 75, 78–79 combustion engines 338, 339 diets origin theories 18–19, 46 steam engines 307, 308–309 of early farmers 293 movement of 23, 24–25 England 396–400 see also Britain of Mayans 255 layers 80–81, 84–85, 92–93 Enlightenment, Age of 304, 319, 332 of prehistoric man 184, 188, 189 meteorites found on 72 Entreves, Alessandro d’ 263 calculating the age of 86 enzymes 114, 114, 116 hunter-gatherer groups 211 epidermis 137 Neanderthals 190, 193 earthquakes 80, 92 Epoch of Recombination 44 differentiation 78, 79, 80, 85 earths (elements) 63 equality 318–319 Digest 263 Easter Island 272, 273, 382 women, loss of 259, 259 digestive systems 112, 115, 169 Ebola 335 Eratosthenes 264 Digges, Thomas 25 eclipses 20 Erithacus 156 digging sticks 248 economic strength erosion Digital Revolution 332 of fossils 150 Dimetrodon 147 global 322–323, 336, 337 of rock 86, 87, 88 dinosaurs 133, 154, 155 from industrialization 310, 311, 345 of soil 272 therapods 156, 157 see also money ethanol 357 diseases ecosystems 140, 145, 351 ether 112 among early human species 193, 282 see also habitats Ethiopia 198, 199, 327, 327 from food shortages 248, 253 Ediacaran period 128, 128 Euglena 118, 118–119 plague 292, 293 education 331, 332–333, 358 eukaryotes 100, 113, 118, 120 presence of bacteria 112, 112 eggs Eurasia prevention of 334, 350 evolution of 146–147 conflicts in 284 spread of 295, 299, 331 in reproduction 120, 124, 124, 145 continental shift 158 disposable income 316 Egypt farming in 235, 242–243, 250 divergent plate boundary 92, 93 in ancient world 370–373 metallurgy in 280 divine laws 263 astronomy in 18 plague 253 divine rights 274 development of writing 266, 267 trade networks in 291, 294–295 DNA 102, 104–105, 120–121 education reform 332 see also Afro-Eurasia (world zone) analysis of 173, 196–197 farming in 249, 250–251, 269, 293 Europe of simple and complex cell organisms pharaohs of 258, 261, 261 development of writing in 266 112, 118 social hierarchy 258, 278 early farming in 246, 253 see also genetics tombs of 277 imperialism in 288, 327, 328–329 Döbereiner, Johann 63 written records in 264 plague in 293 dogs 167 Ehrlich, Paul 165, 335 political and social reform 319, 320, 331, 332 domestication Einstein, Albert 28, 32, 47 metallurgy in 281 of animals 234, 240–241, 242 Elizabeth I, Queen of England 398, 398 prehistoric map of 363 secondary products 246 El Gordo galaxy 38 trade markets in 317, 325 of plants 234, 236–237 electoral reform 315, 317 world exploration by 296–297, 298 donkeys 246 electric cars 357 European Industrial Revolution 312 double helix 104, 104–105 electricity 345 European Organization for Nuclear Research draft animals 246, 248 electrons 28–29, 34, 44 dragons 279 electron-spin resonance (ESR) 192 (CERN) 37 drilling, for oil and gas 347 European Space Agency (ESA) 76–77 droughts 269 INDEX 427

evolution, of life 108–109, 128, 141 flatworms 126–127 gazelles 168 of eggs 147 fleas 293 GDP (Gross Domestic Product) 333, 345 history and theories of 110–111, 173 flightless birds 158 General Theory of Relativity 32, 38, 47, 47 of internal skeletons 130, 135 flippers 142 genetics 104–105, 111 of mammals 169, 170–171 flooding 269, 272, 293 of humans 184, 189, 201 flowering plants 101, 160, 161, 165 analysis of 196–197 of plants 140, 145, 160, 165 Flying Shuttle 312 and reproduction 120–121, 124 of winged animals 142, 156 food chains 115, 135 see also DNA see also natural selection food shortages (famine) 248, 253, 293 genus, of species 173 foragers 211, 220, 230–231 geocentrism 24–25 exoplanets 76, 77 Ford, Henry 339 geothermal energy 357 “experimental” animals 100 Ford Model T 339 germ theories 334 export trades 323 forest habitats 141, 150, 186 Germany 320, 320, 331 extinction 150, 162–163, 351 imperial power of 328 deforestation 221, 272, 299, 351 World Wars 414–417 due to continental shifts 158 fossil fuels 345, 346–347, 348, 350 germination 145, 236 due to ice ages 176 gestures (communication) 202 due to volcanic activity 154 leading to climate change 352, 357, 358 gills 130, 135 of Hominin species 190, 221 coal 149, 307 glacial periods 176–177, 365 of languages 297 fracking 347 ice ages 220, 226 France 313, 328, 348 glaciers 152, 176, 352 F colonies of 396–400, 406–410 glass 217 gliding birds 156 fabrics see textiles maps 394–395, 404–405, 412–413 global economies 322–323, 336, 337 Facebook 341 medieval period 388, 390, 390 global exchange networks 297 factory production 308–309, 310, 312, 345 revolution 314, 318, 320 globalization 333, 336–337 world wars 414–417 communication 342–343 assembly lines 339 fraternity 318 of industry 312–313 worker conditions 330, 331 free trade 317, 323, 325 populations during 252 famine 248, 253, 293 freedoms 318–319 through religion 275 farmers, hierarchy of 258, 259 French Revolution (1789) 314, 318, 320, 407, 407 and trading 298–299 fats 114 fruit, for plant reproduction 145, 160 Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) 341 feet, evolution of 186–187 fuel consumption 344, 345 global warming 239, 351, 352 female organisms 124, 240 Fukushima nuclear disaster 348 Glossopteris 159 Fenton Vase 254–255 fundamental particles 34 gluons 34, 37 fermentation 246 funeral stones 264 gods and goddesses 18, 256, 274–275 Fertile Crescent 234–235, 236, 280 fungi 115, 120, 124 gold 281, 328 fertilization (farming) 240, 344, 350 fur, for clothing 214, 215 cloth 278 fertilization (reproduction) fusion, nuclear 45, 56, 58 trading of 291 of plants 145, 160, 165 Gondwana 158, 159 of protocells 107 G Google 341 sexual 111, 120–121, 124 Gorham’s Cave 194 fibers (textiles) 278 Gaia satellite 76–77 gorillas 183, 201 financial institutions 311, 323, 337 Galápagos Islands 110, 111 Gould, John 111 fire galaxies governments 311, 314–315 creation of 216–217 authority of 291, 316, 318, 323 use in farming 232, 233 creation of 38, 45, 48–49 in Britain 304, 325 fire-stick farming 220, 221 discovery of 30, 33, 47, 50–51 within empires 287, 289 slash-and-burn farming 232, 233, 272 Galileo Galilei 25, 26, 46 see political hierarchies First Keck Telescope 27 Gama, Vasco da 298 GPS (Global Positioning Satellite) 341 fish 130–131, 132, 141 gametes 145 grain crops extinction of 162–163 Ganesh 275 diet of 293 jawed 134–135 Ganow, George 32 domestication of 236, 237 “fishapod” 141, 141 Gardens by the Bay, Singapore 356 measurement of 250 fishing 189, 206, 208, 231 gas (elements) 63 pollen analysis 238–239 exploitation of reserves 211, 220 gas (fossil fuel) 347 production and harvest of 236, 249, 344 flagellum 113 gaseous planets 71, 75 Gatling gun 326, 327 428 INDEX

granaries 250, 250, 251 hafnium 354 Homo sapiens 198, 199, 199 Grande Coupure 163 Haikouichthys 130 burial practices of 218, 221 grasses 169 haloes (dark matter) 48 clothing of 214 grasslands habitats 168, 169 Hammurabi, King of Babylon 262 culture and language of 202, 203, 204 grave goods 21, 254, 276–277 hands, evolution of 142, 143, dispersal of 194, 195 evolution of 189, 189, 201 see also burial practices 186–187 intelligence of 206, 207, 220 gravitational lensing 47 Han dynasty 263, 294–295, 377 interbreeding with other Hominins 190, 196–197 gravity 46–47, 71, 71, 76 harvests 20, 233, 236, 249 within primate family 183, 183 hearths 216 Earth’s gravitational pull 78, 80 Heezen, Bruce 91, 94 honeybee 165 moon’s gravitational pull 82, 83 hekat 250 hoofed mammals 167, 168, 170, 171 stars, gravitational collapse of 44, 56 heliocentrism 24–25 Hooker Telescope 30, 31 sun’s gravitational pull 68 helium 38, 63, 355 horses 169, 246, 297 grazing animals 169 Great Acceleration 350 formation in stars 44, 56, 58 domestication of 284 Great Britain see Britain Hennig, Emil Hans Willi 173 use in trade 295 Great Dying 101 herbivores 115, 135, 169 horticulture 232 Great Exhibition (1851) 321 household possessions 316, 317 Great Library of Alexandria 264, 266 dinosaurs 154 Hoyle, Fred 32 Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event 162 herding animals 169 huarango trees 272 Great Oxygenation Event 100, 116 Herschel, William 26 Hubble, Edwin 29, 30, 32, 33 Great Pyramid of Giza 370 Herto skull 198 Hubble Space Telescope 27, 50–51 Great Wall of China 250 Hess, Harry Hammond 91 Human Genome Project 335 great white sharks 130–131 hierarchy, of society 258, 259 human rights 318–319 Greece hieroglyphs 254, 267 human sacrifices 277, 371 astronomy in 18 Higgs boson particles 34, 37, 37 humans see Homo sapiens classical era 378–380 high mass stars 57 hummingbird hawk-moth 164 coinage in 291 Hinduism 18, 19, 275 hunter-gatherer groups 210, 211 development of alphabet 264, 266, 267 Hipparcos Satellite 27 belief systems of 274 independence of 320 hippopotamus 170–171, 171 competing with farmers 232, 242 influence on Romans 288 Hitler, Adolf 415–417, 416 diet and health of 190, 293 green energy 357 Hittite Empire 372 social networks within 204 greenhouse gases 345, 350–351, 352 Hohle Fels Venus 212, 213 settlements of 228, 230–231 Greenland 174, 176 Holmes, Arthur 91 Hutton, James 86 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 333, 345 Holocene period 220, 226, 350 Huxley, Thomas Henry 111 guano (fertilizer) 248 Homer 284, 373 hydroelectric energy 357 gunboat diplomacy 324 Hominins 184–185, 211, 220–221, hydrogen 38, 63 gunpowder 284 formation in stars 44, 56, 58–59 Gutenberg, Johannes 264 364–366 formation of life 102, 114 Guth, Alan 34 breeding of 196, 197, 201 hyenas 168 burial practices 218 hyoid bones 192, 202, 202 H dispersal from Africa 194–195 evolution of 186–187, 189, 202 I habitable zones (planets) 77 within the primate family 183 habitats 112, 116, 140, 186–187 Homo antecessor 194, 195 Iapetus Ocean 138 Homo erectus 184, 185, 187, 216 ice ages 176–177, 220, 226 arid 147, 152, 153, 272 brain size of 189 coastal 152, 158 dispersal of 194, 195 Bering Strait 195 grasslands 168, 169 intelligence of 202, 206, 207, 211 ice cores 174–175 ocean 128, 128–129, 154 Homo ergaster 186 Iliad, Homer 274, 284 Homo floresiensis 185, 199, 214 “Imilac” meteorite 72 marine 351 Homo habilis 184, 185 imperialism see colonization reef 138, 139 brain size of 189 import trades 323 rain forest 158, 233 dispersal of 194, 195 Inca Empire 248, 250, 274, 390 swamp 148, 153 intelligence of 206, 211 Hadean Era 78, 79, 82, 102–103 Homo heidelbergensis 188, 195 Machu Picchu 391 Hadrian’s Wall 86, 286 Homo neanderthalensis 184, 189 map of 384 see also Neanderthals INDEX 429

India jawless fish 130 Laurasia 158 continental shift of 158 jaws, evolution of 132, 134, 135 lava 102 development of writing 266 Jefferson, Thomas 318 Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent de 63 and globalization 336 jellyfish 126 law and order 262–263 imperialism in 288 Jenner, Edward 334 Law of Octaves 63 renewable energy in 357 Jerusalem 386, 388 layers, rock 86, 87 worship in 274, 275, 319 jewelry 190, 208, 214 leather 207, 214 see also Indus civilization Leavitt, Henrietta Swan 28, 29 by metallurgy 280, 281 Legalism 263 indium 355 Jomon civilization 230–231, 231, 372 Lemaître, Georges 32 Indohyus 170, 171 Judaism 274, 381, 393 liberty 318 Indus civilization 246, 266, 269 Jupiter 74, 75 Lidgettonia 145 Jurassic period 154, 163 life expectancy 344 ancient world map 368–369 justice 262–263 light 32, 47, 50 industrialization 304, 305, 308–309, 310–311 Justinian, Roman Emperor 263 from stars 44–45, 60 effects on environment 350 K see also telescopes globalization of 312 light-years 29, 50 leading to consumerism 316–317 Kaapvaal Craton 85 lignin 137, 141, 148 social impact of 331 Kalahari bushmen 189, 210 lignite 148 wealth of industrialists 314, 323 katydid 109 limbs inflation (cosmology) 35 Kenya 211, 342 evolved from fins 132, 141 inflation (economics) 291, 299 Kepler, Johannes 25 wings evolve from 142, 143 Information Age 332 Kepler-452 system 77 linen 214, 278 inner core, Earth’s 80, 80 keratin 153 Linnaeus, Carolus (Carl von Linné) 172 insects 142, 143 kings 261, 262–263, 271, 274 lions 168 pollination by 160, 164–165 literacy 267, 332, 333 interglacial periods 176, 177, 190 grave goods of 277 literature 374–375 internal combustion engines 338, 339 pharaohs 258, 261, 261 lithic mulching 272, 272 internet 341, 342 kinship 204, 262 lithium 354 interstellar cloud 68 Koran 263 llamas 234 invertebrates 135, 141, 158 Kuiper Belt 75 lobe-finned fish 141 marine 162 Kushan Empire 294 Locke, John 318, 320, 392 iron, as raw material 217, 280, 281, 372–373 London 304 Iron Age 281, 372 L looms 278, 309 irrigation systems 248, 268–269, 271 Lord of Sipán 276, 277 Islam 274, 275, 295 labor (birth) 201 low mass stars 57 Islamic Empire 384, 386–387 labor laws 331 Lyell, Charles 86 terrorism by Islamic groups 420–421 lactose tolerance 246 Lystrosaurus 159 Islamic Golden Age 267 Lafayette, Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de 318 islands, formation of 84, 85, 93 Lagerstätte 138 M isotopes 38, 72 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 111 Israel 216 land ownership 262, 274, 314 machine guns 326, 327 Italy 320, 329 language 202–203, 216, 320 Magellan, Ferdinand 298 magma 79, 84, 92, 94 J capabilities of Neanderthals 192 magnesium 59 development of 204 magnetic field 80, 81, 91 Jack Hills, Australia 88, 89, 89 extinction of 297 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) 27 Large Hadron Collider (LHC) 36, 37 Japan 331, 348, 389 Large Magellanic Cloud 60 scanners 335 larynx 202 magnolias 160 Buddhism in 275 Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) 113 Maillet, Benoît de 86 development of writing 267 Late Devonian mass extinction 135 malaria 327 education reform in 332 Late Heavy Bombardment 75, 80, 100 male organisms 123, 124, 240 imperial power of 329, 404–405 Latin 173, 264, 287 Malthus, Thomas 253 industrialization in 309, 313 Lau event 162 Malthusian cycles 253 Jomon civilization 230–231, 231, 372 trade markets 299, 324, 325 430 INDEX

mammals 147, 166–167 Mesopotamia 271, 288 morganucodonts 166 extinctions of 163 early farming in 248, 269 Moschops 153 evolution of 133, 142, 147 pottery production in 255 Moshe, Neanderthal skeleton 192–193 for domestication 240 tombs of 277 moths 278 hoofed 168 trade tokens in 291 motion, laws of 46, 47 written records in 264 moldboard (plow) 248 manioc 296 mountain ranges, formation of 90, 92 mantle, Earth’s 80, 84, 92 Mesosaurus 159 MRI scanners 335 manufacturing industries 308–309, 310, 312, 345 Mesozoic Era 154, 158 Mughal Empire 394–395, 397 Messel Lake, Germany 101, 138 multicellular organisms 100, 122–123 assembly lines 339 Mexico 378 see also Maya civilization worker conditions 330, 331 metallurgy 280–281 complex cells, evolution of 118-119, 120 manure 248 meteorites 72–73, 86 multituberculata 163 manuscripts 267 mummified tissues 197 Māori people 18, 329, 396 see also asteroids music 374–375 mapping, world 90 methane 102 musical instruments 208 marble 370, 370 microbes 100, 112–113, 114, 116–117 mutations, of genes 108, 120, 170 Mariana Trench 94 marine habitats 351 evolution to complex cells 118, 120, 122 natural selection 111, 135, 142, 165 marine life 140, 158, 351 evolution onto land 140 mutualism 165 Mars 24, 74 see also bacteria marsupials 158, 167 micrometer 26 N Marx, Karl 319, 393 middle ages see medieval period mass spectrometer 88 middle classes 315 Nagaoka, Hantaro 28 Maxim, Hiram 327 and consumerism 316–317, 344 NASA 50 Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, demanding social reform 319, 331, 332 nationalism 320, 321 Germany 61 Middle East oil crisis 348 natural gas 347 Maya civilization 376, 381 Middle Stone Age 226 Natural Law: An Introduction to Legal Philosophy, astronomy in 18 Mid-Ocean Range 91 rulers of 260, 261 migration 337 d’Entreves 263 technologies of 254–255 Milankovitch cycles 174, 174 natural selection 111, 135, 142, 165 writing system 266 military power Nazca people 272 Mayr, Ernst 111 in empires 284, 288 Neanderthals 190–191, 198–197, 218 measles 293 technology 284, 311, 326, 327 measuring time (calendars) 18, 20–21, milk brain size 189 244–245, 367 production, in mammals 166, 167 clothing 214 measuring volumes 250 as secondary product 246, 247 dispersal of 194–195 meat-eaters (carnivores) 154, 156, 188, 211 Milky Way Galaxy 30, 50, 59 language capability 202, 203 medical advances 334–335, 343, 422–423 Miller, Stanley 102 skeletal remains of 192–193 medieval period 384–385 millipedes 140 use of fire 216 records 264, 265 minerals 114 Neander Valley 190 megalithic structures 221 mining industry 306–307, 308, 346, 355 Nebra Sky Disc 20–21 meiosis 120 Minoan civilization 371 nebulae 29, 29, 30, 56 membrane 102, 106, 107, 112, 118 mitochondria 118, 118, 196 neocortex 189 amnion 147 mobile phones 341, 342 neodymium 354 Mendel, Gregor 111 “molecular clock” 170–171 Neolithic Era 366 Mendeleev, Dmitri 63 molecules 102, 102, 104, 106 neon 59 mercantilism 298–299, 315, 323 see also DNA Neptune 75, 75 Mercury 47, 74 molten rock (magma) 79, 84, 92, 94 nervous systems 126, 126–127 Mesoamerica 234, 294 monarchies 304, 318, 320 Netherlands 329 Aztec empire 244, 244–245, 287, 298 money 290, 291, 298 maps of 394–395, 404–405, 412–413 Maya civilization 376, 381 Mongol Empire 384, 390 neutrons 34, 35, 58–59 monkey puzzle tree 145 neutron stars 56 astronomy in 18 monkeys 183 New Guinea 235 rulers of 260, 261 monotheistic religions 275 “New World” 296–297, 298, 298 technologies of 254–255 monotremes 167 see also Americas the (world zone) writing system 266 Montsechia vidalii 160 Newcomen, Thomas 307, 308 Mesolithic period 221, 226, 227, 365 moon 20, 51, 78, 82–83 Newlands, John 63 INDEX 431

news broadcasting 340, 342 orbit, planetary 47, 71, 75, 76 Pax Romana 287 Newton, Isaac 25, 46, 46 of the Earth 24–25, 174 peat 148 Nice Model 75 of the moon 83 pelvis 201 nickel 80 penicillin 335 Nishinnoshima 85 orbital velocity 82 pentaquark 37 nitrogen 112 Orbiting Carbon Observatory 359 periodic table 62–63, 354–355 noble gases 63 orders, of species 173 Permian period 153 nomadic groups 228, 295, 294–295 Ordovician-Silurian extinction events 162 Permian-Triassic mass extinction 163 origin stories 86 Persian Empire 275, 285, 287, 295, 378 warfare by 284 Orion Nebula 59, 59 non-domesticable animals 241 Ortelius, Abraham 90 fall of 289 nonmetals 63 Orthoceras 139 Peru see Inca Empire nonrenewable elements 355 ostracoderms 130 Petrie, Flinders 254 nonrenewable energy see fossil fuels ostrich 158 pharaohs 258, 261, 261 North America 158, 234, 406 Ottoman Empire 275, 298, 299, 406, 408–409 Philip of Macedon 290 philosophers 392–393 see also United States (US) maps of 394–395, 404–405 “philosophes” 319 North Pole 176 Ötzi, mummified man 282–283 Phoenician civilization 264, 266, 278 outer core, Earth’s 80, 80 phonographs 340 see also polar regions “overkill” hypothesis 220, 221 phosphorus 355 North River Steamboat 312 ovules 145 photons 34, 38, 44 notochord 130, 130 oxen 246, 249 photosynthesis 114, 115, 116, nuclear power 348 oxygen nuclear weapons 348, 349 116–117 nuclei, atomic 29, 34, 45 formation on Earth 102, 116, 116–117, 148 in bacteria 112, 118 formation in stars 58–59 fusion 45, 56, 58 high levels leading to extinction 135, 162, 351 Pilbara Craton 85 nuclei, cell 118 low levels in water 351 pilus 113 in photosynthesis 114 Pinwheel Galaxy 60 nuclear DNA 197 ozone layer 352, 352 Pizarro, Francisco 296 nucleic acids 104, 105 placentalia 167 P placentas 147 O placoderms 135 Pacific Islands 235, 272, 299, 336 plague 252, 253 oceanic crust 84–85, 92 Pacific Ocean 94 planetary nebula 56 oceans paddle wheel 269 planetesimals 71, 71, 72, 73 paganism 277 planets 70, 71, 76 climate change effects on 176, 352, 353 Paine, Thomas 318 and continental shift 158 pain relief 283 see also Earth, formation of floor 94–95 Paleolithic Era 203 plankton 129 plasma (matter) 58 oceanic crust 84–85, 92 art 188, 212–213 plasmid 113 formation of 78, 80, 81, 89 burial practices 218–219 plastics 345, 350 habitats 128, 128–129, 154 clothing 214–215, 214 plate tectonics 82, 84, 94–95 see also tides Paleo-Tethys Ocean 153 oil (fossil fuel) 313, 346–347, 348 Palissy, Bernard 86, 86 continental shift of 91, 92–93 Oldowan technology 206, 211 pallasite meteorite 72 early theories of 86 Olduvai Gorge 194, 364, 365 palynology 238 Pleiades star cluster 20, 21 “Old World” 296, 297, 298 Pangaea 152, 153, 154, 167 Pleistocene 220 Afro-Eurasia (world zone) 235, 294, continental shift 158, 163 plow, invention of 248 336 Parthenon, the 378 Plutarch 262, 263 Olmec civilization 372, 373 paper money 291 Pluto 27 online communication 341 parasites 112, 214 poetry 374–375 On the Origin of the Species, Darwin parchment 266 polar regions 158, 174, 176, 352–353 86, 111 Parisii 290 political hierarchies 271 On the Revolutions of the Celestial Parthian empire 294, 376–377, 381 political reforms 320, 331 Spheres, Copernicus 25 particle accelerators 36, 37 political revolution 314 Oort Cloud 75 patriarchy 259 French revolution 314, 318, 320, Opabinia 129 Opium Wars 325, 325 407, 407 orangutans 182, 183 pollen grains 145, 160, 238–239 432 INDEX

pollination 145, 160, 165 Q reservoirs 268, 269 pollution 348, 351 respiratory systems 114, 137 Qianlong coin 290 respiration, aerobic 116 see also emissions Qin dynasty 263 retail 316, 317 polo (sport) 295 Qing Empire 394–395, 404–405 revolution, political 314, 318, 331 Polynesia 235, 261, 272 Qin Shi Huang, Emperor 277 Rheinische Zeitung 319 polytheistic religions 274, 275 quantum mechanics 28, 47 rhizoids 137 population growth, humans 252–253, quarks 34, 35, 37 ribosome 113 quasars 38 rice 243, 253 344–345, 351 early species 195, 196, 199 R domestication of 236, 236 farming, effects on 228, 234, 248 Richmond Union railway 313 first states 259, 271 racism 320, 327 rickets 293 spread of disease 293 radiation 38, 45, 49 Rights of Man, Paine 318 pores, plant 136 ritualistic burials 218 “portable” art 212 from the sun 68, 69, 114 RNA 104, 104–105, 106 Portugal 297, 299, 329, 391 radioactive waste 348 road networks 287, 287, 294, 339 colonies of 396–398 radioactivity 86 rock erosion 86, 87, 88 radio broadcasts 341 rock (cave) paintings 208, 209, 212–213 maps 394–395, 404–405, 412–413 radiometric dating 72, 86, 88, 88 postal services 340 radio telescopes 26 depicting hunting scenes 188, 227 pottery 209, 231, 231, 254–255 railways 308–309, 313, 339 storytelling through 203 predators 115, 135, 135 rain forest habitats 158, 233 rocky planets 71 Raleigh, Sir Walter 297 “rogue” planets 75 natural selection by 109 Ram Mohun Roy, Raja 319 Roman alphabet 264 predatory birds 163 Rare Earth Elements (REEs) 355 Roman Catholic Church 24, 25, 264 pregnancy 201 Raven, Peter 165 Roman Empire 286, 287, 294, 378–382 prehistoric world map 362–363 Ray, John 172, 173 coal mining in 307 prepared-core technology 206, 207 records, written 264–265 development of laws and justice 263 primates 182, 183, 201, 204 fall of 288 apes 186–187 calendars 244, 367 food and famine in 250, 253 brain size 188, 189 recycling 221, 355 map of 376–377 see also Hominins Red Deer Cave people 194 religion in 274, 275 primordial crust 84, 84, 85 red giant (stars) 57 trade in 291, 294 Principia, Newton 25 redshifts 29, 29, 30 views on afterlife 277 Principles of Biology, Spencer 111 reef habitats 138, 139 Romulus and Remus, founders of Rome 373 printing press 264, 267, 341 reflectors (telescopes) 26, 26 Rosetta Stone 266 prison reforms 319 Reform Act (1832) 317 Ross, Ronald 335 Proconsul 186, 186 Reform Bill (1832) 331 royal authority 261, 262–263 prokaryotes 112, 113 reforms, social 311, 320, 331 Royal Mail 340 protectionism, by governments 323 refractors (telescopes) 26 r-process 59 proteins 102, 104, 114 reionization 45 rule of law 262 protocells 106, 106, 107 Relativity, General Theory of 32, 38, 47, 47 rulers 261, 262, 291 protocontinents 85 religions 86, 274–275, 295, 393 chieftains 259, 277 protons 34, 35, 37 monarchies 304, 318, 320, 384 proton-proton chain 58 attitudes to law 263 Russia 328, 404–405, 414 Proto-Sinaitic 266 renewable energy 357 see also Soviet Union protostars 56 reproduction Russian Chemical Society 62 protosuns 68, 68 Rutherford, Ernest 28, 29 Prototaxites 101 of plants 145, 160, 165 protowings 143 of protocells 107 S Prussia 312, 312, 406–409 sexual 111, 120–121, 124 map of 404–405 reptiles 153, 154–155, 162–163 sacrifices pterosaurs 142, 142, 143 evolution into birds and mammals 156, 167 human 277, 371 Ptolomy, Claudius 22–23, 24, 25 evolution of eggs 147 religious 274, 275 Puerto Rico Trench 94, 94–95 winged 142 pumpkins 242 Republic of Letters 319 Sahelanthropus tchadensis 183, 184, 186 pure metals 280 pyramids, Egypt 250 INDEX 433

salinization 272 single-cell organisms 112–113 Soviet Union 339, 348 Samurai warriors 324 evolution into complex cells 119, 122, 122 spacetime 47 San bushmen 189, 210 reproduction of 120–121 space travel 339, 411 sanitation 334 Spain 299, 299, 329 Sargon of Akkad 288, 288 skeleton see vertebrates satellites (communication) 341, 403 “skull cups” 218 colonies of 396–398, 408 Saturn 74 Skype 341 maps 394–395, 404–405, 412–413 sauropods 154 slash-and-burn farming 232, 233, 272 savanna habitat 168 special relativity 46 scala naturae 172 fire-stick farming 220, 221 Species Plantarum, Linnaeus 173 scanning electron micrograph (SEM) slave labor 299, 309, 317, 317 specimens 172 spectroscopes 26 136 abolition of 319 speech 202, 202 Schrödinger, Erwin 29 in ancient Egypt 249 screw pump (Archimedes’ screw) 269 Slipher, Vesto 29, 30 see also language scribes 258 slum towns 331 Spencer, Herbert 111 sculpture 208, 212 smallpox 297, 334 sperm 120, 124, 124 smartphones 342 spices, trade of 298, 329 see also carvings, art smartwatches 343 spinal cords 130, 131, 186 scurvy 293 smelting 281 spinning machines 312 sea crossing, earliest 195, 206 Smith, Adam 312, 323 sponges 122, 122, 138, 162 seafloor spreading 91 smog 350 spores 145, 158, 238 sea levels 86, 176, 352 s-neutron-capture process 59 squashes 242 seasons 82 Snider-Pellegrini, Antonio 90, 90 Standard Model 34 secondary products, of animals 246 Snow, John 331 stars seeds 101, 158, 160 social groups 189, 189, 204, 241 social mobility 316–317 calculating distances of 29, 76 in early farming 236 social networks 342–343 clusters 48–49 evolution of 144–145 Facebook 341 early theories on 24–25 seismic waves 80 social reforms 311, 320, 331 elements formed in 58–59 seismology 95 social status 258, 259, 277, formation of 44–45, 46–47 semaphore 340 278–279, 317 life cycles of 56–57, 60, 61 semi-domesticated animals 240 societies mapping of 20, 22–23 Semmelweis, Ignaz 334 laws and justice 262–263 see also Sun sensory organs 126 organization of 258, 259 Statue of Liberty 318 settlements prehistoric rulers of 261 status, social 258, 259, 277, city states 270–271 Soho Manufactory 308–309, 312 278–279, 317 towns 256–257 soil steam engines 307, 308–309 villages 220, 228–229, 230–231 analysis of 238 steamships 309, 309, 313 sexual reproduction 111, 120–121, 124 soil erosion and contamination 272 steel 281, 313 shaduf lifting system 269 solar energy 356, 357 stellar parallax 29 shale gas 347 solar-powered organisms 115, 117 stems 137, 137 shamanism 209, 275 solar system stethoscopes 334 Shang Yang, Lord 263 calculating distances within 76–77 stomata 137 Sharia law 263 formation of 71, 71, 72, 74–75 stone, as raw material sharks 130–131, 135, 162 mapping of 23, 24 money 291 sheep 235, 246 solar wind 74, 80, 81 from stone 204, 211, 218, 221 shelled eggs 146–147 soldering 281 shipping industries 309, 309 solstices 20 of early human species 188, 190, shopping 316, 317 sonar 199, 364 signaling (communication) 340 in bats 109 Stonehenge 244 silica 169 for ocean mapping 91, 94 storytelling 203, 202–203 silicon 59, 102 Song Dynasty 307 stromatolites 100, 114–115, 115 silk, production of 278–279, 287, 295 sorghum 243 subatomic particles 34, 37 Silk Road 294–295, 275 South America 158, 232, 296 subducting plates 84, 94 silos 250 trade in 299 Sub-Saharan Africa 235, 328 silver 281 South Pole 176 subsistence farming 232 for trade 291, 299, 299, 325 see also polar regions Sudan 327 suffrage 315 434 INDEX sugar cane 329

sugars, natural 104, 114, 246 temperatures transportation 337, 338 Sumer 267, 271, 271 due to climate change 351, 352 canals (water) 268, 269, 309, sun 56–57, 58, 68, 69 Earth’s core 80 312 ice cores 174 early modes 246, 297 as energy source 114 of oceans 353 networks 310 and formation of planets 71, of stars 44–45, 56, 58 railways 308–309, 313, 339 of the sun 68, 68 roads 287, 287, 294, 339 74–75 of universe, at Big Bang 35 origin theories 18, 22, 24–25 Trans-Siberian railway 313 use in calendars 20, 244 temples 383 trees 137, 140, 150 see also stars termites 168 sunboat 21 Terracotta Army 277 formation of coal 148–149 sundials 244 terrorism 420–421 Trevithick, Richard 312 supermassive black holes 49 “test tube” babies 335 “triangular trade” 317 supernatural beliefs 261, 274 tetrapods 101, 132–133, 141, 141 Triassic period 154 supernovas 45, 56–57, 61, 68 text messaging 342 Triassic-Jurassic extinction 163 early documented 25, 60 textiles 256, 278–279 tribal societies 259 new elements in 59 superpowers 336, 337 manufacturing of 305, 309, 312, see also nomadic groups surgical reforms 334 313 trilobites 128, 138, 139 sustainability 351, 357, 358 prehistoric 209, 214, 246 triple alpha process 58 Sutton Hoo ship burial 277 tools for 257 tuberculosis 334 swamp habitats 140, 148, 153 Tharp, Marie 91, 94 Tudor, House of 278 swidden farming 232, 233 therapsids 166 Turkey 256–257 swim bladders 130, 131, 141 Thermoluminescence (TL) 192 Tutankhamun, Pharaoh 261, 280 sword making 280, 281 theropods 154, 156 Twitter 342 symbolism 204–205, 221, 261 Thomas, J.J. 28 Tycho’s supernova 60 of freedom 318 Thompson, William 86 typewriters 340 of money 291 tidal energy 357 typhoid 293 symbols tidal gauge readings 352 as language 202, 203 tides 82, 83 U written 206, 208 Tiktaalik rosae 141 see also writing systems tin 280 Ugaritic script 266 synapsids 153, 166 Toarcian turnover 163 UK see United Kingdom (UK) Syria 293 tobacco 296 ultraviolet radiation 44, 45, 352 Systema Naturae, Linnaeus 173 tokens (money) 291 unionization 314 tombs 276, 277 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics T tongues 202 toolmaking 206–208, 214, 231 (USSR) 339, 348, 415 Taj Mahal, India 399 agricultural 232, 246, 248 see also Russia taming, of animals 240 for hunting 283 United Kingdom (UK) 412–413, from metal 280 416–417 see also domestication, of animals from stone 204, 211, 218, 221, 364 see also Britain tanning (leather) 214 United Nations (UN) 319, 351 taphonomy 139, 150 of early human species 188, 190, United States (US) taro 243 199 American War of Independence 318, tattoos 283 for textiles 257 320, 404–405, 407–409 taxation 288, 315 toothless beaks 157 education reform 332, 332 tectonics, plate 82, 84, 94–95 Torah 263 industrialization in 312–313, 331 tracking (hunting) 211 manufacturing industry in 309 continental shift of 91, 92–93 trade networks 287, 294–295, 310 modern era 418–421, 421 early theories of 86 agreements within 325, 336 space travel 339, 411 teeth 135, 184, 192, 283 improved by formation money 291 trade by 324, 325, 328 telecommunication 340 international 298–299, 316, 320 world wars 414–417 telegraph systems 340 post-industrialization 322–323, 336 Universal Declaration of Human Rights telephones 340, 341 pre-industralization 20, 256, 275 (1948) 319 telescopes 26–27 transform plate boundary 92, 93, 95 Universal Law of Gravitation 46 televisions 341 transplants, surgical 335 INDEX 435

Universe waste materials 221, 345 written records 264–265 Big Bang theory 34–35, 37, 38–39 management 331 calendars 244 expansion of 30, 32, 33, 38 toxic 348, 355 formation theories 19, 22–23, 23 Wu of Han, Emperor 263 galaxies within 30, 48–49 water, creation of 80, 102, 106 light within 44 see also oceans X Ur, Mesopotamia 270–271 water contamination 293, 331, 351 XDF (Hubble eXtreme Deep Field) 50–51 uranium 88 water lilies 160 Xenophanes 274 Uranus 75, 75 watering holes 169 X-rays 49, 335 urbanization 311, 331, 334 Watson, James 105 Urey, Harold 102 Watt, James 307, 308–309, 308 Y Uruk, Mesopotamia 271 wealth US see United States of America (US) Yantarogekko 150–151 Ussher, Bishop James 86 in early societies 250, 256, 258 Yerkes Refractor 27 USS Princeton 313 of middle classes 316–317, 344 yolk sacs 147, 147 USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) of nations and empires 298–299, 314, 329 Yongle Encyclopedia 267 Young, James 313 339, 348 after industrialization 323, 325, 345 see also Russia see also economic strength Z Wealth of Nations, The, Smith 312 V weather 352 Zaraysk bisons 213 see also climate change zebras 169, 240 Vaalbara 85 weaving 214, 278, 309 Zhou dynasty, China 368, 373 Varanops 133 spinning machines 312 ziggurats 271 variations (mutations), of genes 108, Wedgwood, Josiah 316, 317 zircon crystals 88–89 weeks, within calendars 244 Zoroastrianism 274, 275 120, 170 Wegener, Alfred 90, 90 vegetation 137, 153, 169 weirs 268, 269 Venus 74 Wenlock limestone 138–139 vertebrates 130, 131, 132–133 whales 170–171, 171 WhatsApp 341 evolution of jaws 135 wheat, domesticated 236, 236, 237 evolution of wings 142 Wi-Fi 341 move onto land 141, 153 Wikileaks 341 Very Large Array (VLA) 27 Wikipedia 267, 341 Vesalius, Andreas 172 wildebeest 168 villages, development of 228–229 wind energy 357 settlements 230–231, 268 wings, animals 142–143 visible light telescopes 26 evolution in birds 156, 157 visual signaling 340 wireless telegraphy 340 vizier 258 women volcanic activity 92, 92, 93, 174 education of 332 effects on life 103, 106, 153, loss of equality 259, 259 in workforce 309 163 wood formation of continents 85, 85 as fuel 304, 307 formation of Earth 80 for toolmaking 190, 232, 249 underwater 94, 106 wool 246, 278 Voyager 1 (space probe) 60 woolly mammoths 177 working classes 330, 331, 332 W World War I 414–415 World War II 337, 339, 416–417 Wallace, Alfred Russell 111 World Wide Web 340, 341 warfare 284, 285 worship 274–275 see also religions for religion 275 writing systems modern 327 development of 266–267, 371 warriors 261, 284, 284, 402 written symbols 206, 208 436 INDEX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The publisher would like to thank the Big History de Chile), and K. Ng (University of California, Davis) (bl). 89 Alamy Stock Photo: B Christopher (tr); World Institute for their enthusiastic support throughout 38–39 ESA: and the Planck Collaboration (t). History Archive (br). the preparation of this book—especially Tracy Sullivan, 45 ESO: M. Kornmesser (https://www.eso.org/public/ 90 Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Andrew McKenna, David Christian, and Elise Bohan. images/eso1524a/) (tr). Research: (bl). Science Photo Library: UC Regents, Special thanks to the writers: Jack Challoner, Peter 46 Corbis: The Gallery Collection (cla). National Information Service for Earthquake Chrisp, Robert Dinwiddie, Derek Harvey, Ben Hubbard, 47 Mark A. Garlick / www.markgarlick.com. Engineering (c, ca). Philip Parker, Colin Stuart, and Rebecca Wragg-Sykes. 48–49 Image courtesy of Rob Crain (Leiden 90–91 Copyright by Marie Tharp 1977/2003. Observatory, the Netherlands), Carlos. Frenk Reproduced by permission of Marie Tharp Maps DK would also like to thank the following: (Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham LLC, 8 Edward St, Sparkill, NY 10976: (t). Editorial assistance: Steve Setford; Ashwin Khurana; University) and. Volker Springel (Heidelberg Institute 92 Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Picture Library (clb). Steven Carton; Anna Limerick; Helen Ridge; Angela of Technology and Science, Germany), partly based on 100 Dorling Kindersley: Hunterian Museum and Wilkes; and Hugo Wilkinson. simulations carried out by the Virgo Consortium for Art Gallery, University of Glasgow (c). FLPA: Design assistance: Ina Stradins; Jon Durbin; Saffron cosmological simulations: (c). Rob Crain (Liverpool Frans Lanting (bl). Stocker; Gadi Farfour; and Raymond Bryant. John Moores University) & Jim Geach (University of 101 Dorling Kindersley: Hunterian Museum and Additional illustrations: KJA artists; Andrew Kerr. Hertfordshire): (b). Art Gallery, University of Glasgow (cla). Image retoucher: Steve Crozier. 49 NASA: H. Ford (JHU), G. Illingworth (UCSC / LO), 103 Peter Bull: based on original artwork Picture Research: Sarah Smithies. M.Clampin (STScI), G. Hartig (STScI), the ACS Science by Simone Marchi. Proofreaders: Katie John; Rebecca Warren. Team, and ESA (tr). 105 Science Photo Library: A. Barrington Brown, Indexers: Elizabeth Wise; Jane Parker. 50 NASA: ESA, and Z. Levay, F. Summers (STScI) (cb). Gonville and Caius College (b). Creative Technical Support: Tom Morse. 50–51 NASA: ESA / G. Illingworth, D. Magee, and 106 Alamy Stock Photo: World History Archive (ca). Senior DTP Designers: Shanker Prasad; Sachin Singh. P. Oesch, University of California, Santa Cruz; 108 Getty Images: Tom Murphy / National DTP Designer: Vijay Kandwal. R. Bouwens, Leiden University; and the HUDF09 Team. Geographic (b). Production manager: Pankaj Sharma. 51 NASA: illustration: ESA; and Z. Levay, (STScI) image: 108–109 Piotr Naskrecki. T. Rector, I. Dell’Antonio / NOAO / AURA / NSF, 110 Alamy Stock Photo: Natural History Museum, PICTURE CREDITS Digitized Sky Survey (DSS), STScI / AURA, Palomar / London (t). The publisher would like to thank the following for Caltech, and UKSTU / AAO (cra); ESA and John Bahcall 112 Science Photo Library: Professors P. Motta & their kind permission to reproduce their photographs: (Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton) Mike Disney F. Carpino, Sapienza – Università di Roma (bl). (University of Wales) (br). 114 Science Photo Library: Wim van Egmond (cl). (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-center; f-far; l-left; 59 123RF.com: Yuriy Mazur (tc). NASA: ESA, 114–115 Anne Race. r-right; t-top) M. Robberto (Space Telescope Science Institute / ESA) 115 NASA: SeaWiFS Project / Goddard Space Flight and the Hubble Space Telescope Orion Treasury Project Center and ORBIMAGE (br). 1 Corbis: EPA. Team (crb). 120 Ardea: Auscape (bl). 2 Dorling Kindersley: Oxford University Museum 60 Getty Images: John Livzey (bl). Science Photo 122 Getty Images: Carolina Biological (cl). Shuhai of Natural History. Library: Konstantinos Kifonidis (tc). Xiao of Virginia Tech, USA: (cra, cr). 8–9 Getty Images: Fuse. 60–61 Science Photo Library: Konstantinos Kifonidis 123 Shuhai Xiao of Virginia Tech, USA. 19 Getty Images: De Agostini. 61 Science Photo Library: Konstantinos Kifonidis 124 Jurgen Otto. 20–21 Corbis: EPA. (tl, tc, tr). 125 Science Photo Library: Eye of Science (br). 20 Corbis: EPA (bc). 62–63 Dorling Kindersley: The Science Museum, 126 Xiaoya Ma: Xianguang Hou, Gregory D. Edgecombe 21 123RF.com: Boris Stromar (tr). © LDA Sachsen- London / Clive Streeter. & Nicholas J. Strausfeld / doi:10.1038 / nature11495 Anhalt: Juraj Lipták (cr). 68–69 ESO: L. Calçada / M. Kornmesser. fig 2 (bl). 22–23 Bridgeman Images: Private Collection. 70 Alamy Stock Photo: Stocktrek Images, Inc. 134 Corbis: Scientifica. 23 Alamy Stock Photo: Patrizia Wyss (tr). 72 ESA: Rosetta / NAVCAM – CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (bl). 136–136 Science Photo Library: Martin Oeggerli. 26 Dorling Kindersley: The Science Museum, London 72–73 Heritage Auctions. 137 Chris Jeffree: (bc). (cl). Fraunhofer: Bernd Müller (ca). Science Photo 73 Alamy Stock Photo: dpa picture alliance (br). 138 Corbis: Jonathan Blair (bl, clb, bc). Library: David Parker (br). Thinkstock: Photos.com (tl). Science Photo Library: Chris Butler (crb). 138–139 The Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences, 27 Alamy Stock Photo: PF-(bygone1) (bc); RGB 76–77 ESA: D. Ducros, 2013. University of Cambridge. Ventures (crb). Corbis: Design Pics / Steve Nagy (tl). 79 Mark A. Garlick / www.markgarlick.com: (br). 139 Alamy Stock Photo: Stocktrek Images, Inc. (br). 28 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger, NYC (cra). 82 Kevin Snair, Creative Imagery: (b). 142 Robert B. MacNaughton: (bl). 30–31 Science Photo Library: 83 Kevin Snair, Creative Imagery. 144–145 Dorling Kindersley: Natural History Royal Astronomical Society. 85 Getty Images: The Asahi Shimbun (cra). Museum, London. 30 Carnegie Observatories – Giant Magellan 86 Science Photo Library: Royal Institution Of Great 148–149 Alamy Stock Photo: imagebroker. Telescope: (clb). Britain (bl); Sheila Terry (tr). 149 Dorling Kindersley: Natural History 32 Getty Images: Bettmann (bl). 87 Alamy Stock Photo: Stefano Ravera. Museum, London (bc). 36–37 © CERN: Maximilien Brice. 88 Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: David G. De 150–151 Deutsches Bernsteinmuseum: (b). 37 © CERN: T. McCauley, L. Taylor (cra). Vries Call No: HAER CAL,41-MENPA,5–31 (c). 150 Alamy Stock Photo: Agencja Fotograficzna 38 NASA: ESA, J. Jee (University of California, Davis), 88–89 J. W. Valley, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Caro (c). J. Hughes (Rutgers University), F. Menanteau (Rutgers University and University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign), C. Sifon (Leiden Observatory), R. Mandelbum (Carnegie Mellon University), L. Barrientos (Universidad Catolica ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 437

152 Colorado Plateau Geosystems Inc: © 2016 Anthropology, University of Missouri: (cla). Science Dreamstime.com: Branex | (tl). Ron Blakey. Photo Library: P. Plailly / E. Daynes (bc). SuperStock: 243 123RF.com: Samart Boonyang (cr). Alamy Stock 156–157 Science Photo Library: Natural History Universal Images Group (c). Photo: Tim Gainey (cra). Dreamstime.com: Sergio Museum, London. 207 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger, NYC (cra). Science Schnitzler (bc); Elena Schweitzer (tc). 158–159 Colorado Plateau Geosystems Inc: © 2016 Photo Library: John Reader (c). Muséum de Toulouse: 244 SuperStock: De Agostini (b). Ron Blakey. Didier Descouens/Acc No: MHNT PRE.2009.0.203.1/ 244–245 Science Photo Library: David R. Frazier. 162–163 Alamy Stock Photo: dpa picture alliance (c). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pointe_ 245 Alamy Stock Photo: Sputnik (tr). 163 Dorling Kindersley: Jon Hughes (cra); Natural levallois_Beuzeville_MHNT_PRE.2009.0.203.2.fond.jpg 246 Corbis. History Museum, London (tc). Science Photo Library: (cla). João Zilhão (ICREA/University of Barcelona): (tr). 246–247 Alamy Stock Photo: India View. Mark Garlick (cb). 208 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image Partnership 248–249 The Trustees of the British Museum. 164–165 123RF.com: Timothy Stirling. Ltd. (cl). Getty Images: Field Museum Library (crb). 249 Alamy Stock Photo: The Art Archive (tl). 165 FLPA: Biosphoto / Michel Gunther (b). Pierre-Jean Texier: (tc). 250 Photo Scala, Florence: Metropolitan 166 Roger Smith: Iziko South African Museum (cl). 209 akg-images: Pictures From History (bc). Alamy Museum of Art (cl). 167 Dorling Kindersley: Jon Hughes (tl). Stock Photo: Arterra Picture Library (tl, tr); Natural 250–251 Alamy Stock Photo: Bert de Ruiter. 172 Alamy Stock Photo: Natural History Museum, History Museum, London (cra). Joel Bradshaw, 252–253 Alamy Stock Photo: Yadid Levy. London (b). Honolulu, Hawaii: (ca). Dorling Kindersley: University 253 Getty Images: AFP (cb). 173 TopFoto.co.uk: Ullsteinbild (ca). of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and 254 The Trustees of the British Museum. 174 Getty Images: National Geographic / Carsten Anthropology (br). 254–255 The Trustees of the British Museum. Peter (br). 210–211 Alamy Stock Photo: John Warburton-Lee 255 akg-images: Erich Lessing (cra). Bridgeman Images: 176 Colorado Plateau Geosystems Inc: © 2016 Photography. Tarker (cr). Reuters: Chinese Academy of Science (br). Ron Blakey (b). 211 Alamy Stock Photo: Cindy Hopkins (crb). 256 Getty Images: De Agostini (tc, cb). 182–183 Getty Images: Andrew Rutherford. 212–213 Alamy Stock Photo: EPA / Guillaume 257 Corbis: Nathan Benn (tc); 184–185 Kennis & Kennis / Alfons and Adrie Horcajuelo (b). Ottochrome / Nathan Benn (tr). Kennis: (all). 213 Paleograph Press, Moscow: (tr). © urmu: © uni 259 Artemis Gallery: (tl). 186 123RF.com: Stillfx (cr). Science Photo Library: tübingen: photo: Hilde Jensen (cla). 260–261 Alamy Stock Photo: Dennie Cox. MSF / Kennis & Kennis (bl). 214 Getty Images: De Agostini (bl). Lyudmilla 261 Corbis: Sandro Vannini (br). 187 123RF.com: Oleg Znamenskiy (cl). Alamy Stock Lbova: (tr). 262 Alamy Stock Photo: Glasshouse Images (br). Photo: RooM the Agency (cr). 215 Science Photo Library: S. Entressangle / E. Daynes 264 Alamy Stock Photo: Prisma Archivo (bc). 188 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image 216 Alamy Stock Photo: Penny Tweedie (bl). Institut 264–265 Alamy Stock Photo: The Art Archive. Partnership Ltd. (t). Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social: (ca). 266 Alamy Stock Photo: Eye35 (tl). Bridgeman Images: 189 Alamy Stock Photo: Nature Picture Library (tr). 216–217 Bridgeman Images: (t). Louvre, Paris, France (cb). Corbis: Gianni Dagli Orti (clb). 190 Alamy Stock Photo: dpa picture alliance (bl). 217 Alamy Stock Photo: EPA (cla). Dorling Kindersley: Getty Images: De Agostini (bl). Luka Mjeda: (cra). Board of Trustees of the Armouries (cra). Rex by 267 Alamy Stock Photo: Holmes Garden Photos (tc). 191 Science Photo Library: S. Entressangle / E. Daynes. Shutterstock: Isifa Image Service sro (bl). Bridgeman Images: British Library (tr). Wikipedia: (br). 192–193 Alamy Stock Photo: Natural History 218 Science Photo Library: Natural History 270 Alamy Stock Photo: Interfoto (b). Museum, London. Museum, London (bc). 272 Alamy Stock Photo: age fotostock (b). 192 Kenneth Garrett: (clb). Djuna Ivereigh www. 218–219 Kenneth Garrett. 272–273 Getty Images: Yann Arthus-Bertrand. djunapix.com: (c). 220 Ardea: Jean-Paul Ferrero. 275 Alamy Stock Photo: imagebroker (b). 193 Getty Images: National Geographic / Ira Block (br). 226–227 Alamy Stock Photo: Archivio World 4. 276–277 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image 194 Alamy Stock Photo: National Geographic Creative 229 Corbis: John Warburton-Lee Photography Ltd. / Partnership Ltd. (bc). Darren Curnoe: (cra). Science Photo Library: Nigel Pavitt (br). 277 The Trustees of the British Museum: With kind MSF / Javier Trueba (clb). 231 Alamy Stock Photo: Peter Horree (bc). permission of the Shaanxi Cultural Heritage Promotion 197 Robert Clark: (b). 232 Dorling Kindersley: Museum of London (cl). Centre, photo by John Williams and Saul Peckham (cb). 198 Alamy Stock Photo: age fotostock (t); Hemis (bl). 232–233 SuperStock: Universal Images Group. 278 Corbis: Burstein Collection (b). 199 Kennis & Kennis / Alfons and Adrie Kennis. 234 Getty Images: Bloomberg (ca); Morales (crb). 278–279 Bridgeman Images: Museum of Fine Arts, 200–201 Alamy Stock Photo: Pim Smit. 235 Alamy Stock Photo: Nigel Cattlin (clb); Danita Boston, Massachusetts, USA / Julia Bradford Huntington 202–203 Getty Images: Print Collector (b). Delimont (tr). Dreamstime.com: Jaromír Chalabala (cla) James Fund. 203 Alamy Stock Photo: Premaphotos (t). 236 Getty Images: Markus Hanke (ca). 280 akg-images: (tr); Erich Lessing (cr). Alamy Stock 204 Alamy Stock Photo: Arterra Picture Library (clb). 238 Corbis: Imagebroker / Frank Sommariva. Science Photo: Edwin Baker (ca). 204–205 RMN: Grand Palais / Gérard Blot. Photo Library: Ami Images (clb); Steve Gschmeissner 281 Alamy Stock Photo: Ancient Art & Architecture 205 RMN: Grand Palais / Gérard Blot (crb). (bl); Scimat (cb, bc). Collection Ltd. (c). Bridgeman Images: Museo del Oro, 206 Dorling Kindersley: Natural History Museum, 238–239 Science Photo Library: Ami Images. Bogota, Colombia / Photo © Boltin Picture Library (tr). London (cr); Robert Nicholls (tr). Getty Images: EyeEm / 239 Dreamstime.com: Fanwen (tr). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler (c) Fort Nelson (bc); Daniel Koszegi (cb). Wim Lustenhouwer / Vrije 240 Alamy Stock Photo: Kip Evans (bl). University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Universiteit University Amsterdam: (crb). Museum of 242 Alamy Stock Photo: Chuck Place (cra). Anthropology (clb). Dreamstime.com: Xing Wang (cla) 438 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

282–283 Bridgeman Images: South Tyrol Museum of 312 Alamy Stock Photo: Liszt Collection (tr). Getty Science & Society Picture Library: National Archaeology, Bolzano, Wolfgang Neeb (b). Images: Bettmann (cb); SSPL (ca). Museum of Photography, Film & Television (cb); 282 South Tyrol Museum Of Archaeology – www. 312–313 Cyfarthfa Castle Museum & Art Gallery, Science Museum (ca). iceman.it: (ca); Reconstruction by Kennis & Kennis © Merthyr Tydfil: © Mervyn M. Sullivan (c). 342 Alamy Stock Photo: Annie Eagle (5/b). South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology, Foto Ochsenreiter 313 Alamy Stock Photo: (cb); North Winds Picture Flickr.com: Portal GDA/https://www.flickr.com/ (3) (tr). Archives (cla). Getty Images: Hulton Archive (ca). photos/135518748@N08/23153369341/in/photolist- 283 Bridgeman Images: South Tyrol Museum of Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: LC-USZ62- BgZ548 (6/b); roach/https://www.flickr.com/photos/ Archaeology, Bolzano, Wolfgang Neeb (cra). South 136561 (br). Science & Society Picture Library: NRM / mroach/4028537863/sizes/l (4/b). Science & Society Tyrol Museum Of Archaeology – www.iceman.it. Pictorial Collection (clb). Picture Library: Science Museum (1/b, 2/b). 284 Getty Images: De Agostini (clb). 315 Alamy Stock Photo: The Print Collection (br). 343 123RF.com: Adrianhancu (8/b); svl861 (ca); 284–285 Alamy Stock Photo: 505 Collection. 316–317 TopFoto.co.uk: The Granger Collection (b). Norman Kin Hang Chan (5/b). Alamy Stock Photo: 286–287 Alamy Stock Photo: Clearview. 316 akg-images: Les Arts Décoratifs, Paris / Jean D. Hurst (4/b); Visions of America, LLC (tl); Frances 287 The Trustees of the British Museum. Tholance (tr). Roberts (cra); Oleksiy Maksymenko Photography (3/b, 288 Photo Scala, Florence: (ca). 317 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger, NYC (br); Pictorial 6/b). Amazon.com, Inc.: (7/b). Getty Images: Business 288–289 Alamy Stock Photo: Peter Horree. Press Ltd. (tc). Wire (2/b). Rex by Shutterstock: Langbehn (1/b). 290 Dorling Kindersley: University of Pennsylvania 318 Corbis. Science Photo Library: Thomas Fredberg (c). Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (t). 319 Corbis: (bc). 344 ESA: NASA. Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG: Auction 92 320 Alamy Stock Photo: Lebrecht Music 345 Getty Images: Yann Arthus-Bertrand (br). Pt 1 Lot 152 (bl); Auction 59 Lot 482 (bc); Auction 72 and Photo Library. 348 Science Photo Library: Dirk Wiersma (c). Lot 281 (br). 320–321 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle. 348–349 Getty Images: Galerie Bilderwelt. 291 Alamy Stock Photo: Anders Ryman (b). RMN: 324 The Art Archive: British Museum, London. 350 Getty Images: EyeEm / William McClymont (bl). Grand Palais (musée du Louvre) / Franck Raux (tr). 325 Science & Society Picture Library: 351 Rex by Shutterstock: London News Pictures. 292–293 Bridgeman Images: Galleria Regionale della Science Museum (br). 352 Alamy Stock Photo: Global Warming Images (bc). Sicilia, Palermo, Sicily, Italy. 327 akg-images: Interfoto (tr). Bridgeman Images: NASA. 293 Corbis: Demotix / Demotix Live News (cb). Private Collection / Archives Charmet (b). 353 Alamy Stock Photo: Reinhard Dirscherl (br). 294–295 Getty Images: AFP (b). 328 123RF.com: Saidin B. Jusoh (crb); Pornthep NASA: Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific 295 Dorling Kindersley: Durham University Oriental Thepsanguan (cl). Photoshot: John Cancalosi (ca) Visualisation Studio (cra). Museum (tc). 329 Corbis: Richard Nowitz (clb). Getty Images: 354 Alamy Stock Photo: fStop Images GmbH (tr). 296 Alamy Stock Photo: John Glover (bl). Getty Images: John Wang (tl). Getty Images: Davee Hughes UK (bl). De Agostini (cla); Clay Perry (clb). 330–331 SuperStock: ACME Imagery. 355 123RF.com: Andrii Iurlov (cra). Dreamstime.com: 297 Alamy Stock Photo: Melvyn Longhurst (crb). Getty 331 Science & Society Picture Library: Emilia Ungur (cb). Images: EyeEm / Cristian Bortes (cra); Tim Flach (br). Science Museum. 356–357 Alamy Stock Photo: Sean Pavone. Science Photo Library: Eye of Science (cr). 332 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger, NYC (tr); Thislife 357 Alamy Stock Photo: Oleksiy Maksymenko 298 Courtesy of The Washington Map Society Pictures (b). Photography (ca). www.washmapsociety.org: original research published 333 Getty Images: Aldo Pavan (t). 358–359 Alamy Stock Photo: Stocktrek Images, Inc. Fall 2013 issue (#87) of The Portolan, journal of the 334 Alamy Stock Photo: North Winds Picture 364 Corbis: Wolfgang Kaehler (bl). Washington Map Society (b). Archives (tr); Photo Researchers (bc). Science & Society 365 Alamy Stock Photo: Sabena Jane Blackbird (tl). 299 Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (t). Picture Library: Science Museum (ca, crb, clb). Science Dorling Kindersley: Natural History Museum, The Trustees of the British Museum. Photo Library: Science Source / CDC (bl). London (bc). 304–305 Getty Images: Robert Welch 336 Science & Society Picture Library: National 366 akg-images: Erich Lessing (tr). Getty Images: 307 Alamy Stock Photo: North Winds Picture Railway Museum (tr). Jerome Chatin (b). Archives (br). 337 Alamy Stock Photo: The Art Archive (tc); Lebrecht 367 akg-images: Erich Lessing (bc). 308 Science & Society Picture Library: Science Music and Photo Library (tl); David Wells (bl); Cultura 370 Bridgeman Images: Ashmolean Museum, Museum (tr). Creative (RF) (br). Getty Images: The LIFE Images University of Oxford, UK (bc). Getty Images: 308–309 SuperStock: Science and Society Picture Collection / James Whitmore (cl). Ricardo Liberato (tr) Library (b). 338 Alamy Stock Photo: Motoring Picture Library. 371 Corbis: Richard T. Nowitz (br). 309 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger, NYC (tr). Getty 339 Alamy Stock Photo: Motoring Picture Library (cr). 372 Dreamstime.com: Witr (tl). Images: Transcendental Graphics (br). 340 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger, NYC (bc). Corbis: 373 Alamy Stock Photo: B Christopher (tl); 310 123RF.com: Jamen Percy (cla). Alamy Stock Photo: Araldo de Luca (br). Science & Society Picture Library: Peter Horree (br). Granger, NYC (c, bc); Historical Art Collection (HAC) Science Museum (cb). TopFoto.co.uk: The Granger 374 Bridgeman Images: De Agostini Picture (tr). Dorling Kindersley: The Science Museum, Collection (ca). Library (br) London (cra). 341 Alamy Stock Photo: The Art Archive (clb); 375 Corbis: Christie’s Images (tr). 311 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (cr); Niday Picture Granger, NYC (tl); Everett Collection Historical (bc); 378 Dreamstime.com: Sergio Bertino (bl). Getty Library (cl); North Winds Picture Archives (cb); Photo D. Hurst (br). Getty Images: Bloomberg (cra). Images: Guillermo Flores - www.memoflores.com (tr). Researchers (cla). NASA: (tr). 379 Getty Images: G. Nimatallah / De Agostini (br). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 439

380 Alamy Stock Photo: Dinodia Photos (tl); Mark 401 Alamy Stock Photo: The Art Archive (cb). Cover images: Front: 123RF.com: Andrey Armyagov Burnett (br). 402 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image fcrb, Igor Dolgov crb; Alamy Stock Photo: Granger, 381 Alamy Stock Photo: Peter Horree (bc). Partnership Ltd. (br). NYC. cb/ (Map); Bridgeman Images: Biblioteca 382 Corbis: Charles & Josette Lenars (b). 403 Getty Images: Bjorn Holland (tr). Monasterio del Escorial, Madrid, Spain cb; Dreamstime. 383 Dreamstime.com: Serhii Liakhevych (bc). 406 Rex by Shutterstock: Glasshouse Images (bl). com: Constantin Opris crb/ (Industry), Imagin.gr 386 Getty Images: Gonzalo Azumendi (tl). 407 SuperStock: Iberfoto (tr). Photography clb/ (Acropolis), Sergeypykhonin cb/ 387 123RF.com: Luca Mason / lkpro (br). SuperStock: 408 Corbis: Christie’s Images (t). (Steam); Neanderthal Museum: clb; Science Photo Interfoto (tl). 410 Getty Images: Popperfoto (tr). Library: Pascal Goetgheluck; Back: 123RF.com: 388 Corbis: Leemage (tr); Scott S. Warren / National 411 Science Photo Library: Sputnik (br). Nikkytok fclb, Pablo Hidalgo crb, Sergey Nivens fcrb; Geographic Creative (bl). 414 Corbis: (bl). Mary Evans Picture Library: Robert NASA: cb/ (Solar system), JPL-Caltech / UCLA cb, 389 akg-images: Cameraphoto (br). Hunt Library (tr). JPL-Caltech / University of Wisconsin-Madison / Image 390 Bridgeman Images: Centre Historique des Archives 415 Getty Images: Bettmann (bc). enhancement: Jean-Baptiste Faure clb; Science Photo Nationales, Paris, France (crb). Dorling Kindersley: 416 Rex by Shutterstock: CSU Archives / Everett Library: Pascal Goetgheluck The University of Aberdeen (tl). Collection (tr). 392 Alamy Stock Photo: World History Archive (br). 417 Getty Images: Galerie Bilderwelt (br). All other images © Dorling Kindersley 393 Alamy Stock Photo: imageBROKER (tr). 418 NASA: (bl). For further information see: www.dkimages.com 396 Corbis: Leemage (tc). 419 Corbis: Tim Page (tl). 397 Rex by Shutterstock: Universal History Archive / 420 Alamy Stock Photo: Agencja Fotograficzna UIG (br). Caro (bl). 398 Alamy Stock Photo: The National Trust 421 Getty Images: Spencer Platt (tr). Photolibrary (tl). 422 Corbis: Heritage Images. 400 Alamy Stock Photo: North Wind Picture 423 Science Photo Library: Science Source (tl). Archives (tr). 440 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS