English Syntax I

86 3) Adverbs as pre-modifies: A noun in English can be pre- modified by an adverb: the above statement the inside story the outside world 4) Determiners as pre-modifiers: The words like a, an, the, this, that, all, each and every are determiners acting as pre-modifiers in the structure of a noun phrase (Thakur, 1998). If there is no adjective in a noun phrase, a determiner can occur immediately before the headword, but if there are adjectives preceding the headword, a determiner can only occur before adjective position: the students his pencil all the students each person no book in that room two people 1.3.1 Post-modifiers in the structure of a noun phrase consist of the following classes (Thakur, 1998) as follows: 1) Adjective or adjective phrase (AdjP) as post-modifiers: In general, the position for adjective in the structure of a noun phrase is pre-head position. In this case, adjectives occur in the post-head position: 1.1) If the headword of a noun phrase is indefinite pronoun: something special nothing new someone really important 1.2) Adjectives like alive, available, concerned, and involved, including adjectives ending in-able and -ible seem to be readily acceptable in the post-modifying position: that old man alive the room available the persons concerned the only thing possible 1.3) Adjectives followed by a prepositional phrase in the form of a compliment are often used in the post-modifying position: people interested in this job a person suitable for this position

87 2) Adverb or adverb phrase (AdvP) as post-modifiers: In the structure of a noun phrase, an adverb or an adverb phrase can be used in the post- modifying position: the man over there the boy outside the person here 3) Prepositional phrases (PP) as post-modifiers: A noun phrase may be modified by a prepositional phrase as follows: the man in the shop the owner of that building the birds on that tree 4) Non-finite clauses as post-modifiers: These clauses do not contain a finite verb, which may be divided into two non-finite clauses (are also called phrases according to their structures) as follows: 4.1) Infinitive phrase (InfinP) as post-modifiers: A noun phrase may be modified by an infinitive phrase: to-v: The first man to land on the moon was an American scientist. There is nothing to do for me. His desire to go to Oxford University for further studies is true. The water to drink is very dirty. 4.2) Participial phrase as post-modifiers: A noun phrase may be modified by a participial phrase that does not contain a finite verb divided into two types: present participial phrase (PresP) with V-ing post-head position and past participial phrase (PastP) with V-en post-head position, as shown here: 4.2.1) Present participial phrase: The man living in the old house is my uncle. I saw my teacher talking to my parents. 4.2.2) Past participial phrase: The treasure stolen by the thief was discovered by policemen yesterday. Naughty boys punished by their teacher are crying.

88 5) Finite clause as post-modifier: This clause contains a finite verb, called relative clause (RC) (or adjective clause according to their function): The girl who is sitting near the window is my student. There is only one thing that is very important. The house which was built by my father is very beautiful. 1.4 Functional constituents of noun phrase According to functional and formal constituents, the noun phrase has four major components, occurring in a fixed order (Kies, 1995-2015): 1.4.1 The determinative, that constituent which determines the reference of the noun phrase in its linguistic or situational context; 1.4.2 Pre-modification, which comprises all the modifying or describing constituents before the head, other than the determiners; 1.4.3 The head, around which the other constituents cluster; and 1.4.4 Post-modification, those which comprise all the modifying constituents placed after the head. To see some examples of noun phrases, examine the following their constituents below: Some Examples of the Noun Phrase in English FUNCTION Determiner Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier (a) lions E (b) X (c) the young A (d) M (e) the information age P (f) L (g) each of the children E (h) some badly needed time with the family S (i) this conclusion to the story (j) all my children FORMS several new mystery books which we recently enjoyed such a marvelous data bank filled with information a better person than I Pronoun Participle Noun Prepositional Phrase Article Noun Adjective Relative Clause Quantifier Adjective Phrase Pronoun Nonfinite Clause Complementation Figure 4.10 Showing functional and formal constituents of noun phrase in English

89 2. Verb phrase “A verb phrase (VP) is a syntactic unit composed of at least one verb and its dependents—objects, complements and other modifiers—but not always including the subject (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2015).” For example, in the sentence: The old man walked to the town, the words walked to the town is a verb phrase, called consisting of the verb: walked and its dependents: to the town, but not the subject: the old man. The predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb phrase. Verb phrases generally are divided among two types: finite, of which the head of the phrase is a finite verb; and nonfinite, where the head is a nonfinite verb, such as an infinitive, participle or gerund. 2.1 Verb phrases with a finite verb A verb phrase is a combination of finite verb (lexical verb) and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence. Here are some examples: 2.1.1 has finished has = auxiliary verb; finish = main verb; ed = verb ending. verb phrase auxiliary verb lexical verb (head) has finished Figure 4.11 Tree diagram of verb phrase with lexical verb and auxiliary verb (1) 2.1.2 has been working has, been = auxiliary verbs; work = main verb; ing = verb ending. verb phrase auxiliary verb auxiliary verb lexical verb (head) has been working Figure 4.12 Tree diagram of verb phrase with lexical verb and auxiliary verb (2)

90 2.1.3 should study should = auxiliary verb; study = main verb. verb phrase auxiliary verb lexical verb (head) should study Figure 4.13 Tree diagram of verb phrase with lexical verb and auxiliary verb (3) Here are some examples of the verb phrases in action: She has finished her work. She has been working for two hours You should study for the exam. According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence, e.g., You should study for the exam. (as predicate) 2.2 Verb phrases with a nonfinite verb 2.2.1 Infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive (to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, an adverb or a noun in a sentence. For example: . 1) He likes to read books. Here, the infinitive phrase to read books functions as direct object of the verb likes. 2) To earn money is a desire of everyone. Here, the infinitive phrase to earn money functions as subject of the verb likes. 3) He shouted to inform people about fire. Here, the infinitive phrase to inform people about fire functions as adverb modifying the verb shout. 4) He made a plan to buy a car. Here, the infinitive phrase to inform people about fire functions as adjective modifying the noun plan.

91 2.2.2 Gerundial phrase consists of a gerund (verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the gerund. A gerundial phrase acts as a noun in a sentence. 1) I like writing good essays. Here, the gerundial phrase writing good essays functions as direct object of the verb like. 2) Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. Here, the gerundial phrase sleeping late in night functions as subject of the verb is. 3) My hobbies are reading book and playing football. Here, the gerundial phrase reading book and playing football functions as subject complement. 2.2.3 Participial phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participial phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence. 1) The kids, making a noise, need food. Here, the present participial phrase making a noise functions as adjective, modifying the noun kids. 2) I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. Here, the present participial phrase mentioning about my exam functions as adjective, modifying the noun letter. 3) The table, made of steel, is too expensive. Here, the past participial phrase made of steel functions as adjective, modifying the noun table. 4) We saw a car, damaged in an accident. Here, the past participial phrase damaged in an accident functions as adjective, modifying the noun car. (Source: https://www.sinclair.edu/centers/.../phrase_appositive.pdf)

92 2.3 Functions of verb phrase Johnson (2013) stated that English verbs and verb phrases perform five primary grammatical functions within sentences in the English language. Verb phrases consist of a verb plus any modifiers, complements, particles, and auxiliaries. The primary functions of English verbs and verbs phrases are: 2.3.1 Verbs as verb phrase heads: According to the first grammatical function, verbs act as the verb phrase head. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers, complements, particles, and auxiliaries including modal verbs. For example: walk will be painted worked run very fast is going listen to the music 2.3.2 Verb phrases as predicate: In the second grammatical function, verbs and verb phrases act as the predicate of a sentence. A sentence is defined as a grammatical structure that contains a subject and a predicate. For example, the following italicized verbs and verb phrases function as predicates: She arrived a few minutes ago. I am glad to meet you. He went home yesterday. John lives in apartment. (Source: http://www.linguisticsgirl.com/grammatical-functions-of-english-verbs-and- verb-phrases/#yVfUFBsEkpL9X6O8.99) 2.4 Functional constituents of Verb phrase In English, the verb phrase has two functional parts (Kies, 1995-2015): 2.4.1 the auxiliary, a grammatical morpheme carrying information about mood, tense, modality, and voice; and 2.4.2 the main verb, a lexical morpheme carrying its lexical information and, usually, an inflection.

93 To see some examples of verb phrases, examine the following their constituents below: Some Examples of the Verb Phrase in English FUNCTION Auxiliaries Main Verb (a) do believe E (b) can go X (c) may have gone A (d) is going M (e) has been waiting P (f) might have been waiting L (g) were hired E (h) are being hired S (i) should be trying (j) might have been being interviewed FORM Modal Perfect Progressive Passive Auxiliary Support Main Verb Figure 4.14 The relationships between form and function in the verb phrase 3. Adjective phrase (AP) 3.1 What is an adjective phrase? Adjective phrases have an adjective as their head, e.g., good at .., very tall Adjective phrases either expand noun phrases or complete the verb (act as the complement). Here are some examples: 3.1.1 They are really interesting. Here, the adjective interesting is modified by the adverb (phrase) really to form the adjective phrase. It is the complement of the verb is. adjective phrase adverb phrase adjective (head) adverb really interesting Figure 4.15 Tree diagram of adjective phrase (1)

94 3.1.2 They are keen on football. Here, the adjective keen combines with the prepositional phrase, on football. The head of the phrase is keen, and the phrase describes the keenness, so it‟s an adjective phrase. adjective phrase adjective (head) prepositional phrase preposition noun phrase noun keen on football Figure 4.16 Tree diagram of adjective phrase (2) 3.1.3 The quite unusually tall boy Here, the adjective tall is modified by the adverb phrase quite unusually to form the adjective phrase. It expands the noun phrase the boy. adjective phrase adverb phrase adjective (head) adverb adverb quite unusually tall Figure 4.17 Tree diagram of adjective phrase (3) (Source: http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/tta/phrases/phrases.htm) 3.2 Functional constituents of noun phrase The adjective phrase in English has four functional constituents (Kies, 1995-2015): 3.2.1 Pre-modification, those modifying, describing, or qualifying constituents which precede the head;

95 3.2.2 The head, which is an adjective or participle serving as the focus of the phrase; 3.2.3 Post-modification, that modifying constituent which follows the head; and 3.2.4 Complementation, (the major subcategory of post- modification here) that constituent which follows any post-modification and completes the specification of a meaning implied by the head. To see some examples of adjective phrases, examine the following their constituents below: Some Examples of the Adjective Phrase in English FUNCTION Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier (a) happy E (b) excited indeed X (c) partly cloudy A (d) young in spirit M (e) very energetic for his age P (f) so extremely sweet L (g) too good to be true E (h) hot enough for me S (i) quite worried about the result of the test (j) unusually sunny for this time of year FORM Adverb Adjective Adverb Figure 4.18 Examples of adjective phrases according to their function and form

96 4. Adverb phrase (AdvP) 4.1 What is adverb phrase? An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. The adverb phrases have an adverb as their head, e.g., very quickly. adverb phrase adverb adverb (head) very quickly Figure 4.19 Tree diagram of adverb phrase 4.2 Functional constituents of adverb phrase In the adverb phrase, an adverb functions as head. Like single adverbs, they modify verbs, adjectives or adverbs including the whole sentence: 4.2.1 He opened it extremely easily. Here, the adverb phrase extremely easily modifies the verb opened. 4.2.2 I‟ll do it quite soon. Here, the adverb phrase quite soon modifies the verb do. 4.2.3 He ran so fast. Here, the adverb phrase so fast functions as adverb, modifying the verb ran. 4.2.4 She was quite unexpectedly kind. Here, the adverb phrase quite unexpectedly modifies the adjective kind. 4.2.5 He came very surprisingly quickly. Here, the adverb phrase very surprisingly modifies the adverb quickly. 4.2.6 Surprisingly indeed, the old man can carry a heavy sack. Here, the adverb phrase surprisingly indeed modifies the whole sentence the old man can carry a heavy sack. (Source: http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/tta/phrases/phrases.htm)

97 To see some examples of adverb phrases, examine the following their constituents below (Kies, 1995-2015): Some Examples of the Adverb Phrase in English FUNCTION Premodifier Head Postmodifier (a) quietly E (b) quite honestly X (c) very hard indeed A (d) however M (e) really early P (f) so very well indeed L (g) too quickly to see well E (h) likely enough for us S (i) formerly of Cincinnati (j) more easily than ever FORM Adverb Adverb Adverb Prepositional Phrase Adverb Phrase Infinitive Clause Figure 4.20 Examples of adverb phrases according to their function and form 5. Prepositional phrase (PP) 5.1 What is prepositional phrase? Prepositional phrase is a phrase that contains a preposition and a complement (or a noun phrase). The Prepositional phrases have a preposition as their head, consisting of an object of preposition (noun or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers. For example: at lunchtime behind the fridge for an interview from eating too much in the drawer in front of the class Let‟s take a look at the following diagrams: prepositional phrase preposition (head) noun phrase determiner noun behind the bridge Figure 4.21 Tree diagram of prepositional phrase (1)

98 prepositional phrase preposition (head) noun phrase determiner noun in front of the class Figure 4.22 Tree diagram of prepositional phrase (2) 5.2 Functional constituents of prepositional phrase A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence: 5.2.1 The girl with brown hair is singing a song. Here, the prepositional phrase with brown hair functions as adjective, modifying the noun the noun girl. 5.2.2 A boy from America won the race. Here, the prepositional phrase from America functions as adjective, modifying the noun the noun boy. 5.2.3 She is shouting in a loud voice. Here, the prepositional phrase in a loud voice functions as adverb, modifying the verb shout. 5.2.4 He always behaves in a good manner. Here, the prepositional phrase in a loud voice functions as adverb, modifying the verb behave.

99 To see some examples of prepositional phrases, examine the following their constituents below (Kies, 1995-2015): Some Examples of the Prepositional Phrase in English FUNCTION Preposition Complement (a) for now E (b) with her X (c) in time A (d) next to the table M (e) into the thick of things P (f) by the time that you read this L (g) before slipping off to sleep E (h) after running more than 500 miles in one week S (i) to whomever it may concern (j) from what I can see FORM Preposition Adverb Pronoun Noun Noun Phrase -ing Clause Relative Clause Figure 4.23 Examples of prepositional phrases according to their function and form Summary Words that are grammatically related to each other in the larger structures are called phrases. In English, the sentences are made up of phrases and the phrases are made up of words. A phrase consists of the head and modifiers within a phrase, its functions, its types, and its internal constituent structures. In English there are five major types of phrases consisting of noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, and propositional phrase. Other types of phrases consist of infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerund phrase and appositive phrase.

100 Exercise 1. Answer the questions below. 1.1What is a phrase? 1.2 How types of phrases are there in English? What are they? 1.3 What are functions of phrases? 2. Identify the underlined types of phrases by putting the letters a-k in the blank on the right. a. Adjective phrase (AdjP) f. Present participial phrase (PresP) b. Adverb phrase (AdvP) g. Past participial phrase (PastP) c. Noun phrase (NP) h. Infinitive phrase (InfinP) d. Prepositional phrase (PP) i. Gerund (ial) phrase (Gerund P) e. Verb phrase (VP) Example: He reminded me to buy milk. ____c___ 2.1 Houses are unbelievably expensive just now. ________ 2.1 A car that won't go is not particularly useful. ________ 2.3 I enjoy eating in Indian restaurants. ________ 2.4 Don‟t you have to leave very early? ________ 2.5 I have a paper to write before class. ________ 2.6 Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual skills._______ 2.7 You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work. ________ 2.8 Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline. ________ 2.9. Tell him not to worry. ________ 2.10 The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt. ________ 2.11. Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy ________ 2.12. She is a very sexy girl. ________ 2.13. The girl in the class is singing very sweetly. ________ 2.14 He enjoys singing a song very much. ________ 2.15 There are some guidelines for giving your life a sense of purpose. _______ 2.16 You will see their real pain behind their painted masks. ________ 2.17 The man hijacking the plane wanted to get to Cuba. ________ 2. 18. I am glad to see you. ________

101 3. Identify the underlined function of phrases in the following sentences by putting the letter a-i in the blank on the right. a. Subject (Subj) f. Direct object (DO) b. Predicate (Pred) g. Indirect object (IO) c. Subject complement (SC) h. Adjective (Adj) d. Object complement (OC) i. Adverb (Adv) e. Object of preposition (OP) Example: The child dancing about the stage hopes to become a movie star.____h__ 3.1 She lacks the energy to write such books. _________ 3.2 The woman stared at me with an angry expression. _________ 3.3 The thief arrested by the police yesterday was sentenced five years. ________ 3.4 The tops of the mountains were covered with snow. _________ 3.5 The party was a dreadful failure because the caterers forgot to bring the tableware. _________ 3.6 I hate camping and nothing you tell me will persuade me to get into a canoe with you. _________ 3.7. The apprentices elected Wilkins Lord of Misrule. _________ 3.8 According to the chart, making supper is Richard's duty tonight and washing the dishes is Dorothy's. _________ 3.9 Thomson was a landscape painter. _________ 3.10. She chased an enormous gorilla around the theatre. _________ 3.11. Her job was to socialize the dogs. _________ 3.12. The committee gave our neighborhood association an award for innovative tree planting. _________ 3.13. After coming here, we will ask him many questions. _________ 3.14 Playing basketball takes up too much of her time. _________ 3.15 Her favorite fantasy is playing basketball for UConn. _________ 3.16 She thanked her coach for helping her to deal with the pressure _________ 3.17 The bottoms of the ocean were covered with a lot of fish. _________ 3.18 The man hijacking the plane wanted to get to Cuba. _________ 3.19 He enjoys singing a song very much. _________ 3.20 Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy _________

102 References Johnson, H. (2013). Grammatical functions of English Verbs and Verb phrases. [online]. Retrieved June 14, 2015, from http://www.linguisticsgirl.com /grammatical-functions-of-english-verbs-and-verb-phrases/. Kies, D. (1995-2015). The noun phrase. [online]. Retrieved February 11, 2015, from http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_noun.htm Kies, D. (1995-2015). The verb phrase. [online]. Retrieved February 11, 2015, from http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_verb.htm. Kies, D. (1995-2015). The adjective phrase. [online]. Retrieved February 11, 2015, From http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_adj.htm. Kies, D. (1995-2015). The adverb phrase. [online]. Retrieved February 11, 2015, from http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_adv.htm. Kies, D. (1995-2015). The prepositional phrase. [online]. Retrieved February 11, 2015, from http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/ph_prep.htm. Kuiper, K. & Scott Allan, W. (2014). An Introduction to English Language: Word, Sound and Sentence. The United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. Nordquist, R. (n.d). Modification. [online]. Retrieved February 14, 2015, from http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/Modification.htm Nordquist, R. (n.d). Complement(grammar). [online]. Retrieved January 14, 2015, from http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/complterm.htm MacFadyn, H. (n.d.). Building phrases. [online]. Retrieved January 20, 2015, from http://arts.uottawa.ca/writingcentre/en/hypergrammar/building-phrases _______. Phrase. (n.d.). [online]. Retrieved January 15, 2015, from http://wac.colostate.edu/books/sound/chapter9.pdf. _______. Phrases. (n.d.) [online]. Retrieved January 15, 2015, from http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/tta/phrases/phrases.htm. Tan Cheng Lim. (2002). Practical English Grammar: For Secondary levels. Singapore. Singapore Asian Publications Pete Ltd. Watcharaporn Nimnual. (2007). English Structure. Thailand. Triple Education. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (June 24, 2015). Verb Phrase. [online]. Retrieved February 10, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_phrase.

103 LESSON PLAN: CHAPTER 5 THE CLAUSE Content topics In this chapter the main topics of contents are as follows: 1. What is a clause? 2. Clause vs. phrases 3. Classification of clauses 3.1 Structure of clauses 3.2 Function of clauses 4. Summary 5. Exercise 6. References Behavioral objectives After the end of this chapter students are able to: 1. tell the meanings of clauses 2. identify the difference between phrases and clauses 3. identify structure and function of clauses Activities and methods In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Lecture 2. Demonstration and in-class presentation 3. Group discussion 4. Work in individual or pairs or groups to practice analyzing English words 5. Asking and answering the questions 6. Exercises both in class and as homework

104 Instructional materials In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Teaching Handbook on English Syntax 1 2. Power Point 3. Worksheet 4. Exercises Assessment and evaluation In this chapter assessment and evaluation are as follows: 1. Class observation 2. Checking exercises and homework 3. Asking and answering the questions 4. Group discussions

105 CHAPTER 5 THE CLAUSE Words, as we have learned from the previous chapter, grammatically related to each other in the larger structures without a subject or without a predicate, are known as phrases. In this chapter, we will take a further look at clauses in which there is a construction with a subject and a finite verb predicate, and they can be either main (independent) clauses or subordinate (dependent) clauses. In English, a clause that can stand alone, and there is a subject and a finite verb predicate in it, is also called a simple sentence which will be discussed in the following chapter on Sentences in English. Now, we will focus on what a clause is, the difference between clause and phrase, the classification of clauses, and different types of clauses respectively. What is a clause? In English there are some definitions of clauses given as follows: ―A clause is a collection of grammatically-related words including a predicate and a subject.‖ (Megginson) ―A clause is a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate.‖ (The Wac Clearinghouse, 2010) ―A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and predicate, and functioning as a member of a sentence. The clause is also the smallest grammatical unit that contains minimally a subject and a predicate, which can or cannot express a complete thought or idea.‖ (Andriyani, 2013) ―A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence, and has a subject and a predicate of its own.‖ (Wren & Martin, 2001:185) From the above definitions of clauses, we can assume that a simple clause is a group of grammatically-related words that contains at least a subject and a finite verb predicate of its own, and a complex clause consists of independent clauses and dependent clauses, which both of them minimally contain a subject and a finite verb. Now, take a look at some examples of simple and complex clauses in English:

106 1. Simple clause: The old man comes from England. Here, the above sentence consists of only one clause which contains: Subject: the old man Predicate: comes from England. 2. Complex clause: I want to know how old she is. Here, this clause consists of two types of clause: Main clause: I want to know Subordinate clause: how old she is (as a noun clause) 3. Complex clause: The old man who talked to me yesterday is my uncle. Here, this clause consists of two types of clause: Main clause: The old man is my uncle Subordinate clause: who talked to me yesterday (as adjective clause) 4. Complex clause: I saw Jack when he talked to the old man yesterday. Here, this clause consists of two types of clause: Main clause: I saw Jack Subordinate clause: when he talked to the old (as adverb clause) Clauses vs. phrases What is the difference between clauses and phrases? To find this answer, let‘s consider these examples of what is difference between a clause and a phrase given below: Clause: Monkeys eat bananas. This example is a clause because it contains the subject ―monkeys\" and the predicate \"eat bananas.\" Phrase: Monkeys eating bananas. This is a noun phrase that could be a subject, but it has no predicate attached to it: the phrase \"eating bananas\" functions as adjective, modifying ―monkeys‖ and show which monkeys is referred to, but there is nothing here to say why ―monkeys are mentioned in the first place. Now, let‘s take a look at these again. Clause: Monkeys eating bananas are very naughty. This is a complete clause that makes a complete sense—the subject \"monkeys eating bananas\" and the predicate \"are very naughty\".

107 Clause: Stop! This is also a complete clause that is a direct command containing a single-word. It seems to have an omitted subject [You] that refers to the person or people we are talking to, as in \"[You] stop!‖ Classification of clauses According to Thakur (1998), clauses in English can be classified from three points of view of 1) verbs, 2) structure, and 3) function. On the other hand, clauses can be classified in two ways: 1) structure and 2) function. 1. Structure of clauses From a structural point of view, we can distinguish three types of clauses in English: 1) finite clause, 2) non-finite clause, and 3) verbless clause. 1.1 Finite clauses ―A finite clause contains a finite verb which marks tense or agreement. Finite clauses can be main (independent) clauses or subordinate (dependent) clauses. Here are some examples of finite clauses in the following sentences: (1): I think that it will be fine tomorrow. (2): Everyone that lives here comes from Cambodia. (3): Some students don‟t understand what the teacher is saying. (4): I will clean this room before she comes back home. Here, there are two finite verbs in each of these sentences, containing two finite clauses in each of them. The first clause in the first sentence is “I think” and the second clause is “that it will be fine tomorrow”. The first clause in the second sentence is “Everyone comes from Cambodia” and the second clause is “that lives here”. The first clause in the third sentence is “Some students don‟t understand” and the second clause in this sentence is “what the teacher is saying”. Similarly, the first clause in the fourth sentence is “I will clean this room” and the second clause in this sentence is “before she come back home”.

108 1.2 Non-finite clauses A non-finite clause contains a non-finite verb which does not mark tense or agreement. In English, there are three types of non-finite clauses (these types are also called phrases according to their structure discussed in the previous chapter): 1.2.1. Infinitive clause (to see, to go etc.) 1.2.2. Gerund clause (seeing, going etc.) 1.2.3. Participle clause which is classified into two types: 1) Present participle clause (seeing, going etc.) 2) Past participle clause (seen, gone etc) Take a look at some examples of non-finite clauses as follows: (5): I want to go home. Here, the non-finite clause to go home is the infinitive clause. (6): She enjoys singing a lovely song. Here, the non-finite clause singing a lovely song is the gerundial clause. (7): There are three people living in that house. Here, the non-finite clause living in that house is the present participial clause. (8): My car stolen by the thief was found by the police yesterday. Here, the non-finite clause stolen by the thief is the past participial clause. In the above sentences, there is only one non-finite verb in each sentence and there is only one non-finite clause in each sentence. 1.3 Verbless clause Petrlikova (2013, 7(1):55) is quoted in Novitas-Royal: Research on Youth and Language as saying that ―the verbless clause is a structure containing no verb element at all (either finite or nonfinite), usually having a covert subject, but containing other expressions which can be identified as a part of predicate (subject complement or adverbial).‖ Verbless clauses are most commonly identifiable that their structures with ellipsis of subject and copular verb be are from TIME, CONDITION, COMPARISON, and CONCESSION (adverb) clauses: (9): When ripe, these durians will be sold in Chantaburi province. (10): If possible, please get up early. (11): She just stood there as if unafraid of what was going on. (12): Though very young, he can manage by himself.

109 These above-italicized verbless clauses with the ellipsis of subject and copular be in each of these sentences are rewritten as follows: (13): When they are ripe, these durians will be sold in Chantaburi province. (14): If it is possible, please get up early. (15): She just stood there as if she were totally unaware of what was going on. (16): Though he is very young, he can manage by himself. A verbless clause (Nakalasin, Utawanit & Iemchuen, 1993) is a clause containing a non-finite verb, which contains a connector followed by a form of non- finite: the -ing form of present participle or the -ed form of past participle with the ellipsis of subject and copular verb be. 1.3.1 Verbless clause with present participles (17): While watching TV, he heard someone knock the door. Here, this verbless clause with the ellipsis of subject and copular be, followed by a form of non-finite verb: the -ing form, is rewritten as follows: While he was watching TV, he heard someone knock the door. (18): Though studying hard, he failed the final exam. Here, this verbless clause with the ellipsis of subordinate conjunction and subject, followed by a form of non-finite verb: the -ing form, is rewritten as follows: Though he studied hard, he failed the final exam. (19): Taking an English syntax lesson, he fell asleep. Here, this verbless clause with the ellipsis of subject and copular be, followed by a form of non-finite verb: the -ing form, is rewritten as follows: When he was taking an English syntax lesson, he fell asleep. 1.3.2 Verbless clause with past participles (20): Though puzzled about his exam result, he believed his teacher. Here, this verbless clause with the ellipsis of subject and copular be, followed by a form of non-finite verb: the -ed form, is rewritten as follows: Though he was puzzled about his exam result, he believed his teacher.

110 (21): Upset by her words, he could control his temper. Here, this verbless clause with the ellipsis of subordinate conjunction, subject and copular be, followed by a form of non-finite verb: the -en form, is rewritten as follows: Though he was upset by her words, he could control his temper. 2. Functions of clauses The second way of classifying clauses is in terms of the functions they can act in the structure of the sentence. We can distinguish the following two types: 2.1 Main clauses ―A main clause is (Parrott, 2010: 384) a group of words that can stand on its own. It usually contains at least a subject and a verb. This is sometimes called a simple sentence.‖ The main clause that can stand on its own as a sentence is also called an independent clause, representing a complete sense. A main clause is a finite clause that contains a finite verb, as in: The prime minister is in USA. 2.2 Subordinate clauses: ―A subordinate clause is (Kotcharat, 2005: 140) a clause that must be used with another clause to form a complete grammatical construction.‖ A subordinate clause that cannot stand on its own as a sentence is also called a dependent clause which contains a subject and its finite verb predicate and subordinating conjunctions which relate the clause to other (main) clauses. Many subordinate clauses are also finite clauses. Sentences in which one or more functions of sentence are realized by a clause (finite or nonfinite) are called complex sentences or clauses. Let‘s consider the same clause with the subordinate conjunction ―when\" added to the beginning, as in: when the prime minister is in USA. In this case, the clause cannot stand alone as a sentence by itself because the subordinating conjunction ―when‖ suggests that the clause is explaining the following time of something else. Thus, this subordinate clause answers the question ―when,‖ just like an adverb, called a subordinate adverb clause. Take a look at how the clause can replace the adverb ―tomorrow‖ in the following examples: (22): The committee will meet tomorrow. (23): The committee will meet when the prime minister is in USA.

111 Subordinate clauses function as not only nouns but also as adverbs, and as adjectives. According to the structural point of view of their functions, we can distinguish the following three types: 1) noun clause, 2) adjective clause (also called relative clause), and 3) adverb clause, which will be discussed in details here. 2.2.1 Noun clauses functions like a noun or noun phrase. According to Wren & Martin (2001: 190), ―a noun clause is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate of its own, and does the work of a noun.‖ Consider the following examples: (24): I know Sam. (25): I know that Sam will come back tomorrow. In the first example, the noun \"Sam\" acts as the direct object of the verb \"know.\" In the second example, the entire clause \"that Sam will come back tomorrow\" is the direct object. 1) Functions of noun clauses In terms of the functions noun clauses can play in the structure of the sentence, we can distinguish the following their functions: 1.1) Noun clause as a subject of verb (SV) (26): What he needs is a cup of coffee. Here, ―What he needs‖ is the subject of verb ―is‖. 1.2) Noun clause as a direct object of verb (DO) (27): He said that he needed a cup of coffee. Here, ―that he needed a cup of coffee‖ is the direct object of verb ―said‖. 1.3) Noun clause as an indirect object of verb (IO) (28): We gave whoever has supported us during the election all the necessary guidance for them to start their own industry. Here, ―whoever has supported us during the election‖ is the indirect object of verb ―gave‖. 1.4) Noun clause as an object of preposition (OP) (29): She is thinking of what she will do. Here, ―what she will do‖ is the object of preposition ―of‖. 1.5) Noun clause as a subject complement (SC) (30): He became what he had been waiting for.

112 Here, ―what he had been waiting for‖ is the subject complement of ―he‖. 1.6) Noun clause as an object complement (OC) (31): We don‘t want to call him what his other friends call him. Here, ―what his other friends call him‖ is the object complement of ―him‖. 1.7) Noun clause as in apposition to a noun (APP) (32): Do you believe the rumour that there will be a revolution? Here, ―that there will be a revolution‖ is the apposition to a noun ―rumour‖. 1.8) Noun clause as the repeated subject ―it‖ (RS) (33): It‘s unbelievable that Jane has refused to come here. Here, ―that Jane has refused to come here‖ is the repeated subject ―it‖. 1.9) Noun clause as the repeated object ―it‖ (RO) (34): I find it awful that Pipat should always talk about his rich family. Here, ―that Pipat should always talk about his rich family‖ is the repeated object ―it‖. 2) Types of noun clauses In general, noun clauses are subordinate clauses which follow the main clause and are linked together by one of the subordinating conjunctions. To clarify this point, we can distinguish two types according to their structures that occur in the sentence: 2.1) Noun clauses beginning with „that‟ clause According to Nakalasin, Utawanit & Iemchuen (1993), the noun clause which starts with the connector ‗that‘‖ is known as „that‟ clause, and the connector „that‟ can be deleted if a noun clause functions as only object of verb. The ‗that‘ clause, as we have seen above, functions as a subject, an object, a complement, a noun clause in apposition to a noun, or a repeated subject or object ―it‖. Here are some examples of noun clauses beginning with ―that (35): I said (that) I might do it. Here, ―that I might do it” is a finite clause acting as a direct object of the verb ―said‖. (36): My goal is that I have to be one of the richest businessmen. Here, ―that I have to be one of the richest businessmen” is a finite clause acting as a subject complement of ―goal‖.

113 2.2) Noun clauses beginning with the derivative questions Parrott (2010:398) stated that ―these noun clauses contain an implicit question and the conjunction we use is either a question word (where, what, when, etc.) or if or whether.‖ Here are the examples of noun clauses derived from questions. (37): I want to know what her name is. (question words) (38): I want to know (if) whether she loves me. (if or whether) Here, ―what her name is” is a finite clause acting as a direct object of the verb ―know‖, and ―(if) whether she loves me” is a finite clause acting as a direct object of the verb ―know‖, too. Sentences that contain these clauses are derived from direct questions, as in “What is her name?‖ and “Does she love me?‖. It is noted, however, that the connector ―if” used in the noun clause functions only direct object (clause). 2.2.2 Adjective clauses (relative clauses) ―An adjective clause (Wren & Martin, 2001: 188) is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate of its own, and does the work of an adjective.‖ An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies, describes, identifies, or gives further information about a noun. (An adjective clause is also called ―dependent clause‖.) All adjective clauses are generally known as relative clauses, introduced by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. An adjective clause uses pronouns to connect the subordinate clause to the main clause. The adjective clause pronouns (Azar, 1999) are who, whom, which, that, and whose, which are also called ―relative pronouns‖. Consider the following examples: Adjective: the red coat Adjective clause: the coat which I bought yesterday Like the word \"red\" in the first example, the dependent clause \"which I bought yesterday\" in the second example modifies the noun \"coat.\" Note that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an adjective usually comes before. In this case, the relative pronoun in this adjective clause is ―which‖, substituting for the noun ―coat‖ and functioning as an object of the verb ―bought‖

114 1) Types of adjective clauses are divided into two types of adjective clauses: defining adjective clauses and non-defining clauses: 1.1) Defining adjective clauses are subordinate clauses that identify the head noun or the head noun phrase. (The head noun or the head noun phrase that is modified by adjective clause is called ―antecedent.‖). Now, take a look at the following notes: Note 1: A head noun (HN) is a single noun followed by modifiers, as in a lovely girl. girl = a head noun a, lovely = modifiers Note 2: A head noun phrase (HNP) is a noun phrase containing a head noun and its modifiers, as in a student of English program. a student of English program = head noun phrase student = a head noun a, of English program = modifiers Relative pronouns which can appear in defining adjective clauses are who, whom, which, that, of which, and whose,. These relative pronouns are used as a subject of verb, an object of verb, an object of preposition, and a possessive. Now, take a look at the following structures of the defining adjective clauses: 1.1.1) Relative pronouns “who” , ―which‖ , or “that” used as the subject of a verb Structure 1: antecedent + relative pronouns (subject) + verb + object or complement I thanked the boss. - In (1) and (2): I thanked the boss = He helped me. main clause; who/that helped me = adjective clause (subordinate clause). Combination: - The relative pronouns substitute for (1) I thanked the boss who helped me. ―He‖ and are used as the subject of (2) I thanked the boss that helped me. the verb ―helped‖. - The adjective clause modifies the antecedent noun ―boss‖. - In (3) and (4): The pencil is my daughter = main clause; which/that is

115 The pencil is my daughter. on the table = adjective clause It is on the table. (subordinate clause). Combination: - The relative pronouns substitute for (3) The pencil which is on the table is my ―It‖ and are used as the subject of the daughter. verb ―is‖. (4) The pencil that is on the table is my daughter. - The adjective clause modifies the antecedent noun ―pencil‖. who = used for person or people which = used for thing or things that = used for both person or people and thing or things 1.1.2) Relative pronouns “who(m)” , ―which‖ , or “that” used as the subject of a verb Structure 2: antecedent + (no)relative pronouns (object) + subject + verb The student passed the final exam. - In (1), (2), and (3): The student I saw him yesterday. passes the final exam = main clause; who(m) /that / I saw Combination: yesterday = adjective clause (1) The student who(m) I saw yesterday passed (subordinate clause). the final exam. - The relative pronouns substitute (2) The student that I saw yesterday passed the for ―him‖ and are used as the final exam. object of the verb ―saw‖. (3) The student  I saw yesterday passed the - In (3) and (6), object relative final exam. pronouns are often omitted from adjective clause. The book is very good. - The adjective clause modifies the I read it last night. antecedent noun ―student‖. Combination: - In (4), (5), and (6): The book is (4) The book which I read last night is very very good = main clause; which good. /that /  I read last night = (5) The book that I read last night is very good. adjective clause (6) The book  I read last night is very good.

116 - The relative pronouns substitute for ―it‖ and are used as the object of the verb ―read‖. - The adjective clause modifies the antecedent noun ―book‖. who(m) = used for person or people (In (1), who is usually used instead of whom, especially in speaking. Whom is normally used only in very formal English.) which = used for thing or things that = used for both person or people and thing or things  = a zero form of object relative pronouns are often omitted from adjective clause. 1.1.3) Relative pronouns “who(m)”, ―which” , “that” or ― ― used as the object of a preposition Structure 3: antecedent + preposition + relative pronouns (object of preposition) + subject + verb + (object) She is the girl. - In (1), (2), (3), and (4): She is the John told me about her. girl = main clause; about whom John told me; whom John told me Combination: about; that John told me about; (1) She is the girl about whom John told me. and  John told me about = (2) She is the girl whom John told me about. adjective clause (subordinate (3) She is the girl that John told me about. clause). (4) She is the girl  John told me about. - In (4) and (6), object relative pronouns are often omitted from This song is very nice. adjective clause. I listened to it last night. - The relative pronouns substitute for ―her‖ and are used as the Combination: object of the preposition ―about‖. (4) This song to which I listened last night is - The adjective clause modifies the very nice. antecedent noun ―student‖. (5) This song which I listened to last night is very nice. - In (4), (5), (6): and (7): This song

117 (6) This song that I listened to last night is very is very nice = main clause; to nice. which I listened last night; which I (7) This song  I listened to last night is very listened to; that I listened to and nice.  I listened to last night = adjective clause (subordinate clause). - The relative pronouns substitute for ―it‖ and are used as the object of the preposition ―to‖. - The adjective clause modifies the antecedent noun ―song‖. who(m) = used for person or people (In (1), who is usually used instead of whom, especially in speaking. Whom is normally used only in very formal English.) which = used for thing or things that = used for both person or people and thing or things  = a zero form used for the omitted object relative pronouns from adjective clause. 1.1.4) Relative pronouns “whose” used to show as possession Structure 4: antecedent + relative pronouns (possessive) + noun(phrase) + subject + verb He is the man. - In (1), (2), and (3): He is the His wallet was stolen. man; The professor is from England; and This is the room = Combination: main clause;; whose wallet was (1) He is the man whose wallet was stolen. stolen; whose course I‟m taking; and whose wall is very colorful = The professor is from England. adjective clause (subordinate I‘m taking his course. clause). - In (1) and (2), the relative Combination: pronouns substitute for ―his‖ and (2) The professor whose course I‟m taking is in (3) for ―its‖ and all are used to from English.

118 This is the room. show possession. Its wall is very colorful. - The adjective clause modifies the Combination: antecedent noun ―man‖, ―professor‖, and ―room‖ (3) This is the room whose wall is very colorful. respectively. - Whose is always connected to a noun: his wallet > whose wallet his course > whose course - In (3), whose generally modifies people, but it may also be used to modify things 1.1.5 Adverb relative pronouns “where” used to modify a place, ―when” used to modify a year, or “why” used to modify a reason Structure 5: antecedent (place/time/reason) + relative pronouns + subject + verb The building is very modern. - In (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), (6) and He lives there (in that building). (7): The building is very modern = main clause; where he lives; in Combination: which he lives; that he lives in and (1) The building where he lives is very modern.  he lives in = adjective clause (2) The building in which he lives is very (subordinate clause). modern. - In (5), object relative pronouns (3) The building which he lives in is very are often omitted from adjective modern. clause. (4) The building that he lives in is very modern. - In (2), (3), (4): and (5): as we (5) The building  he lives in is very modern. have seen in the structure 3, the adjective clauses beginning with 1974 is the year. ―where‖, ―when‖, or ―why‖ could I was born in that year. also be ―in which‖, or ―at which‖, and those with ―why‖ could be Combination: ―for which‖. (6) 1974 is the year when I was born. - The relative pronouns in the

119 The teacher could give the reason. adjective clauses are used to modify ―building‖. He failed the exam for some reason. - The adverb relative Combination: pronouns:―Where‖, ―when‖, or ―why‖ are used in an adjective (7) The teacher could give the reason why he clause to modify a noun of place failed the exam. (city, school, room, house, etc.), a noun of time (day, time, year, etc.), or a noun of reason. (Source: adapted from Azar , 1999 ; Nakalasin, Utawanit, & Iemchuen, 1993) 1.2) Non-defining adjective clauses (Parrott, 2010) are subordinate clauses which simply provide additional information to the information in the main clause. In general, we use a comma to separate these clauses from the main clause. 1.2.1) Punctuating adjective clauses generally provide the following guidelines for the punctuation of adjective clauses (Azar, 1999: 281): (1) DO NOT USE COMMA IF the adjective clause in necessary to identify the noun it modifiers (as we have seen in the defining adjective clauses). (2) USE CAMMAS IF the adjective clause simply gives additional information and is not necessary to identify the noun it modifiers (which is called non-defining adjective clause).

120 Here are some examples of comparing defining and non-defining adjective clauses: The professor is an excellent lecturer. - In (1): No commas are used He teaches English Literature. because the adjective clause Combination: is necessary to identify which (1) The professor who teaches English Literature is excellent the professor meant. lecturer. - In (2): Commas are used because it is not necessary to Professor William is an excellent lecturer. identify Professor William. He teaches English Literature. We already know who he is Combination: and what his name is. The (2) Professor William, who teaches English Literature, is adjective clause simply gives excellent lecturer. additional information. Bangkok is the capital of Thailand. - In (3): no commas, as we It is one of the most amazing cities in the world. have seen in (2), are used because it is not necessary to Combination: identify Bangkok. We (3) Bangkok, which is one of the most amazing cities in the already know what it is: it is a world, is the capital of Thailand. proper name of city. The man teaches English Syntax 1. - In (4), (5), and (6): If no I met him yesterday. commas are used, any Combination: possible relative pronoun may (4) The man who(m) I met yesterday teaches English Syntax be used in the adjective is excellent lecturer. clause. (5) The man that I met yesterday teaches English Syntax is - In (6): Object relative excellent lecturer. pronouns may be omitted. - In (7): If commas are (6) The man  I met yesterday teaches English Syntax is necessary, the relative pronoun ―that‖ may not be excellent lecturer. Dr. Eke teaches English Syntax 1. used, and object relative I met him yesterday. pronouns cannot be omitted (only ―who‖, ―whom‖, Combination: ―which‖, ―whose‖, ―where‖, (7) Dr. Eke, who (m) I met yesterday, teaches English ―when‖, or ―why‖ may be Syntax. used).

121 2.2.3 Adverb clauses ―are a category of subordinate clauses. (Parrott, 2010: 386) They are linked to main clause and tell us something about the information in that main clause.‖ An adverb clause is a group of words which consist of a subject and a predicate of its own, and functions as an adverb to modify a main clause. Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example: Adverb Dr. John works here. Adverb clause: Dr. John, works where he likes. 1) Types of adverb clauses contain subordinating conjunctions that may consist of one word or two or more words. They link two clauses of unequal importance. When the adverb (the subordinate) clause comes before the main clause, it is generally separated from the main clause by a comma. Here are the following types of adverb clauses: Types Conjunctions Examples Time (1) when (1) When I saw her, I spoke to her. (2) before (2) I will finish this before my mother come. (3) after (3) She did not speak to me after we had quarreled. (4) as (4) Someone knocked the door as I was watching TV. (5) while (5) While I was walking along the street, I saw an accident. (6) until (6) I will stay here until you return. (7) since (7) I have been here since I was young. (8) as soon as (8) As soon as I completed my work, I will go to bed. (9) whenever (9) You can come here whenever you want. Place (10) where (10) Sit down where you are pleased. (11) wherever (11) Wherever you go, I shall follow you.

122 Types Conjunctions Examples Cause (12) because (12) She ran away because she was afraid. (13) since (13) She believed his story since he always told the truth. (14) as (14) As it was beginning to rain, we waited a while. Purpose (15) so that (15) He studied hard so that he might get the high (16) in order that grade. (16) He works hard in order that he may succeed. Result (17) so that (17) He received his wages yesterday, so that he can now pay what he owed me. (18) so……that (18) He was so tired that he could not stand. (19) such…..that (19) He is such a clever boy that he can answer almost any question. Concession (20) though (20) His father still trusted him though he had deceived him. Comparison (21) although (21) Although he is rich, he is unhappy. - manner (22) even though (22) Even though men were three days without - degree water, they managed to survive. (23) even if (23) She did not be angry with me even if I did not repay the money. (24) however + (24) However hard he tries, he never seems to adj or adv succeed. (25) whatever (25) Whatever you say, I will not believe you. (26) as (26) She will do as she is told. (27) as if (27) He behaved as if he were my boss. (28) as though (28) She stood as though she turned to stone. (29) as…….as (29) The boy ran as fast as he could. (30) not so…..as (30) He is not so prudent as he ought to be. (31) than (31) She is older than I am.

123 Types Conjunctions Examples Condition (32) if (32) You will pass if you work hard. (33) if only (33) If only he hadn‟t made that mistake, we had been happy now. (34) as long as (34) They will succeed as long as they work hard. (35) unless (35) He cannot see unless he wears glasses. (if…not) (36) Providing (that) you return it next week, I will (36) providing lend you the book. (37) You may take this book today provided (that) (that) you return it tomorrow. (37) provided (38) Supposing it rains, what shall we do? (that) (38) supposing (that) 2) The relationships between adverb (subordinate) clauses and main clause can answer the following questions: \"when?\", \"where?\", \"why?\", \"with what purpose/result?\", and \"under what conditions?\": Time After he married my sister, John went to England with her. Adverb (Subordinate) clause Main clause Here, the adverb (subordinate) clause “after he married my sister” modifiers the main clause “John went to England with her” and answers the question \"when?‖. Note the change in word order–an adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main part of the sentence. Place Sit down where you are pleased. Main clause Adverb (Subordinate) clause Here, the adverb (subordinate) clause ―where you are pleased‖ modifiers the main clause ―Sit down‖ and answers the question \"where?\".

124 Cause because it is transparent. We can see through this window Main clause Adverb (Subordinate) clause Here, the adverb(subordinate) clause ―because the uncle has murdered Hamlet‟s father” modifies the main clause “Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle” and answers the question \"why?\". Result that we can see through it. The window is so transparent Main clause Adverb (Subordinate) clause Here, the adverb (subordinate) clause “so….that we can see through it” modifiers the main clause “The window is transparent” and answers the question \"with what result?\" Condition I will go back if she asks me. Adverb (Subordinate) clause Main clause Here, the adverb (subordinate) clause ―if she asks me‖ modifiers the main clause ―I will go back‖ and answers the question \"under what conditions?\". Note that Some adverb clauses of place modify only verb or verbal with which they occur, as in: I will go where I want to go. (modifying the verb ‗will go’) I expect you to sit where I have told you. (modifying the verbal ‗to sit’)

125 Summary A clause is a group of grammatically-related words that contains at least a subject and a finite verb predicate of its own, Clauses in which there is nearly always a construction with a subject and a predicate, and they can be either main (independent) clauses or subordinate (dependent) clauses. A clause that can stand alone is also called a simple sentence. Clauses can be classified in two ways: 1) structure and 2) function. According to their structures, clauses are classified into three structures: 1) finite clause, 2) non-finite clause, and 3) verbless clause. in terms of the functions they can play in the structure of the sentence, we can distinguish the following two types: main clause is a group of words that can stand on its own, containing at least a subject and a verb, and subordinate clause used with another clause to form a complete grammatical construction cannot stand on its own as a sentence (which is also called a dependent clause which contains a subject and its finite verb predicate). Subordinate clauses are classified into three types: noun clause, adjective clause (relative clause) and adverb clause. Exercise 1. What is a clause? 2. What is the difference between phrase and clause? 3. How many ways can clauses be classified? What are they? 4. What is a main clause? 5. What is a subordinate clause? And how many types of subordinate clauses are there? 6. Underline noun clauses in each sentence. Then identify the function of the underlined noun clauses. Ex. What he said is not true. (1) Noun clause: What he said. (2) Function: Subject of the verb ―is‖

126 6.1 John did not get what his father was trying to tell him. (1) Noun clause: _____________________________________________ (2) Function: __________________________________________________ 6.2 The problem is when you can give me the answer. (1) Noun clause: _____________________________________________ (2) Function: __________________________________________________ 6.3 I‘d like to know where you keep all those books. (1) Noun clause: _____________________________________________ (2) Function: __________________________________________________ 6.4 It is the question is why I can‘t accept his idea. (1) Noun clause: _____________________________________________ (2) Function: __________________________________________________ 6.5 Do you know who that man is? (1) Noun clause: _____________________________________________ (2) Function: __________________________________________________ 7. Identify the adjective clauses with [ ] and circle the head noun or the head noun phrase for each adjective clause. Ex. Mackey‘s advisors are the members of the staff [whom/ that he plays golf with]. 7.1 The results led him into difficulties which/that he could not escape from. 7.2 No cancer which/that I have ever heard of disappears when doctor X arrives and reappears when he leaves. 7.3 Dogs soon know the persons whom/that they are kindly treated by. 7.4 This is the date which/that my father will come from Australia on. 7.5 This is the house which/that my friend lives in.

127 8. Study the following sentences carefully and then analyze their syntactic constituents by 1) separating the sentence into one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses, 2) identifying what is modified; and 3) breaking the sentence into two or more smaller simple sentences. Ex. 0. The teacher who is teaching English works in Buriram Rajabhat University. 1) The sentence is composed of two clauses: (1) Main clause: The teacher works in Buriram Rajabhat University (2) Subordinate clause: who is teaching English 2) What is modified: teacher 3) This sentence is broken into two smaller simple sentences: (1) The teacher works in Buriram Rajabhat University. (2) He is teaching English. 8.1 A passport is a special paper that permits a citizen to travel in other countries. 1) The sentence is composed of two clauses: (1) Main clause: (2) Subordinate clause: 2) What is modified: 3) This sentence is broken into two smaller simple sentences: (1) (2) 8.2 The man who hijacked the plane wanted to get to Cuba. 1) The sentence is composed of two clauses: (1) Main clause: (2) Subordinate clause: 2) What is modified: 3) This sentence is broken into two smaller simple sentences: (1) (2)

128 8.3The man who lives next door has the radio on all night. 1) The sentence is composed of two clauses: (1) Main clause: (2) Subordinate clause: 2) What is modified: 3) This sentence is broken into two smaller simple sentences: (1) (2) 8.4 The team that won the championship got a great reception. 1) The sentence is composed of two clauses: (1) Main clause: (2) Subordinate clause: 2) What is modified: 3) This sentence is broken into two smaller simple sentences: (1) (2) 8.5 He bought the new house which your father built. 1) The sentence is composed of two clauses: (1) Main clause: (2) Subordinate clause: 2) What is modified: 3) This sentence is broken into two smaller simple sentences: (1) (2)

129 9. Identify the adverb clauses in each sentence, telling what type they are and what they modify. Ex. 0. I waited for my friend until he came. (1) Adverb clause: until he came (2) Type: time (3) What is modified: I waited for my friend 9.1 I am as strong as you are. (1) Adverb clause: ___________________________________________ (2) Type: ___________________________________________ (3) What is modified: _____________________________________________ 9.2 As he was not there, I spoke to his brother. (1) Adverb clause: ___________________________________________ (2) Type: ___________________________________________ (3) What is modified: _____________________________________________ 9.3 Read the paper while you are waiting. (1) Adverb clause: ___________________________________________ (2) Type: ___________________________________________ (3) What is modified: _____________________________________________ 9.4 Although he knew the answer, he did not raise his hand. (1) Adverb clause: ___________________________________________ (2) Type: ___________________________________________ (3) What is modified: _____________________________________________ 9.5 I drove off the road so that the trailer truck could pass. (1) Adverb clause: ___________________________________________ (2) Type: ___________________________________________ (3) What is modified: _____________________________________________

130 10. Combine the sentences into one sentence by using the type of adverb clause given. Ex. 0. Comparison (1) The boy ran fast. (2) He could run. Combination: The boy ran as fast as he could. 10.1 Purpose (1) He worked hard. (2) He might win the prize. Combination: _________________________________________________________ 10.2 Result (1) It was a miserable day. (2) We decide to go to the cinema. Combination: _________________________________________________________ 10.3 Place (1) I hid it somewhere. (2) You will never find it. Combination: _________________________________________________________ 10.4 Condition (1) You will be punished. (2) You were not quiet. Combination: _________________________________________________________

131 10.5 Cause (1) We were frightened by the tiger. (2) We ran into our tents and fetched the guns. Combination: _________________________________________________________ 10.6 Time (1) We were walking along the street. (2) We saw an accident. Combination: _________________________________________________________

132 References Andriyani, E. (April 09, 2013). Syntax-clauses. [online]. Retrieved June 14, 2015, from http://www.slideshare.net/Andriyanieka12/11-syntax-clauses-18509483 Azar, B.S. (1999). Understanding and Using English Grammar. 3rd ed. USA: Pearson Education. Cambridge Dictionaries Online. (2015). Clauses: finite and non-finite. [online]. Retrieved March 13, 2015, from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar /british-grammar/clauses-finite-and-non-finite. Kotcharat, S. (2005). English Syntax. The faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. Buriram Rajabhat University. Megginson, D. (n.d.). Building clauses. [online]. Retrieved August 10, 2015, from http://arts.uottawa.ca/writingcentre/en/hypergrammar/building-clauses. Nakalasin, R., Utawanit, K., & Iemchuen, Y. (1993). Practical English Structure. 7th ed. Bangkok: Thammasat University. Parrott, M. (2010). Grammar for English Language Teachers: with exercises and a key. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Petrlikova, J. (Novitas-ROYAL; April 2013, Vol. 7 Issue 1, p55-63). Dependent Verbless clause: its Structures, Function and Use. [online]. Retrieved February 12, 2015, from http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/87684352 /dependent-verbless-clause-structure-function-use. Thakur, D. (1998). Linguistics Simplified: Syntax. Patna:Shree Mudran. The WAC Clearinghouse. ( July 4, 2010). Basic Clause Patterns. [online]. Retrieved January 13, 2015, from http://wac.colostate.edu/search/ index.cfm?q=basic%20clause%20patterns. Wren, P.C. & Martin, H. (2001). High School English Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd.

LESSON PLAN: CHAPTER 6 THE SENTENCE Content topics In this chapter the main topics of contents are as follows: 1. What is a sentence? 2. The classification of the sentence 3. The sentence constituent and word order 4. The basic sentence constituents 5. The syntactic analysis of the simple sentence structures 6. Analyzing the simple sentence structures 7. Summary 8. Exercise 9. References Behavioral objectives After the end of this chapter students are able to: 1. tell the meanings of sentence 2. identify the classification of the sentence 3. identify the sentence constituents and word order 4. analyze the simple sentence structures Activities and methods In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Lecture 2. Demonstration and in-class presentation 3. Group discussion 4. Work in individual or pairs or groups to practice analyzing English words 5. Asking and answering the questions 6. Exercises both in class and as homework

132 Instructional materials In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Teaching Handbook on English Syntax 1 2. Power Point 3. Worksheet 4. Exercises Assessment and evaluation In this chapter assessment and evaluation are as follows: 1. Class observation 2. Checking exercises and homework 3. Asking and answering the questions 4. Group discussions

133 CHAPTER 6 THE SENTENCE As we have seen in the previous chapter, a group of grammatically-related words containing a subject and a finite verb predicate of its own is called a main clause or an independent clause. On other hands, other clauses that cannot stand on its own must be always embedded in the main clause are called ‗subordinate clauses or dependent clauses‘. In this chapter, we will study in details the main clause—making complete sense— that is called a ‗sentence‘. In this case, we will take a look at what a sentence is, the classification of sentences, and the sentence constituents respectively. One of sentence constituents is the SIMPLE SENTENCE constituents will be mainly discussed. What is a sentence? What is a sentence? To answer this question, take a look at the following some definitions of a sentence as follows: ―When we speak or write, we use words. We generally use these words in groups; as: Little Jack Horner sat in a corner. A group of words like this, which makes complete sense, is called a sentence.‖ (Wren & Martin, 2001: 1) ―In simple terms, a sentence is a set of words that contain: a subject (what the sentence is about, the topic of the sentence) and a predicate (what is said about the subject).‖ (EnglishClub, 1997-2015) ―A sentence is ‗an independent linguistic form, not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form‘.‖ (Bloomfield, 1935; cited in Varshney, 2000-2001: 217) As the definitions mentioned above, a sentence can be defined as a group of grammatically-related linguistic words which make a complete sense. This reason is that a sentence is also called a main (independent) clause that contains a subject and a predicate of its own. It does not need to be embedded in other structures of phrases or clauses. It can occur independently and express one complete thought when we speak or write.