English Syntax I

134 Look at these examples: predicate English. Sentence Verb (phrase) here. Subject smiles. songs sweetly. Noun (phrase) speaks my uncle. (1) She wait my uncle. (2) The boy is singing to death. (3) (You) is to death. (4) The girl in the class is (5) The man living in that house was sentenced (6) The man that lives in that house. was sentenced (7) The murderer arrested by the police (8) The murderer that was arrested by the police From the above examples, a sentence can be short, as in (1) and (2), longer and more complicated, as in (4), (5), (6), (7), and (8), but basically there is always a subject and a predicate. It is noted that the predicate always contains a finite verb. In (1), the predicate is sometimes only a verb–the imperative form which means that when the one who gives a command (the imperative) usually does not use a subject. Note that a complete sentence always expresses a complete sense (or thought). Here are some examples of complete and incomplete senses: Is it complete sense? sentence (9) She loves him. (10) The girl likes a cute cat. YES (11) Take a seat, please. not a sentence (12) a lovely girl with brown hair (sentence fragments) (13) two people who work in the office NO (14) in the library It is noted that in (9), (10), and (11), all sentences make complete sense, which contain a subject and a predicate of its own. In (12), (13), and (14), however, they do not make sense—without a subject or a predicate. So, they are sentence fragments.

135 The classification of the sentence From the point of view of classifying the structures of the sentence, we can distinguish the following four types: 1. The simple sentence A simple sentence can be defined as a sentence that contains a subject (that tells who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate (that tells something about the subject). It expresses a complete thought. A simple sentence is always a main (independent) clause, that is, a sentence capable of occurring on its own. If we compare (15) with (16), (17), (18), and (19), it is obvious that (15) can be used independently but that (16), (17), (18), and (19) cannot: (15) Peter is a single. (16) that Peter is a single (17) because Peter is a single. (18) Peter who is a single (19) (for) Peter to be a single The following are more examples of simple sentences: (20) He talked to Mr. Tim about his project last week. (21) The two men were arrested in a hotel last night. (22) Peter‘s mother is a civil servant. (23) The men working here are very excellent. (24) There are many people living in the hotel. (25) I am very pleased to see you. (26) She was quite afraid of leaving her two daughters alone at night. (27) We made a very hard attempt to solve this problem. (28) The two robbers arrested by the police were sentenced to death. In spite of the fact that (20) - (28) contain non-finite clauses, they should be considered as simple sentence. The reason is that the non-finite clauses in (23) - (28) do not function as constituents of the sentence, but are embedded in a noun phrase (23) :the man, (24): many people, (27): a very hard attempt and (28): the two robbers, and an adjective phrase (25): very pleased and (26):quite afraid of. .

136 2. The compound sentence A compound sentence is composed of at least two simple sentences. Each of simple sentences is a main (independent) clause, since there is no question of embedding. The two or more simple sentences may be conjoined by coordinative conjunctions in which the relationship between constituents is generally marked by lexical items like and, but, or, and so and by punctuation only (e.g., semi-colon or comma) in which the relationship is not marked by any lexical items. Here are examples of conjoining two or more simple sentences to form one or more compound sentences: (27) He is clever. He is rich. Conjoining: He is clever and (he is) rich. (coordinate conjunction) (28) The wind blew. The rain fell. The lightning flashed. Conjoining: The wind blew, the rain fell, and the lightning flashed. (comma) (comma & coordinate conjunction) (29) She is happy. I am unhappy. Conjoining: She is happy but I am unhappy. (coordinate conjunction) (30) It is raining heavily. I will take an umbrella with me. Conjoining: It is raining heavily, so I will take an umbrella with me. (comma and coordinate conjunction)

137 3. The complex sentence A complex sentence is a sentence is made up of one main (independent) clause and at least one subordinate (dependent) clause. According to Rambo (2012), a complex sentence is a sentence made up of a main clause or an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses or dependent clauses connected to it. ―The subordinate clauses (University of Manitoba, 2014) begin with subordinators (e.g. because, since, while) and contain subjects and verbs; however, they cannot stand on their own as complete sentences. This is because subordinators indicate relationships between two ideas, both of which must be expressed in the sentence.‖ As we have studied in chapter 5, the subordinate clauses embedded in the main clause are known as complex sentences in which there are three types of subordinate clauses: noun clause, adjective clause, and adverb clause. Here are examples of combining one main clause and at least one subordinate clause together to form the complex sentence: (31) I do not know whether you are innocent. main clause subordinate clause (32) John, who is my uncle, will come to Thailand next week. subordinate clause main clause (33) I will be with you wherever you go. main clause subordinate clause Here, each of the subordinate clauses in (31) is a noun clause that functions a object of verb ―know‖; in (32) an adjective clause that modifies the antecedent noun ―John‖; and in (33) an adverb clause that modifies the main clause ―I will be with you‖.

138 Take a look at considering the following more examples: (34) It is obvious that he couldn’t manage this problem. (35) That he told me the truth is not true. (36) I love my two daughters that are very cute. (37) I like the house which your father built. (38) I am happy to give though I am not rich. (39) If I were a bird, I would fly in the sky. Here, the sentences (34), (35), (36), (37), (38), and (39) are regarded as the complex sentences because they are made up of one main clause or independent clause and at least one subordinate clause or dependent clause. 4. The compound-complex sentence However, the sentence which contains one or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses are sometimes called ‗compound-complex sentences’. Look at the additional examples: (40) There are two students that did not pass the test. main clause subordinate clause (41) They will have to retake it next week. main clause Combination: (42) There are two students that did not pass the test, and they will have to retake it next week. Here, the sentence in (40) is called a complex sentence because it contains one main clause and one subordinate clause; the sentence in (41) is called a simple sentence since it contains only one main clause that expresses one complete thought. Both complex sentence (40) and simple sentence (41) combined by a comma and a coordinate conjunction ―and‖ are called a compound-complex sentence (42).

139 The sentence constituent and word order In this section, we take a look at the constituent that is a well-formed string of linguistic units (Ariyapitipun, 2004) of any word or group of words such as noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), adverb phrase (AdvP), and prepositional phrase (PP)— all are used as forms to help identify the constituents in a sentence. We begin by considering the two basic units of the sentence, the noun phrase and the verb phrase. Here is the formula for the two main sentence constituents, as modern linguists generally describe them: S = NP + VP The girl likes the kitty cat = the girl (NP) + likes the kitty cat (VP) These terms, of course, refer to forms. In English, the word order is also used to refer to the functions of these forms. Thus, we can say that the two basic units of the sentence are the subject and the predicate as a sequence pattern: S = subject + predicate the girl (subject) + likes the kitty cat (predicate) Now, take a look at the syntactic knowledge of the form and the function in a sentence as shown in the box and tree diagrams respectively. Sentence Form NP VP Function subject predicate the girl likes the kitty cat Figure 6.1 The syntactic constituent of the sentence shown by box diagram S NP (subj) VP (pred) the girl likes the kitty cat Figure 6.2 The syntactic constituent of the sentence shown by tree diagram

140 The basic sentence constituents The basic sentence constituents can be described by specifying the forms to which their constituents belong and the functions that their constituents have in sentence structure, which will be now discussed below. 1. Form In English, there are the following five major forms of phrases (as we have seen in the chapter 4) to which the sentence constituents belong: 1.1 Noun phrase (NP) Noun phrases may consist of a single-word or a complex-word as follows: 1.1.1 Noun phrases as single-word phrases must constitute an NP, which must consequently be its head. Look at the following single formula: (Pre-modifier) + HEAD + (Post-modifier) Look at the following examples of single NPs: NP N or Pro (43) book NP NP (44) it (book) N Pro bird (H) it (H) Figure 6.3 the syntactic constituent of single-NPs (43) and (44) The noun phrases in (43) and (44) are single-word phrases. Every NP, like every other phrase, must have a head as noun or pronoun that stand for a noun ‗book‘. 1.1.2 Noun phrases as complex-word phrases must contain a head word and one or more pre-modifiers (that preceded the head) and/or one or more post- modifiers (that follow the head). Look at the examples of the complex formula: 1) Premodifier(s) + Head 2) Head + Postmodifier(s) 3) Premodifier(s) + Head + Postmodifier(s) Look at the following examples of complex NPs: NP (Det) (Adj) (N) N (Ph) (Cl) (45) the student NP NP (46) the school student Det N Det N N the student(H) the school student(H) Figure 6.3 The syntactic constituent of complex-NPs (45) and (46)

141 (47) the good school student (48) The lovely girl in the room NP NP Det AP N Det AP N PP Adj Adj P NP Det N the good student(H) the lovely student(H) in the room Figure 6.4 The syntactic constituent of complex-NPs (47) and (48) (49) Birds living in the tree (50) The place where I was born NP N VblP birds living in the tree NP Det N RC The place (H) where I was born Figure 6.5 The syntactic constituent of complex-NPs (49) and (50)

142 1.2 Verb phrase (VP) Verb phrases may consist of a single verb, or a verb preceded by an auxiliary, or a verb followed by various types of phrases and clauses. This formula of a VP must contain a head word, optionally preceded by one or more auxiliaries, and optionally followed by object(s), complements, and/or modifier(s): (Auxiliary) + HEAD + (object) + (complement) + (Modifier) (Source: http://wac.colostate.edu/books/sound/chapter9.pdf.) 1.2.1 Verb phrases consist of a single-word verb. Single-word VPs always contain a head word alone (a main verb) that is an intransitive verb, italicized in the examples in (40), (41), and (42): VP  V (51) Marry walks. VP (52) All the people run. (53) She laughed. V Figure 6.6 The syntactic constituent of single-word VPs (51), (52), and (53) 1.2.2 Verb phrases consist of auxiliaries and a head (a main verb): Auxiliary + HEAD (main verb) (54) is walking (be + head verb in Ving form) (55) has worked (have + head verb in past participle form) (56) will come (will + head verb in infinitive form) (57) has been waiting (have + be in past participle form + head verb in Ving form) 1.2.3 Verb phrases consist of a verb head that obligatorily followed by an object or a complement: (58) She likes [music (DO)]. [VP  V+ NP] (59) John gave [his student (IO)] a dictionary. [VP  V+ NP + NP] (60) He is [an engineer (SC)]. [VP  V+ NP] (61) Students selected him [a head of the class (OC)]. [VP  V + NP + NP] 1.2.4 Verb phrases consist of a verb head and modifier(s) of it: (62) She sings [sweetly (Adv)]. (63) Ben lives [in the apartment (PP)]. (64) We left [after our daughters went home (Cl)].

143 1.3 Adjective phrase (AP) Adjective phrases contain an adjective as a head that is optionally accompanied by other elements. Adjective phrases may be analyzed as: (Modifier) + Head + (Complement) Each of the following is an AP: (65) She is beautiful. (adjective alone) (66) She is very beautiful. (intensifier (adverb) + adjective) AP AP Adj (Head) Int Adj (Head) beautiful very beautiful Figure 6.7 The syntactic constituent of APs (65), and (66) (67) She is fond of a lovely cat. (adjective + prepositional phrase) (68) I am glad to see you. (adjective + infinitive phrase) AP AP Adj PP Adj Inf fond of a lovely cat glad to see you Figure 6.8 The syntactic constituent of APs (67), and (68) (69) I was very disappointed that some students had failed the test. (intensifier (adverb) + adjective + clause) AP Int S (Cl) very that some students had failed the test Figure 6.9 The syntactic constituent of APs (69)

144 1.4 Adverb phrase (AdvP) Adverb phrases contain an adverb as a head that is often preceded by one or more intensifier(s) or by one or more degree adverb(s). Adverb phrases may be analyzed as: (Modifiers) + Head (70) He runs quickly. (adverb alone) (71) He runs very quickly. (intensifier + adverb) (72) That man behaved extremely clumsily. (degree adverb + adverb) AdvP AdvP AdvP Adv Int Adv Deg Adv quickly very quickly extremely clumsily Figure 6.10 The syntactic constituent of AdvPs (70), (71), and (72) 1.5 Prepositional phrase (PP) Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition as a head followed by an object or complement, which is simply a single-NP or a complex-NP. We can represent this as: Head + Object (NP): PP  P + NP + (PP) (73) for you PP PP (74) in the office P NP P NP Pro Det N for you in the office Figure 6.11 The syntactic constituent of PPs (73) and (74) (75) in the office of his father PP P NP PP P NP Det N Det N in the office of his father Figure 6.12 The syntactic constituent of PPs (75)

145 2. Function 2.1 Subjects and predicates After looking at the constituents of phrases in a sentence which clearly consists of two basic units of phrases: the noun phrase (NP) and the verb phrase (VP). We can return now to their functions in a sentence which consists of the subject (Subj) and the predicate (Pred). ―Subjects usually come immediately before the verb phrase in a clause, and they frequently consist of a noun phrase (as we have seen in section 1.1). They often tell us what the predicates are about (Parrott, 2010: 297).‖ Here are the following examples of the syntactic constituents of the subjects and the predicates in a sentence: NP VP Subj Pred NP VP (76) He is a student. (77) John worked hard. (78) The king of Thailand is the heart of all Thai people. (79) The man sitting in the room will take exam tomorrow. (80) The girl who is playing piano studies in England program. Subj Pred Figure 6.13 The syntactic constituents of the subjects and the predicates in a sentence 2.2 Objects Look at the predicates in a sentence that contain objects. The phrases that function as objects are generally noun phrases, which can be basically classified into three types as follows: 2.2.1 Direct objects: ―If there is one object, (Kuiper & Allan, 2010: 260) that object is what was told, as in Jack drank water. The thing that is told or given is called the direct object (DO).‖ Here are the examples of ‗direct object‖ in the sentence: (81) Ann ate a pancake. (82) Most students did homework. (83) Eve saw the snake.

146 2.2.2 Indirect objects: ―If there is one object, (Kuiper & Allan, 2010: 260) that object is what was told, as in Jack told Mary a story. The person it is told or given to or for is called the indirect object (IO).‖ Here are the examples of ‗direct object‖ in the sentence: (84) Mark gave Sandy her breakfast. (85) The postmaster sent a parcel to Henry. (86) She lent her sister a dollar. Here, in (84), Sandy is the indirect object while her breakfast is the direct object; in (85), ―a parcel is the direct object while to Henry is (Kuiper & Allan, 2010: 260) the indirect object‖; and in (86), her sister is the indirect object while a dollar is the direct object. 2.2.2 Objects of preposition are ―a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that is linked by a preposition to other elements of a sentence (Grmmarist, 2009-2014.‖ Here are examples of objects of preposition (OP): (87) She was scared of the snake. (88) We live with our parents. (89) I would like to talk to the president. 2.3 Complements Very often, the complement gets confused with the object. In this case, the complement gives more information about either the subject or the object in a sentence. Under the subject or the object of the sentence, the complement in English can be classified into two types: 2.3.1 Subject complement gives us more information about the subject. It usually comes after linking verbs and sense verbs (including be, seem, smell, taste), and after change of state verbs (including go, get, become) (Cambridge Dictionaries Online, 2015).‖ These verbs are usually followed by a noun phrase (NP) or an adjective phrase (AP) or a prepositional phrase (PP) or Gerund phrase (GerundP) or Infinitive phrase (InfP) or a noun clause (NCl). Here are examples of subject complements (SC): (90) He is a student. (NP) (91) You look very happy. (AP) (92) The car disappeared in the car park. (PP)

147 (93) My hobbies are watching TV and playing football. (GerundP) (94) My life goal is to make my family happy. (InfP) (95) My question is whether he will come back to Thailand. (NCl) 2.3.2 Object complement, as we have seen in the section 2.3.1, additional information can similarly be given about the object. ―Object complements are (Johnson, June 13, 2013) defined as words, phrases, and clauses that directly follow and describe or complete the direct object. Object complements are grammatical constituents embedded in the predicate of a clause.‖ Object complements are often used with verbs of creating or nominating such as make, name, elect, paint, call, keep, consider, etc. Here are the examples below: (96) Many people elected John the president. (NP) (97) She makes me happy. (AP) (98) I found it difficult to believe. (AP) (99) He considered my research to be promoted to International level. (InfP) (100) The teacher declared the best time of year during the summer. (PP) (101) He declared the problem that I couldn’t solve his assignment. (NCl) 2.3.3 Adverbials is ―an adverb, adverb phrase or adverb clause that gives us additional information in a sentence, e.g., the time, place, or manner of the action. ―Adverbials characteristically appear after the subject, verb, and object/complement core of the sentence and indicate things like how, when, where, and why the things that are described by the sentence are going on (Kuiper & Allan, 2010: 264).‖ Here are the examples of adverbials (Advl): (102) He runs very fast. (103) She worked hard. (104) I helped her with my pleasure. (105) He stood by the river. (106) She lived in the apartment. (107) This bag is easy to carry because it is very light. (108) As soon as she told me a story, I started laughing.

148 The syntactic analysis of the simple sentence structures According to linguistics, one of the linguistic levels is the term syntax used in the study of the grammatical relations between words and other units within a sentence. It concerns both ―word order‖ and ―agreement‖ in the relationship between words, which is primarily concerned with ―the structure of sentences‖. It is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form SENTENCES in a language. Here are the following statements that follow the normal English word order: (109) The dog sat on the carpet. (sentence) (110) My new red student bag. (phrase) Take a look at comparing the statements that follow normal Thai word order: (111) สุนัขนงั่ บนพรม (112) กระเปา๋ นักเรียนสีแดงใหม่ของฉัน In contrast, the following statements do not follow normal English word order. That means ‗ungrammatical word order‘: (113) The dog on the carpet sat. (114) My red student new bag. The following statements also do not follow normal English word order: (115) สุนขั บนพรมน่งั (116) กระเป่าใหมน่ กั เรยี นสีแดงของฉนั A normal sentence in English usually contains at least the following basic elements: Subject + Verb or Subject + Verb + Object: English structure: Subject Verb (117) She walks. (118) The girl smiles. Thai structure: Subject Verb (119) เธอ เดิน (120) เดก็ หญงิ ย้ิม

149 English structure: Subject Verb Object (121) The cat eats the goldfish. (122) John likes tennis. (123) Mary missed you. Verb Object Thai Structure: Subject กนิ ปลาทอง (124) แมว ชอบ เทนนิส (125) จอหน์ คดิ ถึง คณุ (126) แมร่ี As mentioned above, the structures of Thai word order are similar to English word order in the sentence structure: S + V or S + V + O. So every language has rules of syntax, which are the essential rules in describing such a language. Analyzing the simple sentence structures The basic sentence constituents can be analyzed by specifying the forms to which their constituents belong and the functions that their constituents have in sentence structure. Take a look at the following constituents of forms and functions which are basically used to analyze the basic sentences structures: 1. Forms of the simple sentence structures: S = sentence Adj = adjective NP = noun phrase Adv = adverb VP = verb phrase PP = prepositional phrase V = verb AP = adjective phrase N = noun AdvP = adverb phrase pro = pronoun 2. Functions of the simple sentence structures: Subj = subject IO = indirect object subject complement Pred = predicate SC = object complement adverbial P = predicator OC = DO = direct object Advl =

150 Here are some examples of analyzing the simple sentence structures: (127) The girl sat in the room. Function Form NP The girl subj VP V sat in the room pred PP sat P in the room Advl (128) She is a good student. Function Form NP (pro) She subj VP V is a good student Pred NP is P a good student SC (129) The cat chased the rat. Function category NP The cat subj VP V chased the rat pred NP chased P the cat DO (130) The girl can run very quickly. Function Form NP The girl subj VP VP can run very quickly pred AdvP can run P very quickly Advl

151 (131) My teacher gave me a book. Function Form NP My teacher subj VP V gave me a book pred NP (pro) NP gave P Form me IO NP (N) VP a book DO V NP (pro) (132) People elected him the president. NP Function Form NP (pro) People subj VP V elected him the president pred NP (pro) Adj elected P Form him Do NP (pro) VP the president OC V AP (133) She considered him stupid. Function She subj considered him stupid Pred considered P him DO stupid OC (134) She is very beautiful. Function She Subj is very beautiful pred is P very beautiful SC

152 Summary A main clause that contains a subject and a predicate of its own—making complete sense—is called a ‘sentence’. The sentence is defined as a group of grammatically-related linguistic words which make a complete sense. The structures of the sentence are classified into four types: the simple sentence consisting of a subject and a predicate of its own—standing alone as a sentence; the compound sentence composed of at least two simple sentences; and the complex sentence made up of one main (independent) clause and at least one subordinate (dependent) clause; and the compound-complex sentence containing one or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. In the sentence structures, the constituent is a well-formed string of linguistic units of noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase and prepositional phrase. The basic sentence constituents consist of the forms and the functions. One of the syntactic analyses of the sentence structure is syntax concerning the grammatical relations between words and other units within a sentence—both ―word order‖ and ―agreement‖ in the relationship. Exercise 1. What is a sentence? 2. How many types of the sentences are classified according their structures? 3. What is a constituent? 4. How many constituents are used in analyzing the basic sentence structures? 5. Draw tree diagrams for the following noun phrases according to their syntactic constituents: 5.1 The book on the shelf 5.2 a lovely dog 5.3 The man that works in the hotel 5.4 Many football players playing in the stadium. 5.5 The house where I live

153 6. Draw tree diagrams for the following underlined adjective phrases according to their syntactic constituents: 6.1 She is very good. 6.2 The boy was very afraid of a black cat. 6.3 It is obvious that it had become true. 6.4 He is quite serious. 6.5 I‘m pleased to know you. 7. Draw tree diagrams for the following prepositional phrases according to their syntactic constituents: 7.1 on the tree 7.2 at the hotel 7.3 over the bridge beside the river 7.4 inside the house 7.5 behind the building that Jack built 8. Find the subject and the predicate of the following sentences and identify them according to the syntactic constituents: NP VP Subj Pred 8.1 The greatest magician in the world will perform here next week. 8.2 On Monday morning three prisoners escaped from the jail. 8.3 Peter likes to work here. 8.4 He studies in the college. 8.5 The beautiful woman swimming in the pool works for the bank. 9. Taking a look at the underlined phrases in each sentence, determine whether it is a direct object, and an indirect object, an object of preposition, a subject complement, an object complement, or an adverbial: 9.1 John bought his sister a bicycle. 9.2 She considered him a good husband. 9.3 She looked very shy. 9.4 My job is to take care of sick people. 9.5 My father works very hard.

154 10. Study the following sentences carefully and then identify their functions and Forms: 1. Forms of the simple sentence structures: S = sentence Adj = adjective NP = noun phrase Adv = adverb VP = verb phrase PP = prepositional phrase V = verb AP = adjective phrase N = noun AdvP = adverb phrase pro = pronoun 2. Functions of the simple sentence structures: Subj = subject IO = indirect object subject complement Pred = predicate SC = object complement adverbial P = predicator OC = DO = direct object Advl = 10.1 The girl followed the boy. 10.2 George saw a dog yesterday. 10.3 The boy sleeps in the room. 10.4 She is a student. 10.5 My car can run very fast. 10.6 She called me James. 10.7 My teacher teaches me English. 10.8 Mary helped John sincerely. 10.9 He will come home by Monday. 10.10 The tiger killed the zebra.

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