English Syntax I

35 1.2) Suffixes added to a noun to form a noun —they are the derivational suffixes added to a noun to form a noun, which are shown below. Suffixes Meanings Nouns Nouns -ian, -an from; typical of , person Asia Asian India Indian -dom area ruled by, Canada Canadian -ese person or language America American -ess Africa African -ish female king kingdom -hood China Chinese -ism person or language Japan Japanese -ist Vietnam Vietnamese -ship the state or the quality of host hostess lion lioness action or state, method or act actress practice or belief Spain Spanish person who acts or Sweden Swedish practices or believes in Poland Polish something child childhood the state or quality of, man manhood status boy boyhood Buddha Buddhism hero heroism sex sexism art artist tour tourist Buddha Buddhist friend friendship member membership citizen citizenship

36 1.3) Suffixes added to an adjective to form a noun—they are the derivational suffixes added to an adjective to form a noun, which are shown below. Suffixes Meanings Adjectives Nouns -dom the condition or state of, wise wisdom the group of free freedom official officialdom -ty, -ity the quality or state of difficult difficulty human humanity active activity honest honesty humid humidity pure purity -ness the quality; state or good goodness character of sad sadness kind kindness happy happiness 2) Verbalization A process of forming a verb by adding some derivational suffixes to another word class is called a „verbalization‟. It can be classified into two main groups as follows: 2.1) Suffixes added to a noun to form a verb—they are the derivational suffixes added to a noun to form a verb, which are shown below. Suffixes Meanings Nouns Verbs -ate to give the thing or quality origin originate mentioned to motive motivate -ify facility facilitate to produce a state or quality simple simplify beauty beautify class classify

37 Suffixes Meanings Nouns Verbs -ize, -ise Cause to be, make like, drama dramatize change into, place in computer computerize economy economize critic criticize 2.2) Suffixes added to an adjective to form a verb—they are the derivational suffixes added to a noun to form a verb, which are shown below. Suffixes Meanings Adjectives Verbs -ate, -iate to give the thing or quality active activate mentioned to different differentiate -ize, -ise valid validate cause to be, make like, liquid liquidate -ify change into, place in modern modernize -en global globalize to produce a state or quality central centralize general generalize make or become, pure purify cause to be intense intensify clear clarify dark darken sharpen sharpen loose loosen short shorten 3) Adjectivalization A process of forming an adjective by adding some derivational suffixes to another word class is called an „adjectivalization.‟ It can be classified into three main groups as follows: 3.1) Suffixes added to a verb to form an adjective—they are the derivational suffixes added to a verb to form an adjective, which are shown below.

38 Suffixes Meanings Verbs Adjectives -able, -ible capable of being, believe believable -ant, -ent possible to accept acceptable read readable -ive, -ative performing, causing a divide divisible specified action or state ignore ignorant -some or condition attend attendant signify significant associated with, having a reside resident particular quality differ different act active characterized by, likely attract attractive to, a specified quality impress impressive extend extensive represent representative talk talkative tire tiresome quarrel quarrelsome trouble troublesome 3.2) Suffixes added to a noun to form an adjective—they are the derivational suffixes added to a noun to form an adjective, which are shown below. Suffixes Meanings Nouns Adjectives -able, -ible capable of being, fashion fashionable possible to knowledge knowledgeable response responsible sense sensible -al, -ial connected with, nation national being state of accident accidental industry industrial commerce commercial

39 Suffixes Meanings Nouns Adjectives -ary, -ory concerned with or of, element elementary discipline disciplinary -ed having, or having the advise advisory characteristic of compulsion compulsory -en leg legged -ful made of talent talented full of, heart hearted -ish having the quality of face faced gold golden -less describing nationality or wood wooden language, belonging to, care careful -like like hope hopeful without, not having truth truthful -ly use useful similar to, resembling Spain Spanish Sweden Swedish having the qualities of, child childish occurring at intervals of fool foolish care careless hope hopeless fear fearless pain painless child childlike god godlike snake snakelike lady ladylike friend friendly coward cowardly hour hourly month monthly

40 Suffixes Meanings Nouns Adjectives -some characterized by, likely fear fearsome -ous to, a specified quality middle middlesome having the qualities or poison poisonous -y character of mountain mountainous danger dangerous having the qualities of, courage courageous full of, tending toward wind windy cloud cloudy sun sunny sleep sleepy dust dusty 4) Adverbalization A process of forming an adverb by adding some derivational suffixes to another word class is called an „adverbalization.‟ In English, the suffix -ly is very widely used in forming an adverb from an adjective, which is shown below. Suffixes Meanings Adjectives Adverbs -ly in a particular way, in the happy happily specified manner beautiful beautifully quick quickly sad sadly usual usually polite politely strong strongly

41 2. Functional shift “Functional shift (conversion or zero derivation) is the process by which new words are created by using the same word in new functions (i.e., by shifting, changing or converting its original grammatical class to another class), without any change in its form.” (Zapata, 2007:10). For example: love (v) love (n) witness (n) witness (v) walk (v) walk (n) The functional shift is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word-class or part of speech without adding an affix and changing its form. Changing word-class depends on its position in a sentence. For example, when the word walk is used in the following sentence The office is not far from here and you can walk over there, it is used as a verb. But when walk is used in the sentence Let’s go for a walk this morning, it is used as a noun. In the form of walk there is no change in spelling or pronunciation. 3. Compounding “Compounding is the process of combining two or more (usually free) bases or roots to form a new word. In English it is very common process that forms new words from two or more independent words; e.g., book + shelf = bookshelf, green + house = greenhouse. These words are called compounds or compound words. 3.1 Characteristics of compound words In English, compound words (Zapata, 2007) have the characteristics as follows: 3.1.1 Compounds words act grammatically and semantically as single words. 3.1.2 Compound words act as units. No affixes (whether inflections or derivations) can usually occur between their component elements; inflectional suffixes can appear only after compound words, such as girlfriends, school buses, waterproofs except for passersby, brothers-in-law.

42 3.1.3 Compound words can be written in three different forms: 1) Open from—written with a space between the component elements of compound words, such as post office, full moon, diving bell, middle class 2) Solid or Closed form—written without a space or hyphen between the component elements of the compound words, such as flowerpot, redhead, secondhand, keyboard. 3) Hyphenated form—written with a hyphen (-) separating the elements of the compound words, such as flower-pot, six-pack, son-in-law, up-to-date. 3.2 Compound words In English there are compound words as follows. 3.2.1 Compound nouns “A compound noun (www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns- compound.htm) is a noun that is made with two or more words.” Each compound noun acts as a single unit that can be modified by adjectives and other nouns. Here some examples of compound nouns. 1) Noun + Noun = Noun (1) contact + lens = contact lens (2) package + holiday = package holiday (3) birth + control = birth control (4) tea + bag = tea-bag (5) blood + pressure = blood pressure (6) boy + friend = boyfriend 2) Adjective + Noun = Noun (1) black + bird = blackbird (2) high + ways = highways (3) green + house = greenhouse (4) lazy + bones = lazybones (5) hard + disk = hard disk (6) gentle + man = gentleman

43 3) V-ing + Noun = Noun (1) standing + point = standing-point (2) washing + machine = washing-machine (3) sawing + mill = sawing-mill (4) drinking + water = drinking-water (5) bathing + place = bathing-place (6) storing + house = storing-house 4) Adverb + Noun = Noun (1) by + name = by-name (2) by + pass = by-pass (3) up + land = upland (4) after + life = afterlife (5) under + pants = underpants (6) over + dose = overdose 5) Transitive V. + Noun = Noun (1) tell + tale = telltale (2) pick + pocket = pickpocket (3) make + shift = makeshift (4) turn + key = turnkey (5) break + water = breakwater 6) Pronoun + Noun = Noun (1) he + goat = he-goat (2) she + goat = she-goat 7) Verb + Preposition = Noun (1) walk+ out = walk-out (strike) (2) break + out = break-out (escape) (3) take + over = takeover (purchase by (4) out + put another company) = output (production)

44 (5) print + out = printout (paper on which (6) check + out computer information has been printed) check-out (cash-desk) Nouns based on phrasal verbs often have an informal feel to them and they are particularly common in newspaper reporting 3.2.2 Compound adjectives A compound adjective is made up of two or more words that act as a single idea to modify a noun and is usually written with a hyphen, such as well- dressed, never-ending, shocking-pink. Here some examples of compound adjectives. 1) Adjective + noun + ed = adjective (1) narrow + mind + ed = narrow-minded (2) evil + heart + ed = evil-hearted (3) bare + face + ed = bare-faced (4) absent + mind + ed = absent-minded (5) thick + skin + ed = thick-skinned (6) long + leg + ed = long-legged 2) Adjective/Adverb + present participle (V+ing) = Adjective (1) long + stand + ing = long-standing (2) good + look + ing = good-looking (3) free + stand + ing = free-standing (4) slow + move + ing = slow-moving (5) far + reach + ing = far-reaching (6) never + end + ing = never-ending 3) Noun + present participle (V+ing) = Adjective (1) heart + stir + ing = heart-stirring (2) man + eat + ing = man-eating (3) mind + read + ing = mind-reading

45 (4) record + break + ing = record-breaking (5) heart + rend + ing = heart-rending (6) time + comsume + ing = time-consuming 4) Noun + adjective or past participle (V+ed) = Adjective (1) stone + blind = stone-blind (2) heart + break + ed = heartbroken (3) head + strong = headstrong (4) color + blind = colorblind (5) blood + thirsty = bloodthirsty (6) stone + deaf = stone-deaf 5) Adverb + past participle (V+ed) = Adjective (1) well + know + ed = well-known (2) so + call + ed = so-called (3) well + do + ed = well-done (4) highly + respect + ed = highly-respected (5) brightly + light + ed = brightly-lit (6) widely + recognize + ed = widely-recognized 3.2.3 Compound verbs A compound verb (Fernandini, 2009) is a multiple word compound that functions as a single verb, which is a compound single-word verb. Both words may run together as one word or they may be joined by a hyphen. When used together, the words function as a single verb. Here some examples of compound verbs. 1) Noun + verb = Verb (1) hand + pick = handpick (2) day + dream = daydream (3) sight + see = sightsee (4) baby + sit = babysit (5) finger + spell = fingerspell

46 2) Adjective + verb = Verb (1) black + list = blacklist (2) soft + pedal = soft-pedal = Verb 3) Verb + verb = blow-dry (1) blow + dry = shrink-wrap (2) shrink + wrap 4) Preposition + verb = Verb (1) under + take = undertake (2) over + sleep = oversleep (3) in + put = input (4) out + put = output 4. Reduplication Reduplication is a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is repeated. There are two or more elements which are either identical or only slightly different, as in goody-goody (n.) (a person who behaves very well). The difference between two elements may be in the initial consonants, as in walkie-talkie (n.) (a small radio that you can carry with you and use to send or receive messages), or in the medial vowels, as in criss-cross (adj.) (with many straight lines that cross each other). The most uses of reduplication are: (1) to imitate sounds, as in tick-tock (of clock) (2) to suggest alternating movements, as in see-saw. (3) to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc., as in wishy-washy (4) to intensify, as in tip-top (excellent) (Preecha Kanetnog, 2002: 30)

47 5. Clipping Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts (Marchand: 1969). Clipping is also known as shortening, which indicates the subtraction of one or more syllables from word. Clipping mainly consists of the following types: (1) Back clipping is the most common type, which the beginning of the word is retained: phone telephone) (2) Fore-clipping retains the final part of the word: photo photograph (3) Middle clipping is the middle part of the word which is retained: (rare) flu influenza (4) Complex clipping is the clipped form which is also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact: cablegram cable telegram, org-man organization man (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipping_(morphology) 6. Blends In linguistics, a blend is a word formed parts of two or more other words. These are sometimes, but not always, morphemes. It is at least one of the elements that is fragmentary when compared with its corresponding uncompounded word form. For example, the word brunch (esp. AmE, „a meal subsuming breakfast and lunch‟) is derived from br (eakfast) +…(l) unch. Blends deal with the action of abridging and then combining various lexemes to form a new word. Many blends are very informal, but some have become more or less fully accepted in the language such as the word motel is derived from motor + hotel, smog from smoke + fog. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blend).

48 7. Acronyms Acronyms are word formed from the initial letters (or larger parts) of words. The term acronym is the name for a word created from the first letters of each word in a series of words (such as sonar, created from sound navigation and ranging). Comparing a few examples of each type: (1) Pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters, as in: AIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndrome NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (2) Pronounced as a word, containing non-initial letters Interpol: International Criminal Police Organization Mavica: Magnetic video camera Nabisco: National Biscuit Company (3) Pronounced as a word, containing a mixture of initial and non-initial letters, as in: Necco: New England Confectionery Company Radar: radio detection and ranging (4) Pronounced as a word or names of letters, depending on speaker or context, as in: IRA: When used for Individual Retirement Account, can be pronounced as letters (I R A) or as a word [ˈaɪrə]. SAT: ([sæt] or S A T) (previously) Scholastic Achievement (or Aptitude) Test(s), now claimed not to stand for anything. FAQ: ([fæk] or F A Q) frequently asked questions (5) Pronounced as a combination of names of letters and a word, as in: CD-ROM: (C-D-[rɒm]) Compact Disc read-only memory IUPAC: (I-U-[pæk]) International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry JPEG: (J-[pɛɡ]) Joint Photographic Experts Group SFMOMA: (S-F-[moʊmə]) San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (6) Pronounced only as the names of letters, as in: BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid

49 USA: United States of America (7) Pronounced as the names of letters but with a shortcut, as in: IEEE: (I triple E) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers NAACP: (N double A C P) National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NCAA: (N C double A or N C two A or N C A A) National Collegiate Athletic Association (8) Shortcut incorporated into name, as in: 3M: (three M) originally Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company E3: (E three) Electronic Entertainment Exposition W3C: (W three C) World Wide Web Consortium (9) Multi-layered acronyms, as in: GAIM: GTK+ AOL Instant Messenger GIMP: GNU Image Manipulation Program (10) Recursive acronyms, in which the abbreviation refers to itself, as in: GNU: GNU's not Unix! LAME: LAME Ain't an MP3 Encoder WINE: WINE Is Not an Emulator PHP: PHP hypertext pre-processor (formerly personal home page) (11) Pseudo-acronyms, which consist of a sequence of characters that, when pronounced as intended, invoke other, longer words with less typing, as in: CQ: \"Seek you\", a code used by radio operators (also is an editorial term meaning \"Copy Qualified\" in print media) IOU: \"I owe you\" (true acronym would be IOY) K9: \"Canine\", used to designate police units utilizing dogs Q8: \"Kuwait\" (12) Initialisms whose last abbreviated word is often redundantly included anyway, as in: ATM machine: Automated Teller Machine machine HIV virus: Human Immunodeficiency Virus virus PIN number: Personal Identification Number number

50 VIN number: Vehicle Identification Number number (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym,) Summary As we have learned all above, it is summarized that word formation is the process of creating new words. New words are generally formed when words such as bases (or roots) and affixes are combined together to form new words. Words are related to other words, e.g. happy—unhappy—unhappier, which are related to the rules of combination called word formation rules. The processes of forming new words in English mainly consist of affixation, function shift, compounding, clipping, blending and acronym. Exercise 1. Answer the questions. 1.1 What is word information? 1.2 How many processes are there in forming new words in English? What are they? 1.3 Give fives examples of English words that are formed or added by affixes: prefixes and suffixes. 2. Practice using words with negative prefixes. Contradict the following statements in the same way as the example. = dishonest Example: He’s a very honest man. = _______________ 2.1. I‟m sure she‟s discreet. 2.2. I always find him very sensitive. = _______________ 2.3. It‟s a convincing argument. = _______________ 2.4. That‟s a very relevant point. = _______________ 2.5. She‟s always obedient. = _______________ 2.6. He‟s very efficient. = _______________ 2.7. I always find her responsible. = _______________ 2.8. He seems grateful for our help. = _______________ 2. 9. I‟m sure she‟s loyal to the firm. = _______________ 2.10 I will try to do as possible. = ______________

51 3. Listed below are several prefixes you should know. Study them carefully. Then, study the words and definitions given in parentheses after each item. Add the appropriate prefix to the word to get the new word which has the required definition. anti- against, opposite im-, in-, il-, ir- not de- opposite, taking sth away, down im-, in- in (to) dis- not, opposite re- again, back ex- out, former post- after super- extremely, above, more than trans- across, through over- too much, above 3.1. ______natural (above or beyond what is natural) 3.2. ______migrant (someone who immigrates into a country) 3.3. ______order (not in good order) 3.4. ______sleep (sleep too much) 3.5. ______virus (against virus) 3.6. ______port (send out) 3.7. ______new (make new; bring back to the original condition) 3.8. ______plant (move an organ from one body to another) 3.9. ______mortem (something which occurs after death) 3.10. _____reparable (not able to be repaired) 4. Use one of the suffixes –ation, -ment, -ness, -ity, -ure, -ion to make nouns from these verbs and adjectives: 4.1 develop______ 4.4 imagine________ 4.7 pure_________ 4.2 kind_______ 4.5 happy_______ 4.8 fail__________ 4.3 arrange_______ 4.6 organize_______ 4.9. protect_______

52 5. Find out which verbs can you make from these words, using one of the suffixes – ize, -en, -ate and –ify. 5.1 magnet______ 5.4 general_______ 5.7 origin_______ 5.2 beauty______ 5.5 active________ 5.8 dark_______ 5.3 sharp_______ 5.6 simple________ 5.9 pure_______ 6. Listed below are several suffixes you should know. Study them carefully. Then, study the words and definitions given in parentheses after each item. Add the appropriate suffix to the word to get the new word which has the required definition. - able, -ible = able to -er, -or, -ist = person -al = connected with or the act of -en, -ize = cause to be-ant, -ent = causing a specific action or state, -ful, -ous, -y = full of -ee = person affected by the acting of -less = without 6.1 humor______ (full of humor) 6.2 western______ (cause to adopt western customs) 6.3 nation_____ (connected with nation) 6.4 reside_______ (a person who lives in a place) 6.5 advise_______ (a person who is given advice) 6.6 forget_______ (in the habit of forgetting) 6.7 wind_____ (full of wind) 6.8 short_____ (become shorter) 6.9 value______ (without value) 6.10 audit____ (able to be heard) 7. Match the types of word formation with the correct words given below (a-d). 7.1 Clipping (reduction) 7.2 Reduplication (repetition) 7.3 Blends (combination) 7.4 Acronyms (abbreviation) a. USA {U(nited) S(tates) (of) A(merica)} b. smog {sm(oke) + (f)og} c. phone {tele)phone} d. tick-tock (of clock)

53 References Sutamat Kotcharat. (2005). English Syntax. The faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. Buriram Rajabhat University. Sumon Ariyapitipun. (2003). Introduction to Linguistics. Chulalongkorn University Printing House. Watcharaporn Nimnual. (2007). English Structure. Triple Education Co.,Ltd. Preecha Kanetnog. 2002. English Morphology and Syntax. Mahachulalonkornajavidyaya Press. Verma & Krishnaswamy. (1989). Modern Linguistics: An introduction. Oxford University Press. Varshney, R.L. (2001-2001). An Introduction Text book of Linguistics and Phonetics. Bareilly. Student Store. Wardhaugh R. (1977). Introduction to Linguistics. University of Toronto. McGraw-Hill, Inc. Fasold and Connor-Linton. (2006). An Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Crystal D. (1995). A dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Cambridge. Blackwell Publishers. Zapata, A. (2007). Unit 1: Types of Words and Word-Formation Processes in English. [online]. Retrieved June, 23, 2015, from http://webdelprofesor.ula.ve/ humanidades/azapata/materias/english_4/unit_1_types_of_words_and_ word_ formation_processes.pdf Capital Community College. (n.d). Compound Words. [online]. Retrieved June 29, 2015, from http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/compounds.htm English Club. (nd). Compound Nouns. [online]. Retrieved June, 29, 2015, from https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns-compound.htm The writing Center. (nd). Compound Adjectives and Hyphenation. [online]. Retrieved June 29, 2015, from file:///G:/phrases%20in%20English/compound- adjectives-and-hyphenation.pdf Fernandini, M. (2009). Type of Verbs. [online]. Retrieved June, 30, 2015, from

54 http://milagrosfer.blogspot.com. Wikipedia: The free Encyclopedia. (2014). Acronym. [online]. Retrieved January 12, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym Wikipedia: The free Encyclopedia. (2011). Clipping (morphology). [online]. Retrieved January 12, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipping_(morphology) Wikipedia: The free Encyclopedia. (2015). Blend. [online]. Retrieved January 12, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blend “Linguistics001 Lecture . (2007). Morphology. [online]. Retrieved December 20, 2014, from, http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses /Fall_2007/ling001/morphology.html.

55 LESSON PLAN: CHAPTER 3 THE WORD Content topics In this chapter the main topics of contents are as follows: 1. What is a word? 2. The classification of words 3. Word classes 4. The morphosyntactic categories and properties of words 5. Constituent structure of words 6. Immediate constituents of words 7. Summary 8. Exercise 9. References Behavioral objectives After the end of this chapter students are able to: 1. explain the definition of words 2. classify the types of words and word classes. 3. identify the categories of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs 4. analyze the constituent structures of words Activities and methods of teaching In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Lecture 2. Demonstration and in-class presentation 3. Group discussion 4. Work in individual or pairs or groups to practice analyzing English words 5. Asking and answering the questions 6. Exercises both in class and as homework

56 Instructional materials In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Teaching Handbook on English Syntax 1 2. Power Point 3. Worksheet 4. Exercises Assessment and evaluation In this chapter assessment and evaluation are as follows: 1. Class observation 2. Checking exercises and homework 3. Asking and answering the questions 4. Group discussions

57 CHAPTER 3 THE WORD In general, when people communicate with other people, they combine free morphemes or independent words together to make phrases or sentences. Communication through the words makes human beings different from other animals. Thus, words are means of human communication. As we have talked about word- formation and its formational rules. In this chapter, we will discuss words and the classification of words, word classes, the morphosyntactic categories and properties of words, the constituents of words, and their immediate constituents respectively. What is a word? Intuitively, words can be felt but it is difficult to define. According to the concept of words, we can take a look at the definitions of words given below. ―In the concept of the words, it is not easy to define. Traditionally, words are the smallest units that make up a sentence, and marked as such in writing.‖(Matthews, 1997: 404) ―A word is a single unit of language that has meaning and can be spoken or written.‖ (Cambridge Dictionary Online) ―Bloomfield‘s classic definition of the word as ‗minimal free forms‘ of a language regards the word as a stretch of speech that admits momentary minimal pause on either side (Varshney, 2000-2001: 218).‖ ―A word is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level and above. It is sometimes identifiable according to such a criteria as - being the minimal possible unit in a reply. - having features such as a regular stress pattern, and phonological changes conditioned by or blocked at word boundaries. - being the largest unit resistant to insertion of new constituents within its boundaries, or being the smallest constituent that can be moved within a sentence without making sentence ungrammatical.‖ (SIL International, 2004)

58 ―A word is an abstract sign that is the smallest grammatically independent unit of language.‖ (Lardiere, 2006: 57) For now, let us simply define a word as the smallest meaningful unit of language that can stand independently within a sentence, which can be grammatically spoken or written. To be easily understood about the definition of the word, take a look at two examples as follows: 1. The conversational exchange of independent word tea can be freely spoken: a) Which one would you like—coffee or tea? b) Tea. 2. The positional exchange of independent word tea can be freely written in the sentences according to its grammatical role: a) Tea is good for me. b) He doesn‘t drink tea. c) There are beneficial antioxidants in tea. The classification of words In English, words can be classified on the basis of the types of the combinations of morphemes of which they are composed (Banjar, 2011) as follows: 1. Simple words (SW) consist of a single free morpheme, such as boy, house, happy, mother, talk, table, time. 2. Complex words (CPW) contain, as their immediate constituents (ICs), either two bound morphemes or a bound morpheme and one free morpheme as follows: 2.1 Complex words contain two bound morphemes and one or more bound morphemes. For example: receiver = re (B) + ceiv (B) + er (B) prediction = pre (B) + dict (B) + ion (B) dismiss = dis (B) + miss (B) audience = audi (B) + ence (B) rejection = re (B) + ject (B) + ion (B)

59 2.1 Complex words contain one free morpheme and one or more bound morphemes. For example: replay = re (B) + play (F) uncomfortable = un (B) + comfort (F) + able (F) enable = en (B) + able (F) unhappiness = un (B) + happy (F) + ness (B) untruthful = un (B) + truth (F) + ful (B) 3. Compound words (CW) usually consist of two or three (or more) free morphemes as follows: 3.1 Compound words consist of two free morphemes. For example: mother tongue = mother (F) + tongue (F) bedroom = bed (F) + room (F) motorway = motor (F) + way (F) highways = high (F) + way (F) + s (IS) 3.2 Compound words consist of three free morphemes. For example: mother-in-law = mother (F) + in (F) + law (F) air-traffic control = air (F) + traffic (F) + control (F) greenhouse effect = green (F) + house (F) + effect (F) 4. Compound-complex words (CCPW) refer to compound words that are combined with bound morphemes (Sutamat Kotcharat, 2005) as follows: 4.1 Compound-complex words contain two free morphemes and one bound morpheme. For example: tax-collector = tax (F) + collect (F) + or (B) airliners = air (F) + line (F) + er (B) + s (IS) daydreamer = day (F) + dream (F) + er (B) rebroadcast = re (B) + broad(F) + cast (F) tin opener = tin (F) + open (F) + er (B)

60 4.2 Compound-complex words contain two free morphemes and two bound morphemes. For example: elevator-operator = elevate (F) +or (B) + operate (F) + or (B) rebroadcasting = re (B) + broad (F) + cast (F) + ing (B) 4.3 Compound-complex words contain three free morphemes and one bound morphemes. For example: football player = foot (F) + ball (F) + play (F) + er (B) Word classes All words belong to categories called word classes according to the part they occur in a sentence. These categories are traditionally called parts of speech, which are now usually known as word classes. Words can be grouped together into word classes according to how they work within phrases, clauses or sentences. Word classes can be classified into two classes as follows: 1. Content words Content words (also called lexical words) are those referring to a thing, quality, state or action and consisting of meaning (lexical meaning) when the words are used alone. These are content words:- 1.1 Nouns (N): boy, girls, goalkeeper, etc. 1.2 Adjectives (Adj.): bad, good, happy, nice, etc. 1.3 Adverbs (Adv): quickly, sweetly, nicely etc. 1.4 Verbs (V): go, walk, see, come, eat, etc. 2. Function words Function words (also called grammatical words) are those which have little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences (grammatical meaning). These are Function words:- 2.1 Determiners (Det): a, an, the, this, my, some, ten, etc. 2.2 Pronouns (Pro): I, we, she, he, me, us, my, our, etc. 2.3 Conjunctions (Conj): and, but, or, before, after, when, etc. 2.4 Auxiliaries (Aux): is, am, are, will, shall, can, may, etc. 2.5 Prepositions (Prep): in, on, at, of, above, about, for, etc.

61 Now, take a look at the formulae for constructing sentences based on word classes to show their arrangement as follows (Verma & Khrishnaswamy, 2000): N V Pro 1. Marry loves him. Det Adj N V Det N Prep Det Adj N 2. The tall boy put that book on the small table. Pro V Conj Pro N Aux V Conj Pro V Adj. 3. I think that his wife will believe that it is true. The morphosyntactic categories and properties of words In a dictionary, the words of a language are classified by grammatical category. In this section, we will look at the grammatical categories and the syntactic categories that indicate the function which words have in phrases and sentences. The categories which we will look at are (Kuiper & Allan, 2014) four major lexical categories: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs. Now, let‘s explore the morphosyntactic categories for which the first four inflect, as shown here. 1. Nouns A noun is a naming word—the name of a person, place, or thing. Many nouns inflect for the morphosyntactic category of number, such as a plural form like -s or -es. These are regular forms, e.g., boy > boys, city > cities, box > boxes. Some nouns mark their plural in irregular forms, e.g., foot>feet, louse>lice, child> children, ox> oxen. Other nouns never mark their plural, e.g., fish> fish, sheep>sheep, deer>deer. Most nouns appear with either a(n) or the, or denote things that can be counted. For example: a book the book three books an apple the apple three apples Let‘s consider the following list of nouns, and divide them into the following groups: nouns that can take a(n), nouns that can take the, nouns that have a plural form, and nouns that refer to things that can be counted. Some nouns will appear in more than one group: dog, water, Marry, butter, alligator, and elephant.

62 Which nouns fit into which categories? Nouns a(n) the plural count dog √ √ √ √ water x √ x x Marry xx x x √ √ alligator √ √ √ √ elephant √ √ Figure 3.1 Showing the morphosyntactic categories and properties of nouns (Adapted from Kuiper & Allan, 2014) Notice that these nouns fall into three groups: those appearing in all four groups, those appearing in one group, and those appearing in none of the groups. The set appearing in all four groups are called count nouns, those appearing in only one group are called non-count nouns, while those appearing in none of the groups are called proper nouns. 2. Adjectives An adjective attributes a property or quality to an object, e.g., the sad girl, the wild animal. Adjectives may take two different inflectional endings, giving three forms, e.g., small >smaller >smallest. The adjective without ending represents the positive degree of comparison. The one with the -er ending is the comparative, and the -est ending is called the superlative. Not all adjectives take the -er and -est endings; some use more and most, e.g., evil > more evil > most evil. The morphosyntactic category containing the morphosyntactic properties of comparative and superlative is called comparison. Therefore, adjectives which show comparison are divided into three forms: the uninflected positive form, the comparative form, and the superlative form. Let‘s consider the following list of adjectives, and divide them into three groups: those taking the -er and -est endings, those taking more and most, and those taking neither of the above: tall, dead, narrow, final, happy, beautiful.

63 Adjectives -er, -est more, most Neither tall √ x x dead x x √ narrow √ x x final x x √ happy √ x x beautiful x √ x Figure 3.2 Showing the morhphosyntactic categories and properties of the degree of adjectives (Kuiper & Allan, 2014) English adjectives may appear either before a noun or after a form of the verb to be (is, am, are, was, were, being, or been), e.g., the sad girl > the girl is sad. Let‘s consider the following list of adjectives which may appear only before a noun, or may appear only after the verb to be, or may appear in both positions: hungry, afraid, older, ill, elder, utter, available. Adjectives Before nouns After to be Both hungry √ √ √ afraid x √ x older √ √ √ ill x √ x utter xxx available √√√ Figure 3.3 Showing the grammatical categories and properties of the position of adjectives (Adapted from Kuiper & Allan, 2014) 3. Adverbs Adverbs tell us how (manner), where (place), or when (time) the action denoted by a verb. Let us suppose that these are adverbs: The rabbit run quickly. how The dog sat here. where She left yesterday. when

64 The class of adverbs may be divided into two groups: degree and general adverbs. The degree adverbs are a small group of words like very, more and most. They always appear with either an adjective or a general adverb. For example: The rabbit runs very. x The rabbit runs very quickly. √ This building is more. x This building is more beautiful. √ General adverbs are a large class, and may appear without a degree adverb, e.g., The rabbit runs quickly. Most adverbs end with –ly, e.g., rapidly, quietly, quickly. 4. Verbs The grammatical class of verbs may be divided into two groups: auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs. Traditionally, lexical verbs are defined as denoting actions or states, e.g., eat, drink, go, run, speak. The class of auxiliaries is quite small, containing the following: has have, had, be, is, am, are, was, were, do, does, did, can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, and must. English verbs have more grammatical word forms associated with them than either nouns or adjectives. Each verb has five associated grammatical words. The changes in form associated with each grammatical word form, listed below. V-stem V-s V-ed V-ing V-en talk talks talked talking talked Let us look at the morphosyntactic categories which give rise to different grammatical words and word forms. The first category is tense. All English verbs can take tense and there are two tenses: past and present. The present tense of talk is talk and the past tense form is talked. The V-ing and V-en forms are participles. The V-ing form is the progressive participle and the V-en form is the perfect participle. Verbs like talk are regular forms that are identical in English. In the case of irregular verbs, the forms are different. ―There are ((Kuiper & Allan, 2014: 40)about 200 irregular verbs in English‖.

65 Some irregular verb forms are shown here. V-stem V-s V-ed V-ing V-en speaking spoken speak speaks spoke meeting met coming come meet meets met writing written cutting cut come comes came breaking broken write writes wrote cut cuts cut break breaks broke Figure 3.4 Showing some irregular verb forms in English (Adapted from Kuiper & Allan, 2014) The morphosyntactic categories and properties of English lexemes and how they relate to inflections in English are summarized in the figure 3.4 as shown here. (Kuiper & Allan, 2014: 43) Syntactic Morphosyntactic Morphosyntactic Grammatical words Regular category categories properties inflections Noun Number 1. Singular 1. Singular form None 2. Plural 2. Plural form -s Adjective Comparison 1. Positive 1. Positive form No inflection /Adverb 2. Comparative 2. Comparative form -er 3. Superlative 3. Superlative form -est Verb Tense 1. Past 1. Past tense form -ed 2. Present 2. Non-3rd person singular No inflection Number 1. Singular present tense form -s 1. 3rd person singular 2. Plural present form 2. Plural form Person 1. First person 4. Progressive participle -ing 2. Second person 5. Perfect participle -ed/-en 3. Third person Figure 3.5 Summary of morphosyntactic categories and properties of English lexemes

66 Constituent structure of words Words in the larger units have the internal structures. Thus, we should learn more their structures in detail. In this case, the term ‗constituent‘ is one of two or more grammatical units that enter syntactically or morphologically into a construction at any level (SIL International, 2004). We use constituent to refer to the syntactic structures within a word. The morphemes that constitute a ‗word‘ occur in a given order, e.g., the three morphemes in the word ‘unhelpful’ occur in a given order. They cannot be ordered in another manner; *unfulhelp, *fulunhelp, *fulhelpun are not possible. Thus, it is obvious that ―there are limitations on the ordering of morphemes in a given language. For example, in ‗ungraceful‘, ‗grace‘ and ‗ful‘ are the immediate constituents (ICs) at the first level and ‗un‘ and ‗graceful‘ are immediate constituents (ICs) at the next level. This can be represented in the form of a labelled tree diagram: Adj Adj Prefix Adj Noun Suffix Noun Suffix Prefix Noun {un} {grace} {ful} {dis} {grace} {ful} Figure 3.6 The representations given show the constituent structure of the words analyzed. (Verma &Krishanaswamy, 2000: 68) Immediate constituents of words The term ‗immediate constituent‘ is (SIL International, 2004) any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction. Up to this point we have indicated the four types of morpheme: bases, prefixes, infixes, and suffixes of which words are composed. Now we shall see how these are put together to build the structure that we call a word.

67 In doing word diagrams like those below to show layers of structure, we make successive divisions into two parts, each of which is called an Immediate Constituent, abbreviated as IC. The process is continued until all component morphemes of a word, the ultimate constituents, have been isolated. A word of one morpheme, like friend, has, of course, just one unitary part. A word of two morphemes, like helpful, is obviously composed of two parts, with the division between them: help ful. But a word of three or more morphemes is not made up of a string of individual parts; it is built with a hierarchy of twosomes. As an illustration lets us examine the formation of unfriendly, a word of three morphemes. We might say that un- and friend were combined to form unfriend and that unfriend and -ly were then put together to produce the form unfriendly. But the total meaning of unfriendly does not seem to be composed of the meanings of its two parts unfriend and -ly, so we reject this possibility. Let‘s try again. This time we‘ll say that friend and -ly were put together to give friendly. And if we remember that friend has the meaning of ―a person you know well and like, and who is not usually a member of your family,‖ we see that the meaning of friendly is a composite of these of its two constituents. Now we add un-, meaning ―not‖, and get unfriendly, not friendly. This theory of forming unfriendly seems to make sense. Now when we analyze a word we show this process but in reverse. We usually divide a word into two parts of which it seems to have been composed: un friendly We continue in this way, cutting each part into two more until we have reduced the word to its ultimate constituents, that is, to the unit morphemes of which it is composed. Our analysis of gentlemanly would look like this: un friend ly We have now shown the layers of structure by which the word has been composed, down to the ultimate constituents: un-, friend and -ly.

68 Summary As we have learned about words and the classification of words, the constituents of words, and their immediate constituents, it is assumed that a word is the smallest meaningful unit of language that can stand independently within a sentence, which can be grammatically spoken or written. There are four types of words: simple words, complex words, compound words, and complex words. Words also contain word classes, divided into two classes: content words and function words. The words of a language are also classified by grammatical categories which consist of four major lexical categories: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs. In the term ‗constituent‘ is one of two or more grammatical units that enter syntactically or morphologically into a construction at any level, indicating the four types of morpheme: bases, prefixes, infixes, and suffixes of which words are composed. In doing word to show layers of structure, we make successive divisions into two parts, each of which is called an Immediate Constituent, abbreviated as IC. Exercise 1. Answer the following questions. 1.1 What is a word? 1.2 How many types of words are there? What are they? 1.3 What are word classes? What are types of word classes? 1.4 What are major lexical categories classified by the grammatical categories? 1.5 What is constituent structure? Explain it briefly. 2. Identify the following words as simple words or compound words or complex words. Write SW for simple words, CW for compound words and CPW for complex words for each word given below. 2.1 receivers ________ 2.6. elephant ________ 2.2 highways ________ 2.7. narrow-hearted ________ 2.3 daydreamers ________ 2.8. happy ________ 2.4 blackbird ________ 2.9. happiness ________ 2.5 incompletely ________ 2.10. unbelievable ________

69 3. Match the correct types of word classes (a-g) with the underlined words given in the following paragraph. Without compulsion, though sometimes encouraged by the Roman authorities, the natives began to adopt the Latin language, to build towns of the Italian type, to imitate Graeco-Roman architecture and sculpture, to copy the manners of the Romans. In the Basque country and in Wales the indigenous languages have actually survived, whereas in Gaul, Celtic ultimately disappeared with few traces except in place names. 3.1 without 3.6 adopt 3.11 actually 3.2 though 3.7 Italian 3.12 ultimately 3.3 sometimes 3.8 and 3.13 in 3.4 the 3.9 Romans 3.14 with 3.5 natives 3.10 indigenous 3.15 except a) preposition b) conjunction c) adverb d) article e) noun f) verb g) adjective 4. Find out which nouns/adjectives fit into which categories by ticking √ if they fit into the categories and x if they do not. The first is done for you in each. 4.1 Which nouns fit into which categories? Nouns a(n) the plural count cat √ √ √ √ James pencil steel information 4.2 Which nouns fit into which categories? Adjectives -er, -est more, most Neither old √ x x quick happy wonderful hungry hard

70 5. Identify the regular or irregular verb forms with V-stem given below. V-stem V-s V-ed V-ing V-en shut tell bring walk 5. Isolate the constituents of the following words. Show how constituents are layered, first in the form of the labelled tree diagram. Example: word structure: [disliked] = {dis} + {like} + {past} VERB (disliked) VERB (dislike) SUFFIX PREFIX VERB {dis} {like} {past} 5.1 unwanted 5.11 advisors 5.2 disfigurement 5.12 blackens 5.3 interchangeable 5.13 decorators 5.4 carefulness 5.14 enlarged 5.5 rewriting 5.15 fearlessly 5.6 rereadable 5.16 impossible 5.7 learners 5.17 misleads 5.8 disliked 5.18 computers 5.9 beautifully 5.19 rewrote 5.10 unhelpful 5.20 incompletely

71 References Banjar, S.Y. (2011). Words. [online]. Retrieved January 15, 2015, from file:///C:/Users/aps/Downloads/words-morphologypresentation-dr-shadiay- banjar-111011151421-phpapp02.pdf. Cambridge Dictionary Online. (2015). Word. [online]. Retrieved January 12, 2015, from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/word. Kuiper, K. & Scott Allan, W. (2014). An Introduction to English Language: Word, Sound and Sentence. The United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. Lardiere, D. ; et al. (2006). An Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Matthews, P.H. (1997). Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press. SIL International. (2004). What is a word?. [online]. Retrieved January 12, 2015, from http://www-01.sil.org/linguistics/glossaryoflinguisticterms /WhatIsAWord.htm. Sutamat Kotcharat. (2005). English Syntax. The faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. Buriram Rajabhat University. Verma & Krishnaswamy, (2000). Modern Linguistics: An introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

73 LESSON PLAN: CHAPTER 4 THE PHRASE Content topics In this chapter the main topics of contents are as follows: 1. What is a phrase? 2. The structure of phrases 3. Function of phrases 4. Types of phrases 5. Summary 6. Exercise 7. References Behavioral objectives After the end of this chapter students are able to: 1. tell the meanings of phrase 2. identify the phrases and the structure of phrases 3. identify function and types of phrases Activities and methods In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Lecture 2. Demonstration and in-class presentation 3. Group discussion 4. Work in individual or pairs or groups to practice analyzing English words 5. Asking and answering the questions 6. Exercises both in class and as homework

74 Instructional materials In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Teaching Handbook on English Syntax 1 2. Power Point 3. Worksheet 4. Exercises Assessment and evaluation In this chapter assessment and evaluation are as follows: 1. Class observation 2. Checking exercises and homework 3. Asking and answering the questions 4. Group discussions

75 CHAPTER 4 THE PHRASE In terms of morphology, words are not only deconstructed into smaller parts or constituents, but they are also made up in sequences of words combined together. Words are different in the orders expected in the target language. In further linguistic knowledge, we focus on how words are related to each other in the larger structures, in principle known as a phrase. In English, the sentences are made up of phrases and the phrases are made up of words. In this chapter, we will find that a phrase consists of different definitions given in different points of view, including the head and modifiers within a phrase, its functions, its types, and its internal constituent structures. What is a phrase? Some definitions of „a phrase‟ shown in different points are as follows. “A phrase is a single element of structure typically containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.” (Crystal, 1995: 263) “Traditionally, “phrase” is defined as “a group of words that does not contain a verb and its subject and is used as a single part of speech”. (http://wac.colostate.edu/ books/sound/chapter9.pdf.) “A phrase is a group of words with some sense. It has no subject in itself but can be part of a sentence.” (Tan Cheng Lim, 2002: 208) “A phrase is a small group of words that forms a meaningful unit within a clause.” (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/phrases) “A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a subject and predicate -- a group of grammatically-linked words with a subject and predicate is called a clause.” (http://arts.uottawa.ca/writingcentre/en/hypergrammar/ building-phrases) We can conclude that “a phrase is a group of words containing one or more than one word without a subject-predicate structure and a finite verb in itself and

76 functioning together as a single part of speech to form a grammatical unit in a sentence: subject, verb, object, adjective, or adverb, etc.” For example: 1) Most of the tourists fly to Phuket. (as subject) 2) She wants to go to the library. (as object) 3) The capital of Thailand is Bangkok. (as adjective) 4) She runs very quickly. (as adverb) Again, a single word and multi-word phrases can be replaced by substitution without destroying its meaning. Study the examples below. 1) The most of small houses are easy to clean. 2) Birds can fly in the sky. We can replace the subjects of both 1) and 2) with they. 1) They (the most of small houses) are easy to clean. 2) They (birds) can fly in the sky. Thus, we can imply two inferences: (1) Pronouns replace phrases or (2) Pronouns can replace either a noun or a noun phrase. The structure of phrase In looking at the structure of phrases in English we will start with looking at simple phrases, seeing how they consist of heads and modifiers, and then looking at the major functions within clauses. 1. Simple phrase In looking at the simple phrases, we must first know what a phrase is as mentioned above. Let‟s take a look at the sentence Kathy smiles, whose structure contains only two words. These are grouped into word order if the sentence follows the rule of English syntax. Consider the following strings of words given below. These do not follow the rules of English syntax for making a grammatical sentence (Kuiper & Allan, 2010). 1.1 Is eating the apple pie the little boy. 1.2 The little boy the apple pie is eating. 1.3 Is eating the little boy the apple pie. Thus, let‟s try to change each of the above strings of words in the order so that it is a grammatical sentence. The grammatical structure is „The little boy is eating the

77 chocolate cake.’ This conforms to the rules of English syntax. If we move the strings of words, we will move the fixed sequences of words, but not single words, such as the little boy or the apple pie. “Sequences of words which move as whole units are intermediate between words and sentences. They are called phrases.” (Kuiper & Allan, 2010: 229) 2. Ways to identify phrases Kuiper & Allan (2010: 229) stated that “there are three tests we can use to identify which sequences of words in a sentence are phrases: movement, meaning, and substitution. “ In making the grammatical sentences in the above section 1, we moved fixed sequences, but not single words. “If a phrase can be moved, it moves as a whole unit.” Let‟s further take a look at the following examples: 1. The little boy ate the apple pie. 2. It was the apple pie that the little boy ate. 3. The apple pie was eaten by the little boy. From the italicized sequences of words in the first sentence above, we can see that they are always moved to the other sentences as whole unit. We cannot find the sentences, such as: 1. *It was boy the little ate the apple pie. 2. *The the apple pie was eaten by little boy. These two examples are ungrammatical because only partial phrases have been moved, leaving other parts of phrases behind. For example, the phrase the little boy has been broken into two parts: boy and the little in the first sentence, and the and little boy in the second, so it seems to be impossible to move anything but a whole phrase. “Phrases do not only form grammatical units, but also form units of meaning. The following sequences of words all have a coherent identifiable meaning (Kuiper & Allan, 2010: 229).” Each of these sequences of words is a phrase. 1. the young man 2. in the living room 3. quite well 4. is writing the letter

78 3. Heads and modifiers of phrases 3.1 Heads A phrase is an expansion of one of the words inside it, which is called its head. “There are (Kuiper & Allan, 2010: 231) five major lexical categories: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and preposition.” Each is the head of a phrase. For example, the word „alien’ is the head of the strange green and with elastic head. The words which expand the head of a phrase are called its modifiers, for example, green modifies alien. This means that green makes the meaning of alien. Below we will show the modifiers of the head. alien The strange green with elastic head Figure 4.1 Tree diagram indicating heads and their modifiers of phrases The above phrase that has „alien‟ is the head, and the other ones: the, strange, green, and with elastic head are its modifiers. 3.2 Modifiers A syntactic construction in which one grammatical element (e.g., a noun) is accompanied (or modified) by another (e.g., an adjective) is called a modifier. (http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/Modification.htm) A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause which functions as an adjective or an adverb to describe a word or make its meaning more specific. In English, there are two main classes of modifying words—adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives modify nouns and adverbs modify pretty much everything else—verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and sentences. For example: 2.1 Modifiers as adjectives—when a modifier is an adjective, it modifiers a noun or a pronoun as in: 2.1.1 Sam bought a small car. Here, the adjective small modifies the noun car. Don‟t forget that articles (i.e., the, an, and a) are adjectives too. Here, a modifiers the noun car: 2.1.2 Sam bought another one. Here, the adjective another modifiers the pronoun one.

79 2.2 Modifiers as adverbs—when a modifier is an adverb, it modifier a verb, an adjective, or another adverb as in: 2.2.1 Sam really likes his car. Here, the adverb really modifiers the verb likes. 2.2.2 Sam likes a very small car. Here, the adverb very modifiers the adjective small. 2.2.3 Sam very really likes his car. Here, the adverb very modifiers the adverb really. 2.3 Modifiers as a phrase or a clause—don‟t forget that phrases and clauses can play the roles of adjectives and adverbs too as in: 2.3.1 Sam bought a car smaller than another one. Here, the adjective phrase smaller than another one modifies the noun car. 2.3.2 Sam bought a car with tiny room. Here, the prepositional phrase with tiny room modifiers the noun car. 2.3.3 Sam bought a car which was smaller than another one. Here, the adjective clause which was smaller than another one modifies the noun car. 2.3.4 When alone, Sam tried to buy a car. Here, the adverbial phrase (of time) when alone modifies the verb tried. 2.3.5 When we left him alone, Sam tried to buy a car. Here, the adverbial clause (of time) when we left him alone modifies the verb tried. As shown by these examples, a modifier can come before whatever it modifies, called a premodifier (Pre-M) or afterwards, called a postmodifier (Post-M). (Source: http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/modifiers_modify.htm) 4. Phrases within phrases Longer phrases contain a number of shorter phrases: Figure 4.2 Box diagrams showing a number of shorter phrases within longer phrases

80 The phrases whose heads are by and over are prepositional phrases and will be explained below. The other notation shows the same structure in a different way: Figure 4.3 Tree diagrams showing the smaller parts of phrases These diagrams are both useful in revealing the way in which the larger phrase is built out of smaller parts, each of which helps to expand a word which is before or after it: river the river over the river the bridge over the river by the bridge over the river that lovely old pub by the bridge over the river (Source: http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/tta/phrases/phrases.htm.) Function of phrases Phrases can have many different functions in a sentence. They may function as a noun, verb, an adverb, or an adjective. 1. Phrase as noun The phrase functions as noun called “Noun phrase (NP)”. Example: [NP the man] [NP the nice man] [NP the nice man in the garden] [NP the nice man who lives in the house]

81 2. Phrase as verb The phrase functions as verb called “Verb phrase (VP)”. Example: She [VP goes to the school every day.] The boy [VP always gets up early morning.] He [VP will take this]. 3. Phrase as adverb The phrase functions as adverb called “Adverb phrase (AdvP)”. Example: He is running [AdvP very fast.] She loves him [AdvP so much.] My brother lives [AdvP in the town.] 4. Phrase as adjective The phrases functions as adjective called “Adjective phrase (AP).” Example: The [AP very good] boy The boy is [AP quite strong.] The girl [AP in the room] (http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/tta/phrases/phrases.htm) Types of phrases A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a phrase depends on its construction. Basically, their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types as follows: 1. Noun phrase (NP) 1.1 What is a noun phrase? A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners) which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence. A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence. Here are some examples of noun phrases: 1.1.1 a nice red shirt shirt = noun (head) ; a, nice, red = modifiers.

82 noun phrase determiner adjective adjective noun (head) a nice red shirt Figure 4.4 Tree diagram of noun phrase (1) 1.1.2 the university student student = noun (head); the, university = modifies. noun phrase determiner noun noun (head) the university student Figure 4.5 Tree diagram of noun phrase (2) 1.1.3 a very kind teacher teacher = noun; a, very kind = modifiers. noun phrase determiner adjective phrase noun (head) adverb adjective a very kind teacher Figure 4.6 Tree diagram of noun phrase (3)

83 1.1.4 six books in the table books = noun; six, on the table = modifiers noun phrase determiner noun (head) prepositional phrase preposition noun phrase determiner noun six books on the table Figure 4.7 Tree diagram of noun phrase (4) 1.1.5 a cat that refused to meow cat = noun; a, that refused to meow = modifiers. noun phrase determiner noun (head) relative clause a cat that refused to meow Figure 4.8 Tree diagram of noun phrase (5) 1.1.6 the girl‟s pencil pencil = noun; the, girl’s = modifiers noun phrase noun phrase noun (head) determiner noun possessive the girl „s pencil Figure 4.9 Tree diagram of noun phrase (6)

84 1.2 Functions of noun phrase Like a noun, noun phrase functions as subject, as the object of a verb or verbal, as a subject of complement, as an object of complement, or the object of preposition in the following examples: 1.2.1 as subject (Subj.) of a sentence Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves. The old man likes to dance very much. His father wished to speak to the president. 1.2.2 as direct object (DO) of a verb She has a cup of coffee every morning. I‟ve found this necklace under the table. She dislikes the young man who lives near her room. 1.2.3 as indirect object (IO) of a verb . He gave his father a lot of money. Mr. Yang teaches the first students Chinese. The old man told the children a funny joke. 1.2.4 as object of a preposition (OP) He lives in the new house. Let‟s go to the library. I would like to speak with the manager. 1.2.5 as subject complement (SC) I am a student. She is a woman of wonderful patience. My sister becomes a famous singer. 1.2.6 as object complement (OC) I consider Jack my favorite cat. My boss appointed me the sales manager. People selected Mr. John the president.

85 1.3 Noun phrases and their Structure The structure of a noun phrase in English can be formulaically described as follows: Noun Phrase = Pre-M (Pre-modifiers) + H (Headword) + Post-M (Post-modifiers) 1.3.1 Pre-modifiers consist of three word classes operating as pre- modifiers in the structure of a noun phrase in English (Thakur, 1998): are nouns, adjectives, adverbs and determiners, which may be described as follows 1) Nouns as pre-modifiers: A single noun acting as a pre-modifier in the structure of a noun phrase comes immediately before the headword. Here are some examples: university student school uniform computer games In general, a noun head may be pre-modified by two or more nouns: Research Development Institute Buriram Rajabhat University Cambridge University Press The structure of the above phrases can be understood in terms of diagrams to be drawn as follows: Research Development Institute The pre-modifying noun in a noun phrase can be in possessive form: Children’s toys women’s rights John’s car 2) Adjectives as pre-modifiers: The adjective pre-modifier occurs immediately before the noun head or the noun pre-modifier: the active students a beautiful woman the well-organized university function