Big Ideas Simply Explained - The Mythology Book

ANCIENT ROME 99 See also: Hades and the Underworld 48–49 ■ The quest of Odysseus 66–71 ■ The labors of Herakles 72–75 ■ The founding of Rome 102–03 ■ The Sibyl of Cumae 110–11 Prophecies about Aeneas Juno sent Iris, the rainbow, down to earth, to release her soul by 5. Dido condemns 1. Hector comes snipping a lock of Dido’s hair as an Rome and Carthage to Aeneas in a dream offering to Dis, ruler of the to eternal enmity and tells him to flee underworld. As Aeneas sailed away from Carthage, he looked back and after Aeneas Troy and found saw the smoke of the funeral pyre. abandons her. Lavinium. He did not learn of Dido’s suicide until later, when he met her shade in the Underworld. 4. Jupiter tells 2. Creusa’s ghost Aeneas seeks his father Venus that Aeneas tells Aeneas that he Returning to Sicily, Aeneas held will wage war in Italy is destined to found funeral games to commemorate his dead father, Anchises. Meanwhile, and crush a city in Italy. Juno, still bearing her ancient his enemies. grudge and anxious to delay Aeneas’s quest, inspired the 3. A harpy Trojan women to set fire to the prophesies that ships. Jupiter sent down torrential the Trojans will face rain to extinguish the flames and, starvation and eat in a vision, Anchises urged Aeneas their own tables. to pursue his quest and to meet him in the Underworld. Aeneas prophecy, advised him to seek the from Troy. Encouraged by Venus, sailed on and—despite the loss of land of his ancestors. Aeneas Aeneas and Dido fell in love and his helmsman, Palinurus, who fell therefore sailed to Crete, home of consummated their passion in a overboard—finally reached Italy. the Trojan ancestor Teucrus, but cave during a storm. When Jupiter he was directed by the gods in a heard of this, he sent his messenger Anxious to see his dead father vision to instead go to Italy, home Mercury to remind Aeneas to leave again, Aeneas was advised by the of his ancestor Dardanus. Carthage to found a new city. Sibyl of Cumae to pluck a golden ❯❯ Next, Aeneas met the Harpies, The tragic queen fierce female-faced bird creatures. On hearing of her lover’s departure, One cursed Aeneas, prophesying Dido asked her sister Anna to build that he would reach his goal only a sacrificial pyre, and she threw when dire hunger forced the group herself upon it. From the flames, to eat their tables. They sailed to she could see Aeneas’s ships Sicily, where Aeneas’s elderly father leaving, so she thrust his sword died, and then set off for Italy, but through her body. To end her agony, the wind god Aeolus—by order of Juno, who hated the Trojans—sent Dido stabs herself as Aeneas and their ships wildly off course. his followers set sail from Carthage, bound for Italy. This miniature is from Taking shelter in the north a vellum copy of the Aeneid made in African city of Carthage, Aeneas France in 1469. met the queen, Dido; it was to her that he told the story of his flight

100 AENEAS, FOUNDER OF ROME The Harpies attack Aeneas Timeline of events in the Aeneid after he is blown off course to In Delos, Aeneas their home on offers sacrifices the Strophades to Apollo but islands. misunderstands clues about the site In love with of his future city. Dido, queen of Carthage, Aeneas flees Troy In Crete, Aeneas only with his father Aeneas has a leaves her Anchises after his vision in which when the gods wife’s ghost tells him the gods tell him remind him of he must find the land to travel to Italy. his fate. of the Tiber. bough to give to Proserpina, queen walked with the Sibyl beside the the island of the enchantress Circe, of the Underworld and wife of Dis; river Lethe, Anchises prophesied daughter of the Sun. There, they the bough ensured them safe the founding of Rome. To further heard the howls and cries of the passage with the ferryman Charon impress on his son the importance men whom she had turned into across the River Styx. The Sibyl of his mission, Anchises showed wild animals—lions, boars, bears, then sedated the guard dog, him a parade of the spirits of the and wolves. The sea god Neptune Cerberus, with a drugged honey great Romans who would be born, sent them favorable winds that took cake. In the Underworld, Aeneas including Romulus, Julius Caesar, them safely past. spoke to the ghost of Dido, but she and Augustus. Aeneas then turned away from him without a returned to the world of light. The Trojans landed in Latium, word. Anchises was overjoyed to at the Tiber’s mouth, and laid out see his son, however, and stretched The promised land their first meal on platters of crusty out his arms. Aeneas tried in vain As they sailed up the west coast of bread, piling them high with freshly to embrace his father, but his arms Italy toward the Tiber River, harvested fruit and vegetables. closed on empty air. Then, as they Aeneas and his followers skirted They were so ravenous that they ate not only the meal but the bread platters. Aeneas’s son Ascanius joked that they were even eating the tables. Realizing that this fulfilled the harpy’s prophetic curse, Aeneas and his followers knew they had found the place to build their city, and Jupiter thundered three times in confirmation. Aeneas did not plan to conquer Latium with a hostile invasion. Instead, he paid court to Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus, who was said to be the son of the god Aeneas descends into a nightmarish underworld, depicted here by Flemish painter Jacob Isaacsz van Swanenburg (ca.1600 ce). Virgil’s vision influenced many Christian images of hell.

In Sicily, Aeneas Landing in ANCIENT ROME 101 performs funeral Latium, Aeneas games following is welcomed at the In a duel with the death of his mouth of the Tiber Turnus, Aeneas father, Anchises. River by King is the victor and Latinus, who offers ends the war. his daughter Lavinia The Trojans go to in marriage. war in Italy. Aeneas initially sustains heavy The Sibyl of Cumae losses, before enlisting leads Aeneas to the King Evander and his underworld, where people as allies. he talks to several spirits, including Dido and Anchises. The future of Rome is revealed to him. Faunus. Once again, however, the found a city called Alba Longa. New cities enmity of Juno worked against him. Encouraged by Tiberinus, Aeneas The goddess persuaded Lavinia’s then gained the support of the aged Aeneas founded the city mother, Queen Amata, that her Evander, king of Pallanteum, on the of Lavinium in Latium and daughter must marry Turnus, ruler Palatine Hill, where Rome would named it for his wife, Lavinia. of the neighboring Rutuli. Juno later be founded, and of Tarchon, After Aeneas’s death, his son then called on Alecto, one of the the king of the Etruscans. Ascanius founded the city of three Furies (or goddesses of Alba Longa, at the spot retribution) to foment war. With new allies—and help from prophesied by the river god the gods—Aeneas began to gain Tiberinus, in the Alban hills The final conflict ground. When the enemy tried to southeast of Rome. For 400 Vastly outnumbered by Turnus’s set fire to the Trojan fleet, the years, the descendants of forces, Aeneas initially despaired, goddess Cybele turned the ships Aeneas ruled Alba Longa until but was then visited by the river into nymphs, who swam away. Romulus and Remus founded god Tiberinus in a dream. The god However, Turnus had Juno on his Rome. According to legend, told him that he should find a place side and killed King Evander’s son war between the two cities on the river bank where a white Pallas, taking his belt as a trophy. broke out in the 7th century sow was nursing 30 piglets; there bce. Livy described how two his son Ascanius would one day Finally, Aeneas and Turnus met pairs of triplets—the Horatii in single combat; Venus supported for Rome and the Curiatii for Against my own wishes I Aeneas while Turnus had his sister, Alba Longa—did battle. The have abandoned Turnus and the water nymph Juturna, at his Romans emerged victorious. side. Jupiter then persuaded Juno abandoned the earth. to abandon Turnus and cease her Historically, the Romans Aeneid opposition to Aeneas, assuring and the people of Latium were her that the Latin name (“Latium”) part of a confederation known and language would be preserved. as the Latin League, which Jupiter sent a snake-haired Fury to fought together against drive off Juturna and harrass enemies. When the Albans Turnus. Aeneas wounded Turnus deserted the Romans in a war but was about to spare his life against the Etruscans, the when he saw that he was wearing Romans killed the Alban Pallas’s belt. In fury, he drove his leader, Mettius, razed Alba sword through Turnus’s heart. The Longa to the ground, and epic poem ends in Turnus’s death, brought its people to Rome. which also ended the war. ■

102 IN BRIEF BRRAUOEDMIMELUUSDSLIRAUTESCOSIATENYIZDED THEME Birth of a nation THE FOUNDING OF ROME SOURCES Roman Antiquities, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ca.7 bce; Fasti (“The Book of Days”), Ovid, 8 ce; Romulus, Plutarch, ca.70–110 ce. SETTING Rome, ca.753 bce. KEY FIGURES Romulus Founder of Rome. Remus Brother of Romulus. Amulius King of Alba Longa. Numitor Deposed brother of Amulius. Rhea Silvia Daughter of Numitor. Mars God of war. Faustulus A shepherd. Larentia Wife of Faustulus. T he myth of the brothers Romulus and Remus was not the only description of the founding of Rome, but it became the widely accepted story. Early accounts claimed that the twins were the sons of the Trojan hero Aeneas, but most versions set the story 15 generations later. Aeneas’s son, Ascanius, founded the ancient city of Alba Longa about 12 miles (19 km) from the site that later became Rome. Centuries later, Alba Longa was inherited by two brothers, Amulius and Numitor. Amulius suggested to his brother that they divide their inheritance in two, one taking the reins of the kingdom and the other

See also: The Olympian gods 24–31 ■ Aeneas, founder of Rome 96–101 ■ ANCIENT ROME 103 Vesta and Priapus 108-09 The exposure of Ancestry of Romulus and Remus Roman children Aeneas, prince of Troy The element of the myth and hero of the Aeneid of Romulus and Remus that repels modern readers would Proca, king of not have shocked Romans. Alba Longa Infanticide by means of exposure was commonplace Amulius Numitor in ancient societies. The Mars, the war Rhea Silvia surprise in Rome’s foundation myth lies in the survival of the god Remus infants, not their rejection. Romulus Roman fathers had absolute control over their children and could simply choose not to rear them. In some instances, babies would be left at recognized sites where they could be adopted. But many others were simply abandoned. Girls, who would in the event of marriage require a dowry—a legally enforced monetary donation to their husband—were as a result more often victims of exposure than boys. The extent of the practice in ancient Rome is a matter of scholarly debate, but it was made illegal in 374 ce. the treasures brought by their sons who would exceed all men in whelped found the babies and ancestor Aeneas from Troy. bravery; other accounts said that suckled them to health. They Numitor agreed and chose the the true father was a masked were then discovered by Faustulus, kingdom, while Amulius took the Amulius himself. When her twin a shepherd (or in some accounts a treasure. But with the wealth children Romulus and Remus were swineherd or cowherd) who brought brought by that treasure, Amulius born, Rhea Silvia was either put to up the children with the help of his schemed against his brother, and death for breaking her virginal wife, Larentia. According to some ❯❯ deposed and imprisoned him. vows, or locked up for life. As for the babies, Amulius ordered a servant Birth of the twins to drown them in the Tiber River. Fearing a challenge from any Instead, the servant cast them descendants of Numitor, Amulius adrift in a basket, and then the river killed Numitor’s son Aegestus and god brought them safely to the forced his daughter Rhea Silvia to bank. A female wolf who had just become a Vestal Virgin. According to most accounts, Mars, the god of The Capitoline Wolf shows Romulus war, seduced her as she lay sleeping and Remus suckling from the she-wolf. on a riverbank or in a sacred grove, The bronze wolf dates to the 11th or telling her that she would bear two 12th century and the twins to the 15th.

104 THE FOUNDING OF ROME sources, the story of the she-wolf gods by observing birds of omen— When the signal was given, came about because Larentia had Romulus, in contrast to his brother, they drew their swords, been a lupa, a Latin slang word for carried a crooked staff known as a rushed in with shouts, prostitute that also meant wolf. lituus, used by diviners to interpret and ravished away the future events by studying the flight daughters of the Sabines. Rome is founded of birds. This marked Romulus out Romulus The boys grew handsome and symbolically as more conscientious strong. Famous for their feats than his brother and, therefore, that would come to define the of courage and generosity, they more deserving of victory. When Roman empire’s expansion for became leaders among the Remus saw six vultures, he claimed centuries to come. On the Palatine local farmers and huntsmen. the gods favored him. Romulus Hill, as soon as Rome was built, When Romulus and Remus were then saw 12 vultures—though, Romulus placed all his men in grown men, they learned of their according to Dionysius’s account, legions to defend against surrounding history—from either Faustulus Romulus was trying to dupe Remus peoples such as the Sabines. or Mars—and launched a revolt. and hadn’t seen any birds at all. The usurper Amulius was killed The first problem facing the and King Numitor was restored The followers of each brother new city was the lack of women, to his throne. pronounced their respective for the refugees and outlaws champion as king. When Romulus attracted by Romulus and Remus The twins then decided to started to plow a furrow to mark the were all men. To solve this, found a great city of their own. city’s boundary, an argument arose Romulus announced that he had They declared that, in obedience that quickly got out of hand. Remus discovered the altar of the harvest to an oracle from Delphi, their city jeered his brother and mocked him god Consus beneath the city, and would be the sanctuary of the god by jumping over the furrow, at instituted a festival, the Consualia, of asylum, and they gathered which point Romulus (or, some say, around them a great band of his follower Celer) killed him. fugitives, outlaws, and runaway Romulus then founded the city of slaves. When it came to choosing Rome in 753 bce. the exact site of the city, Romulus preferred the Palatine Hill and The Sabine women Remus the Aventine Hill. To The tale of Rome’s initial foundation determine the site and which of emphasizes the warlike nature of them would be the city’s first ruler, Romulus, inherited from his war- they agreed to seek a sign from the god father, and has a brutal theme The Greco-Roman author Plutarch’s Romulus but she sent her slave instead. Plutarch (45 ce–ca. 120 ce) When Tarchetius discovered composed over 225 works on Greek Among the sacred treasures his daughter’s deceit, he and Roman history and culture. guarded by the Vestal Virgins was ordered both girls put to death. a phallus that relates to a curious However, Vesta, goddess of the alternative story of the birth of hearth, appeared to the king Romulus and Remus. in his sleep and warned him not to kill the girls—so he According to Plutarch, there imprisoned them instead. was a wicked king of Alba Longa named Tarchetius, in whose When the slave girl gave hearth a phallus appeared. An birth to twins, Tarchetius oracle prophesied that if a virgin ordered them to be exposed (left had relations with this phallus, outside to die); but, as in the she would bear a child of usual story, Romulus and Remus unparalleled strength and good were suckled and saved by a fortune. Tarchetius commanded she-wolf before being found by his daughter to obey the oracle, the peasants who raised them.

ANCIENT ROME 105 The rape of the Sabine women During the bloody fight that The city of Rome grew in power has been depicted by many artists. followed, Romulus was knocked and prestige, but not without This detail is from a vast fresco by down by a stone thrown at his conflict. When ambassadors from Luca Cambiaso (ca.1565) for a salon head. The Romans began to retreat, the city of Laurentum were at the Villa Imperiale in Genoa, Italy. rallying only when Romulus rose murdered by Tatius’s kinsmen, and prayed to Jupiter Stator (“the Tatius was slain in revenge. in the god’s honor. He invited the stayer”) for help. The battle was A plague afflicted both Rome and Sabines to the festival but, while halted by the Sabine women, who Laurentum, as both sides were the Sabine men watched the ran between the two armies and seen to be at fault in not pursuing chariot races, Romulus gave a begged their Sabine fathers and justice for their murderers. Taking signal, throwing his cloak over his Roman husbands not to kill each advantage of the plague, the people shoulders, and with this, his men other. Peace was made between of Cameria attacked Rome, but took up arms. They seized the the two sides under the joint Romulus defeated them, taking Sabine women, carrying them over leadership of Romulus and Tatius. their city and half of its inhabitants. the thresholds of their houses and claiming them as their wives. Romulus ruled Rome for 40 Ascension years, establishing it as a mighty One day, when Romulus was city. Many stories were told of his mustering his troops in the Field of superior strength. In one display Mars, a storm arose. The air rang of power, Romulus stood on the with peals of thunder, and Romulus Aventine Hill and hurled his spear was wrapped in a cloud and carried into the earth. It sank so deep that up to heaven in the chariot of his no man could pull it out. The shaft father, Mars, to become a god was made of hard cornel wood, himself. Thereafter, Romulus was and the tree that grew from it worshipped under the name of was treated with great reverence. Quirinus, the Sabine god of war. In the time of Gaius Caesar, The next king after Romulus, Numa who reigned from 27 bce–14 ce, Pompilius, was a Sabine, showing the roots of Romulus’s cornel tree that the union of the two peoples were inadvertently cut by workmen lasted beyond the reigns of repairing some nearby steps, Romulus and Tatius. ■ and the tree withered and died. War and reconciliation Hoodwinked and humiliated, the Sabine men resolved to wage war against the Romans. After Romulus killed the Sabine king, Acron, the Sabines united under Titus Tatius and laid siege to Rome. Tarpeia, the daughter of the commander of Rome’s citadel, betrayed the city: in exchange for the Sabine’s gold armlets, she opened the gates and let in the foreign army. The Forum was the center of everyday life in ancient Rome. Among other shrines, it contained the Temple of Vesta—one of its oldest shrines, dating back to the 7th century bce.

106 STTHHPUERROFTUASTGHHREETRDHOEFFLCAGLMOOEDUSSDS NUMA OUTWITS JUPITER IN BRIEF W hen angry Jupiter sent with water in the spring where the lightning flaming from two gods drank. When they fell THEME the sky with torrents of asleep, Numa bound their hands Prophecy and destiny rain, King Numa—the second king tight with ropes. of Rome—was alarmed. However, SOURCES his wife, the nymph Egeria, told Upon awakening, Picus and History of Rome, Livy, 1st him, “You must appease Jupiter Faunus tried to escape by changing century bce; Fasti (“The Book and deflect his anger. Seek out from one fantastical shape to of Days”), Ovid, 8 ce; Parallel Picus and his son Faunus, gods another, but they could not free Lives, Plutarch, early 2nd of the Roman soil, for they know themselves from Numa’s bonds. century ce. how it can be done.” Numa told them he meant no harm—he simply wanted to learn SETTING These woodland gods could be how to appease Jupiter. The gods, The Aventine Hill, Rome, found on the Aventine Hill, which unable to offer this knowledge, ca.715–673 bce. was then a pastoral place of springs were willing to bring Jupiter to and dells, and not yet part of the him: “You ask what is not lawful for KEY FIGURES city. Numa mixed wine and honey a man to know. Release us, and we Jupiter The Roman god of will lure Jupiter down from the sky.” thunder; ruler of the gods. When captured, they dropped Man versus god Numa The second king their own forms and assumed Jupiter descended, as promised, of Rome (715–673 bce). the earth sinking beneath his many different shapes, weight. Numa was so afraid that Egeria A nymph and queen; presenting hideous and his face drained of blood and his wife of King Numa. dreadful appearances. hair stood on end, but he entreated the god, “King of heaven, call back Faunus and Picus Woodland Plutarch, your thunderbolts, I pray. Tell me gods, captured by Numa. Life of Numa what offering you desire.” Jupiter replied, “Cut off the head …” “Of an Salii Dancing priests and onion,” answered Numa, quick as guardians of the sacred shield a flash. “A man’s …,” said Jupiter. of Rome. “Hair,” Numa cut in. “The life of a …” “Sprat.” At this, Jupiter roared with laughter. It delighted him to meet a mortal fit to converse with

ANCIENT ROME 107 See also: The Olympian gods 24–31 ■ The founding of Rome 102–05 ■ The Sibyl of Cumae 110–11 ■ Philemon and Baucis 125 Numa consults Egeria in her sacred grove, while an unknown figure sits hunched in the background, in Pompilius and the Nymph Egeria (1631–1633), by artist Nicolas Poussin. morning, the people of Rome came to Numa’s door. The king sat among them on his throne, and they watched Apollo rise into the sky and travel across it. When the sun reached its zenith, Numa raised his hands to the sky and said, “The time has come, Jupiter, to fulfill your vow.” a god—despite only possessing loud claps of thunder, leaving the Omnipotent Jupiter human faculties, Numa’s quick awed Numa on the hillside. When Jupiter answered King Numa wits were a match for his own. Numa returned to the city in high from heaven by hurling three spirits, the citizens didn’t believe thunderbolts. Then a shield fell out Jupiter then told Numa, “When his story. “Actions speak louder of the sky, and a voice declared that Apollo is at his highest point in the than words,” he said. “Let us gather so long as the shield was preserved, sky tomorrow, I will send you signs tomorrow and see what omens Rome would rule the world. of empire.” With these last words, Jupiter will send.” The next Jupiter rose again into the sky with Wily Numa asked the craftsman Mamurius to make 11 more shields exactly like it—to confuse any would-be thief. These 12 sacred objects were kept in the Temple of Mars, in the care of the dancing priests, the Salii. ■ Roman Trinity built across Italy and the Three Capitoline temples, built in provinces. In them, Jupiter the 2nd century ce in Sufetula (now The Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, was revered as Jupiter Optimus Sbeitla, Tunisia), are just some of the his wife, Juno, and his daughter Maximus (“Jupiter Best and many capitolia temples that were Minerva shared a temple on the Greatest”), alongside Juno, built across the Roman world. Capitoline Hill in Rome known his queen, and Minerva, the as the Temple of Jupiter. They goddess of war. were regarded as the ruling gods of Rome. This trio of The temple of Jupiter was supreme gods succeeded an regarded as one of the most earlier triad, known to scholars important of all temples in as the Archaic Triad, which ancient Rome. Within its walls consisted of the gods Jupiter, lay the Jupiter Stone, which was Mars, and Quirinus. used by political officials to swear oaths. Its Latin name— Both triads were central to Iuppiter Lapis—became the title the public religion of ancient of a cult that came to regard the Rome. Capitolia temples were stone itself as a god.

108 CTAHSOENNCLAEIUVIGVINHEGTOFFBLUVATEMSETA VESTA AND PRIAPUS IN BRIEF T he daughters of Saturn The relatively small number of and Ops were Juno, Ceres, myths focusing on Vesta is largely THEME and Vesta, the goddess of due to the fact that the goddess Virgin goddesses the hearth. All three were major rarely strayed from her house or her Roman goddesses, but Vesta, in temple. In one myth, told by Ovid, SOURCES contrast to her sisters, was rarely Vesta was tempted out to a party Fasti (“The Book of Days”), depicted in myth. thrown by the mother goddess, Ovid, 8 ce. Cybele, on Mount Ida, a central The concept of the hearth location of worship for Cybele’s SETTING god originated in the proto-Indo- orgiastic cult following. With her Mount Ida—the Mountain of European religion based in ancient turreted mural crown, which the goddess Cybele; Anatolia, Anatolia, from which a number of in modern-day Turkey. Roman and Greek gods would Nymphs and satyrs cavort together ultimately be derived. The Latin in A Bacchanal Before a Statue of Pan KEY FIGURES word Vesta came from the proto- (1632–1633), by the French artist Nicolas Saturn Roman god of wealth; Indo-European word meaning “to Poussin. In the foreground to the right, Roman equivalent of Kronos. burn,” underlining the goddess’ Priapus attempts to molest Vesta. ancestral roots. Ops Earth goddess; wife of Saturn. Vesta Virgin goddess of the hearth. Cybele Anatolian mother goddess—the “Great Mother” of Roman mythology. Priapus God of sexuality and fertility; a cast-out son of Venus. Silenus A drunken old satyr riding a donkey.

ANCIENT ROME 109 See also: The Olympian gods 24–31 ■ The mad cult of Dionysus 52 ■ Cybele and Attis 116–17 Vesta was first worshipped in Lavinium, Italy, the earliest Trojan settlement. She was the The Vestalia, She was the guardian of the her festival, purest of all was a sacred hearth and of gods. the Roman Roman people. holiday. She was worshipped by the Vestal The Vestal Virgins Virgins, who maintained the sacred fire The six Vestal Virgins, Rome’s of Vesta at all times. only female priesthood, tended the fire of Vesta, the designated her as a patron and while some began to dance, and symbolic hearth of the city protector of Rome, Cybele was others lay down on the grass in the Temple of Vesta, in the constantly surrounded by reveling to sleep off their excesses. Vesta Forum. If the fire was ever female followers (Maenads), and found a quiet spot by a stream allowed to go out, it was males (Corybantes), who provided and fell asleep, unaware that regarded as a bad omen, her with musical entertainment. Priapus lurked nearby. The always- and the negligent Vestal was lecherous Priapus was on the prowl, whipped by the high priest. Cybele invited all the gods looking for a goddess or nymph to The chastity of the Vestals to her party, together with the bed. Spying the virgin goddess was essential to the safety of satyrs, nymphs, and spirits of the Vesta as she lay asleep, he tiptoed Rome itself, and any Vestal countryside. These included the up to her. However, just as Priapus who lost her virginity would lustful Priapus, who was afflicted was about to take Vesta’s virginity, be buried alive, with meager with a permanent, oversized Silenus’s donkey let out a loud bray rations of food and water, so erection. Priapus’s mother, Venus, nearby and startled her awake. her blood would not be was so ashamed of this deformity The other gods ran to Vesta’s aid, spilled, and her death that she abandoned him in the quickly driving Priapus away. would be by the will of the mountains to be brought up by underworld gods. shepherds. Priapus became a god At his cult center in Lampsacus, of gardens, bees, and herds. The in the northern Troad, the donkey The six priestesses were party’s final guest was the drunken was Priapus’s sacrificial animal. chosen in childhood, between satyr Silenus, who came to the During the Vestalia, held every June the ages of 6 and 10. They event despite having no invitation. in honor of Vesta, loaves of bread served for 30 years, after baked in the ash of the Vestal which they were free to leave Priapus is denied hearth were hung from donkeys, the order, and even to marry, if The gods ate and drank their fill, and the grindstones they turned they so desired. However, and as the party wound down, were also garlanded with flowers Vestal Virgins who married some went strolling on Mount Ida, in honor of the goddess. ■ lost their unusual degree of independence, including the freedom to make a will.

110 ILTAESHNAHEDVAFBELAYLMTMEBESYEMWVKYONIVLIOCOLWEICNE, THE SIBYL OF CUMAE IN BRIEF In Greek and Roman lore, the she recounted the story of how, as Trojan hero Aeneas wished to a young woman, she was wooed by THEME visit his father’s ghost, so he the god Apollo. When she rejected Prophecy and destiny traveled to the gateway of the him, she sealed her sad fate. Underworld—the cave of the aged SOURCES Sibyl of Cumae. Cumae was a Apollo and the Sibyl Aeneid, Virgil, ca.20 bce; Greek colony in Campania, in Apollo, desperate to win the Sibyl’s Roman Antiquities, Dionysius southern Italy. There, the Sibyl, a favor, promised her anything she of Halicarnassus, ca.7 bce; divinely inspired prophetess of the desired. She pointed at a heap of Metamorphoses, Ovid, 8 ce; god Apollo, safely guided Aeneas dust and asked to live as many Satyricon, Petronius, ca.60 ce. to the Underworld and back. As years as there were grains of dust. Aeneas and the Sibyl climbed back Apollo offered her both the years SETTING up into the world of the living, he and eternal youth if she would Cumae, in the times of Aeneas told her that he owed her his life, submit to him. But she spurned (ca.1200 bce) and Trimalchio that he would always regard her as him, so the god granted her the (1st century ce); Rome during a goddess, and that he would build years but not the youth. the reign of Tarquinius a temple in her honor. Superbus (535–509 bce). By the time she met Aeneas, The Sibyl said she was no the Sibyl was a withered old KEY FIGURES goddess, and that no human being woman. She had spent seven Aeneas A Trojan hero of was worthy of being worshipped. centuries singing the fates and Greco-Roman mythology. To prove that she too was fallible, spelling her prophecies out on palm The Sibyl of Cumae A Authors depict the Sibyl in three ways: prophetess of Apollo. As a young At 700 years of Ancient but not Apollo The god of prophecy, woman, beloved age, when she immortal, music, and the sun. meets Aeneas. by Apollo. wishing for death. Tarquinius Superbus The last king of Rome before the birth of the Republic.

See also: Hades and the Underworld 48–49 ■ Apollo and the Oracle of ANCIENT ROME 111 Delphi 58–59 ■ Aeneas 96–101 ■ The founding of Rome 102–05 The Sibylline Books leaves, which she would arrange at Aeneas greets the Sibyl at the the mouth of her cave; if the wind Temple of Apollo, accompanied by The three books of prophecies blew the leaves about, the Sibyl Achates, a fellow exile from Troy, before known as the Sibylline Books would refuse to rearrange them, his descent into the Underworld, in this were one of ancient Rome’s and the prophecy would be lost. manuscript illustration (ca. 400 ce). greatest treasures. They were kept in the temple of Jupiter Final prophesies Tarquinius, seeing merely a on the Capitoline Hill and The Sibyl of Cumae approached withered old woman, haughtily consulted at times of crisis. Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin turned her away. The Sibyl burned the Proud), the last king of Rome three of the books, and offered him The original books were before the Republic, with nine the remaining six for the same burnt in a temple fire in 83 bce, books of prophecies, which she price. Again he refused. The Sibyl but the prophecies that they offered to sell him for a high price. burned another three books and contained were carefully offered the king the remaining gathered together from across ’Tis time to ask the oracles; three for the same price as the the Roman Empire and placed the god, lo! The god! original nine. He was so intrigued back in the temple. The The Sybil of Cumae, that he paid her what she asked. Emperor Augustus later had Aeneid them moved to the temple of After selling her books, the Sibyl Apollo on the Palatine Hill. disappeared and was not mentioned again until she was spotted by The Sibylline Books had 10 Trimalchio, a former slave, in custodians who interpreted the 1st-century ce Satyricon of the obscure and ambiguous Petronius. By then, her withered prophecies. These men also body was so tiny that she was hung directed the Romans on how up in a jar. When some local boys to worship the gods Apollo, asked her what she wanted, she Cybele, and Ceres. Apollo had replied, “I want to die.” Eventually, inspired the Sybil’s prophecies only her voice was left. ■ and the Sibylline Books gave advice on the worship of Cybele and Ceres. However, the books were intentionally destroyed in 405 ce by Flavius Stilicho, a Roman general who believed that they were being used against him. The Sibyl of Cumae is portrayed in the Vatican’s Sistine Chapel in Rome, painted by Michelangelo (1510), to illustrate that pagans can enter the kingdom of God.

112 IMALSYOIOVLWEOYNVOESUOUL CUPID AND PSYCHE IN BRIEF T he mortal princess Psyche Psyche reaches for Cupid's arrows was said to be so beautiful in this 3rd-century ce Roman mosaic. THEME that people began to She is portrayed with butterfly wings, True love worship her and neglect Venus, as butterflies represented the soul. the true goddess of love, and her SOURCE temples. Venus was angered by Cupid clumsily scratched himself Metamorphoses (also known this and called upon her son, with his own arrow of passion, and as The Golden Ass), Apuleius, Cupid—a mischievous youth who instead fell in love with Psyche. ca.158–180 ce. constantly caused mayhem with his arrows of love and his torch of Meanwhile, Apollo warned SETTING desire. She urged him to punish Psyche’s father that she was Ancient Greece. Psyche by making her fall in love destined to marry no mortal man, with a vile and wretched man, but but instead a terrible winged KEY CHARACTERS serpent. Psyche’s distraught Venus The goddess of love, who is jealous of Psyche. Psyche A beautiful mortal princess; becomes the goddess of the spirit. Cupid Venus’s son, the god of love; a troublemaker who falls in love with Psyche. Apollo The sun god; also the god of wisdom and prophecy. Jupiter King of the gods.

ANCIENT ROME 113 See also: Hades and the Underworld 48–49 ■ The abduction of Persephone 50–51 ■ Apollo and Daphne 60–61 ■ Venus and Adonis 88–89 Tasks given to Psyche by Venus Sort a pile of mixed grains. Obtain the fleece of a Fill a flask with water Gather a jar of A horde of ants pity Psyche and golden ram. A reed by the from the River Styx. Properina’s beauty sort the barley, wheat, lentils, river magically tells Psyche Jupiter’s royal eagle flies from Hades. A castle millet, poppy seeds, chickpeas, how to safely gather up the above the dangers and turret speaks and and beans into separate piles. golden strands. fills Psyche’s vial. guides Psyche's way. parents prepared her for this her husband was asleep, Psyche where the hostile goddess set dreadful wedding and, as Apollo approached him with a lit oil lamp Psyche a series of near-impossible demanded, led her to the top of a and a knife, intending to kill him. tasks. Her final task was to enter the crag, where she was left alone to However, to her shock, the light Underworld and fetch a jar of beauty meet her fate. revealed him to be Cupid. When from its queen, Proserpina. On her she reached for an arrow of his, she return, Psyche forgot the warning Secret husband accidentally pricked her thumb with she had received to not open the jar. No winged serpent came; instead, its tip, falling deeply in love with When she unsealed it, a deep sleep the west wind Zephyrus picked him. Her hand trembled, and a drop overcame her and she fell as if dead. Psyche up and carried her down to of hot oil spilled on his shoulder. a wonderful palace so magnificent Injured and betrayed, he fled. Cupid flew to Psyche and woke that she knew it must be the home her from her slumber. Jupiter of a god. An invisible voice told Lover's quest consented to their marriage and Psyche the palace was hers, and Psyche traveled far and wide made Psyche immortal, after which invisible servants washed and searching for her lost husband. She Venus finally accepted her. The dressed her, brought her food, and went to the palace of Venus herself, child born of Psyche and Cupid was played music. Voluptas, goddess of pleasure. ■ In the darkness that night, Folklore and fairy tale known by folklorists as the Psyche’s unseen husband got into \"search for the lost husband” her bed, made love to her, and left The ancient Greeks, Romans, and the \"animal bridegroom.” before the light of dawn. This and Egyptians all told fairy tales became the pattern of her nights— with recognizable connections The story of Cupid and sleeping with a husband she never to the ones we know today. The Psyche is an unusual blend of set eyes upon. Lonely and now allegorical element of the story fairy tale and myth—most fairy pregnant, Psyche persuaded her of Cupid and Psyche—with tales of this genre highlight a husband to allow her two older Cupid (love) marrying Psyche human husband who has been sisters to visit. He warned her not (soul) and conceiving Voluptas enchanted into animal form, to let them convince her to find out (pleasure)—is built on a fairy rather than featuring a god. what he looked like. If she did, her tale foundation. There are clear In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, happiness would be over. similarities between the stories however, when the daughters of Cinderella and Beauty and of Minyas tell fairy tales, some Psyche’s jealous sisters arrived the Beast and the myth of Cupid involve gods, so the boundaries and reminded her of Apollo’s and Psyche, which is a tale of between myth and fairy tale prophecy, that she would marry a the widely dispersed type may have been more porous in monstrous beast. That night, when Rome than in other cultures.

114 IMWAYIMTOHOWLNNOFVSIEREELFFOR NARCISSUS AND ECHO IN BRIEF A fter the nymph Liriope repeat the last few words anyone was raped by the river god else had said. She followed THEME Cephisus, she gave birth Narcissus into the wild, where Self-love to a son so beautiful that everyone he called, “Is there anybody here?” fell in love with him. Liriope asked Echo replied, “Here.” As she SOURCES the blind seer Tiresias if her son continued to repeat his words, he Metamorphoses, Ovid, 8 ce. Narcissus would live to grow old, grew more and more impatient. and he answered, “If he does not When Echo came out of the woods SETTING come to know himself.” to embrace him, he cried, “Don’t Mount Helicon, Greece. touch me!” Humiliated, Echo Unrequited love retreated to a cave and dwindled KEY FIGURES When Narcissus was 16, he was away until only her voice was left. Liriope A river nymph, the seen by the nymph Echo, who fell in mother of Narcissus. love with him. Echo could not speak One day, the god Nemesis to Narcissus—as punishment for decided to avenge the scorned Cephisus A river god, who aiding Zeus in his extramarital Echo and led Narcissus to a pool, raped Liriope and fathered affairs, she had been cursed by the where he finally fell in love—with Narcissus. goddess Juno to be able only to his own reflection. He reached out, but could not touch the partner Tiresias A seer. of his dreams. Burning with an impossible love, and with one last Narcissus Son of Liriope and “farewell,” he died of sorrow. Echo, Cephisus, who fell in love with watching, moaned “farewell” back. his own beauty. Narcissus then transformed into the flower that now bears his name. ■ Echo A mountain nymph, cursed by Juno to only repeat Echo watches as Narcissus reaches the words of others. for his one true love in a 1903 painting by J. W. Waterhouse. After his death, Juno Goddess of marriage; Narcissus turns into a daffodil leaning the jealous consort of Jupiter. over the water’s edge. See also: The Olympian gods 24–31 ■ Icarus 78–81 ■ King Midas 90 Nemesis God of revenge, who punishes Narcissus.

ANCIENT ROME 115 SHE YET SPINS HASERATSHPRIDEEARD, ARACHNE AND MINERVA IN BRIEF O vid’s Metamorphoses Arachne was tells the story of a young not of noble family THEME woman named Arachne but her talent had Challenging the gods from Lydia. She was so skilled at made her famous. weaving that nymphs used to come Metamorphoses SOURCES from the sides of Mount Tmolus Metamorphoses, Ovid, 8 ce. and the shores of the River Pactolus the immorality of the gods, with just to watch her work. The nymphs scenes of the lustful Jupiter and SETTING thought she must have been taught Neptune deceiving and seducing Lydia, Asia Minor (in modern- by Minerva, goddess of weaving, their conquests in one disguise day Turkey). but Arachne was offended by this after another. Minerva could find suggestion. Proudly, she challenged no fault in Arachne’s work except KEY FIGURES the goddess to a weaving match. its string of insults to the gods, and Arachne A young woman so, in a fit of rage, Minerva struck from Lydia, a skilled weaver, Minerva, equally proud, then her repeatedly with a wooden with little respect for the Greek disguised herself as an old woman weaving shuttle. Unable to bear gods and their actions. and confronted Arachne. While this torment, Arachne hanged she applauded Arachne’s skills, herself. Minerva then felt guilty Nymphs Beautiful female Minerva also suggested that she and brought Arachne back to life spirits associated with the should show some humility and as the world’s first spider. ■ natural world. honor the goddess of weaving. Arachne insulted both the old Minerva The goddess of woman and Minerva—so the wisdom, medicine, and the goddess threw off her disguise and arts, including weaving challenged Arachne to a contest. and other handicrafts. The weaving match Neptune The god of the sea, Minerva wove a tapestry depicting who had a violent temper. the competition between herself and Neptune to be the protector of Jupiter King of the gods; Athens. Arachne wove one showing brother of Neptune. See also: The Olympian gods 24–31 ■ The many affairs of Zeus 42–47 ■ The founding of Athens 56–57

116 IIDNUPABEYLPOTEOHNDEALTY CYBELE AND ATTIS IN BRIEF T he ancient Greeks saw Cybele’s worship was usually the goddess Cybele as the accompanied by frenetic, orgiastic THEME mother of the gods and of rites. She was attended by ecstatic Cults mankind. She first appeared in women called Maenads, who were Phrygia, now part of west-central known for their frenzied dancing. SOURCE Turkey. The Greeks associated her Her male attendants were called Fasti and Metamorphoses, with the mother goddess Rhea, as Corybantes. These wild beings Ovid, 8 CE. did the Romans, who made Cybele made loud, discordant music with the center of a popular cult from the cymbals, pipes, and drums, SETTING 4th century bce onward. Cybele drowning out all other sounds. Phrygia, part of the ancient played a key role in the foundation kingdom of Anatolia. of Rome: she gave Aeneas her In this altar dedicated to Cybele sacred pines to build his ships, and Attis, Cybele is pulled in her lion KEY FIGURES begged her son Jupiter to make chariot, while the beautiful Attis Cybele The Phrygian great them unsinkable, and turned them leans against a tree. Detail of relief, mother goddess, who into sea nymphs at journey’s end. Roman altar, 295 ce. represented all of womankind. Atalanta A huntress turned into a lion by Cybele as punishment. Hippomenes Atalanta’s husband, also a lion. Attis Companion and devotee of Cybele. Sagaritis A tree nymph; she seduced Attis and was punished by death.

ANCIENT ROME 117 See also: The cult of Dionysus 52 ■ Aphrodite and Adonis 88–89 ■ Vesta and Priapus 108–09 ■ Mithras and the bull 118–19 Foreign goddesses Devotees of Isis were initiated into secret rites that promised a Cybele was not the only imported life after death, and festivals in goddess to play a crucial role in spring and fall celebrated Roman religion. The Egyptian rebirth and resurrection. goddess Isis had a cult following in Rome, especially among The emperors Augustus and courtesans and the lower classes. Tiberius opposed Isis worship When the hero of Apuleius’s novel because she was not a Roman Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass) goddess. They ordered her had his religious revelation, it was temples destroyed and that with a vision of the goddess Isis. statues of her be thrown into the Tiber. Caligula made the The priests of Isis conduct a ritual cult legal again as part of his banquet in this fresco from the Temple strategy to undo Tiberius’s of Isis at Herculeaneum—a Roman policies. Isis remained popular town destroyed by a volcanic eruption. until the rise of Christianity in the 4th century bce. Cybele drove a chariot drawn by Insane with grief, Attis believed blood, which had seeped down at two lions—the huntress Atalanta the roof of his chamber was falling the foot of a pine tree, turned into and her husband Hippomenes, in, and that the Furies—who violets. Attis himself died of his who had been transformed into represented the pangs of conscience wounds. Following his example, wild animals for defiling Cybele’s that plagued the guilty—were his manservants also dragged sanctuary with their lovemaking. coming to attack him. He ran their hair and castrated On her head, she wore a turreted screaming in terror to the top of themselves. The sorrowing Cybele crown, because she built the first Cybele’s sacred Mount Dindymus. buried him where he fell, and he city walls and towers. He dragged his long, beautiful hair was reborn as a pine—the tree that through the dirt, and shouted that ever after was sacred to Cybele. Cybele’s beloved he deserved his fate, and should Attis, a Phrygian mortal, won pay the penalty in blood. Worship of Attis Cybele’s favor with the purity Due to Attis’s self-mutilation, death, of his love. Cybele made him her Taking up a jagged stone, Attis and resurrection, he also came to consort and the guardian of her cut off his genitals, which had been represent fertility. Like other gods shrine. He in turn promised to the cause of his downfall. His reflecting the seasons, he could remain chaste and boyish forever. be seen as dying in winter, and “If I break my promise,” he said, I deserved this! I pay the being reborn in the spring. After “may the first woman I sleep with due penalty in blood! Let the his death, Cybele’s priests were be my last.” Alas, this promise parts that harmed me perish! always eunuchs who had castrated proved too hard to keep. When themselves in memory of Attis. Attis was tempted by a naiad, Attis, Fasti This castration also ensured they the tree nymph Sagaritis, he was kept the vow of chastity that he unable to resist her advances and himself had broken. lost his virginity to her. In her fury, Cybele hacked at Sagaritis’s tree, In the Roman calendar, several thus fatally wounding the nymph days of the festival of Cybele herself, who died in Attis’s arms. honored Attis; March 15 was the As a naiad, her very life force was day Cybele met him, March 22 his connected to the tree. self-mutilation, March 24 his death, and March 25 his resurrection. ■

118 MGTHEITNEHELRROAARSTDIOISONF MITHRAS AND THE BULL IN BRIEF A powerful deity called youth, holding a dagger in one hand Mithras was at the and a torch in the other. These two THEME center of a secretive and implements foreshadow his Renewal exclusively male religion practiced greatest achievements: the throughout the Roman Empire from bringing of light by means of the SOURCES the late 1st century to the 4th sun, and the bringing of life by Thebaid, Statius, ca.80 ce; century ce. He bore the imposing means of slaying a bull. At his birth De antro nympharum title, Deus Sol Invictus Mithras he was attended by a serpent, dog, (On the Cave of the Nymphs), (“Mithras God of the Invincible and raven, and by two torchbearers, Porphyry, ca.234–305 ce. Sun”), yet his temples were always underground in caves. Mithras kills the bull in a SETTING 2nd-century ce Roman fresco from The cosmos. Mithras was a savior who Marino, south of Rome. The size of his rescued earthly creation from a two torchbearers, in relation to him, KEY FIGURES deadly drought. At his birth, he emphasizes his strength. Mithras A god of the burst forth from a rock, already a cosmos; ruler of time. Cautes and Cautopates Torchbearers present at the birth of Mithras. Sol The sun god. A cosmic bull The mythical beast central to the myth.

See also: Theseus and the Minotaur 76–77 ■ The founding of Rome 102–05 ■ ANCIENT ROME 119 The Hero Twins 242–45 The cult of Mithras He who beneath the Mithras and his helpers are also rocks of the Persian often depicted wearing Phrygian The name Mithras is Persian, cavern twists the caps—most likely an attempt but scholars debate how horns of the stubborn to distinguish the cult of Mithras closely the Roman cult and a from other religions of its day. similar Greek mystery religion bull: Mithras! Two scenes at the Hawarte are related to the older cult of Thebaid sanctuary in Syria show Mithras Mithra, the Persian god of conquering evil, too—standing light, the sun, and war. The Cautes and Cautopates. Mithras over a fettered devil and attacking almost total lack of written then shot an arrow into a rock, a city of demons. evidence has led to a reliance causing a spring to gush forth to on archaeological findings to water the parched land. Yet the Images of the signs of the support divergent theories. It world was still under threat. Via his zodiac in Mithraic scenes further is generally accepted that in raven messenger, Sol, the sun god, reinforce the cosmic symbolism of Rome the cult first arose in the told Mithras to hunt down and the myth. In the seven-day week 1st century bce and appeared sacrifice the cosmic bull, which standardized in ancient Rome, and to have some parallels with was associated with the moon, the based on the names of planets, the later Christian belief, such as ultimate source of moisture. worship of Mithras on Sundays the promise of new life after supports the idea that Mithras death; this appealed especially Mithras tracked down the bull was viewed as the sun at the to soldiers, who were among and, seizing it by the horns, rode it center of the cosmos. its first recorded followers. until the beast was subdued. He dragged it back into a cavern, then Every sanctuary, or mithraeum, Initiates worshipped in seized it by its muzzle and plunged included the essential bull-slaying underground temples known his dagger into its neck. At its scene (a “tauroctony”). Throughout as mithraea, which Porphyry death, wheat and fruitful vines these scenes, Mithras is always described. As all initiates sprang from the wound, showing depicted looking back over his right were sworn to secrecy, it is that the sacrifice of the cosmic bull shoulder in the same way that the only from surviving carvings had resulted in world regeneration hero Perseus did when he beheaded and frescoes that the central and fecundity. Medusa. In this way, some scholars myth in which Mithras slew believe that Mithras represents the a bull in a symbolic act of Master of the cosmos constellation of Perseus, which, in renewal can be reconstructed. Sol and Mithras feasted together on its astronomical location above that The images celebrate his the bull’s flesh, but the mythology of Taurus, is said to “slay” the bull, cosmic power in shaping the suggests a rivalry. Both were sun and bring in a new age. ■ universe and heralding in the gods, but it was Mithras who was spring equinox. titled “invincible.” In temples to Hail, O Master of the water! Mithras, the moon goddess Luna Hail, O Founder of the earth! The Sanctuary of the Mithraeum is often positioned over his left of Dura, in Syria, is renowned for shoulder, with Sol over his right. Hail, O Ruler of the wind! its well-preserved stone reliefs De antro nympharum dating from the 3rd century ce.

120 HSSENTAOCTWAUR-EWVOEHUDITTAEOIFVORY PYGMALION IN BRIEF P ygmalion is mentioned in and even brought it gifts. At the Greek sources as a king festival of Venus, after he had made THEME of Cyprus who fell in love his offering, Pygmalion prayed that Ideal love with a cult statue of Aphrodite, the gods would grant him a woman but the familiar myth of Pygmalion as beautiful as his statue. SOURCE the sculptor is only known to us Metamorphoses, Ovid, 8 ce. from the Roman poet, Ovid. On returning home, Pygmalion embraced his statue. To his SETTING Pygmalion’s creation amazement, the flesh was warm— Cyprus, the birthplace Pygmalion was so disenchanted by the statue had come to life. She of Venus. the wicked behavior of the women of opened her eyes and saw both his day—who defied the authority daylight and her true love for the KEY FIGURES of Venus, the goddess of love—that first time. The goddess Venus Pygmalion A young sculptor he vowed never to marry. herself attended the wedding. ■ who vowed not to marry any of the young women The sculptor devoted his hours of his time. to carving a life-sized, snow-white, ivory statue of a woman more Venus The Roman goddess beautiful than any who had ever of love and beauty; known as lived. This statue was so lifelike Aphrodite in Greek mythology. that even Pygmalion often had to touch it to check that it was still Galatea An ivory statue ivory, not living flesh. He soon fell in expertly carved by Pygmalion, love with his creation—he kissed it, turned into a living woman embraced it, spoke to it lovingly, by Venus. Pygmalion’s ivory statue is brought to life by Venus—represented by a cupid in this 1763 marble sculpture by Étienne Falconet—and gazes tenderly at her creator. See also: The Olympian gods 24–31 ■ The fate of Oedipus 86–87 ■ Cupid and Psyche 112–13 ■ Pomona and Vertumnus 122–23

ANCIENT ROME 121 FMOOFER,TTHLAYEKINHEGINCWGOENITTHROL CARNA AND JANUS IN BRIEF I n Roman tradition, a nymph Lead me [Carna] named Carna was born in the to a secluded cave; THEME ancient and sacred grove of Seduction and reward Alernus (a god of the underworld) I’ll come. on the banks of the Tiber River. Fasti SOURCE She spent her time hunting deer Fasti (“The Book of Days”), across the fields with her spear He pounced on her and took his Ovid, 8 ce. and trapping them in nets. All the pleasure. To reward her, he made young men were dazzled by her her Cardea, the goddess of the door SETTING beauty and thought she must be hinge, who opens what is shut and The grove of Alernus on the the sister of Phoebus (Apollo), the shuts what is open, and gave her a banks of the River Tiber. god of the sun. To each of these branch of flowering white hawthorn suitors who pursued her, Carna to drive evil spirits away. KEY FIGURES would say, “It’s too bright out here, Carna A beautiful nymph, and with light comes shame. Lead The ability to banish evil would who became Cardea, goddess me to a secluded cave.” While the prove useful in Cardea’s role as the of the door hinge. young man led the way, Carna protector of babies in the cradle. would hide among the trees and She saved the five-day-old Proca Phoebus God of the sun, vanish from sight. (the great-grandfather-to-be of known as Apollo in Greek Romulus and Remus) from an mythology. Janus and the nymph attack by shrieking owls that Carna then caught the attention preyed like vampires on infants. ■ Janus The god of gateways of the two-faced god of doorways, and doorways, who raped Janus, who desired her as the Carna before making her others had. When he spoke softly into a goddess. to her, she as usual suggested retiring to a cave. But when she Proca A baby; the ancestor disappeared into the thicket, Janus of Romulus and Remus, the saw where she was hiding, for he founders of Rome. had eyes in the back of his head. See also: Hades and the Underworld 48–49 ■ Apollo and the Oracle of Delphi 58–59 ■ The founding of Rome 102–05

122 NSGCOKOARIUWLDLLODEFNOUTDLEMLNNOYDYRTMEAHPAHN SHE IN BRIEF POMONA AND VERTUMNUS THEME P omona was a wood nymph direction. She would direct water Love and fertility who became the goddess from the streams for her trees SOURCE of fruit trees, orchards, to drink. She feared no one Metamorphoses, Ovid, 8 ce. and gardens. She was a nurturing and nothing, except that some SETTING goddess, representing abundance, malevolent god or satyr would Roman countryside. and was one of very few deities rape her. To prevent this, she KEY FIGURES who had no counterpart in Greek fenced herself inside her orchards, Pomona Nurturing goddess mythology. Her name was taken and allowed no man inside. of fruit trees, orchards, and from the Latin word pomum, gardens. or orchard fruit. Despite her precautions, many Silenus Old and lecherous of the young gods tried to seduce god, often helplessly drunk. Pomona always carried her her; so did drunken old Silenus, Priapus God of fertility, curved pruning knife with her, and the companion of Bacchus, and a very small man with an used it to cut back unruly growth Priapus. Without exception, she oversized phallus. or encourage growth in the desired shunned them all. Vertumnus God of the changing seasons, able to Hard to persuade change his appearance When Vertumnus, god of the however he wanted. changing seasons, saw Pomona, he fell deeply in love—but no matter what gifts he offered, she told him to go away. So he tried to trick her into marrying him. He could change his shape into anything he wanted, but no matter how he disguised himself, Pomona would not let him in. Every day he found some fresh disguise in which to approach his love. Finally, in Vertumnus and Pomona (1807) lounge in an abundant orchard in this painting by British artist Richard Westall, commissioned by wealthy classics scholar Richard Payne Knight.

ANCIENT ROME 123 See also: The abduction of Persephone 50–51 ■ Cupid and Psyche 112–13 ■ Carna and Janus 121 ■ Pyramus and Thisbe 124 ■ Blodeuwedd 170–71 Vertumnus’s disguises were many and varied. When one did not persuade Pomona to talk to him, he moved on to another. Harvester Oxherd Vine-dresser Fruit-picker Soldier Fisherman Old woman Vertumnus He pretended He posed as a He also arrived He disguised He turned up Pomona spoke dressed as a to be an oxherd, vine-dresser to pick fruit, a himself as a with a rod and to Vertumnus reaper with a holding a goad carrying a ladder over his soldier in full line; still she when he wore basket of corn. to drive cattle. pruning knife. shoulder. armor. sent him away. this disguise. desperation, he let his hair grow when really you should follow the for her, and told him that she gray and arrived disguised as an example of the tree. If you will take never wanted him to take any old woman. The scheme worked; the advice of an old woman, you shape again but his own. Pomona let in the old woman—and should reject all others and choose was startled to find herself being Vertumnus to share your bed. He Pomona and Vertumnus were kissed in a passionate embrace. loves the fruits you grow, though a good match. Together they held not as much as he loves you.” sway over fruits, orchards, growth, Sinking to the ground, withered and the changing seasons. The and bent, Vertumnus gestured Eventual love annual Vertumnalias, their joint to an elm tree around which a Pomona would not listen to the old festival, occurred on August 13 and grapevine was twined. He tried to woman’s reasoning and so, finally, marked an opportunity for Roman persuade Pomona of the advantages Vertumnus shed his disguise to citizens to give their thanks for the of marriage, and the perils of reveal himself to her in the full year’s bountiful harvest. It was rejecting a suitor. “If this tree stood glory of his divine youth. When celebrated by the flamen Pomonalis alone,” he said, “and was not she saw his true shape, Pomona fell (“priest of Pomona”) in the Pomonal, married to the vine, it would be of for Vertumnus as deeply as he had a sacred grove near Ostia, the little interest. You shun marriage, principal port of Rome. ■ Ovid The myth of Pomona and already a poet. Ovid’s Vertumnus comes down to fascination with both Greek us from the Metamorphoses and Roman mythology found of the Roman poet Ovid. The expression in the Heroides, Metamorphoses is a long narrative letters from mythological poem comprising 15 books and heroines to their lovers. This more than 250 myths. One of the was followed by Metamorphoses, most influential texts in literature, and his long poem on the Roman it has inspired masterpieces by ritual calendar, Fasti. writers, artists, and composers from Dante, Chaucer, Shakespeare, In 8 ce, Ovid was exiled by and Kafka to Titian, Richard the Emperor Augustus to Tomis, Strauss, and many more. on the Black Sea, where he died in 17 ce, unreprieved. Exactly Publius Ovidius Naso was born why Ovid was exiled in this into an important family in Sulmo manner is not known. Ovid (modern Sulmona, east of Rome) in himself said it was due to 43 bce. By the age of 18, he was “a poem and a mistake.”

124 PESAVHREANTLLUDSENAOTTH PYRAMUS AND THISBE IN BRIEF P yramus and Thisbe grew up When Thisbe crept back and found neighbors in Babylon. They Pyramus dying, she took his sword THEME fell in love, but their parents and killed herself, begging that the Tragic lovers forbade the union; the two were not pair, kept apart in life, should be allowed to meet or even talk. Only a united in death. Her dying wish SOURCE chink in the wall between their two was that mulberries forever retain a Metamorphoses, Ovid, 8 ce. houses allowed them to whisper bloodstained hue to commemorate sweet nothings, and each kissed their love. The gods granted this SETTING the wall on their own side to wish wish, and their parents buried the Ancient Babylon (modern Iraq). the other good night. Eventually, lovers’ ashes in a single urn. they decided to sneak out at night KEY FIGURES and meet under a mulberry tree The tale of Pyramus and Thisbe Pyramus A handsome outside the city walls. had a lasting influence, inspiring young man from Babylon; both Shakespeare’s Romeo and in (forbidden) love with his A tragic twist Juliet and the play within a play neighbor, Thisbe. Thisbe arrived first, but she was in A Midsummer Night’s Dream. ■ terrified by a lioness, fresh from a Thisbe A beautiful young kill, who came to drink at a nearby Jealous wall, why woman; forbidden from pool. Thisbe ran into a cave, her veil do you stand in the meeting with her love, slipping from her shoulders. The Pyramus. lioness pounced on the veil, ripping way of lovers? it to shreds and staining it with Metamorphoses blood. When Pyramus arrived to find the bloody veil and paw prints in the sand, he believed that Thisbe had been devoured. Weeping, he stabbed himself with his sword; the blood gushed out from his wound and stained the mulberry tree’s fruits a dark purple. See also: Apollo and Daphne 60–61 ■ Echo and Narcissus 114 ■ Cupid and Psyche 112–13

ANCIENT ROME 125 THOSE WHOM FTOHRE GAROEDSGOCDASRE PHILEMON AND BAUCIS IN BRIEF J upiter and Mercury once Philemon and Baucis humbly offer visited the hill country of fruit, cheese, and wine to Jupiter and THEME Phrygia, both disguised Mercury in this neoclassical painting Gods reward deserving as mortal men. They went to a by Andrea Appiani or a member of mortals thousand doors, looking for a meal his circle in Milan (ca. 1800). and a place to rest, and were SOURCE turned away a thousand times. Philemon and Baucis asked to be Metamorphoses, Ovid, 8 ce. At last they came to the poorest, guardians of the temple, and also most dilapidated cottage of all, to die at the same moment, so that SETTING the home of an old woman, Baucis, neither would be left alone. Phrygia, ancient Greece. and her husband, Philemon, who welcomed the two travelers inside. The gods granted their wish. KEY FIGURES One day, Baucis noticed leaves Jupiter King of the gods; god Gracious hosts shooting out from Philemon’s of the sky and thunder. While Baucis set a fire, Philemon body—and from her own. With gathered vegetables from his only time for a goodbye, they were Mercury God of commerce, garden, and together they provided turned into an oak and linden tree, communication, travelers, luck, the best feast they could for their intertwined in a single trunk. ■ and trickery; one of the 12 guests. When the couple noticed major Roman gods. their flagon of wine was magically refilling itself, they realized they Philemon and Baucis A poor were entertaining gods. “This cottage owner and his wife, wicked area will be punished for who were spared when the its unkindness to strangers,” said gods flooded their part of Jupiter, “but you will be safe.” Phrygia to punish the people. The old pair followed the gods up a mountain, and looked back. They saw the countryside flooded, but their little cottage had been transformed into a glorious temple. See also: The Olympian gods 34–39 ■ Numa outwits Jupiter 104-05

ENUORROTPHEE

RN

128 INTRODUCTION The fall of the Roman The Poetic Edda Anglo-Saxon and Geoffrey of Empire heralds records oral German missionaries Monmouth’s History convert the people of of the Kings of Britain the beginning of the tradition about the Middle Ages. Norse gods. Scandinavia popularizes the to Christianity. Arthurian legend. 476 CE 8TH–11TH CENTURY CE 10TH–11TH CENTURY CE 1136 CE 597 CE 7TH-8TH CENTURY CE 12TH CENTURY CE St. Augustine goes to The Cattle Raid of The Four Branches Britain, beginning Cooley tells the of the Mabinogi, a collection of early the conversion of the story of the legend Anglo-Saxons of Cúchulainn. prose tales, is to Christianity. written in Wales. T he pre-Christian myths of ways that would be acceptable to the worship of some deities, such northern Europe are less well the Church, to protect themselves as the thunder god Taranis and recorded than those of the from accusations of heresy. Other the horse goddess Epona, was Greeks and Romans. Unlike those myths went underground and widespread, none were universally classical civilizations, the peoples of continued to be passed on among worshipped by all Celtic peoples. northern Europe did not have literate the people. Over time, as myths lost cultures until after they became their original pagan significance, Across northern Europe, only Christian in the early Middle Ages. they evolved into folkloric tales. the Celts are known to have had In its zeal to impose the new faith, a professional priesthood. These the Christian Church did not The old religions priests, called Druids, served long sanction the recording of old myths Before they became Christians, apprenticeships during which they and practices; much, perhaps most, the peoples of northern Europe were expected to memorize all of has therefore been lost. Those were mostly divided into tribes and their tribe’s laws, history, myths, Christian writers who did record chiefdoms. They lacked centralized and religious practices. Among pre-Christian myths were frequently political and religious institutions the pre-Christian Norse, on the unsympathetic toward them and that could impose uniformity of other hand, religious rituals were often lacked any understanding of belief. Consequently, there was conducted by local chiefs and their original religious significance, considerable regional diversity. At kings. These old Norse religions so their meanings are now obscure. their peak in the last centuries BCE, lacked systematic theologies, the Celts inhabited Britain, Ireland, and instead focused on ritual Even writers who were not and large swathes of western and sacrifices—of treasure, animals, hostile, such as the 13th-century central Europe. They had no or sometimes humans—in order Icelander Snorri Sturluson, were common pantheon of gods; while to win the favor or avert the careful to present the old myths in wrath of the gods.

NORTHERN EUROPE 129 In Ireland, the The Saga of the Sir Thomas Revolutions in scribe Áed Ua Völsungs, written Malory’s Europe fuel nationalism Crimthainn and his in Iceland, details pupils write the the history of the Le Morte d’Arthur is and revive interest Book of Leinster. Völsung clan. published by printer in Celtic, Norse, and William Caxton. other myths. CA.1160 CE CA.1260 CE 1485 CE 1848 CE CA.1150 CE 1835 CE CA.1220 CE 14TH CENTURY CE The Book of the Taking Snorri Sturluson writes The Renaissance Elias Lönnrot of Ireland collects the Prose Edda—stories marks the end of the publishes the about the Norse gods, Finnish national prose and poems about Middle Ages. epic, the Kalevala. the mythological based on the earlier history of Ireland. Poetic Edda. Historical origins many of these, too, can be placed recorded until the 19th century. Some of the best-known myths and in a historical context. The Ulster For most of their recorded history, legends from northern Europe are Cycle of myths, which features the the Finnish people were ruled by set, and probably originated, in the hero Cúchulainn, centers on Emain outsiders—first the Swedes, then years after the fall of the Roman Macha, a hill fort near Armagh, the Russians—and literacy in the Empire in the 5th century CE. The which was a major power center in Finnish language was very limited earliest legends of King Arthur, for the Iron Age (500 BCE–400 CE). until the early 19th century. example, presented him as a heroic warlord defending the Celtic Britons The appeal of the Norse and Compiling Finnish mythology against the Germanic Anglo- Celtic legends, with their tales of and folklore began in the 1820s and Saxons, who invaded Britain after heroes and dragon-slayers, remains was closely linked to the growth of the withdrawal of Roman forces in strong in the modern world. They Finnish nationalism. Under Russian 410 CE. After the Norman conquest have inspired many works of art, rule starting in 1815, the Finns in 1066, Arthur was appropriated music, and literature, from pre- found their national identity by French and English writers who Raphaelite paintings of Arthurian increasingly threatened by policies depicted him as an idealized and tales to Richard Wagner’s The Ring of “Russification” and reacted by chivalric king of all England. of the Nibelung operas and J. R. R. developing distinctively Finnish Tolkein’s The Lord of the Rings. schools of art, music, and literature. The Norse legend of the dragon- One of the greatest achievements slaying hero Sigurd includes real Nationalist purpose of this cultural movement was Elias historical figures, testifying to its While what we know of the Celtic Lönnrot’s Kalevala, which wove origins in the 5th or 6th century CE. and Norse myths and legends was together Finnish myths and While the Irish myths and legends written down during the Middle legends to create a defining have much more ancient origins, Ages, Finland’s mythology was not national epic for his people. ■

130 IN BRIEF FFEMLRAAERODSTMEHHYTWMHAIERS’S THEME The creation of the world CREATION OF THE UNIVERSE SOURCE Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson, ca.1220 ce. SETTING The beginning of time. CHARACTERS Ymir The first of the race of frost giants. Odin Son of the giant Bor; one of the first of the gods. The most famous of Bor’s sons, he fathered numerous offspring with many lovers. Vili Son of the giant Bor, and one of the first of the gods. Vé Son of the giant Bor, and one of the first of the gods. Ask The first man, created by Odin, Vili, and Vé. Embla The first woman, created by Odin, Vili, and Vé. B efore the Christianization of Scandinavia in the 10th and 11th centuries, the Norse had an oral tradition rich with their own mythologies, which were frequently epic and violent. Even in their creation myth, an act of murder committed by the gods plays a central role. The fullest version of the Norse creation myth is told in Snorri Sturluson’s Prose Edda. According to Snorri, before the beginning of time, only the world of Muspelheim existed, guarded by the primeval fire giant Surt. Ages passed before the world of Niflheim was made. While the myths do not say who or

NORTHERN EUROPE 131 See also: Origin of the universe 18–23 ■ Pangu and the creation of the world 214–15 ■ Cherokee creation 236–37 ■ Ta’aroa gives birth to the gods 316–17 Ymir suckles from the teat of the cow Audhumla in this 1777 depiction by Nicolai Abildgaard. This neoclassical Danish painting also shows other frost giants, descendants of Ymir, being born from the ice of Ginnungagap. what created the two worlds, they caused life to quicken in the drops Audhumla, and she was nourished do highlight the contrast between and they took the form of a giant by licking the salty ice. The four Muspelheim, a world of fire, and named Ymir. He became the rivers of milk that flowed from her Niflheim, a world of ice. ancestor of the race of frost giants. teats fed Ymir. Between the two worlds was Ymir’s descendants By the evening of the first day, Ginnungagap, the primordial void. While Ymir slept, a male and a Audhumla’s licking had revealed Eleven rivers rose from a spring female giant formed from the sweat the hair of another giant. During called Hvergelmir and flowed into under his left armpit, and one of his the second day, his head emerged, this void from Niflheim, carrying legs fathered a son on the other leg. and, on the third day, the whole with them streams of poison. The This was not all: as the ice in giant arose. His name was Búri. rivers froze as they reached the Ginnungagap continued to melt, Búri was big, strong, and beautiful. void, and poisonous vapors rising a cow emerged. She was called He fathered a son called Bor—no from them formed rime (frozen fog). mother is mentioned but she was ❯❯ The northern part of Ginnungagap therefore became choked with layers of ice and rime. The southern part of the void, close to Muspelheim, was hot enough to melt rock, but the middle, halfway between the ice of the north and fire of the south, was mild: here the ice began to melt and drip. The heat from the south The Prose Edda The Prose Edda was written Most of Snorri’s sources are by the Icelandic historian and unknown—some were oral politician Snorri Sturluson traditions, now lost—but his (1179–1241) as a handbook for work shows a knowledge of the composing skaldic verse, a form of older Poetic Edda. Snorri, a bloodthirsty heroic poetry popular devout Christian, framed these in the Viking age (c. 800–1100ce). stories so as to avoid any Skaldic verse relied heavily on charges of heresy: his myths allusions to Norse mythology for were interpreted as stories its imagery, but knowledge of originally told about ancient such myths had declined since the human heroes who used a introduction of Christianity, and variety of tricks to pass with it, so had the popularity of themselves off as gods. This skaldic verse. Snorri hoped that approach to interpreting by recording the myths he could mythology, called euhemerism, revive the genre, but his attempts interprets characters from myth were largely unsuccessful. as having origins in real people.

132 CREATION OF THE UNIVERSE Giants and gods Loki, whose face decorates this forge The relationship between the superhuman powers, and while stone, had his lips sewn together as giants and the gods was a some were hideous monsters, punishment for using cunning complex one. In the Norse myths, others were so beautiful that wordplay to renege on a wager. giants usually appeared in an they became the gods’ lovers oppositional relationship to the or spouses: the god Thor was gods. At the same time, myths Odin’s son by a giantess and also showed them to be similar to all the gods were, ultimately, the gods. “Giant” is the usual descended from giants. Giants English translation of the Norse could become gods—Loki was jötunn but it is misleading: size is born to giant parents. The not their defining characteristic. distinction between giants and gods was primarily one of Although Ymir must have been status rather than power: gods huge for the gods to fashion the were entitled to be worshipped, world from his body, most giants while giants were not. were like the gods. They had presumably a frost giantess, as no race again. Many commentators molten embers that were blowing other beings had yet been created. have suspected biblical influence out of Muspelheim and set them in Bor took Bestla, the daughter of in this story—with Bergelmir as a the sky to light the heavens. They another frost giant of unknown giant Noah. It is not clear if this is a fixed some of the sparks in the sky origin named Bölthorn, as his wife. genuine myth or an invention and these became the stars. Other Together they had three sons, the of Snorri’s, with his Christian faith. sparks, the planets, moved about first of the gods. on courses set by the gods. Heavens and earth The eldest son was Odin, the Because of Ymir’s murder, the This myth also accounts for the second was Vili, and the youngest giants were, thereafter, invariably creation of day and night, both of was Vé. These three gods, however, hostile to the gods. The three gods which are personified as giants. thought the giants were rough and took Ymir’s corpse to the middle of The gods placed the dark giantess uncouth. They killed Ymir and Ginnungagap and made the world Nótt (“night”) and her bright and when he fell, so much blood gushed from his body, encircling it with beautiful son Dag (“day”) in the sky: out of his body that all the frost the sea, which they made from his they followed each other around the giants were drowned except for his blood. Ymir’s flesh was used to grandson Bergelmir, who escaped make earth, his bones made the Ymir is killed by the sons of Bor with his family in a boat and rocks, and his teeth formed smaller in this 19th-century drawing by Danish eventually founded the entire giant stones. The gods found maggots artist Lorenz Frølich. The frost giant burrowing through Ymir’s flesh. is portrayed as ugly and rough, in They bore [Ymir] into the From these they created the comparison to the three beautiful gods. middle of the Yawning Void, dwarves and gave these beings and made of him the earth. consciousness, intelligence, and the appearance of men. Prose Edda The gods used Ymir to make not only the earth but the heavens. They took Ymir’s skull and placed it over the earth to make the sky. At each of the sky’s four corners they set a dwarf. Their names were Austri (East), Vestri (West), Nordri (North), and Sudri (South). The gods also caught some of the sparks and

NORTHERN EUROPE 133 The origin of the gods Buri (giant) Bestla Bor (giantess) (giant) Fjörgyn Odin Frigg Vili Vé (giantess) (god) (goddess) (god) (god) Thor Over a dozen sons Baldur (god) by other lovers (god) world once every 24 hours. The The gods’ final step was to take most magnificent of which was gods also took the beautiful brother Ymir’s brains and cast them into Odin’s own Valhalla, a heavenlike and sister, Máni (“moon”) and Sól the sky to make the clouds. With place where dead warriors would (“sun”), and put them in the sky as this, the gods finished their brutal be entertained with feasting. To well. According to Snorri’s myth, creation of the world. link Asgard and Midgard, the gods both Máni and Sól move quickly built a fiery rainbow bridge named across the sky because they are The creation of man Bifröst. Humans often fleetingly pursued by wolves. Ragnarök, the Creation was not truly complete glimpse Bifröst in the sky, but only end of the world, will follow not until the day when Odin, Vili, and the gods may cross it. ■ long after the day when the wolves, Vé found two driftwood logs while children of a giantess, finally catch walking along the seashore. From Then of his brows the and devour the siblings. these logs, the gods created the blithe gods made Midgard first two humans, giving them life, Fortress of Midgard consciousness, movement, faces, for sons of men. The gods made the earth circular, hearing, speech, and sight. Finally, Prose Edda and gave the part around the they gave them clothes and named shores to the giants as a home. the man Ask (ash) and the woman This was called Jötunheim (from Embla (elm). The gods gave them jötunn, the Old Norse name for the and their descendants the realm of giants, and heim, meaning “home”). Midgard to live in. In the middle of the earth, the gods used Ymir’s eyelashes to build a After they had created humans, fortress to keep the giants out. the gods created their own realm They called this place Midgard. of Asgard, high above Midgard. There, they built their halls, the

TYHGEGDARSAHSOILF OISFTHETNROEBLEESST ODIN AND THE WORLD TREE



136 ODIN AND THE WORLD TREE IN BRIEF the realm of the Aesir family of Known as the Skog Tapestry, gods, led by Odin. Vanaheim was this 13th–14th century textile was THEME home to the Vanir family of fertility discovered at Skog Church, Sweden, The Norse cosmos gods; Álfheim was the home of in 1912. It is thought to represent the the light elves; Jötunheim was the Norse gods Odin, Thor, and Freyr. SOURCES realm of the frost giants. Midgard Poetic Edda, Anonymous, was the world of humans; settled understanding of this. 8th–11th century ce; Prose Svartálfaheim was inhabited by The description of the realms as Edda, Snorri Sturluson, black elves and dwarves; and dwelling in Yggdrasil’s roots and 1220 ce. Muspelheim was the world of the branches gives little indication as fire giants. Niflheim was a realm of to their actual spatial positioning. SETTING ice, freezing mists, and dead souls. Asgard is usually considered to be The nine worlds. Finally, Hel was the Underworld a celestial world, linked to Midgard realm of the goddess by the same by the rainbow bridge Bifröst. KEY FIGURES name, who ruled over those who Álfheim was also probably a higher Odin The leader of the gods. had died of sickness and old age. realm in close proximity to Asgard. We have no clues from the extant Yggdrasil The world tree. Navigating the worlds sources as to the location of Norse sources often contradicted Vanaheim but, because the Vanir Nidhogg A serpent. one another, and it remains unclear were associated with growth and where each of these realms was in fertility, it may have been part Ratatosk A squirrel. relation to the others. It is likely of the Underworld. As its name that the Norse themselves had no implies, Midgard (meaning “Middle Norns Three deities with power over fate. Valkyries Choosers of the Slain. Einherjar Dead warriors. Hugin and Mumin Two ravens who attend Odin. Geri and Freki Two wolves. The Norse believed that the universe was made up of nine worlds, or realms, with Yggdrasil—a towering evergreen ash tree—at its center. According to the “Völuspá” (“The Seeress’s Prophecy”), an eddic poem, this tree linked the nine worlds forming the universe. The poem did not name the nine worlds, but it is generally accepted that they were Asgard, Vanaheim, Álfheim, Jötunheim, Midgard, Svartálfheim, Niflheim, Muspelheim, and Hel. Each world was home to a different type of being. Asgard was

EUROPE 137 See also: Creation of the universe 130–33 ■ War of the gods 140–41 ■ The death of Baldur 148–49 ■ The twilight of the gods 150–57 World”) lay between Asgard and third, Vídbláin (“Wide Dark”); these The Norns the Underworld and was apparently were followed by Vídfedmir (“Wide surrounded by an ocean. It is Embracer”), Hrjód (“Cloaker”), Like the Fates of Greek unclear whether Jötunheim and Hlynir (“Double Lit”), Gimir mythology, the Norns were Svartálfaheim lay inside this (“Jeweled”), and Vetmímir (“Winter- three female deities who encircling ocean or were outside Mímir”). Higher than all the clouds, determined the fate of the it. In one eddic poem, the land of and beyond all the worlds, was universe and every being in the giants is separated from the Skatyrnir (“Rich Wetter”). According it. Not even the gods could human realm only by a river. to Snorri Sturluson, the only challenge a verdict made by inhabitants of the heavens were the the Norns, who thereby As black elves and dwarves light elves who, perhaps influenced represented the highest power lived underground, Svartálfaheim by his own Christian beliefs, he in the universe. was probably subterranean, though saw essentially as angelic beings. not part of the Underworld, which Although they came from Álfheim, The Norns dwelled by Niflheim and Hel both belonged to. they also protected the heavens. Urdarbrunn, the “Well of Fate” Hel was linked to Niflheim by that lay beneath the root of Gjallarbrú, a golden-roofed bridge Creatures of the tree Yggdrasil in Asgard, land of over the river Gjöll, which ran Yggdrasil was home to a number of the Aesir gods. “Völuspá,” between the two realms. creatures that fed on it, causing the a poem from Snorri’s Prose tree constant suffering—it was Edda, named the Norns as Urd Roots and skies seen as being sentient in some (“Past”), Verdandi (“Present”), To complicate matters, Snorri way. The serpent Nidhogg (“Vicious and Skuld (“Future”). They wrote that Yggdrasil was supported Blow”), which lived by Hvergelmir, would be present at the birth by three enormous roots. One constantly gnawed at Yggdrasil’s of every child in order to shape reached into Asgard, another into roots. Four stags, called Dáinn, its life. Their art was described Jötunheim, and the third into Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Durathrór, as either spinning the threads Niflheim. In Snorri’s account, there ran between its branches feeding of life or engravings scored was a well, or spring, beneath each on its freshest leaves. into wood. root: Urdarbrunn in Asgard; Mímir’s Well in Jötunheim; and Hvergelmir In the tree’s highest branches Belief in the Norns gave in Niflheim. Each well had different sat a wise but unnamed eagle, ❯❯ the Norse a fatalistic outlook properties. Urdarbrunn (the “Well of that encouraged taking risks. Fate”) was where the gods met daily The squirrel that Nothing was to be gained by to hold their law court and settle runneth on lofty playing it safe: you would die disputes; the waters of Mímir’s Yggdrasil, and down at your appointed time, no Well contained understanding and to Nidhöggr bringeth matter how far from danger wisdom; Hvergelmir was the source the eagle’s words, you stayed. It was far better to of all the rivers of the nine worlds. die in a blaze of glory and earn is Ratatosk. posthumous fame than to be Things often came in multiples Poetic Edda forgotten because of your lack of three in Norse myths; three and of achievements. nine, in particular, were sacred numbers. Adding to the mystery of the nine worlds, there were also nine heavens. The lowest was variously called Vindbláin (“Wind Dark”), Heidthornir (“Cloud Brightness), or Hréggmímir (“Storm Mímir”). The second-lowest heaven was Anlang (“Very Long”), and the

138 ODIN AND THE WORLD TREE Álfheim Asgard Muspelheim whose flapping wings caused Realm of the Realm of the Land of fire the winds to blow. The eagle and Nidhogg were old enemies and elves Aesir Jötunheim their feud was enabled by a squirrel Midgard Realm of the called Ratatosk, which scurried up Vanaheim Realm of the and down Yggdrasil carrying Realm of the humans giants hostile messages between them. Vanir Hel Because of the attacks made on the tree, Yggdrasil was decaying. It was tended by the Norns, three fate-making deities, who sprinkled it with holy water from Urdarbrunn and whitened its boughs with clay gathered from around the well to preserve them. Their actions kept the cosmos in balance between the forces of destruction and creation. Despite Yggdrasil’s importance, no Norse myth told of either its creation or demise. At Ragnarök— the prophesied end of the world— Yggdrasil would tremble and groan, but it would not fall; the tree was thought to be eternal. Odin’s knowledge Odin ruled the nine worlds from his throne, Hlidskjálf, in Asgard. Two ravens, Hugin (Thought) and Mumin (Memory), were symbols of his mind and sat on his shoulders. Each dawn Odin sent them out to fly over the worlds; they returned in the evening Niflheim Realm of the Svartálfheim I know that I hung, dead on a wind-rocked tree, World of mist Realm of the nine whole nights, dwarves with a spear wounded, and to Odin offered, myself to myself. Odin, Poetic Edda The nine worlds were linked by Yggdrasil, but the exact topography of the Norse cosmos remained vague in literary accounts.

EUROPE 139 Odin hangs from the branches of the water of Mímir’s Well gave wisdom. All those men who have World Tree. It is possibly from this For a single drink from the well, fallen in battle from the episode that Yggdrasil gets its name. Odin tore out one of his eyes and left beginning of the world It means “Ygg’s horse,” Ygg being one it in the well as a pledge. His search of many alternative names for Odin. for knowledge had one purpose: he are now come to had foreseen his death at Ragnarök Odin in Valhalla. to report what they had discovered. and sought a way to defy fate. From Yggdrasil was also a source of his ordeal, Odin gained the ability to Prose Edda knowledge for Odin. Key to this was use runes, which granted him Odin’s knowledge of runes, gained powers far beyond the other gods’. cruelty, their names both meant through an act of auto-sacrifice: he “ravenous” or “greedy.” They hung himself from Yggdrasil for nine Valhalla roamed battlefields feeding on days, impaled on his own spear. The Odin became a great warrior who corpses. At feasts, Odin gave his was known for his “Hall of the food to his pet wolves, subsisting Slain,” Valhalla. The vast hall, only on wine himself. He was also roofed with spears, had 540 doors, accompanied by the Valkyries each so wide that 800 warriors (“Choosers of the Slain”), who could march abreast through it. It conducted the souls of the bravest was a paradise where the einherjar, men killed in combat to Valhalla to fallen warriors, could feast on pork join his personal band of dead and mead. The promise of Valhalla warriors. In this way, the cosmic must have been a comfort to a order mirrored the human order: Viking warrior facing death in for the Viking-age Norse, the chief battle, but most preferred to live and his personal retinue were at and enjoy the spoils of victory. Only the center of society. ■ “berserkers” actively sought death in battle so as to be guaranteed entry to Valhalla. These animalistic warriors worked themselves into a trancelike fury before each battle. Odin’s bloodlust was immense. Two wolves, Geri and Freki, were his companions. Symbols of his Runes horizontal lines, which would These runic letters feature on one have been difficult to distinguish of two 11th-century memorial rune Runes were the individual from the grain of the wood. stones found at Bjärby, on the island letters of the runic alphabet, of Öland, Sweden. the indigenous writing system Runes were more than just of the early Germanic peoples. letters. They were powerful The Norse believed that Odin symbols, each of which had its gave runes to the world, but own meaningful, magical name. in reality they were probably Norse priests used runes both derived from the Latin alphabet. to write spells and in their memorials to the dead. Runes It is likely that the runic slowly fell out of use after the alphabet, known as the futhark conversion of the Norse to after its first six letters, was Christianity in the 10th and 11th originally designed to be centuries because of their pagan inscribed on wood. Runes associations. By the 15th century, avoided curved lines, which the Latin alphabet had replaced were awkward to carve, and runes in Scandinavia.

140 ITNHTEHFEIRWSOTRWLADR WAR OF THE GODS IN BRIEF T he Norse described their The war of the gods began because gods collectively as the of the Aesir’s treatment of a witch THEME Aesir, from which Asgard, called Gullveig during her visit to Warring gods the realm of the gods, was named. Odin’s hall in Asgard. Three times However, they believed that there the Aesir tried to burn her, but each SOURCES had originally been two families time she came back to life. Gullveig Poetic Edda, Anonymous, of gods: the Aesir and the Vanir. could create magic wands and cast 10th–13th century ce; The Norse believed that at the spells, and had the gift of prophecy. Heimskringla (“History dawn of history, the Aesir and This marked her out as one of the of the Norse Kings”), Vanir fought a war over who had Vanir goddesses. After the Vanir Snorri Sturluson, c. 1230 ce; the right to receive tribute (worship complained about Gullveig’s Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson, and sacrifices) from humans. treatment, both sides met at ca.1220 ce. Urdarbrunn (the “Well of Fate”) to settle their differences. SETTING Asgard and Vanaheim— The goddess Freyja was seized Peace and war separate realms inhabited by by giants in Das Rheingold, the first At Urdabrunn, Odin threw a spear two distinct families of gods: opera in Wagner’s Ring Cycle. This at the Vanir and war broke out. The the Aesir and the Vanir. 1910 illustration shows her being Vanir stormed Asgard; in return, dragged away from the gods. the Aesir ravaged the Vanir’s home, KEY FIGURES Vanaheim. Neither side could win, Odin Leader of the Aesir. so the gods agreed to exchange hostages and live in peace, sealing Gullveig A witch and seeress. the treaty by all spitting into one bowl. From their spit, the gods Njord Leader of the Vanir. created Kvasir, a being of exceptional wisdom. Kvasir A wise being created from the spittle of the gods. After the war, the sea god Njord, who was leader of the Vanir, his son Mímir A disembodied head; Freyr, and his daughter Freyja went source of wisdom. to live with the Aesir, as did Kvasir. In return, Honir and the wise god Honir Odin’s companion. Mímir, from the Aesir, went to live in Vanaheim. However, the Vanir

See also: The war of the gods and Titans 32–33 ■ A complex god 164 ■ NORTHERN EUROPE 141 The twilight of the gods 150–57 ■ The game of dice 202–03 The walls of Asgard The Aesir The Vanir The gods hired a giant to Lived in Asgard, one of Lived in Vanaheim, one of rebuild the walls of Asgard the nine worlds. the nine worlds. after their war with the Vanir. They agreed to give him the Descended from Vili, Origins shrouded sun, the moon, and the Vé, and Odin. in mystery. goddess Freyja if he would complete the task in a single Key figures include Key figures include Freyja, winter, believing this was Thor and Loki. Freyr, and Njord. impossible. For his part, the giant agreed to work alone, Associated with power Associated with fertility aided only by his stallion. and war. and nature. When they saw that the giant would finish on time, the gods were unhappy with their hostages. that the Vanir were the gods of ordered Loki to find a way to When Mímir was there to tell him Stone Age Scandinavian farmers get out of keeping their what to say, Honir gave good (c. 11,000–1800 bce), while the Aesir promise. Turning himself into advice, but when Mímir was away, were the gods of Indo-Europeans a mare, Loki lured the giant’s he could only reply, “Let others who migrated into the region in stallion away so that the giant decide.” Feeling they had been the Bronze Age (c. 1800–500 bce). ■ missed his deadline. Realizing cheated, the Vanir beheaded Mímir he had been cheated, the and sent Honir, with his head, back They made a truce by this giant flew into a rage, and to Asgard. Odin preserved Mímir’s procedure, that both sides Thor killed him. The gods head and gave it the power of went to a pot and spat into it. had become oath-breakers, speech so that he could benefit corrupted by power. Odin also from its wisdom. The distinction Prose Edda received an unexpected gift between the gods eventually faded from Loki as a result of the when the Vanir became Aesir and deception—an eight-legged shared the tribute from humans. foal, Sleipnir, fathered by the giant’s stallion. Clash between cults The story of the war of the gods Odin sits astride Sleipnir in this could be interpreted as a mythic 18th-century Icelandic illumination. representation of a clash between Sleipnir was born to Loki while the two religious cults. It is possible trickster took the form of a mare.

142 ITWTHITETUYHRMTNHIEXEDEBDINLHTOOOONDMEAEYNADD THE MEAD OF POETRY IN BRIEF O din was primarily a god The dwarves lost the Mead of of kingship, war, and Poetry after killing the giant Gilling THEME wisdom, but he was also and his wife. Gilling’s son, Suttung, Origins of poetry the god of poetry. All human poets seized the dwarves, took them to a owe their inspiration to Odin’s rocky island, and threatened to SOURCE theft of the Mead of Poetry from leave them to drown as the tide Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson, the giant Suttung. In the story of came in. The dwarves then gave ca.1220 ce. this theft, Odin fulfilled the role of Suttung the mead as compensation a “culture hero,” a mythological for the death of his parents. Suttung SETTING figure who brings a valuable gift hid it in a mountain with his Jötunheim, the homeland to humankind. daughter Gunnlod guarding it. of the giants. Like many other treasures, Stealing the mead CHARACTERS the Mead of Poetry, which is a Odin, a master of disguise as well Odin The leader of the gods, metaphor for poetic inspiration, as a shape-shifter, wanted to steal who turned into a handsome was created by dwarves. The wise the mead for himself. Disguised as man named Bolverk. being Kvasir innocently accepted a handsome laborer named the hospitality of the dwarves Kvasir A male being of Fjalar and Galar, only to be extraordinary wisdom. murdered by them. The dwarves poured Kvasir’s blood into three Gilling A frost giant. vessels and mixed the blood with honey, turning it into a mead that Fjalar and Galar Dwarves, made anyone who drank it either a murderers of Kvasir and poet or a scholar. They told the Gilling. gods that Kvasir had suffocated in his own intelligence because he Suttung Gilling’s son. could not find anyone learned enough to talk to. Gunnlod Suttung’s daughter, who was seduced by Odin. Baugi drilled into a mountain to reach the Mead of Poetry with an auger Baugi Suttung’s brother, who named Rati. Baugi did not truly want helped Odin reach the mead. Odin to obtain the mead, and tried but failed to kill the god with the auger.

NORTHERN EUROPE 143 See also: Pandora’s box 40–41 ■ The many affairs of Zeus 42–47 ■ Odin and the world tree 134–39 ■ Nanga Baiga 212–13 Odin sits embracing Gunnlod and holding a drinking horn in this 19th-century illustration by German artist Johannes Gehrts. The Mead of Poetry is in vessels around them. Bolverk, he hired himself out to help Odin by drilling a hole in the with her, Gunnlod gratefully Suttung’s brother Baugi and agreed mountain, allowing him to enter in allowed Odin three drinks of the to do the work of nine men for a the form of a snake. mead. He took the first vessel summer in return for a single drink and emptied it in one gulp. After of Suttung’s mead. When winter Odin’s escape doing the same with the remaining came, Baugi asked his brother to Turning himself back into Bolverk, two vessels of mead, Odin made give Odin a drink of the mead. Odin seduced the lonely Gunnlod. his escape by turning himself into Suttung refused, so Baugi agreed to After he had spent three nights an eagle and flying away, leaving behind a heartbroken Gunnlod. Discovering the theft, Suttung too took the shape of an eagle and set off in hot pursuit. When Odin flew over Asgard, he spat the mead out into containers the gods had placed in the courtyard. But he was so closely pursued by Suttung that he accidentally spat some of the mead from his backside. This less pure mead fell to the ground and was free to take for anyone who could make a simple rhyme. The rest of the mead, Odin kept for the gods and to inspire those who were skilled at making verse. ■ Norse poetry courage, wisdom, wealth, and Odin gave Suttung’s generosity. Not surprisingly, war mead to the Aesir and There are two surviving genres was the main subject of skaldic to those people who of Norse poetry—skaldic verse verse: it was full of violent and eddic verse. Both styles imagery and has been compared are skilled at made considerable use of poetic by some scholars to modern day composing poetry. similes called kennings—for gangsta rap. Most skalds were example, calling a ship a “sea- warriors, expected to compose Prose Edda stallion.” Each genre relied on verse in the heat of battle to alliteration, rather than rhyme, encourage warriors to fight for rhythm, but eddic verse used bravely. Eddic verse, on the simpler meters. other hand, was always about religious or legendary subjects. Skaldic verse was composed While the authors of most by court poets called skalds, skaldic poems are known, eddic whose main duty was to praise verse was always anonymous. their aristocratic patrons’

144 HWATNHAORDOUDRTLHADMSEINGHHOHAETTMDFSMEAMSIELIIRTREEDAS THE TREASURES OF THE GODS IN BRIEF T he most important of the also made the spear Gungnir, Norse gods were often which, once thrown, never missed THEME closely identified with its mark, and the ship Skidbladnir, Magical weapons magical possessions, all crafted which could carry all the Aesir yet by dwarves, who were skilled also be carried in a pocket. Then SOURCES blacksmiths. The gods originally Loki bet the dwarf Brokk that his The Poetic Edda, Anonymous, acquired these treasures with brother Eitri could not make finer 10th–13th century ce; The the help of the trickster Loki. treasures than the Ivaldis. Whoever Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson, Unbeknownst to Thor’s wife, lost the bet, it was agreed, would ca.1220 ce. Sif, Loki had cut her beautiful hair forfeit their head. as a joke. When Thor found out, he SETTING threatened to break every bone in Eitri went to his forge and, Svartálfheim, the realm of the Loki’s body unless Loki asked the setting Brokk to work the bellows, dwarves and black elves. dwarves to craft hair of gold for Sif. said he must not stop blowing until the work was finished or it would KEY FIGURES Loki’s contest be flawed. Loki, a shape-shifter like Thor The thunder and Loki went to the group of dwarves weather god, worshipped called the sons of Ivaldi, and they Finding Sif asleep, Loki cuts off by farmers. made Sif perfect golden hair. They her long and beautiful golden hair in this 1894 illustration by A. Chase. Loki The enigmatic and mischievous trickster god. The sons of Ivaldi A group of dwarf craftsmen; Norse myth does not specify the identity of Ivaldi himself. Brokk and Eitri Dwarf brothers, and skilled craftsmen.

NORTHERN EUROPE 145 See also: Odin and the world tree 134–39 ■ War of the gods 140–41 ■ The Mead of Poetry 141–42 ■ The adventures of Thor and Loki in Jötunheim 146–47 Odin, turned himself into a fly and Gungnir, Draupnir, Odin’s Sif’s golden tried to distract Brokk by biting Odin’s mighty golden self-replicating hair him. Despite this, Brokk blew steadily while Eitri made a golden spear arm ring boar that could run faster than a Mjölnir, horse, and a golden arm-ring called Thor’s magic Dwarves Draupnir, from which eight equally hammer made the heavy rings dropped every ninth treasures night. Only when Eitri was forging of the gods the hammer Mjölnir did Loki cause Brokk to stop blowing for a moment Brísingamen, by biting his eyelids. As a result, Freyja’s shining the handle was a little short, but Mjölnir retained its great power. necklace The finest work Gullinbursti, Skidbladnir, Freyr’s Loki and Brokk asked the gods in Freyr’s golden folding ship Asgard whose work was the finest, Eitri’s or that of the sons of Ivaldi. boar Judging Mjölnir the finest of the treasures, the gods declared Brokk the winner. After a failed attempt to bribe Brokk to save his own life, Loki ran off in his magic shoes, but Thor caught him. Quick-thinking Loki declared that his head might be Brokk’s but his neck was not part of the bargain. The dwarf saw he had been outwitted and settled for sewing Loki’s mouth shut. ■ Thor wields his mighty hammer Thor’s hammer wished; it never missed its against the giants in this 1872 mark, and no matter how far it painting by Swedish artist Mårten Unlike most of the gods, Thor was was thrown, it always returned Eskil Winge. believed to be unambiguously to Thor’s hand. well-intentioned toward humans. While Odin was the god of kings, Thor delighted in using his warriors, and poets, the ordinary hammer to smash giants’ skulls. farmers favored Thor. Vikings In one myth, the giant Thrym commonly invoked his protection managed to steal Mjölnir and by wearing hammer amulets. hid it deep underground. He hoped it would be beyond the Thanks to its overwhelming reach of the gods, and he used power, Thor’s magic hammer, the hammer to bargain for Mjölnir, defended the gods and Freyja in exchange for its safe humans from the hostility of the return. A combination of Thor’s giants and created order from strength and Loki’s cunning, chaos. Mjölnir was able to strike however, soon recovered it to with as much force as Thor restore Asgard’s defenses.

146 ITTASHHMTIISNIHKWOLIIRNRT?GOTLNTEGHFAINETLLOW THE ADVENTURES OF THOR AND LOKI IN JÖTUNHEIM IN BRIEF Although Thor’s strength, Prose Edda, Thor decided to bravery, and dependability travel to Jötunheim, a land of THEME were renowned, the Norse giants, to test his strength against The limitations of the gods god was also portrayed as rather Utgarda-Loki. He took with him slow-witted and easy to deceive. Loki and a human bondservant, SOURCE Many of the myths concerning a slave called Thialfi. Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson, Thor were humorous examinations ca.1220 ce. of the limitations of brute strength. Giant’s challenge He was often paired with Loki, When Thor, Loki, and Thialfi SETTING who was cunning and clever, but arrived in Jötunheim, the giant Jötunheim, the land of also cowardly, malicious, and Utgarda-Loki expressed the giants. deceitful. Thor and Loki had an disappointment with Thor, antagonistic relationship, but they complaining that he had expected KEY FIGURES made a good team and were Thor The thunder god. frequent traveling companions. Loki traveled to Jötunheim many times. On one occasion, he tricked Loki Thor’s brother; the The combination of Thor’s Idun, the goddess of spring, and she trickster god. brute strength and Loki’s was kidnapped by a giant. Disguised cleverness often brought success, as a falcon, Loki flew to her rescue. Thialfi Thor’s human slave; but not always. In one story in the a farmer’s son. Utgarda-Loki A strong giant, against whom Thor wished to test his strength. Logi A giant who bested Loki in an eating contest. Hugi A small man who beat Thialfi in a series of races. Elli An old woman; nursemaid to Utgarda-Loki.

NORTHERN EUROPE 147 See also: Prometheus helps mankind 36–39 ■ Hermes’s first day 54–55 ■ Creation of the universe 130–33 ■ The Mead of Poetry 142–43 ■ Ananse and the spider 286–87 Tricksters their subterfuges were considered immoral. The Tricks played a prominent role trickster spider Ananse, in the mythologies of many originally from the mythology cultures. Whether a trickster of the Akan people of Ghana, was human, a god, a demigod, became a symbol of resistance or even an anthropomorphized when transported to the West animal, they all broke rules and Indies via the slave trade. defied normal expectations of accepted behavior. Many, When a trickster’s actions such as Loki, had the ability to benefited the human race, he shape-shift. Stories of tricksters or she sometimes became a who achieved their ends culture hero. Examples include through guile and cleverness the tale of the Norse god Odin, rather than strength invited when he stole the Mead of audiences to identify with them Poetry, and, in ancient Greek as the underdogs, even when mythology, Prometheus’s theft of fire from the gods. the god to be bigger. The giant When Elli forced Thor down onto Thor strives in vain to lift went on to explain that the one knee, the god believed he had Utgarda-Loki’s cat in this 1930 three visitors could only stay in lost his strength completely. illustration from a book of Norse tales Jötunheim if they each managed retold and illustrated by the American to excel in some art or skill. Trickery of the giants artist Katharine Pyle. As the crestfallen trio set out for Loki offered to take part in an home, Utgarda-Loki revealed that Thor had drunk enough of it to eating competition against Logi, everything they had experienced create the tides. Utgarda-Loki’s one of the giants of Jötunheim. Loki had been an illusion. The trickster cat had really been the monstrous ate all the meat placed before him, Loki had competed with fire, which Midgard serpent, a creature so whereas Logi ate his meat, the consumes everything. Thialfi had large it encircled the whole world; bones, and the wooden plate, too. raced against thought, for which Thor had lifted the serpent up Next, Thialfi had to race against a his speed could be no match. almost to the sky. The ancient small man called Hugi, but lost Utgarda-Loki’s drinking horn had nursemaid was old age; while age three times in succession. been connected to the sea and would defeat everyone in time, it had only managed to force Thor Then Utgarda-Loki challenged Small as you say I am, just down onto one knee. Thor to drain a large drinking horn let someone come out and in one go. After taking three huge fight me. Now I am angry! As Utgarda-Loki explained, the draughts, Thor discovered that the giants had been so terrified by level of the liquid had only lowered Thor, Prose Edda Thor’s strength that they could only slightly. Utgarda-Loki next asked fight him with trickery. Enraged, Thor if he was even strong enough Thor reached for his hammer, but to pick up the giant’s cat. Thor before he could strike, Utgarda-Loki barely managed to lift just one of had disappeared. He, too, had been the feline’s feet off the ground. an illusion. So ended a myth that exposed the limitations of the Norse Frustrated, Thor offered to fight gods, proving that there are forces in anyone in the giant’s hall. Utgarda- the universe over which neither Loki’s response was that, in view of strength nor cunning can prevail. ■ Thor’s weakness, he would only be allowed to wrestle with the giant’s nursemaid, an old lady called Elli.

148 EGTVHOEEDRSUDNAOLNNUDECMKAEIMENSOTNGDEED THE DEATH OF BALDUR IN BRIEF T he Norse myths recount brilliant that light flashed from him; a complete history of the his voice was mellifluous; and he THEME world, from its creation was the kindest of all the Aesir. Fate to its ultimate destruction at the Baldur was also ineffectual: no one cataclysm of Ragnarök, at which took any notice of anything he said SOURCES even the gods themselves would or did. His role in the myths was Poetic Edda, Anonymous, perish. The eddic poem “Völuspá” simply to be beautiful and loved— 10th–13th century ce; (“The Seeress’ Prophecy”) made it and to die in tragic circumstances. Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson, clear that Ragnarök had been 1220 ce. inevitable since the beginning of Prophecy of death time, but it was the death of Odin’s After Baldur reported experiencing SETTING son, Baldur, that forced the gods to disturbing dreams, Odin rode to Asgard, land of the gods, face their mortality. Baldur, Odin’s the Underworld and revived a long- and Hel, the underworld. son by his wife Frigg, was noted for dead seeress to ask her what the his good looks. Everyone praised dreams meant. She told him that KEY FIGURES him—his appearance was so Baldur would soon be killed by his Odin The leader of the gods. Loki Despite his mischief, Loki was Baldur Odin’s son. tolerated by the Aesir, who found An enigmatic character, Loki was his cunning useful. His most Frigg Odin’s wife; the mother a giant by birth, but Aesir by common role was to create a crisis of Baldur and Hod. adoption. He was as much at by his mischief-making and then home in Jötunheim, land of the to resolve it by his quick thinking. A seeress Prophesier of giants, as in Asgard. Brimming All of Loki’s children were Baldur's death. with malice, deceit, and spite, he monsters: the eight-legged was amoral rather than pure evil. wonder-horse Sleipnir; Hel, the Loki A trickster. There is no evidence that he was decaying goddess who ruled the ever worshipped, and no one has Underworld; the giant wolf Fenrir; Sigyn Loki’s wife. yet satisfactorily explained his and the world-circling serpent place in the Norse pantheon. Jörmungand. The last two, Hod The blind god; brother One theory is that he was a fighting alongside Loki, would play of Baldur. personification of fire, which a major role in the demise of the can both help and harm. Aesir gods at Ragnarök. Hel Ruler of the Underworld.