ALL ABOUT WAX POLES PENALTY CLAUSE WINTER SPORTS Using the right wax can take a skier to victory. Ski poles have to be Competitors in nonsprint classical races Snow and the weather influence which wax to use. lightweight but stiff; may be penalized for failing to allow a Glide wax decreases the friction between the skis energy is wasted if faster skier to overtake them at the first and the snow, giving a skier more speed, while kick the poles bend. request, unless they are in the marked (or grip) wax increases friction between the skis They are usually zone at the end of the course. Skiers and the snow and stops the skier from slipping. made of aluminum, may also be disqualified for using fiberglass, graphite, nonclassical techniques. or carbon fiber. In any competition, racers will be FREESTYLE SKIS Slip and slide penalized if they obstruct other skiers; CROSS-COUNTRY SKIING The skis are shorter than those used for classical at 5 ft 7 in–6 ft 6 in Glide wax keeps the ski make a false start; or wax, scrape, or (1.7–2 m), and the upward curve of the tips is not so pronounced. frictionless and stops clean their skis during a race. The skis are narrow—just 1.75–2 in (4.5–5 cm) wide. dirt and ice build-up Both classical and freestyle 6 ft 6 in (2 m) Wax to win techniques are used in races known Glide wax is used on the as double pursuits. In this style of race, CLASSICAL SKIS front and rear of the ski; there are two courses: one requiring Longer and more rigid skis, these spread the weight of kick wax is on the middle classical-style skiing and the other the racer more evenly. The minimum length of skis for freestyle. Between the courses, the classical events is 6 ft 5 in–7 ft 6 in (1.95–2.3 m). competitors must stop in order to change gear, because the skis and Ankle angles 7 ft 6 in (2.3 m) poles are not interchangeable Flexible boots between the two styles. However, Hard case the clock keeps going, and the first allow for Boots support the skier across the finish line wins. maximum joints that do the most work Light and strong strides The graphite and Kevlar shaft tapers to the bottom CLASSICAL BOOT FREESTYLE BOOT The classical boot is relatively flexible The freestyle boot is more rigid and Getting a grip and similar to a running shoe, allowing gives more support to the ankle than A plastic web or disc, called a basket, gives for plenty of ankle movement. the classical cross-country ski boot. advantage by preventing the pole from plunging too low in to the snow GETTING ALONG Pulling forward Switching sides Gathering pace Classical skiers may only use a diagonal stride. Freestylers can use the The skier pulls on The pole is then Alternating between faster skating (or free) technique, pushing the inside edge of the ski the ski pole to pulled out of the left ski and pole simultaneously backward and outward at about a 45° angle. pull the body snow, and the skier and right ski and DIAGONAL STRIDE forward pushes forward pole, the skier This technique is the workhorse of with the other ski gathers pace classical cross-country. The skis remain parallel to each other and remain in the tracks, apart from in marked areas. Pushing off SKATING STEPS INSIDE STORY The skier glides one of the In this freestyle technique, the skier Cross-country skiing was probably first practiced skis forward and plants pushes out and forward so the inner in the Nordic countries hundreds, if not the pole in the snow on edge of the ski bites the thousands, of years ago. It was the most efficient the same side of the body. snow. The technique can way for hunting communities to move long DOUBLE PUSH be used only on firm distances in winter as they tracked herds of elk The skier plants both poles in the snow but is faster than and deer. Traditionally, wooden skis and bamboo snow at the same time and pushes on diagonal strides. poles with leather handstraps were used. Men’s both poles together. Both skis move cross-country skiing was included in the first forward together. Winter Olympics in 1924, but women’s events did not make an appearance there until 1952. Pushing forward The poles are planted, and the skier pushes GOVERNING BODY: FIS backward against them to achieve drive The Fédération Internationale de Ski (International Ski Federation) was founded on February 2, 1924, during the first Olympic Games in Chamonix, France, with 14 member nations. Today, 132 National Ski Associations comprise the membership of FIS.
SLOPESTYLE GAME OVERVIEW NEED2KNOW Pioneered by snowboarders, slopestyle is an expressive and spectacular winter sport in which participants navigate a downhill The USA’s Shaun White is probably the most course littered with obstacles such as rails and jumps while they successful snowboarder in the history of attempt to pull off a range of tricks. Scores are awarded for staying slopestyle, with five Winter X Games gold upright for the duration of the course and for the most complex and medals in the event. ambitious tricks executed successfully. Slopestyle snowboarding Canada’s Kaya Turski is one of the most and skiing were both added to the official program for the Winter successful athletes in the history of Games in Sochi in 2014. The organizers hoped the sport slopestyle skiing—she has won eight would attract younger spectators to the Games. Winter X Games gold medals. There is no standardized course format Helmet for slopestyle skiing and snowboarding; a Slopestyle carries a high level unique course is designed for each event. of risk, so protective headgear is an essential piece of equipment Upper body Dense foam body armor is worn to protect the arms, spine, and chest from high-impact falls Wrists COMPETITOR Frequent wrist injuries PROFILE mean many snowboarders Slopestyle requires the same wear guards basic attributes as other ski Legs and snowboarding sports: High-impact landings strong core and leg muscles, place stress on the good balance and knee joints of skiers coordination, and quick and snowboarders reactions. Points are awarded for more ambitious tricks but are deducted for poor execution and falls. EQUIPMENT BOOTS Comfort Apart from a slight adjustment to their bindings, snowboarders Slopestyle skiers use freestyle The lining of do not require any special equipment to participate in boots and position them toward the freestyle boots slopestyle events. Skiers on the other hand must use freestyle center of the ski rather than the provides increased skis (also known as twin-tip skis) to cope with the demands of rear. This makes it easier to comfort for the foot the sport. manipulate the ski in midair. and ankle FREESTYLE SKIS Tips BINDINGS Highback The tips of freestyle skis curve up at There is a slight Skiers and snowboarders in Slopestyle boarders use a both the back and the front, allowing the curve at the front slopestyle events will usually set a binding with a soft highback user to land or take off on the front or softer binding, allowing for greater and minimal forward lean back of the ski. They are also more and back of flexibility on impact when landing flexible than alpine or speed skis. freestyle skis a jump.
THE COURSE WINTER SPORTS The basic elements of a slopestyle course are the same for both skiers and snowboarders and consist of a downhill Rail SLOPEESTYLE run containing a series of obstacles and challenges such Narrow features, as jumps and rails. these can be THE COMPETITIONS straight or kinked Currently, the most high-profile slopestyle competition in the world takes place at the Winter X Games, an to provide an annual competition for winter action sports organized extra challenge by ESPN. The competition has taken place annually since 1997 and has been held in Aspen, Colorado, Kicker since 2002. Simple jumps built HOW IS IT DONE? Contestants descend the course at speed, from or covered attempting to make the most of the obstacles. in snow They are judged on the skill and difficulty level Wall of their tricks, how smoothly they move from one trick to the next, and the overall Almost vertical sides impression of their run as a whole. force competitors to skim or spin on the Finish line wall at steep angles If a skier loses a ski before the finish line, Table he may finish the run Tables come in numerous on one ski shapes, such as curved concave or convex “rainbows” SCORING Slopestyle skiing and snowboarding are judged in the same way. Competitions normally take place over two rounds, with a panel of judges awarding contestants a score for each round. In some tournaments, the judges are allocated a specific aspect of the performance— tricks or overall impression—to mark. The resulting scores are then combined. The marks given for overall impression reflect the skill with which participants move from one trick to another and the sculpting of the overall routine. Each contestant’s best score over the two rounds is then ranked against the other competitors’ best scores. TECHNIQUES 50-50 Popping Balancing Dismounting In slopestyle, a creative A 50-50 is a trick taken As the rider approaches the rail, The boarder rides along the rail As the rider leaves the combination of jumps, stunts, from skateboarding in he flexes his knees and pops the with his shoulders positioned rail, he flexes his knees, and tricks is required to achieve which a snowboarder board into the air and onto the rail over the center of the board bracing for the landing a high score from the judges. grinds (rides) along Preparing to land Each obstacle on the course is the length of a straight Creating the shape Grabbing The skis are released and suited to a specific type of trick: or kinked rail. The Once airborne, the skier The skier grabs the inside of straightened and the knees ramps are used for spins rider must gather crosses the skis to create the top ski in front of the boot are flexed for landing (which involve rotating 360° sufficient speed the shape of an X in midair), flips (performing a before attempting front or back somersault in to mount the rail. midair), and grabs (grabbing MUTE GRAB the skis or board while in The mute grab requires midair). Rails are used for the skier to become grinding, in which the boarder airborne off a ramp or skier jumps in the air and before crossing the skis slides a part of the skis or and grabbing hold of board along the rail. Most basic one. The mute grab can tricks have evolved several be varied by grabbing the more complex variations. ski behind the boot, rather than in front of it.
NEED2KNOW SKI JUMPING The average jump takes between eight EVENT OVERVIEW and 12 seconds, of which only two or Ski jumping is a spectacular sport that involves skiing down a steep three seconds are spent in flight. ramp, taking off, jumping as far as possible, and then landing smoothly The most successful jumpers have without falling over. Its best practitioners hold their near-horizontal been from Scandinavia and Japan. pose—and their nerve—as they soar through the air until bringing A proposal for women to compete their skis down at the last second, to a cacophony of cheers and in the 2010 Winter Olympics was cow bells. Skiers in this popular and predominantly male winter rejected because too few female sport compete not only for the longest distance jumped, but also athletes from too few countries for the style of their takeoff, flight, and landing. participate in the sport. Jumping was the most popular skiing Safety helmet View finder spectator sport until downhill skiing A helmet is a vital piece of gear The skier’s goggles must took over after World War II. for a jumper flying through the air at speeds approaching allow clear vision so he ATHLETE PROFILE 60 mph (95 kph) can place his landing Ski jumpers must have nerves of steel accurately and a head for heights. The top athletes start jumping from around the age of 5, gradually building up confidence by jumping from higher hills. Once the basic skills have been honed, jumpers perfect each part of the jump by training on smaller hills. Endurance is vital, and most of the top ski jumpers include cross-training to build up cardiovascular fitness. THE EAGLE HAS LANDED Jump suit EDDIE “THE EAGLE” EDWARDS Made from a thin, synthetic fabric, ACHIEVED FAME AT THE 1988 WINTER OLYMPICS IN CALGARY, the jump suit molds around the CANADA—FOR SKI JUMPING SO body. This reduces wind resistance POORLY. ALTHOUGH THE BRITISH and may squeeze an extra inch out PLASTERER FINISHED LAST, SPECTATORS WARMED TO HIS of the jump PERSONALITY AND PASSION, TURNING EDWARDS INTO A MEDIA SENSATION. SIDELINES Ski boots Boots allow movement at the 832 The distance, in feet ankles, enabling a jumper to (253.5 m), of the world record jump lean as far forward as set by Austria’s Stefan Kraft in 2017. possible during flight 5 The number of medals won by Boot bindings The bindings secure the skis to the the most successful Olympic ski boots and must be fixed at a standard jumper—Matti Nykänen of Finland, distance from the ski tip. The skier’s who has won 4 golds and 1 silver. heels are not bound and can move up 50 000, The average and down during flight Grooved skis number of spectators that gather to watch the annual Holmenkollen The maximum length of the skis is 31½ in ski-jumping competition in Norway. (80 cm) longer than the height of the skier. The skis are no wider than 4½ in (11.5 cm) and are made of fiberglass and wood. Most have five or six grooves on the bottom to keep the skier straight on the inrun
EVENTS ON THE HILL Jumping ramp WINTER SPORTS Competitors start from a jumping ramp onto two types of Skiers wait at the starting ski-jumping hill. A K90 hill measures 295 ft (90 m) from the gate for the signal to jump, takeoff table to the recommended landing point, or K point. then they push off and A K120 hill measures 394 ft (120 m). Competitions usually quickly gain momentum have two jumps in three events: an individual K90 jump, an Accelerating down individual K120 jump, and a team competition on the K120 hill. Skiers tuck themselves FARTHER AND FARTHER into an aerodynamic Changing techniques have enabled jumpers to fly farther and crouch and accelerate farther. At first, jumps were only about 148 ft (45 m). In the down the inrun toward 1920s, jumpers flew 330 ft (100 m) with the Kongsberger the takeoff table technique—they leaned forward, bodies bent at the hip, arms extended, and their skis parallel. In the 1950s, Swiss skier Inrun SKI JUMPING Andreas Daescher brought the arms in toward the body to The surface of the jumping ramp is squeeze out an extra few feet. In 1985, Jan Boklöv of Sweden called the inrun. It is covered with pioneered the flying V technique (below)—the skier holds the hard-packed snow during the winter tips of the skis apart in a V-shape, thereby gaining both extra lift and stability. or an artificial surface in summer Takeoff Takeoff table At the takeoff point, the skier stretches The takeoff table at the end of the out into the jump, straightens the body, inrun has a gradient of 11 percent and leans forward to provide sufficient lift for the jump Judges’ tower Norm point Five judges award style points from The norm point, or P point, is marked in blue a tower next to the landing slope and indicates where the curve of the hill ends and the steepest part of the slope begins Flight FOUR HILLS During flight, the skier spreads THE PRESTIGIOUS FOUR HILLS TOURNAMENT, the tips of the skis into a “V” PART OF THE ANNUAL SKI JUMPING WORLD CUP, shape to create lift and make IS CONTESTED ON TWO HILLS IN AUSTRIA AND the jump longer TWO IN GERMANY. JANNE AHONEN OF FINLAND IS Landing slope THE ONLY SKIER TO HAVE WON THE TOURNAMENT Jumpers fly as far as they can over the FIVE TIMES. landing slope. The angle of most slopes is a gradient of 35° or more Landing SCORING The skier lands with one Judges score for distance and style. A skier who jumps foot in front of the other in to the K point is given 60 points. Two points per meter the “Telemark” position. (3 feet) are added or deducted on K90 hills for longer This helps to absorb the or shorter jumps, 1.8 points for K120 hills. Five judges shock of the landing also award up to 20 points each for style: good body position during takeoff, flight, and landing; and steady skis in flight. The distance score and middle three style scores are combined to give the jump an overall score. The skier with the highest score for two jumps wins. Outrun K point INSIDE STORY The outrun provides a safe, The K point is the lower control point. Once a local event at Norwegian winter carnivals, ski gently sloping area in which the Skiers use the K point as the target jumping has spread throughout Europe and North skier can come to a controlled distance for a safe landing. Judges America to become one of the most popular events stop after the jump award extra points for jumps that on the winter sports calendar. Ski jumping was exceed the K point recognized as an official sport in 1892, when brave competitors contested the King’s Cup at Holmenkollen, RECORDS GALORE Norway. It remains one of the Winter Olympics’ most During the 2005 World Cup finals held in Planica, Slovenia, several jumpers coveted prizes. broke the world ski jumping record of 758 ft (231 m), set by Finland’s Matti Hautamäki. Bjoern Romaeren from Norway set the new world record with AN OLYMPIC SPORT 784 ft (239 m), with Hautamäki achieving the second best jump of 772 ft Ski jumping has been an Olympic sport since the first Winter Games (235.5 m). Another of Romaeren’s jumps reached 769 ft (234.5 m). were held in Chamonix, France, in 1924. Norway tops the Olympic medal table with 11 golds, followed closely by Finland’s 10 and Austria’s and Germany’s 6 gold medals.
NEED2KNOW SKI JUMPING The jump has four main phases: inrun, takeoff, flight, and landing. The jumper Nordic combined has been in the Olympic approaches the takeoff table with their body crouched and arms behind their Games since the first Winter Games were back. On takeoff, they straighten their body and lean forward, spreading the held at Chamonix, France, in 1924. skis in a V-shape to create lift. At the end of the jump, they land with knees The individual event consists of two bent and one foot in front of the other, “telemark” fashion. jumps from K90 and a 9¼ mile (15 km) cross-country race. Competitors in the Start and inrun JUMPING HILLS sprint make one jump from K120 and ski The jumper leaves the There are two jumping hills, which differ only in a 4½ mile (7.5 km) cross-country race. starting gate and accelerates size. The smaller hill is also known as K90 In the team event, each member of a team to about 60 mph (96 kph) because the horizontal distance between the of four jumps twice from K90 and skis Takeoff table takeoff table and the K point—the par landing 3 miles (5 km) of a 12 mile (20 km) relay. The jumper launches in to point—is 90 m, or 295 ft. The takeoff table of the air from the takeoff table the larger hill, K120, is 120 m, or 394 ft, from COMPETITOR PROFILE the K point. Nordic combined athletes need courage for the jumps and stamina and strength Hill height in cross-country races. Both disciplines Hills vary in height but are are technically demanding. Competitors spend as much training time working all daunting for novices on their technique as they do on K point maintaining cardiovascular fitness. The jumpers aim for the K point or beyond. Extra points are awarded for jumps that exceed the K point Body suit Judging tower Outrun Competitors wear skintight A panel of five judges The jumper comes to a body suits made from thin watches each jump and controlled stop in the outrun synthetic fabrics awards points from a tower and braking area Ski poles next to the landing slope Long, straight ski poles help the skier push hard JUDGING THE JUMPS against the snow to For each jump, points are given for maintain momentum distance achieved and overall technique. Free heels Jumps that reach the K point are worth Bindings hold the boots to 60 points. The score is increased for the ski at the toes, leaving longer jumps and deducted for shorter the heels free to “skate” ones. The five judges may also award across the snow between 0 and 20 for technique, and the middle three results are taken into NORDIC consideration in the final score. COMBINED Skis Cross-country skis measure up to 6½ ft (2 m) long and have curved tips. Competitors wax the skis to help them slide easily over the snow EVENT OVERVIEW CROSS-COUNTRY Nordic combined is a one-day winter competitive sport The cross-country starting order is decided by the results of that combines ski jumping with cross-country skiing. the previous day’s jumping competition, with points being Ski jumping usually takes place first, followed by converted into seconds. Most competitors race using the “skating” style, sliding each leg forward with the ski angled cross-country. Athletes take part in individual, sprint, so its inside edge drives back against the snow. Weight is and team events. There are Olympic, World Cup, and transferred entirely from one ski to the other as the skier World Championship Nordic combined events, and moves. In this way, they can achieve speeds of up to 16 mph currently these are all for men only. (30 kph). The first past the post in the cross-country is the overall winner.
BIATHLON WINTER SPORTS NEED2KNOW EVENT OVERVIEW Biathlon became an Olympic event for men BIATHLON Biathlon as a winter sport combines cross-country skiing with rifle in 1960, and for women in 1992. There is shooting. The sport has a military origin in 18th-century Scandinavia, also a World Championship, first held in when accurate shooting and fast skiing were vital for soldiers patrolling Austria in 1958, and a World Cup. the long border between Norway and Sweden. There are individual, Skis must be at least 2½ in (4 cm) shorter sprint, relay, pursuit, and mass-start events. All involve racing in laps than the height of the skier, while the around an undulating course and firing at targets in a shooting range. length of the poles must not exceed the biathlete’s height. In an increasingly popular summer biathlon, skiing is replaced with cross-country running. THE COMPETITION TARGETS Competitors usually start at timed intervals and ski in “skating” style against the The black targets, which work electronically or clock, stopping to shoot at the targets. When shooting, they alternate between mechanically, turn white when hit. They are very standing and prone (lying down) positions. Missing a target is penalized (see below). small, being 4½ in (11.5 cm) wide for standing The distance of the race and number of shooting phases depends on the event. shooting and 1¾ in (4.5 cm) wide for prone shooting. RACE TYPES STANDING TARGETS PRONE TARGETS The main event is the individual race, which is 12 miles (20 km) for men and 9 miles (15 km) for women, including four shooting phases. The sprint is 6 miles (10 km) for men or 4½ miles (7.5 km) for women, with two shooting phases. In the relay, four biathletes each ski 4½ or 3¾ miles (7.5 or 6 km) and shoot twice. The pursuit is a 7½ or 6¼ mile (12.5 or 10 km) race with four shooting phases. SHOOTING RANGE Wind flags The shooting range is positioned near the Rows of flags help biathletes start/finish line. A typical range consists of up assess the speed and direction to 30 lanes, numbered from right to left. There of the wind may be two distinct areas: left for standing shooting, right for prone shooting. Standing up On the mat 8–10 ft (2.5–3 m) The second and Nonslip mats give a secure last shooting footing. For stages of the standing shots, individual event both skis must are shot from a stay on the mat standing position 164 ft (50 m) Target area Bank or backstop Each target has The targets are usually five plates fixed placed on a bank or slope in a straight row to minimize any danger from stray bullets Lying down Posture Downrange COMPETITOR PROFILE In the individual When prone, the biathlete may lean on their The area that is in Two main features of a biathlete competition, the elbows, but their wrists must not touch the ground front of the firing line are excellent marksmanship and first and third cardiovascular fitness. They must also shooting stages are have good concentration to be able to shot from a prone position transition from the fast effort of skiing to the calm, focused work of shooting. OFF TARGET Before they start to shoot, competitors must come to a complete stop and drop both SHOOTING GEAR ski poles. They may slow down just before the shooting phase to bring their heart rate Competitors each carry a 7½ lb (3.5 kg) down, which helps achieve accuracy. Penalties are given for missing a target. In the small-bore rifle on their backs. These fire individual event, there is a time penalty of one minute for each target missed. In other .22 (5.6 mm) ammunition and are loaded events, competitors must ski a 492 ft (150 m) penalty loop for every target missed. manually or have a five-bullet magazine. For elite athletes, this typically adds up to about 30 seconds on the overall race time.
NEED2KNOW COMPETITOR PROFILE All bobsledders need good balance and strong nerves. The name bobsled comes from early racers bobbing their heads In addition, pilots must have an eye for the best line to to try to increase their speed at the start. steer. Many pushers are athletes from track and field, Four-man bobsleds can reach speeds of up to 100 mph (160 kph). who have the explosive power to get the bobsled moving. They train by sprinting and by lifting weights, which Runner increases the strength of their legs and shoulders for guards pushing down the launchpad. Fiberglass attachments Head safety sit over the Helmets are made of heavy-duty composite plastic. They steel runners usually have a visor, but some racers prefer separate goggles Four runners There is one at each corner Fiberglass protection of the sled, with the front and rear pairs mounted on The hull or cowling is made of molded their own axles. They are made of metal, and it is forbidden to fiberglass; it has to protect the crew from treat them with any kind of polish or to warm them up before a race Front axle bumps on the course The front runners are attached to the sled by an axle that is steered Aerodynamic nose by ropes or a wheel and cables The cowling tapers to minimize FOUR-MAN SLED wind resistance. Every part The sled has a maximum weight (with the crew) of 1,390 lb (630 kg) of the sled is designed to and a maximum length of 12 ft 6 in (3.8 m). A two-man sled may be no heavier than 860 lb (390 kg) with a male crew or 750 lb (340 kg) be aerodynamic for women. The length limit is 8 ft 10 in (2.7 m). BOBSLEDDING EVENT OVERVIEW SIDELINES 30,000 Bobsledding (or bobsleighing) is one of the fastest winter sports. Teams of two men or women or four 6 The number of Winter The approximate minimum cost men make timed runs down steep, twisting ice in US dollars of a four-man tracks in steerable sleds. After a push-off by the Olympics competed in by Olympic-quality bobsled. whole team, it is the driver’s responsibility to steer bobsledder Carl-Erik Eriksson the best line to complete the course in the fastest of Sweden between 1964 and 31 The number of time over a number of runs. 1984—the first athlete to do so. Gerda Weissensteiner of Italy also Olympic bobsledding medals The sport is not for the faint-hearted: crews featured in six Winter Olympics, won by Switzerland between regularly undergo four, five, or six times the force of competing twice in the bobsled 1932 and 2018 (10 gold, 10 gravity on the banked curves. Bobsled crashes are and four times in the luge. silver, and 11 bronze)—more spectacular and potentially dangerous. The shell than any other country. of the sled protects the crew, who wear compulsory 48 The age in years safety helmets and one-piece suits. 5 The G force to which of Jay O’Brien when he became the oldest-ever winner in the bobsledding crews may be four-man event, taking gold for subjected for up to two the United States in the 1932 seconds as their sled corners Winter Olympics at Lake Placid. a bend at speed.
THE COURSE Flying start TRACK TALK WINTER SPORTS Bobsled runs are made of U-shaped Up to 54 yd (50 m) long; A seeding system decides the order concrete half-pipes covered with artificial of racing. Teams that have performed BOBSLEDDING ice. They are at least 1,300–1,400 yd the runners follow better in the previous competitions get the (1,200–1,300 m) long and should have at grooves in the ice so advantage of racing early in the first round, least 15 curves. At the Winter Olympics, that crews concentrate before the track is cut up by other sleds. the refrigerated track is shared with on pushing, not steering In the second round, the order is reversed: competitions for luge and skeleton. the team with the best first descent has the The angle of descent is 8–15 Steep banking last run. The race is timed from the starting percent. All bends are built up line until the nose of the sled breaks a light beam at the finish. Weights can be added Dramatic loops and angled on one to bring the sled up to the combined weight Steeply banked features test side, with an overhang for sled and crew. There is also a minimum the nerve of the athletes combined weight of sled and crew. and provide dramatic to stop the bob from viewing for spectators shooting off the track SERIES OF RUNS Straightaways In Olympic and World two-man events, each crew The fastest parts The finish makes four runs down the course over two days; of any run; crews Beyond the end women also make four runs over two days. Other take care not to major competitions are held over two runs. touch the walls, of the course, Olympic and World four-man events have four which slows them there is a runoff heats over two days. dramatically. They loop for braking must also ensure and disembarking CHILLED OUT they do not enter the IT HAS LONG BEEN TAKEN FOR next bend too quickly GRANTED THAT BOBSLEDDING IS BEST Omega feature DONE BY COUNTRIES WITH SNOW AND Most tracks MOUNTAINS. THE 1988 WINTER include a OLYMPICS IN CALGARY, CANADA, complete, or CHANGED THE GAME BY INCLUDING almost complete, TEAMS FROM “HOT” COUNTRIES loop called INCLUDING AUSTRALIA; MEXICO; AND, an omega MOST NOTABLY, JAMAICA. THE JAMAICAN TEAM’S STORY WAS MADE INTO A 1993 MOVIE CALLED COOL RUNNINGS STARRING JOHN CANDY. PUSHING OFF Brakeman INSIDE STORY A fast start is key, so bobsled Watches the course Bobsledding was invented in the late 19th athletes all wear specially designed ahead and controls the century, when Swiss tobogganers added a spiked shoes to provide traction steering mechanism to a sled and gained on ice. Every crew member helps speed of the bob control of direction. The first bobsled club push the pod using retractable Driver was founded in Switzerland in 1897. For handles. The driver jumps in first, its first decades, the sport was largely a followed in a four-man crew by the Responsible for diversion enjoyed by the rich upper-class, two middlemen; the brakeman steering the who raced at Europe’s leading alpine always gets in last. Top crews aim best line resorts. It took on a more competitive form to complete the push-off in about in the 1950s and 1960s. The Olympics five seconds. ROCK AND SLIDE and World Championships were the leading After taking up their positions, the team bobsledding competitions until the Last in members rock the sled and then push off mid-1980s, when the World Cup was If any member of the down the launch pad. introduced. This is a very demanding competition in which teams race crew fails to get on Full speed ahead throughout the season on a variety board, the team is The driver has a perfect of tracks in different countries. view of the course disqualified GOVERNING BODY ALL ABOARD Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de FINAL PUSH The driver steers the sled; the brakeman slows it Tobogganing (FIBT) was founded in 1923, a The brakeman jumps in after the driver and after the finish line by moving a rear-mounted year before four-man sledding became an other members of the crew are in position; he or handle that lowers a line of metal teeth into the ice. Olympic sport. The first two-man medal she must climb on board within 54 yd (50 m). events were held in 1932. Bobsledding for women made its debut at the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City, Utah.
NEED2KNOW Foot brake Low profile Athletes wear The competitor wears The International Luge Federation (FIL), streamlined a tight-fitting body suit based in Germany, is responsible for the shoes with and lies flat to reduce sport worldwide. smooth soles, air resistance The first organized luge race was along which they drag a track between Klosters and Davos, along the ice to Helmet and visor Switzerland, in 1883. It resulted in a tie. slow them down A streamlined Germany has had more Olympic luge champions (18) than any other country. helmet with a visor Georg Hackl won gold in three protects the head successive tournaments: 1992, 1994, and face in case of and 1998. He also won the World a crash against the Championships in 1989, 1990, and 1997. sidewall ATHLETE PROFILE Sharp blades Luge racers are physically sturdy and There is one sharp need to withstand G forces and great blade on each side of stresses, particularly on their neck, the luge. Known as abdomen, chest, and feet. They are steels, they are the psychologically tough and have sharp only parts that are in reflexes that enable them to control the contact with the ice runners of their luge. Fiberglass runners Also known as kufens, these are fixed to the underside of the pod and hold the steels in place A MEGA-SLIDE Start houses Labyrinth Luge tracks are mostly artificial, with a 1 in Men’s singles races begin at the upper Three fast bends in quick (2.5 cm) thick covering of ice. They measure between start house, while doubles and women’s succession form a labyrinth. 1,100 yd (1 km) and 1,420 yd (1.3 km) for men’s races begin at the lower start house The force acting on a luge singles and between 875 yd (800 m) and Finish cells racer around a bend may be 1,150 yd (1,000 m) for women’s and doubles A luge run triggers photo cells four times the force of gravity events. The tracks feature left and right turns, at the start and finish S-curves, 180° bends, and hairpins. Typically, the and is timed to the average gradient over this distance may be nearest millisecond 8 percent. Sidewalls, which are also covered with a thin coating of ice, keep the luges on course as they Straight bank around corners at hair-raising speeds. Popular Courses also in some countries in Central Europe and North have straight America, natural tracks are created during winter on sections winding roads covered with ice. They have no sidewalls or artificial banks. Omega The course must have a 180° bend, called an omega LUGE FIBERGLASS POD Molded pod The luge, which is French for sled, The length of EVENT OVERVIEW is a fiberglass pod of variable length a singles’ luge Luge athletes take part in the fastest sport attached to two runners on on ice as, lying feet first on their back on a steel blades. The luge in singles is 4 ft 8 in fiberglass sled, they twist and turn down a events weigh no more than (1.45 m) on track at breathtaking speeds of more than 51 lb (23 kg); the doubles’ 85 mph (135 kph). In races against the luge is longer and cannot average clock, men compete in singles and doubles exceed 60 lb (27 kg). Steering bows and women in singles. These events are The athlete places his held in competitions, such as the World or her legs outside the Championships and the Winter Olympics. steering bows MOVING AND STEERING To start a run, the racer sits on the luge and slides back and forth while holding onto handles on either side of the track. After a powerful push, the racer paddles the ice with spiked gloves and then lies back and steers by either applying leg pressure to the steering bows or by shifting the body weight with a movement of the head or shoulders. The race winner is usually the fastest over four (singles) or two (doubles) runs.
EVENT OVERVIEW NEED2KNOW WINTER SPORTS Although the top speeds achieved by skeleton racers are slightly slower than luge competitors, in some ways, the The first competitive skeleton race was organized sport requires even more courage, because athletes travel between the Swiss towns of St. Moritz and Celerina in headfirst. Skeleton events for men and women are held at 1884. The winner received a bottle of champagne. World Championships and at the Winter Olympics. Olympic skeleton events—men’s singles and women’s singles—are timed to 0.01 seconds. There are four runs SKELETON over two days, and the fastest aggregate time wins. The Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT) is the governing body for skeleton. It organizes the World Skeleton Championship. ATHLETE PROFILE Weight restriction FAST AND STEEP SKELETON Razor-sharp reflexes are essential for a skeleton racer. The combined weight of the Skeleton events are run on the same tracks as Because the push phase is so important, competitors skeleton and athlete must not bobsled competitions. Male and female athletes need strong legs and the ability to sprint. They also need exceed 254 lb (115 kg) for men compete on the same course and over the same a strong, responsive body core that shifts their weight and 203 lb (92 kg) for women, distance. The track is fast and steep—it must be from one side to the other while steering the skeleton. or the maximum weight of the at least 1,312 yd (1,200 m) long, with total vertical sled has to be reduced drops that average around 380 ft (116 m). SPEED SADDLE Head The athlete lies on the steel frame and saddle, and protection the sled moves along on runners. The base-plate is A helmet and made of fiberglass or steel, and the runners are visor are steel. The skeleton weighs a maximum of 95 lb required (43 kg) for men and 77 lb (35 kg) for women. Rear bumpers Saddle Blade runners Bumpers at the rear The saddle has Made of stainless and the front handles and may steel, these are protect the athlete be 3–6½ in the only elements from the ice of the (8–20 cm) above of the skeleton sidewalls the ice that touch the ice Shoes Speed suit 13½–15¼ in (34–38 cm) The soles of This is close-fitting skeleton shoes and aerodynamic 32–48 in (80–120 cm) have small spikes, arranged like a brush, so the athlete can have traction when starting the sled GETTING A RACING RULES WINNING START There are two key skeleton rules. First, athletes cannot warm the runners of their sled To stand any chance of a fast time, the to make them run faster. At the start of the race, the runners must be within 7ºF (4ºC) athlete needs a quick running start. This of the reference runner, which is exposed to the air for an hour beforehand. Second, is called the push phase and is typically the contestant must cross the finish line on the skeleton for the run to be valid. 27–44 yd (25–40 m) long. Body control Streamlined position Crouch and run Tremendous arm strength is needed Arms are tucked in close The athlete to control the transition from takeoff crouches down on the ice to landing on the skeleton to the body to reduce and prepares to wind resistance push and run RUN! JUMP! FLOP! At the start, the competitor runs as The athlete leaps up from the track and The racer lands headfirst and belly fast as he or she can, holding the forward onto the skeleton. If this move is down on the skeleton with the arms handles and pushing the skeleton not carried out precisely, he or she will pulled in tightly against the side of the along the ice. probably lose control of the sled. body for the most aerodynamic profile.
SPEEDNEED2KNOW Skaters can achieve speeds of SKATING 40 mph (65 kph) on the long track. On the short track, the top speed is around 30 mph (50 kph). Long-track skating is Body suit EVENT particularly popular in The long-track OVERVIEW Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, skater wears a Speed skating is a spectacular sport the Netherlands, the United skin-tight body suit in which male or female athletes race States, Canada, and Japan. with a hood and on skates around an oval ice track, Short-track skating is a newer loops for the thumbs alternating between powerful, sport. It has attracted many to minimize drag rhythmic gliding on straights and competitors from traditional demanding cornering around the nonskating nations, such as bends. On the long track, skaters South Korea and Australia. race in pairs over various distances— from 500 m to 10 km—against COMPETITOR the clock. Short-track events involve PROFILE up to six skaters racing on a circuit Speed skaters are powerful with no lane markings, and crashes and agile, with explosive are common. There is also a short- power at the start. Short- track relay event for teams of four. track skating is technically demanding and requires Leg power WHEN GOD SMILES DOWN courage as skaters hurtle Skaters develop STEPHEN BRADBURY BECAME AUSTRALIA’S (AND THE around tight curves at high strength in their legs, ENTIRE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE’S) FIRST WINTER OLYMPIC speed. Aerobic endurance particularly the CHAMPION IN THE 1,000 M SHORT TRACK AT THE 2002 is more important on thighs, by running, GAMES IN SALT LAKE CITY. TRAILING NEAR THE END OF long-track skating. THE FINAL, HE WATCHED THE OTHER FOUR COMPETITORS heavy weight CRASH IN FRONT OF HIM AND SAILED PAST TO CLAIM Skates sessions, and GOLD. “GOD SMILES ON YOU SOME DAYS,” HE NOTED. These are endless circuits of attached to the skating rink ankle-high boots Starting lines Straightaway Finish line Different events have different A long track has two For all but the 1,000 m starting points: (left to right) fast straightaways 3,000/5,000 m; 1,000 m; 1,500 m THE RINKS Crossing straight The long-track rink is a 437 yd (400 m) Every lap, the skaters change oval; short-track courses are 121½ yd lanes in the crossing straight so (111.12 m) long. Long-track lanes are that they both cover the same marked with painted lines and movable distance during the race blocks of rubber or wood. The blocks are 1 ft 8 in (50 cm) apart for the first and Warm-up lane 500 m start Finish line last 49 ft (15 m) of the track, and 3 ft 3 in Skaters prepare This short event For 1,000 m races (1 m) apart elsewhere. for the race in the begins here inside “warm-up” Blocks LONG TRACK lane. During an A skater can touch There are two racing lanes on the long track. event, the referee the blocks marking Skaters switch between the lanes every lap. controls the race the lanes but must Depending on the event, competitors start from this lane not obstruct his or her from different parts of the circuit. opponent or alter the course
ALL-AROUNDERS TRACK TECHNIQUES WINTER SPORTS The “all-around” is the name given to a combination of Short-track skaters use small running steps to gain speed at the long-track races held over 500 m; 1,500 m; 3,000 m; and start. In the basic body position on the straight, the short-track 10,000 m. The times for each race are converted into skater leans the body forward, bends the knees, and swings the points using a set scale. The skater with the fewest points arms to maintain momentum. Approaching a corner, the skater wins the overall competition. Although the “all-around” is crouches very low and leans into the turn, often touching the ice popular, it has been included in the Olympics only once (in with the inside hand. Crossover steps make cornering easier. the men’s games in 1924) because skaters tend to specialize in particular distances. On the long track, skaters make long, gliding strokes on the straightaway and keep one arm behind their backs to reduce drag. GEARED FOR SPEED Crossover steps are used to negotiate corners. On the short track, skaters’ skintight body suits are lined with Kevlar—also used in bullet-proof vests— BALANCING ACT Straight ahead SPEED SKATING for protection from slashing blades. Skaters also wear This sequence shows On leaving a bend of the track, helmets and guards on their neck, shins, and knees. how a skater who is the skater drops both arms Gloves with coated fingertips are also essential, negotiating a bend because skaters place their hands on the ice to stay compensates for having upright in rapid turns. The profile of the bottom of a one foot off the ice by speed skate’s blade is flat, unlike the concave shape extending the arms of a figure-skating blade. onto the same side of the body. SKATE DIFFERENCES The blade of the short-track skate is long and thin. It is positioned IN FULL CRY Streamline effect diagonally across the sole and curves to help with cornering. When accelerating The lower the On the long track, skaters wear clap skates. The long, straight down the straightaways blade is centered on the sole and hinged at the toe. of a long track, the profile, the higher skater bends and the speed Clap skate hinge crouches to lower their The blade of the clap center of gravity and skate detaches from the reduce wind resistance. heel at the end of each stride. This increases the PASSING CONTACT The corners on the time the blade is in short track are so tight contact with the ice that the hand closer to the inside of the course 17 in (42 cm) may come down so low that it scrapes the ice. BREAKING THE RULES No penalty is incurred Skaters can touch the blocks marking the turns for this; it is just a but may not skate inside them. Physical contact is touching moment. Touch and go part and parcel of the short track, but on the long The skater leans track, interfering with an opponent or skating out of into every curve lane leads to disqualification. Blocks Start SHORT TRACK LAP COUNT Rubber, wood, or For 500 The short track is usually set up on an ice rink. The number of laps per event is as follows: plastic blocks mark and The track has no lanes, and skaters jostle for the shape of the 1,500 m position on the circuit. 500 M—41⁄2 laps 1,000 M—9 laps track at each end events 1,500 M—131⁄2 laps 3,000 M—27 laps 5,000 M—45 laps of the oval radiu(s88m3 ⁄4)yd 29.2 yd (26.7 m) 311 ⁄2 yd (28.85 m) INSIDE STORY Competitive speed skating began on Start and finish line frozen canals and lakes in 19th-century The 1,000 m; 3,000 m; Europe. The International Skating Union (ISU), founded in 1892, formalized the and 5,000 m races rules. Short-track skating began in North start here. All races America in the early 20th century. finish here INTERNATIONAL SKATING UNION (ISU) The ISU was founded in 1892 in the Netherlands and is the oldest governing body of any winter sport. The ISU was originally a federation of 15 European countries until Canada joined in 1894.
NEED2KNOW Costume decoration COMPETITOR Nondetachable decoration PROFILE Figure skating is popular worldwide, but can be worn, and outfits Top figure skaters must have particularly in North America, Europe, and can reflect the character the flexibility of a gymnast, the former Soviet states. the poise of a dancer, and the Figure-skating competitions are contested of the music balance of a speed skater between individual male and female skaters Competition clothing to perform breathtaking and mixed pairs. There is also a competition Outfits allow free movement, combinations of spins, leaps, for synchronized skating and ice dance. but competitors must be lifts, and spirals. Hours of Many of the outstanding moves in skating meticulous drilling and training are named for the skaters who first made modestly dressed are necessary to perfect these them famous. For example, the Axel jump incredible skills. Perhaps even is named for Norwegian skater Axel more so than gymnasts, figure Paulsen, who first performed it in 1882. skaters need a finely honed positional sense so that they know exactly where they are at any given moment in the air or on the ice. Ankle bracing Technical specialists Judges Referee Skating boots are The technical specialist A panel of 12 A referee sits custom-made for and assistant technical judges marks with the panel each foot. Extra the skaters support is added specialist determine on technical of judges to to brace the ankles, which elements ability and oversee all and the interior is performance elements of a reinforced with the skater has—or competition stiff leather hasn't—performed GET YOUR SKATES ON The structure of the boot gives Spin speed the skater support and control A skater can speed up but allows enough flexibility to or slow down her spin perform the moves. The blade by moving her free leg is 1⁄8 in (44 mm) thick and has inward (accelerate) or two edges, inner and outer, and outward (decelerate) a serrated toe pick on the tip, which is used for jumping Wide tongue and spinning. A wide, padded tongue aids a skater's stability and increases flexibility FIGURE SKATING EVENT OVERVIEW BARBARA ANN SCOTT Both technical and beautiful, figure skating is a whirl of leaps, spins, and spirals. IN 1942, CANADIAN Single skaters or pairs of skaters perform prescribed movements on the ice in BARBARA ANN SCOTT front of a panel of judges, who give them marks for technical ability and artistic BECAME THE FIRST interpretation. Figure skaters compete in a short program of required elements FEMALE SKATER TO that tests their technical skills and an original free skate program that allows LAND A DOUBLE LUTZ IN them to explore artistic expression. Figure skating first featured at the 1908 COMPETITION. SHE WAS Summer Olympic Games and became an official sport of the Winter Games in 1924. ONLY 13 AT THE TIME.
THE ICE RINK KISS AND CRY WINTER SPORTS The temperature of the ice is an important factor: it is THEY'VE GIVEN IT EVERYTHING AND SKATED THEIR HEARTS maintained at 22ºF (-5.5ºC), which is 6ºF (3.5ºC) warmer than OUT. NOW IT'S TIME TO WAIT FOR THE JUDGES’ RESULTS. an ice hockey rink. Colder ice is harder and slower, whereas THE KISS AND CRY AREA IS THE SPOT BY THE SIDE OF THE warmer ice is faster and offers more glide and softer landings. RINK WHERE SKATERS AND THEIR COACHES SIT IN FULL At major competitions—such as the Winter Olympics and ISU VIEW OF THE TV CAMERAS FOR THE MOMENT OF TRUTH— championships—referees, judges, and other officials sit AND THEN KISS OR CRY. outside the rink. At lower levels, officials often sit on the ice. Covering the ice Surface area SKATING ON THIN ICE FIGURE SKATING A skater's routine must cover the The ice rink has a surface area Figure skaters perform two programs—short and free entire surface of the ice. Marks of up to 19,375 sq ft (1,800 m sq) skate—and need to fulfill certain elements in each. Eight are deducted if the full area is not and contains as much as prescribed elements are required for the technical short used or if competitors perform 1,907 cu ft (54 cu m) of ice program, which can include a double Axel jump; flying sit the majority of their routine in spin; combinations of double and triple jumps; and, for pairs, front of the judges' bench Entrance and exit spirals and throws. The second part of the competition, the Skaters enter and leave free-skate program, requires a balance of elements that the ice through gaps cover the full rink area, including jumps, spins, spirals, in the rink wall and step sequences. Pairs are required to perform moves simultaneously, either in parallel or symmetrically. For maximum scores, skaters must link the elements together with difficult connecting steps in different holds and positions. 85–98½ ft (26–30 m) SCORING The ISU Judging System was introduced in 2004 after a scandal hit the headlines at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, when the judging of the figure-skating competition was alleged to have not been entirely objective. In the new system, which judge awards which mark remains anonymous. Surface depth THE ISU JUDGING SYSTEM The ice measures 1–1½ in Every element is given a scale of value that determines how many points it is worth; a grade of execution from -3 to +3 is then applied to (2–3 cm) in depth that value, depending on how well the element is performed. In major competitions, the marks of only seven judges determine a skater’s final 183½–197 ft (56–60 m) score. Nine judges from the panel of 12 are selected at random by a computer. The highest and the lowest marks are then deleted and TECHNICAL TIMING the scores of the remaining seven judges are averaged to leave the The figure-skating programs are timed. The short program for pairs \"trimmed mean,\" which is added to the base value for the final score. and singles should last no longer than two minutes and 50 seconds, TECH TALK while the free-skate program lasts four and a half minutes for men Knowing what commentators are talking about helps to understand and pairs and four minutes for women. the intricacies of a skating routine and the sheer physical skill of the skaters on the ice: TOE JUMP When the skater uses the toe pick of the blade to launch themselves into the air in, for example, a flip, Lutz, or toe loop. EDGE JUMP When the skater uses a particular edge of the blade of one skate to take off—for example, Axel, loop, and Salchow jumps. SPIN Move in which the skater pirouettes on the spot on the ice. In combination spins, the skater changes foot and position while maintaining the speed of the spin. LIFT A technique of pairs skating in which the man lifts his partner, often overhead, and sometimes throws her in the air. FOOTWORK Step sequences that move the skater across the ice to link set moves while showing off their skills. SIDELINES 160,000 The fine, in dollars, that disgraced 140 The temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit American figure skater Tonya Harding paid in March 1994 for her involvement in an attack on fellow American figure skater (60ºC), of the water that is sprayed on the ice Nancy Kerrigan at a practice session for the US Figure Skating rink by a machine called a Zamboni to create Championships. Harding won the competition, while Kerrigan a smooth surface. withdrew due to the injury. Harding was later stripped of her title. 12 The number of Olympic golds won by 2 The number of gold medals awarded in the 2002 Winter Soviet and Russian pairs skaters since 1908. Olympics pairs figure-skating competition. A judging scandal resulted in both the Russian and Canadian pairs winning gold.
PERFORMING PERFECTION SYNCHRONIZED SKATING Perfect execution of the technical elements in the skating A skating spectacular, synchronized skating involves teams of programs ensures high scores. Not only do the elements have 16 skaters (usually all women, although mixed teams are allowed) to be performed flawlessly, they also have to be performed performing as single, coordinated units. Skaters need flawless at fast speeds; in complex flowing combinations; and, in the skills in speed and footwork, as well as in jumps, turns, and lifts. free-skate programs, with individual artistic expression. In competition, teams perform a technical short program, including lines, circles, and other complex formations, and a creative free JUMPS program, allowing competitors freedom of expression. For the spectator, dazzling jump sequences are the mark of a great skater. At the top level of competition, men perform triple or Backward landing quadruple rotation jumps, while women perform triples. The skater lands backward Jumps can be driven from the toe or the edge of the blade and performed singly or in combinations. on his right foot after rotating through the air Axel jump The skater takes off forward from the front outside edge of the blade of his left foot SPINS Spinning splits Speed and control are the keys to successful, The skater raises his right point-winning spins. The speed of the spin dictates leg behind him as he spins the number of rotations the skater performs (the more the better). The ability to spin in one spot shows mastery of the technique, while looking effortless shows total control throughout the spin. Biellmann spin The skater arches his back and catches his right foot by the blade SPIRALS Inside, outside Flat out Spirals are flamboyant and rather dangerous-looking The death spiral can be performed The man holds his partner with the same arm moves performed by pairs in both the short and free-skate backward outside or backward as his skating foot and spins her around as she programs. At least one full revolution must be made. inside. This means that the pair leans back toward the ice, aiming to bring her skate on the rear outside or rear back parallel and her head as close to the ice inside edge of the blade as possible Death spiral Perfect harmony The man is the pivot The pair must work in of the spiral complete synchronicity INSIDE STORY INTERNATIONAL SKATING UNION (ISU) Figure-skating competitions have been held since the 1880s, and the The ISU was founded in 1892 in the Netherlands and is first World Championship (for men) was held in 1896. The women's the oldest governing body of any winter sport. It was originally first World Championship was held in 1906. The event first appeared a federation of 15 European countries until Canada joined in at the Summer Olympics in 1908, but has since become one of the 1894, and today it has 57 member countries. During its history, longest-standing Winter Olympic sports. the ISU has seen all its disciplines become official Winter Olympic sports.
ICE DANCING WINTER SPORTS NEED2KNOW Dance skates ICE DANCING Dance skates have Couples skate the compulsory and original shorter blades and dances in traditional closed dance holds— such as the Kilian, waltz, or foxtrot higher heels than positions—for most of the routine. In the figure skates to allow free dance, holds are much more open, and the skater to perform couples are encouraged to be creative. Ice dancing is popular in Europe, with quick footwork strong roots in the UK. In more recent years, the sport has been dominated by Woman's attire former Soviet countries. The woman must wear a skirt, The first Olympic ice dance champions and her outfit needs a degree were Ludmilla Pakhomova and Alexander of modesty while allowing her to Gorshkov of Russia, in 1976. move freely. Theatrical and garish costumes are penalized, as is excessive nudity Man's attire Men must wear full-length pants; tights are not allowed. The man's attire complements the woman's outfit, and the couple's clothing can reflect the character of the music EVENT OVERVIEW TORVILL AND DEAN Ice dancing is a couples' event with three phases GREAT BRITAIN'S JAYNE of competition at the highest level—the compulsory TORVILL AND CHRISTOPHER dance, the original dance, and the free dance—and DEAN BECAME HOUSEHOLD is often likened to ballroom dancing on ice. The free NAMES AT THE 1984 dance allows couples to show off their creativity. Ice WINTER OLYMPICS, dancing is sometimes contested as a group event WOWING JUDGES TO with two competing couples on the ice together. BECOME THE HIGHEST- SCORING ICE DANCERS OF The first world championships were held in 1952, ALL TIME. THEY SCORED but ice dancing did not become a Winter Olympic 12 PERFECT SIXES FOR sport until 1976, in Innsbruck in Austria. THEIR PERFORMANCE. RULES OF ENGAGEMENT BALANCING ACT In ice-dance competitions, couples must stay close The main technique ice dancers need to learn is balance, together on the ice, keeping a constant distance between especially the man, whose job it is to lift the woman. them. The man must lead and the woman must follow. A close second is endurance, as ice dancers need to They are judged on how well they perform set moves as skate at speeds comparable to those of speed skaters. a unit and how well they interpret the music in each dance. Coordination is key, as delivering perfect footwork in Points are awarded for the level of difficulty of an element a ballroom dance is no easy feat. and the quality of its execution. Points are deducted for illegal moves or elements or wrong interpretation and DANCING BY NUMBERS 13 12 expression of the musical rhythm. Ice dancers use patterns and step 14 charts to learn and perfect a dance 15 11 COMPETITION before performing it in competition. Ice dancing is contested in three phases. The compulsory dance The pattern of the Westminster Waltz 10 is chosen by the ISU, and couples are required to skate prescribed is shown here as a diagram, with 9 patterns to set musical rhythms and tempos. For the original dance, the numbers indicating different step the couples use their own choreography (including some required sequences. The rink is divided into 16 8 elements) and music, but the dance rhythm is selected by the ISU, quarters by long and short axes; 17 7 and the couples must dance to the strong beat rather than the weak the curved line—the passage of (less obvious) beat. The free dance allows couples to choose their the dance—is the continuous axis, 18 65 own music and choreography, although they must include some which must not cross the long axis. 19 required elements and express their artistic skills through their 20 interpretation of the music. Originality is rewarded by the judges. The Westminster Waltz is The free dance lasts for four minutes, plus or minus 10 seconds. characterized by stateliness, elegance, 21 4 and dignity, and the couple tries to convey this to the judges as they 22 3 perform two sequences. 12
TARGET
NEED2KNOW GOLF St. Andrews golf course in GAME OVERVIEW Scotland, where the sport has Golf is an individual sport whereby players (golfers) strike a ball with been played since 1574, is metal clubs around a course of nine, or more commonly 18, holes in the known as the Home of Golf. fewest shots possible. Each hole starts on a “teeing ground” and ends on Tiger Woods was the sport’s a “green” containing a small, circular depression in the ground into which undisputed world number one the ball must be sunk. Golfers take with them up to 14 clubs which are for a record 281 consecutive capable of hitting the ball different distances on a variety of trajectories, weeks from 2005–2010. and use whichever of them is most appropriate for each shot. A game of fractions, with a very fine line separating a THE COURSE good shot from a very poor Courses vary greatly in length—anything from 1,300 yards for a par 3-hole one, golf has a reputation for course to more than 7,000 yards for some of the more brutal 18-hole courses, being both devilishly difficult and highly addictive. particularly in the US. These figures do not take into account the distances between the green and the teeing ground of the next hole, however, Single glove which can increase the distance traveled by the golfer to around seven Optional, for better miles. A round of golf can last between 3 and 5 hours depending on grip; worn on the amount of players, ability, and speed of play. the left hand by right-handers, and Fairway on the right hand The grass on the most direct by left-handers route from tee to green is cut Shaft shorter than that of the technology surrounding areas, rewarding Club shafts an accurate shot need to be both Natural hazards strong and The edge of each hole lightweight; they may be marked by trees: are usually these are part of the made either of course, but golfers try to steel or graphite avoid getting stuck in or Clubheads near them The heads of all golf clubs are metal, even those Men’s teeing area Ladies’ tee Rough known for historical The first stroke has Women start off A shot that goes off course reasons as “woods.” to be taken from a ahead of the men; may land in the long grass Course clothing designated part of their teeing area may growing along the edges of Regular or polo shirts and pants this zone be directly in line the fairway, known as rough. in any color or combination of with the men’s colors; the look is stylishly casual; equivalent or set at Semirough gives way to no T-shirts or jeans are allowed an angle, as here heavy-rough on the extremes PLAYER PROFILE of many holes. Typically it is Good concentration and hand-eye more challenging to hit a shot coordination are vital. Upper body strength and all-around flexibility from rough than fairway are an advantage. So, too, is confidence: golf is a game of psychology, and self-confidence can invigorate your game. Stylish footwear Golf shoes have cleats that provide grip but do not damage the course. The uppers are made of leather
The ultimate objective Putting green THE HOLES TARGET SPORTS The hole is 41⁄4 in (108 mm) The area around the hole Each of the 18 holes must comprise a teeing area, a fairway, in diameter and at least 4 in has very closely cut a putting green, and a hole with a removable flag in it. There (101.6 mm) deep; in it is a grass which facilitates may be any number of surrounding hazards: these include removable flag often bearing smooth putting artificial bunkers (large depressions filled with sand), and natural features, such as trees, lakes, and streams. The the number of the hole most economical route around the golf course is by keeping the ball on the fairway, but this is far easier said than done. Golf courses are made up of an unregulated variety of par GOLF 3, 4, and 5 holes. Par is determined by the hole’s length. Par 3s can be any distance to 240 yards, par 4s 241–474 yards, and par 5s over 475 yards. When calculating par, it is assumed the player will take two putts on the green. Therefore a par 3 should require one shot to reach the green, par 4 two, and par 5 three. However, the player can make a score in any way he or she wishes. HANDICAP Each hole is given a par, based on its length, which is the number of strokes that are deemed reasonable for its completion, always including two strokes for putting. A player’s handicap is the number of strokes over the allocated. Out of bounds Sand trap TYPES OF GOLF COURSE Land adjacent to the golf club is Bunkers are strategically Golf’s popularity around the world is reflected in the vast marked by a series of white posts, positioned by course diversity of the physical landscapes in which it is played. Golf beyond which is deemed to be designers to give players course types range from the open, windswept coastal “links” of out of bounds. If a ball goes OB extra problems: this one Scotland, where the game evolved, to the perfectly manicured a player is penalized one stroke guards the right-hand resort courses of the Middle East, set in a sea of desert sand. side of the green Golf courses can be found in almost every environment that can afford the space. Probably the most accessible and popular types of course are the tree-lined parkland courses that are common features of many city suburbs. Water hazard Back nine If the ball lands here Holes 10–18 cover a total and is irretrievable, length of 3,710 yd (3,392 m) the player forfeits a stroke Front nine Holes 1–9 cover a total distance of 3,735 yd (3,415 m) Par threes Par fours Par fives COURSE LAYOUT Four of them: holes 4, 6, Ten in all: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, A total of four: holes 2 Venue for the annual Masters Tournament, one 12, and 16; the shortest is 10, 11, 14, 17, and 18; (575 yd/526 m); 8 (570 of golf’s four Major Championships, the Augusta 155 yd (142 m), the lengths between 350 yd yd/521 m); 13 (510 yd/466 National Golf Club is one of the world’s most longest 240 yd (219 m) and 505 yd (320–462 m) m); and 15 (530 yd/485 m) exclusive and naturally beautiful courses. Situated on the site of a former tree nursery, Augusta is a prime example of a parkland course with lush fairways bordered by trees and shrubs from which the holes take their names.
GOLFING GEAR SELECTION OF CLUBS CLUB HEAD A selection of clubs and a good supply A golfer can use up to 14 clubs in any Traditionally wooden, then made of steel, of balls are the essentials for a round combination he or she chooses. Usually this titanium clubheads are now becoming of golf, and the well-equipped player comprises 2-3 “woods” including a “driver” more common for drivers. needs tees (see opposite page), ball for maximum distance, 6-7 irons for play from Because it is lighter, markers (to mark the position of the the fairway and rough, 2 wedges for shots clubheads can Hosel ball if it has to be picked up), and a from 100 yards and in, and a putter for be larger and Connects top of the pitch-mark repairer. Since a golfer on the green. All clubs have a head for more forgiving. clubhead to bottom may be on the course for some hours, striking the ball, a shaft, and a rubber grip. of the shaft he or she may also want to take food Clubs vary greatly in price and quality as and energy drinks, an umbrella and with all sports equipment—some particularly Toe Grooves raincoat, a towel, gloves, and other sophisticated drivers can cost more than an The area of the clubhead Horizontal indentations assorted items. To carry all this gear, entire set from another manufacturer—but farthest from the shaft is impart spin on the ball golfers use a specially made carry-bag clubs are commensurate with quality. An called the toe or cart. For the serious golfer, a expensive set of clubs will not make a good battery-powered golf cart takes over golfer, but a good player can prosper with a the role of the traditional caddy. supposedly inferior set of clubs. Golf clubs usually have dress rules DRIVER IRON WEDGE PUTTER requiring players to wear smart-casual The driver is the Generally used for Pitching wedges, The most clothing. Special golf shoes, with hardest club in the medium length for short shots shallow-faced spiked or rubber soles to provide grip bag to hit because shots, irons are the from grass, and club in the bag, the during the swing, are indispensable. of its shallow, most versatile sand wedges for putter is used for unforgiving face. clubs in a golfer’s bunkers have stroking the ball TOO MANY CLUBS When struck armory. They range recently been on the green and IN 2001, WELSH PROFESSIONAL well, however, it from 1 irons (16º) joined on the sometimes from IAN WOOSNAM BEGAN THE LAST comfortably travels loft to 9 irons (44º). market by highly short grass just DAY’S PLAY IN THE BRITISH OPEN the farthest distance. lofted lob wedges. off the green. GOLF CHAMPIONSHIP WITH A GREAT CHANCE OF WINNING. 7–11° 16–44° 45–60° 4–7° HE STARTED WELL, BIRDIEING THE FIRST HOLE, BUT ON THE SECOND TEE HIS CADDY NOTICED AN EXTRA CLUB IN THE BAG. THE TWO-SHOT PENALTY HE INCURRED PROBABLY COST HIM VICTORY IN THE END. MORE RULES THAN MOST Golf has many more rules than most sports—34 plus various subclauses—but this reflects the nature of the game. There is clearly more potential for an incident on a playing area of 100 acres including trees and rivers than on, say, a tennis court. The Rules of Golf are enforced by the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews (R&A) in all golf-playing nations of the world except for the US and Mexico, where the United States Golf Association (USGA) governs. STRIKING THE BALL original position or take a drop, but not nearer the hole—both A stroke is defined as the forward momentum of the club options incur a one-stroke penalty. If there is an unplayable lie, with the intention of striking it. If you make an attempt to such as the ball in a bush, you can drop it at a distance of up hit the ball, but miss it, that counts as one shot. to two club-lengths, not nearer the hole. This also incurs a ON THE GREEN one-shot penalty. On the green only, it is permitted to mark the position of the ball, lift it, and clean it. Golfers can also brush aside IMPEDIMENTS AND loose leaves or sand that might be on their “line”. OBSTRUCTIONS HAZARDS AND UNPLAYABLE LIES Movable natural objects—stones, leaves, etc.—are defined as loose There is no penalty for going in a bunker, but players must not impediments and can be moved from around the ball without penalty. ground their clubs before making contact with the ball. You are Obstructions, such as bunker rakes, can be moved. If, however, the also permitted to play a shot from a water hazard, but a far ball moves during the course of this action, it counts as one shot. more practical option is either to replay the shot from the Immovable obstructions are items such as fixed sprinkler heads. Free relief can be taken from these—if they interfere with the player’s stance or swing—up to one club’s length, not nearer the hole.
BALLS LOFT AND LIE DISTANCE GUIDE LOFT TARGET SPORTS Although there are strict rules covering the specifications of Different lies require different golf balls, there are many different types/designs/models to clubs. Balls that lie well on the CLUB DISTANCE 7–11° GOLF choose from, each of which performs differently in terms of short grass of the fairway have D 230–290 YARDS 13–16° spin, speed, and trajectory. Some balls have multiple inner the greatest range of options. 3-W 210–240 YARDS 19–21° layers around a small core, while others have a single large core. Shots that lie poorly in the 5-W 200–220 YARDS 18° rough often demand a mid- to 3 180–205 YARDS 22° White missile short iron or a utility wood— 4 175–200 YARDS 26° The hard outer layer of a golf something with sufficient loft 5 165–195 YARDS 30° ball is covered in small dimples to get the bottom of the blade 6 155–180 YARDS 34° for aerodynamic purposes. To an under the ball. When chipping 7 140–170 YARDS 38° experienced golfer, slight differences onto the green over a bunker, the 8 135–155 YARDS 42° in the dimple pattern give each type player will opt for a lofted iron— 9 130–145 YARDS 46° a characteristic “feel” giving maximum height and a PW 120–130 YARDS 56° Tee time soft landing. When there is no SW 90–100 YARDS The height of the tee will vary according to the obstruction, a more shallow- club used. With a driver, the ball should be struck faced club can chip-and-run slightly on the upswing to impart forward spin the ball onto the green. TRAJECTORY The flight of the golf ball is determined by the degree of loft of the club used. The driver, which has the shallowest face, propels the ball low and for a long way. Wedges, with the steepest loft, lift the ball in a higher trajectory but over a shorter distance. The diagram here shows lofts and distances for a range of irons. LOFT 56° 46° 42° 38° 34° 30° 26° 23° 22° 18° 16° IRON YARDAGE 90 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 TYPES OF PLAY STAT CENTRAL There is more than one way of playing golf. In strokeplay, golfers record their score for each hole and add the totals at the end. In Stableford, points are awarded for MAJOR WINNERS scores gained on each hole. Matchplay singles is head-to-head competition played hole by hole. Fourball betterball has the same principle as singles, but is played in PLAYER TOTAL pairs. In foursomes, pairs compete with only one ball shared between partners. JACK NICKLAUS 18 TIGER WOODS 15 SCORING ETIQUETTE WALTER HAGEN 11 Players mark their own scorecards, but they have to be verified Etiquette on the golf course BEN HOGAN 9 by their opponent. Certain scores are given names, as below. ensures that everyone enjoys GARY PLAYER 9 the game and plays in safety. PAR A score equal to the par of a hole. Examples include: keeping LPGA MAJOR WINNERS TOTAL BIRDIE A score one less (or under) the par such as quiet when a fellow player 15 a 3 on a par four. is taking a shot; raking PLAYER 13 EAGLE Two under the par. For example, a hole in one bunkers after a shot to remove PATTY BERG 11 on a par three is an eagle. footprints; replacing divots; and MICKEY WRIGHT 10 DOUBLE EAGLE Three under par, a extremely rare not delaying other players. On LOUISE SUGGS 10 occurrence even for the world’s best. the green, players should repair ANNIKA SÖRENSTAM BOGEY One more than (over) par, for instance, a six on pitch-marks and avoid standing BABE ZAHARIAS a par five. on a fellow player’s line. DOUBLE BOGEY Two over par. Too many double bogeys result in a very poor score.
THE GOLF SWING GRIP All good golf swings start with a good setup and it is A good grip is a player’s only means of controlling the clubhead and impossible to overstate the importance of a good grip, bringing it into impact in a square (straight) position. There are two, alignment, stance, and posture for beginners. In fact, it is equally acceptable styles of grip (below) and a third, the baseball grip, possible to hit the ball well with a good setup and a mediocre suitable for junior golfers or those with arthritic problems. swing, but you can make the best swing the world and not hit the ball consistently with a poor setup. The golf swing itself is Overlapping Interlocking a question of repetition. The backswing and followthrough The little finger The little finger should be almost a mirror image of one another. rides piggyback interweaves on the back of with the index STANCE the left hand finger of the Feet should be (right handers) other hand shoulder-width apart, aiming at the target, Head down TAKEAWAY with legs slightly Keep your head The start of the swing should be a one-piece movement in which the bent, and the ball hands, arms, and club remain straight and in unison. There should be position roughly down, eyes no cocking of the wrists at this early stage, nor any movement of any midway between looking at the other part of the body, aside from a small tilt of the shoulders. your feet. Bend forward from ball, even the waist toward after impact the ball. Shoulder line The line of the player’s shoulders should run parallel with the hips and feet No tension One-piece Coiled spring Arms should hang Keep the hands Fully turn relatively straight and arms as with no tension a unit shoulders so Grip left shoulder is Do not hold the Flexed knees club too tightly Bend knees under chin at top of slightly at address backswing Alignment Weight Feet in line with Transfer the target, weight shoulder-width slightly to apart right hand side during backswing PITCHING AND CHIPPING Keep still Smoothly back… …and through For shots of 90 yards (80 m) and less players do not need to make a Keep your head Take the putter back in Continue the same full swing; an abbreviated version, executed with an open stance, is still and your a deliberate one-piece more suited. Pitching shots are very much a question of “feel”—being eyes focused on motion with hands and smooth motion able to judge specific distances—and this comes down to experience the ball arms straight through impact and of play and trial and error. Chip shots are played from very close to the green and are either struck at a low trajectory, running along the don’t look up ground toward the hole (a chip-and-run), or with great height and consequently a soft landing with minimal forward roll (a lob shot). Executing these types of shots well will result in many short putts, ultimately saving you a number of strokes per round. PUTTING Often described as “the game within the game,” putting is an art in itself. Players should stand more upright than a regular shot, keep their head still, and move only their hands and arms in a solid unit. However, a good putting stroke and a good judgment of distance are not enough. Players need to have a good appreciation of the contours of the green, how the ball will “break” (move in relation to the slopes), and the speed at which it will travel after it is struck. A good understanding of these factors is known as being able to “read the green” and this is something that only comes with experience.
HOLE IN ONE TROUBLE SHOTS TARGET SPORTS The Holy Grail of golf for many players, holes in one are normally Of course, players do not always find themselves with a flat only ever achieved on par 3s, but can also occur on short par 4s lie on short grass and there is little option when the player and often by chance. Because of their propensity to consistently hit finds him or herself in, for instance, a clump of trees, than the ball close to the flag, professionals score a much higher to chip the ball sideways. However, most situations can be number of holes in one than amateurs. Many professionals’ overcome with minor adjustments to the setup. For example, hole-in-one tallies are well into double figures. when on uphill or downhill lies, redistribute your weight and BACKSWING alter the position of ball in your stance; on sidehill lies, aim more to the left or right of the target to compensate for When the club is at about a 45° angle to the starting position, the slope. Escape from bunkers is one of the shots that the player begins to cock the wrists and turn the upper body, pivoting golfers struggle with most commonly. Remember to open it against the hips. It is essential the head remains still and does not the clubface and make a normal swing, making contact sway or tilt as the shoulders turn. with the sand first, not the ball. DOWNSWING AND IMPACT Hover Fix a point Explosion GOLF The downswing is essentially about mirroring, as closely as possible, Don’t ground the club Connect with the sand Ball is propelled out the movements made in the backswing. The shoulders and upper body in the sand—it’s a about two inches of bunker by force should uncoil as all the weight previously loaded onto the right side one-shot penalty behind the ball of sand behind it redistributes.The hands and arms follow, not lead, this movement to ensure the clubface reaches impact in the square (straight) position. Neutral hands Eyes down Textbook finish At impact, Keep your head From a good high neutral hands still and your finish you can (a product of eyes on the admire the ball’s a good grip) place where flight as it heads increase the the ball was lying down the fairway likelihood of a square club face Mirror image Hands are in same position as in backswing SIDELINES INSIDE STORY The R&A and USGA oversee the governance of the sport 4 The highest number of major tournaments won predominantly for amateur golf. They enforce the Rules of Golf, test golf equipment for conformity, implement a handicapping consecutively by a single player. Tiger Woods achieved this feat system, and host national championships for men’s, women’s, with the British Open, the US Open, and the USPGA in 2000, and junior golf. Professional golf is organized by the PGA followed by the US Masters in 2001. In the modern era, a player European Tour (which also encompasses some events in Africa, has never won all four within the same calendar year—known Asia, and Australasia) and the US Tour which organizes as the Grand Slam of Golf. competition in North America. Since 1999, the International Federation of PGA Tours have run annually three World Golf 1,097 The length, in yards (1,004 m), of the par 7 Champsionship events open to the world’s top ranked players. third hole at Jeongeup Course, Gunsan Country Club, South THE MAJORS Korea, the longest hole in world golf. In male professional golf, the major championships are the most prestigous tournaments of the season and the benchmark by which 59 The record round shot by Jim Furyk in the 2016 players are judged. There are four and they run, in order of play, as follows: The Masters, held every April at the Augusta National Golf Travelers Championship. Shooting a round under 60 (usually about Club, Georgia, a strictly invitational tournament run by the club; 10 under the par for the course) is a rare feat in golf. Only one the US Open, the flagship event of the USGA, and the USPGA LPGA player has achieved this feat so far—Annika Sörenstam, Championship in June; and finally the Open Championship, at the Standard Register PING tournament in 2001. organized by the R&A in July.
CROQUET GAME OVERVIEW Croquet involves hitting balls with a mallet through hoops embedded in the grass playing arena. The winner is the first person or team to hit a centrally located pole. Association Croquet, described here, is the version of the sport played at most international tournaments. The game offers many opportunities to punish opponents and has even been described as one of the world’s most aggressive recreational activities—a far cry from its rather staid, genteel stereotype. The white stuff PLAYER PROFILE Players must wear shirts and pants, Many of the skills required by a croquet player are the shorts, or skirts, and every piece of same as those needed for proficient putting at golf. Both games require good judgment of the playing surface and clothing must be white of the weight of each shot. The croquet lawn is smaller than many putting greens, and the balls have relatively Croquet mallet short distances to travel, so physical strength is rarely The mallet may be gripped anywhere on important. The players’ age is hardly a consideration either, as seasoned hands may easily outsmart younger, the handle, but players must not touch fitter pretenders. the head of it while playing a stroke NEW BALLS, PLEASE 33⁄4 in (9.5 cm) Wire wickets FOUNDED IN 1868, THE FIRST NATIONAL The croquet balls must HEADQUARTERS OF CROQUET IN GREAT be struck through wire BRITAIN WAS THE WIMBLEDON ALL ENGLAND hoops embedded in the CROQUET CLUB. HOWEVER, JUST NINE YEARS LATER, THE CLUB WAS RENAMED THE grass court WIMBLEDON ALL ENGLAND CROQUET AND LAWN TENNIS CLUB AND PLAYED HOST TO THE 12 in (30 cm) Colored balls FIRST-EVER LAWN TENNIS CHAMPIONSHIPS. AS They are only THE POPULARITY OF TENNIS GREW, CROQUET Soft shoes 1⁄8 in (0.3 cm) WAS SIDELINED. THE CLUB EVEN DROPPED Players must wear shoes with smooth “CROQUET” FROM ITS NAME FOR A WHILE AND soles in order to minimize damage to smaller than the STOPPED HOLDING CROQUET TOURNAMENTS. the manicured playing surface wickets, so there’s very little margin for error NEED2KNOW SIDELINES A croquet match is played by two sides 1 The total number of paying spectators at the Olympic croquet final in made up of either single players or two 1900, the first and last time the sport was played at the Games. The teams of two. Each side has two balls: one event was held in Paris; nine out of the 10 croquet competitors were French; blue and black, the other red and yellow. and, perhaps not surprisingly, France took all the medals in both the singles The world’s leading international men’s and doubles competitions. contest is the Croquet World Series for the MacRobertson Shield. The competition 80 The number of players that entered the 2012 Association Croquet takes place over two weeks every three or World Championships. In addition to the MacRobertson big four, four years between Australia, Great Britain, there were some surprises for anyone who thinks of croquet as the New Zealand, and the United States. quintessence of Englishness: other contestants hailed from nations not In addition to the basic Association usually associated with croquet, such as Japan and Sweden. Croquet, there are several variant forms, including Mondo Croquet—played with 9 The number of times Great Britain has won the MacRobertson Shield, sledgehammers and 10-pin bowling balls—and a mounted version on bicycles. more than any other nation in the history of the competition; two of these victories came as part of a combined team with Ireland. New Zealand and Australia have both won the MacRobertson Shield four times.
COURT CLIPPINGS MALLET FORETHOUGHT TARGET SPORTS The playing surface is a level, well- Each player has two colored balls, which must pass through six hoops twice in the manicured lawn approximately the size correct order and direction and then hit the central peg. Croquet is a tactical game, CROQUET of two tennis courts. Play begins from and players can sabotage their opponent’s position while completing the course. behind the balk line at one end of the court. The first hoop has a blue top and CTwOentNy-sTixIpNoinUtsAarTe InOeeNdedStoTwRin (O12KhoEopSpoints and one peg point per ball), and players the last hoop, known as the “rover,” has normally have just one strike per turn. However, if they send the ball completely through a hoop, a red top. To remind players of the they get another shot (“a continuation stroke”). If the shot hits an opponent’s ball (“makes a direction of play and to show spectators roquet”), the striker gets two more shots. He or she first places the ball by hand against the whether a hoop is being played forward opponent’s ball and then strikes his or her own ball. The opponent’s ball may thus be sent or backward, four colored clips are out of bounds, which is how croquet got its reputation for aggression. placed on top of each hoop at the start PEELINGS AND OFFSHOOTS of the game. The clips indicate the next If the striker’s ball knocks an opponent’s ball through a hoop, the latter is said to have been point for each ball and are moved to the “peeled”: the other side benefits but does not get a continuation stroke. If a ball rolls off the side of the hoop after the corresponding court, it is replaced on the boundary line at the point where it went out of play. ball has passed through it once. Hoop three Hoop six Hoop four Balk line EQUIPMENT This is the fourth This hoop marks The fourth hoop on The first strokes are When not in use, the mallets, balls, the way out is the played from any point hoops, and peg are stored in a long obstacle on the the completion third to be negotiated outside the line at the wooden box with rope handles at either inward journey of the outward south end of the court end and a lid. It looks like a cross on the way back between a shipping crate and a coffin. leg; the next 28 yd (28.5 m) target is hoop Croquet mallet two, which is Wooden; may be any length, now known as but must have parallel and identical end faces “one back” Hoop two Hoop five 35 yd (32.3 m) Last post The second target on the The rover hoop Hoop one The peg must be 18 in (45.7 cm) outward course is the first has a red top; high and 11⁄2 in (3.8 cm) in diameter; on the way back after the balls The first hoop on it usually has colored bands around the course is its circumference Winning post have passed marked with a The game is won by the first through it blue top; it Wire wickets player or team to strike both Six; may be arched balls against the peg, which is twice, the final becomes hoop hoops or have right in the center of the lawn peg is next two on the return right-angled leg of the match crossbars Colored balls Four: wood or plastic; one blue, one black, one red, one yellow; weight 1 lb (453 g); diameter 35⁄8 in (9.2 cm) ROQUET SCIENCE INSIDE STORY Unlike most target games, croquet actively allows players to hinder their opponents’ Croquet began in Ireland in the progress. This is done in two stages. First, a player performs a roquet stroke, which 1830s, later spreading to Great simply involves striking the other player’s ball. The player then picks up their ball, Britain, where it quickly grew in places it in direct contact with the “roqueted” ball, and takes a croquet stroke. popularity. At the time, croquet was the first outdoor sport that could CROQUET STROKE Black ball be played by both men and women The purpose of the stroke from Having hit the on equal footing, and its popularity which the game gets its name is to yellow ball in open was sealed when a London sporting send the opponent’s ball as far off play (made a goods manufacturer began producing course as possible. But the best roquet), the black and selling croquet equipment. The offensive players work out angles is positioned by sport soon caught on throughout that enable them simultaneously to hand in readiness the British colonies, most notably gain advantage for themselves. The for the croquet in Australia and New Zealand. perfect croquet is a shot that knocks the opponent’s ball a long way off Yellow ball GOVERNING BODY course and sends the player’s own Is sent as far away In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, ball through a hoop, thus earning a from play as the Croquet Association makes the rules, continuation stroke. The diagram on possible; the black awards top players’ seedings, and promotes the right shows a typical example. cannons through and regulates the game. the hoop
CURLING GAME OVERVIEW TURNING THE ROCK Sometimes known as “chess on ice,” curling is a game of skill, A rock can be made to spin as it moves precision, and strategy. It began as a Scottish outdoor winter sport across the sheet. The direction of rotation before spreading across the globe and becoming one of the highlights a rock is given as it is released determines of the Winter Olympics. Curling is played on a sheet, or rink, of ice by how it travels across the ice. The direction two teams of four players. A team’s aim is to place its rocks closer to of the spin determines whether the rock will the button—the center of a circular target—than the closest rock of curl (curve) to the left or right; clockwise the other team. One game is made up of 10 rounds, or ends, and each spin curls right and counterclockwise curls player delivers two rocks, making a total of 16 rocks per end. Under left. The greater the amount of spin which is the direction of the “skip,” the team sweeps the ice directly in front of given, the less the rock will curl. On some the rock to adjust the speed and direction of each rock as it slides ice sheets that may not be perfectly level, toward the button. the rock may even travel against the spin. KEEPING IT COOL The surface of the ice needs to be kept at a constant temperature of 23ºF (–5ºC). The ice is sprayed with water before every game. The droplets freeze into tiny bumps on the surface, known as pebble. It is the friction between the stones and pebble that causes curling. THE SHEET House The playing area is known as the sheet and has a circular scoring area, or house, at The scoring area; a rock must each end. The house consists of four concentric circles dissected by the center and sit within the house (ring) to tee lines. The largest circle has a diameter of 12 ft (3.66 m) and the smallest circle, stand a chance of scoring points called the button or tee, has a diameter of 12 in (30 cm). The hog line marks the Back line point where the rock must have been released during a throw, or delivery. A rock is A rock is deemed out of play if out of play if it crosses the back line behind the house. it crosses the line touching the back of the house NEED2KNOW On the slide Handle sensor A player does not use At elite level, the handles Curling has been popular in northern his arm to propel the rock. contain sensors that indicate areas, especially Canada and Scotland, The speed of a throw whether a rock has crossed where cold weather creates the depends on how hard he the hog line before being natural conditions for an ice-based thrusts himself forward released. A green light flashes sport. It is now played more widely, with the trailing leg. After at the base of the handle if including in warmer countries, from releasing the rock, the the release is good and Spain to China and Japan. player continues to slide flashes red for a foul throw Teams are made up of a lead who throws first, a second who throws second, a vice-skip who usually throws third, and a team captain called the skip who directs play and usually throws last. The best rocks are made from granite from the Ailsa Craig island off the coast of Ayrshire, Scotland. Olympic- grade stones cost up to $1,500. PLAYER PROFILE Lead shoe Rock Broom All players need to have a fine sense A “slider,” a shoe with a Ailsite granite stones called A versatile piece of of balance, good flexibility, hand-eye smooth Teflon sole, is worn on “rocks” weigh a maximum of equipment, it is used to coordination, and control on the ice. the lead foot during delivery. 44 lb (20 kg). The bottom of melt the ice, indicate The skip and vice-skip also need a At other times, the curler the rock is concave and the where to aim the rock, sharp mind for tactics and strategy as wears a thin rubber “gripper” running surface is a circle or balance the curler they direct their teammates to deliver over the slider for traction rocks into winning positions. ¼–½ in (6–12 mm) wide during throws
Sweeping Umpire Rock Center line TARGET SPORTS A key tactic in There are two in Is delivered Marks the center championship- toward of the sheet from any game, level curling; their the house end to end 21 ft (6.4 m) Hack sweeping allows Rubber footholds main role is to called hacks at either the rock to go measure the end of the sheet; the farther and curler pushes off straighter distance of rocks from the hack when from the button delivering the rock Hog line The rock must be released before the hog line and must cross the hog line at the other end of the sheet to remain in play 14 ft 2 in–15 ft 7 in (4.32 m–4.75 m) 146 ft (44.5 m) CURLING The button PRECISION AND TEAMWORK Also called the tee, the Teams deliver their rocks to try and get as many as possible closer to the button marks the center button than their opposition’s nearest. This may involve attempting to place of the house. The team a rock close to the button but could be placing guards to stop opposition with the rock closest to rocks from reaching the button or playing takeouts to knock their rocks out the button wins the end of the house. The skip decides the tactics and instructs his or her players what they should do. The sweepers control the speed and direction of rocks on the skip’s instruction. Vigorously sweeping just ahead of the rock melts the top of the ice. The thin layer of water created lubricates the running surface of the rock, which allows it to travel farther and straighter but not faster. ROCK STEADY DELIVERY Balanced delivery Alternating between teams, each player delivers The player crouches on the slider shoe The player aims the rock two rocks until all 16 have been thrown. The and pushes against the hack with his team with the rock closest to the button wins. other foot. He slides with the rock, at a position indicated They score one point for each rock closer to controlling its speed, direction, and by the skip’s broom the button than any of their opponent’s rocks, rotation, before letting go just before it and only one team scores in each end. crosses the hog line. Once the rock is released, it must not be touched by a broom or player. DRAW Raise shot ON THE ICE Quick sweep A draw is a throw that lands the rock This rock has been Rocks can curve, or curl, up to 6½ ft Sweepers adjust in the house. A guard sits in front of knocked into a (2 m) to the side as they glide down the the pressure on their the house to block opponent’s shots. winning position rink. The curling is caused by the bumpy brooms according to A raise shot promotes a rock into closer to the button pebble surface on the ice. Melting the how much they want the house from outside or one in by a teammate’s pebble by sweeping stops the rock from to redirect the rock the house closer to the button. stone curling. As a game progresses, the pebble rubs away, and rocks may curl more or less than previously. IN THE HOUSE On the button Inside the house, the skip helps sweep The skip also sweeps in front of the the rock to its desired resting place, opponent’s rocks that are knocked either closest to the button or in a around inside of the house blocking, or guarding, position to prevent the opponent’s rocks reaching the button. The last rock to be thrown is called the hammer. The team with the hammer is more likely to win the end. TAKEOUT Direct hit INSIDE STORY GOVERNING BODIES A takeout is a shot that removes The incoming Curling originated in Scotland, where the The Royal Caledonian Curling another rock from play—ideally, the rock strikes the outdoor game was popular between Club, the original governing opposition’s! A raise takeout is when the opponent’s stone the 16th and 19th centuries. The Royal body for curling, and the thrown rock uses an intermediate rock and knocks it Caledonian Curling Club, curling’s oldest World Curling Federation (WCF) to take out the target rock. out of the house society, was established in 1843. The are based in Scotland. The first world championships were held in WCF runs the World Men’s 1959 (1979 for women); men’s and and World Women’s Curling women’s events have featured in the Championships, as well as Winter Olympics since 1998. the World Junior Curling Championships, and has 50 national members.
LAWN BOWLING NEED2KNOW PLAYER PROFILE Lawn bowling is an easy game to learn and is played by Lawn bowling is one of the most popular just about anyone—men and women, old and young. games in the world for senior citizens, but The best bowlers have great hand-eye coordination and at a competitive level, the sport is dominated by younger players. are very strategic thinkers. Bowls is most popular in Australia, Formal flourish Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and UK territories. Although a player’s attire is All but one of the men’s indoor bowls not a significant part of the world champions have come from game, in competitions, men England, Ireland, Scotland, or Wales. The 1992 winner was an Australian. will usually wear white clothes and a tie GAME OVERVIEW Rubber mat Lawn bowling—a.k.a. bowls—is a precision sport in which players roll slightly asymmetrical balls, Bowlers must stand called bowls, along a green. The winner is the with at least one foot on a rubber mat in the person whose bowls land closest to the target—known as the “kitty” or “jack.” center of their rink THE BOWLS THE GREEN 120–130 ft (37-40 m) Although bowls were traditionally made of wood or rubber Bowls is usually played on a or a composite, modern bowls are made of lignite. They are manicured grass or synthetic surface 18–19 ft (5.5-5.8 m) designed to travel a curved path, referred to as their bias, known as a bowling green, which is produced by the asymmetrical shape of the bowl. The jack divided into parallel playing strips is perfectly spherical and usually colored white. known as rinks. An indoor variation on carpet is also played. Outdoor BIASED BOWL greens have a uniform length but The bowls are black or brown, weigh about may be of varying widths, depending 3.3 lb (1.5 kg), and are 4½–5½ in (12–14.5 cm) on the number of rinks. Indoor in diameter. The bowls are not quite round—their greens are usually smaller, their bias gives them a slight bulge on one side. dimensions being set by organizers. LAWN RULES BOWL DELIVERY SIR FRANCIS DRAKE In the simplest singles competition, on There are several types of delivery. For a THE MOST FAMOUS STORY IN LAWN the toss of a coin, one player begins by right-hander, a “forehand draw” is aimed BOWLS INVOLVES SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. placing his rubber mat and rolling the to the right of the jack and curves in to ON JULY 18, 1588, DRAKE WAS jack to the other end of the green. the left. The same bowler can deliver a INVOLVED IN A GAME AT PLYMOUTH Once the jack has come to rest, it is “backhand draw” by turning the bowl HOE WHEN HE WAS NOTIFIED THAT aligned to the center of the rink before over in his hand and curving it the THE SPANISH ARMADA WERE the players take turns to roll their bowls. opposite way. A “drive” involves bowling APPROACHING. HIS IMMORTALIZED A bowl is allowed to curve outside the with force with the aim of knocking either RESPONSE WAS THAT “WE STILL rink boundary but must come to rest the jack or a specific bowl out of play. HAVE TIME TO FINISH THE GAME AND within the boundary to remain in play. TO THRASH THE SPANIARDS, TOO.” SCORING HE THEN PROCEEDED TO FINISH THE After the competitors have delivered Scoring systems vary—either the first to a MATCH—WHICH HE LOST—BEFORE all their bowls—four each in singles— specified number of points or the highest EMBARKING ON THE BATTLE WITH the distance of the closest bowl to the scorer after a number of ends. Some THE ARMADA—WHICH HE WON. jack is determined. Then a point is competitions use a “set” scoring system, awarded for each bowl the winning with the first to seven points awarded a set competitor has between the jack and in a best-of-five match. his opponent’s closest bowl. This passage of play is known as an end.
PÉTANQUE TARGET SPORTS NEED2KNOW GAME OVERVIEW Pétanque is a form of boules where the goal is to throw metal Pétanque is generally associated with southern France, balls as close as possible to a small wooden ball called a particularly Provence, from where it originates. It is the cochonnet (“piglet”). The game is normally played on hard dirt most played sport in Marseille. or gravel but can also be played on grass or other surfaces. The casual form of the game of pétanque is played by about 17 million people in France—mostly during their PÉTANQUE summer vacations. The International Pétanque Federation was founded PLAYER PROFILE in 1958 in Marseille and has about 600,000 members No special skill is required to play pétanque, and people of all in 94 countries on five continents. It is the fourth ages and sexes play against each other. The game is simple, largest sports federation in the whole of France. relaxing, lots of fun, and very sociable. Games are usually played in good spirits and often while players are enjoying a cool drink. THE BOULES At competition level, the very best players tend to be excellent Boules are traditionally made of steel and have a strategists and have great hand-eye coordination. chrome outer finish. They each weigh 1½–1¾ lb (650–800 g) and have a diameter of 2¾–3 in POINTING AND SHOOTING (71–80 mm). The jack is made of wood or synthetic Players may choose to place or “point” a boule—get it material and has a diameter of 1–1¾ in (25–35 mm). as near as possible to the jack—or “shoot” it—attempt On the sides, they bear engravings indicating the to displace another boule. A successful pétanque team manufacturer’s or player’s name and the weight has players who are skilled at shooting, as well as players of the boule. who only point. THE TRACK For obvious reasons, the pointers play first—the shooter The game is normally played on hard dirt or gravel but can or shooters are held in reserve in case the opponents place also be played on grass or other surfaces. The dimensions well. In placing, a boule in front of the jack has much higher shown below are the recommended minimum. value than one at the same distance behind the jack, because the pushing of a front boule generally improves its 13 ft (4 m) Flat surface position. At every play after the very first boule has been The game can be placed, the team whose turn it is must decide whether to point or shoot. played almost 49 ft (15 m) anywhere there is a flat surface PLAYING BY THE RULES ROLLING IN ROLLING IN FOR A HIT The game is played in singles or by teams of two or This is the easiest shot to play. The With this shot, you land your boule three. The side that wins the toss starts the game ball is thrown about halfway down the early and make it roll along the ground by drawing a circle on the playing field 14–20 in track and rolls the rest of the way. into your opponent’s boule. (35–50 cm) in diameter. Both feet must remain inside this circle, touching the ground, when the SHORT LOB LONG LOB player is throwing. This shot requires quite a high Going in high is the only way when the trajectory with just the right amount ground is rough. The boule lands just The player then throws the jack to a distance of of backspin on the boule. about where you want it to lie. 20–30 ft (6–10 m) from the starting circle. The jack must be visible (not, for example, buried in gravel) SHOOTING IN CARREAU and at least 3 ft (1 m) from any boundary; otherwise, This shot is played fairly low and This is the hardest shot in pétanque. it must be thrown again. hard and enables you to move your Hit the opponent’s boule and make opponent’s boule out of position. sure that yours sits in its place. A player from the same team plays the first boule, trying to place it as close to the jack as possible. Then the opposing team must get one of its boules closer to the jack, and they keep playing until they succeed. When they do, it is back to the first team for them to do better. When one team runs out of boules, the other team plays its remaining boules.
10-PIN BOWLING Come as you are GAME OVERVIEW The only clothing Worldwide, 10-pin bowling is possibly second in requirement is that it popularity only to soccer as a participation sport. While allows easy movement for millions of people this indoor sport is a great way to of the arms and legs relax and socialize, it can also be extremely competitive. Bowlers roll a heavy ball along a smooth lane and try to knock down as many of the 10 pins as possible. Points are awarded for the number of pins demolished. Bonuses are given for a “strike”—when every pin is knocked over in one attempt. PLAYER PROFILE The only essential characteristic is the ability to learn, through endless practice, the techniques of ball control. Age is no barrier: American Dick Weber was 72 when he won a 2002 Professional Bowlers’ Association Senior title. Sure footing 60 ft (18 m) The shoe on the leading foot has a rubber sole to give traction; the Bowling ball one on the back foot has a leather Balls are traditionally plain black but may now be finished in any sole to permit sliding color and sometimes have patterned designs NEED2KNOW The game emerged in the US in the early 1900s. The 3 ft 5 1⁄2 in (1.05 m) first British centers opened in London in 1960. One of the sport’s annual competitions is the Weber Approach area Cup. Team Europe competes against Team USA in the Players use this area to gain equivalent of golf’s Ryder Cup. speed and leverage on the ball PINS AND BALLS before it is bowled 15 ft (4.6 m) Pins and balls were once made simply of wood, but the former are now synthetic or plastic-coated wood, while Foul line the latter are made of plastic, urethane, epoxy, or a The arm may go beyond combination of these materials. For recreational 10-pin this mark, but if the player bowling, balls come in various weights to suit the touches it, the ball bowled strength of the player. counts as zero THE BALL THE PINS LIFE IN THE FAST LANE A full-size competition ball weighs The pins are all of uniform height The bowling lane is made of 39 planks of polyurethane or 16 lb (17.25 kg). Its surface is and should be 47⁄10 in (11.4 cm) wood. On either side of it are semicircular gutters to collect entirely smooth apart from grip wide at the belly. They each weigh off-target balls. Most public bowling centers have retractable holes for the thumb, middle finger, 3 lb 6 oz–3 lb 10 oz guard rails that can be lowered into place on the lane side of and ring finger. (1.47–1.64 kg). the gutters; these are normally brought down only to assist young children who lack the strength to control the balls. 15 in (38.1 cm) Contestants must release the ball before reaching the foul 81⁄2 in (21.5 cm) line, and, having bowled, they must not overstep onto the lane. After every turn, the balls are automatically returned to the approach area along a raised, sloping trackway mounted on the right-hand side of the lane.
LANE LAW BOWLING ON THE BIG SCREEN TARGET SPORTS In competitive 10-pin, each player has 10 frames, each of which TEN-PIN BOWLING HAS FEATURED IN consists of two attempts to knock down as many pins as possible. One NUMEROUS POPULAR FILMS, INCLUDING THE point is scored for every pin that is knocked down. Contestants who COEN BROTHERS’ THE BIG LEBOWSKI (1998), demolish all 10 pins at the first attempt are awarded a strike, for which WHERE A DOPED-UP HIPPIE BOWLER IS DRAWN they earn a score of 10 points plus a bonus of the total of their next two INTO A WEB OF CRIMINALITY. IN A 1996 shots. If the player knocks down all 10 pins in two attempts, he or she is FEATURE, WOODY HARRELSON IS AN EX- awarded a spare and earns 10 points plus a bonus of the pins knocked BOWLER IN THE LOUD, RUDE, AND CRUDE down on the next shot. If there is still at least one pin standing after the FARRELLY BROTHERS’ FLICK KINGPIN. second attempt, it is called an open frame. Pin point 2 ft (60 cm) STROKERS AND 10-PIN BOWLING The pins are arranged to form a CRANKERS triangle, with the apex facing the Bowlers will always argue over the best method bowler and four pins in the back row. of delivery, and the reality is that each has its The pins stand 12 in (30 cm) apart masters. Many top players use the graceful and (measured from the center of each stylish stroker, while others prefer the powerplay pin). After each frame, the pins are of cranking. And in East Asia, the spinning or automatically reracked by a “helicopter” delivery is popular. machine known as a pinsetter Smooth surface The surface of the lane is polished with oil before a competition to keep friction to an absolute minimum. The amount of oil used depends on the type of event The low road STROKER CRANKER A ball that enters the gutter cannot The stroker is the classic style The bowler produces the leave it again; it runs straight down the of hook bowling. The player’s maximum amount of spin on sliding foot stops just before the the ball. When delivering the side, missing all of the pins ball reaches the lowest point of ball, he or she quickly pulls the the swing, and his or her arm through, bending the elbow shoulders are square at the to keep the hand behind and point of release. under the ball. BALL CONTROL THE PERFECT GAME Because it is physically impossible for the ball itself to strike every pin, Bowlers who score a strike every time they throw will the player needs to create a chain reaction of one pin hitting its neighbor, score 30 points per frame. If they then get another and so on, to get a good score. Experienced bowlers curve the ball’s strike in the 10th and final frame, they are awarded two trajectory, or “roll a hook,” to achieve maximum effect. The ball starts on extra balls. If these are also strikes, the bowler scores a straight course but then curves to the left or right as it approaches the the maximum 300 points and has played the perfect pins. Players whose first throw does not travel according to plan may end game. In 1997, a Nebraska student became the first up with two or more remaining pins (7 and 10, for example) that are person to accomplish three consecutive perfect games almost impossible to be knocked down with a single ball. In this instance, in an approved series. Perfect games remain rare the player will knock down one of the remaining pins and settle for an occurrences. open frame. INSIDE STORY 7 8 9 10 9 10 There are many historical references to bowling, but the first indoor bowling alley was not opened 45 6 6 until 1840—Knickerbockers in New York City. Today, the sport is played in more than 100 23 countries. 1 The game developed greatly in the second half of the 20th century. While still a relaxed leisure A PERFECT STRIKE MOP-UP OPERATION activity for millions, it is now also a recognized The ideal shot need hit only pins 1, 3, 5, In this example, the bowler failed to knock competitive sport played by highly paid full-time and 9 (for right-handers) because these pins down all the pins on the first attempt; three professionals. Positions on the world ranking can then take out all the others. The same (6, 9, and 10) were left standing. The player system are determined by players’ performances should also be true of a shot that hits pins 1, delivers a straight ball just to the right of pin in the American, Asian, and European tours. 2, 5, and 8 (for left-handers). It is usually 6, which in turn knocks down 9, and the important to avoid hitting pin 1 head-on. ball continues and demolishes 10. GOVERNING BODIES The World Tenpin Bowling Association (WTBA) governs the sport internationally, while the United States Bowling Congress (USBC) and the British Tenpin Bowling Association (BTBA) control the game in their respective countries.
5-PIN BOWLING GAME OVERVIEW V-formation Individuals or teams take turns rolling a ball at a At the start of every group of pins; whoever knocks over the most pins frame, the pins after an agreed number of attempts wins the match. are set in a The game began as a gentle alternative to 10-pin V-formation bowling but soon acquired a devoted following of its own. NEED2KNOW EQUIPMENT 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m) 60 ft (18.29 m) Originally carved out of maple The pins are 25 percent wood, 5-pin bowling pins are 15 in (127 cm)Easy to grip SHAPELY PIN Belly band smaller than those used for now almost invariably mass- 111⁄4 in (28.5 cm)The 5-pin ballThe 5-pin bowling pin The heavy 10-pin bowling, and the ball produced from plastic. The balls are weighs 31⁄2 lb is shorter and thinner rubber can be held in the palm of made of solid rubber. Historically, (1.6 kg) and is than the equivalent belly band the hand. they were of a uniform design and used in 10-pin makes the The game originates from— color, but since 1990, players have easy to grip bowling. The ring pin bounce and is still almost exclusively been allowed to personalize their around the bottom of farther than confined to—Canada. There, balls with engravings and ID. the widest part of its a 10-pin some public bowling alleys circumference lowers when hit offer both 5-pin and 10-pin. BOWLING BALLS the center of gravity. Canada has three main annual Unlike its 10-pin 31⁄2 in knockout competitions: an bowling equivalent, (8.9 cm) open event, a youth challenge, the 5-pin ball has and a doubles tournament. no finger holes, so There is also a league. maintaining a good grip is important. ATLATL THROWING THE DART The thrower, or atlatlist, holds the shaft SPORT OVERVIEW by the handle and grips the dart, usually Atlatl involves using a sling device of the with his or her thumb and forefinger. same name to throw a dart or light spear As if throwing a javelin or a spear, at a target. It combines the physical the thrower brings their arm back demands of the javelin in athletics and then swings it forward. Finally, with the accuracy of darts. with a flick of the wrist, the dart is released at the target. NEED2KNOW ATLATL EVENTS Sling devices were used in many parts of the world until Atlatl events take place around the world, they were superseded by bows and arrows. Atlatl particularly in the United States and Europe. (pronounced “ott-lottle”) is an Aztec word. The Aztecs Contests are held on dedicated ranges were using the weapon for hunting in the 16th century. or in open country; each target is set at a HITTING THE TARGET The International Standard Accuracy Competition (ISAC), different distance from the firing line, both The targets may be any shape established in 1996, is a standardized event for atlatlists for variety and to test a range of skills. The or size but are usually similar to from around the world. winner of an event scores the most points archery targets; others bear the Top players can hit targets from distances of up to after shooting at all the targets. outlines of wild animals. They all 325 ft (100 m). have marked areas that score varying numbers of points. SLING DEVICE Get a grip Large dart Holding a dart An atlatl is a sling device The thrower The dart resembles a A dart fits into a composed from a shaft holds the atlatl large arrow and is at hook, pin, or of wood. Any type of by the handle least 4 ft (1.25 m) long socket wood can be used. At one end is a handle and at the other a means of holding the dart.
Foul line SKITTLES TARGET SPORTS Players must release the ball before they reach this mark GAME OVERVIEW HORSESHOE PITCHING Skittle players or teams take turns to use a ball to knock down a Height restriction diamond-shaped set of 9 skittles (small bowling pins) at the end of To ensure that balls are rolled, not an alley. The player or team that scores the most wins the match. thrown, a perspex sheet is placed across Skittles has many variations and local rules. It is a traditional game the lanes at a height of 6 in (15 cm) that is popular in pubs in parts of England, and is also played in SCORING Germany and Austria. Some Players play 10 frames per game, with up to rules vary according to region. three attempts per frame. If a player gets a strike (knocks down all five balls at once), his VARIATIONS or her scores on the next two attempts count Skittle alleys always have a double. The maximum game score is 450. smooth surface, often wooden, and are usually 21–36 ft PIN LAYOUT DECREASING VALUE (6.4–11 m) from the throwing At the start of each turn, the 9 skittles are set out The foremost pin in the V-formation counts five in a diamond pattern; they should be positioned points; the two behind it score three points each; mark to the front pin. Skittles vary no more than their own length apart. the backmarkers are each worth two points. in size and shape, and may include a kingpin. The pins are 6–16 in (15–40 cm) high and may weigh LANE DISCIPLINE up to 6 lb 10 oz (3 kg). Balls also vary (one rare game uses a discus-shaped Players must not overstep the foul line cheese) and are usually made of hardwood or rubber. They should be 4–6 in at the start of the lane: any violation (10–15 cm) in diameter. incurs a 15-pin penalty, which is Depending on the local rules, the ball may be rolled along the floor, deducted at the end of the game. bowled underarm (either with or without a bounce), or simply thrown at the skittles. A match usually consists of 12 hands (turns), and each hand comprises three throws. A point is gained for every skittle knocked over, so the maximum score per hand is 27. HORSESHOE PITCHING 40 ft (12 m) GAME OVERVIEW Pitching platform Target pit Two players or two teams of two players Players throw shoes from inside the Sand or soft clay in the pit prevents take turns tossing horseshoes at stakes platform area and behind the foul line horseshoes from bouncing or skidding in the ground. The winner scores the highest number of points or near misses. PLAYING AREA High stakes Horseshoe pitching is very popular in A stake stands in the center of the Stakes are 1 in (2.5 cm) parts of the United States. target pit at each end of the playing in diameter and 15 in area. There is a pitching platform on (37.5 cm) high LAW AND SCORE each side of a target pit. Sloping stake Competitors stand at opposite ends of the playing A stake slopes 3 in area and aim their horseshoes at the stake next Shoe fitting (7.5 cm) toward the to their opponent’s throwing position. They change Each horseshoe must weigh no thrower ends after every turn, which consists of two throws. more than 2 lb 10 oz (1.2 kg); A ringer (a horseshoe that lands around the there is no minimum weight stake) normally counts as three points. The exception is when both players throw a ringer on the same 71⁄4 in (18.4 cm) PITCHING A SHOE turn, in which case nothing is scored. On each turn, 3½ in (8.75 cm) The horseshoes used in modern horseshoe pitching the closest horseshoe to the stake (a near miss) are usually about twice the size of a real horseshoe. scores one point. The winner is normally the first to 75⁄8 in (19.3 cm) A player stands inside one of the two pitching 21, although some matches are played in sets. platforms beside the target pit and pitches at the stake at the far end. For a throw to score points, the stake must be wholly inside an imaginary line between the ends of the horseshoe.
GAME OVERVIEW NEED2KNOW With its roots in the game of billiards, snooker is a sport where two players use cues and a cue ball to pocket as many colored Snooker balls were originally made from balls as possible on a table with six pockets. Each of the balls ivory, with African ivory considered has a point value and must be pocketed in a particular order. superior to the Indian variety due to its The player with the highest number of points wins the frame more even density. Despite their popularity, (game). Each match consists of an agreed odd number of ivory balls were prone to losing their shape. frames, the winner being the player who secures the most frames. The first player to score a maximum 147 break on television was Steve Davis at the SNOOKER Lada Classic in Oldham in 1982. The inaugural World Snooker Championship was held in 1927, and it was won by the organizer, Joe Davis. THE TABLE Pocket size Cushions Slate bed Green baize A snooker table is made of a wooden Each pocket Also known as Pieces of slate up to The green cloth that frame within which sits a slate bed that has an opening rails or bumpers, 2 in (5 cm) thick is covered by a wool-based cloth known of about these are usually provide the base for covers the playing as the baize. The table has six pockets 3½ in (9 cm) made of rubber the playing surface surface and cushions with curved openings: two at the top cushion (“spot” end) corners, two at the is made of wool bottom cushion (“baulk” end) corners, and two in the middle of the side cushions (the center pockets). THE BAULK AND THE D The area between the bottom cushion and a line (baulk line) 29 in (74 cm) along the table is known as the baulk. At the center of the baulk line is a semicircle with a radius of 11½ in (29 cm) that is called the D. Baulk line Cue ball 11 ft 8½ in (357 cm) The green, brown, and This can be placed yellow balls are spotted anywhere within the along this line D when breaking off PLAYER PROFILE Foot position Sighting the cue Table frame As well as good hand-eye coordination, a It is important to Looking down the This can be made snooker player needs to have a steady arm have a solid stance length of the cue of a variety of and a firm wrist to achieve total control of when playing a shot helps with shot materials, from the cue and enable shots to be played with accuracy plastic to woods accuracy and precision. Mental agility, such as mahogany tactical awareness, and technical and ash consistency are other useful attributes.
EQUIPMENT PLAYING BY TARGET SPORTS Aside from a table, a triangle, balls, and cues, very little equipment THE RULES is needed for a game of snooker. Bridges, spiders, and extensions are At the heart of the sport of snooker is special items used to help players execute difficult shots, while chalk the sequence that the balls must be adds control to the tip of the cue. For practical purposes, an overhead pocketed. A red ball has to be pocketed lamp provides additional lighting over the table. alternately with a colored ball until all the reds have been cleared from CUES Cue length the table. After this, the colors must These tapered shafts of wood come in Under official rules, a snooker be pocketed in ascending order of their one or two pieces and are traditionally value—yellow, green, brown, blue, made to a standard length of 4 ft 10 in cue must be at least 3 ft pink, and black. (147 cm), though slightly shorter (91.4 cm) long varieties are also available. FOULS Foul shots generally incur a penalty of four SNOOKER BRIDGES AND SPIDERS Rest assured points, which are added to the tally of the Usually constructed from a wooden The bridge rests on the table opposing player. Fouls can take place for a shaft with a brass or nylon attachment, and provides a raised area over number of reasons, including a player striking bridges and spiders come in a range balls adjacent to the cue ball the ball with both feet off the ground (at least of shapes and sizes to suit different one foot has to be on the floor at all times), hard-to-reach shots. hitting a ball that is not “on” (an “on” ball is one that is valid for a player to strike, whether 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) Pack of reds THE BALLS red or another color), and missing a ball The 15 red balls are Modern snooker balls are made of a plastic called completely. A few fouls incur a seven-point phenolic resin. In addition to the nonvalue white penalty, and these include using an object to set up in a triangle cue ball, there are 21 other balls on a snooker table: measure the distance between balls and using and positioned at 15 reds (worth 1 point each), plus one each of yellow any ball other than the white as a cue ball. the spot end (2 points), green (3 points), brown (4 points), blue BALL PLAY (5 points), pink (6 points), and black (7 points). There are a whole set of regulations regarding Full-size balls measure 21⁄16 in (52.5 mm) in what can and cannot be done with the balls at diameter, but smaller balls can be used on any given time. One example is a touching reduced-sized tables. ball, a situation that arises after a player plays a shot and the cue ball stops next to—and is Pocket rail 1234567 touching—one of the other balls. In this case, Provides easy a player has to strike the cue ball away from access for any TRIANGLE the touching ball without moving it; otherwise, colored ball that Made of plastic or wood, a a foul will be called. has to be spotted triangle is used to place the Table height 15 red balls in their correct SIDELINES The distance between the position on the table at top of the cushion and the start of a frame. A 147 The maximum number of the floor must be tournament triangle is between 2 ft 9½ in and mounted on rollers for points that can be scored on a snooker 2 ft 10½ in (85.1 cm and ease of positioning. table if every red ball pocketed is followed by a black. 87.6 cm) CHALK This is applied to the cue tip, with 15 The number of times Joe the thin film of chalk providing grip on the ball when it is struck. Davis won the World Championship (1927–1940 and 1946). REFEREE POCKET ROCKET The referee has a variety of RONNIE “THE ROCKET” O’SULLIVAN 4 The number of consecutive roles in a snooker game, IS THE MOST NATURALLY GIFTED including the placing of the PLAYER TO HAVE EMERGED IN THE century breaks scored by John Higgins balls in their correct position SPORT FOR A GENERATION. SINCE in his match against Ronnie O’Sullivan at the start of a frame and TURNING PROFESSIONAL IN 1993, at the 2005 Grand Prix, the first time this repositioning colored HE HAS WON EVERY MAJOR had been done at a major tournament. balls—other than reds—after TOURNAMENT AT LEAST ONCE. The feat was equaled by Shaun Murphy they have been pocketed during EQUALLY ADEPT AT PLAYING when playing against Jamie Cope in the a frame (known as “spotting”). RIGHT- AND LEFT-HANDED, THE 2007 Welsh Open. The referee also rules on foul CHARISMATIC O’SULLIVAN HAS SET shots; supplies bridges, NEW STANDARDS IN THE SPORT. 105 000 000 spiders, and extensions when needed; and cleans a ball. The number of Chinese television viewers who watched live as countryman Ding Junhui beat Stephen Hendry in the 2005 China Open.
TECHNIQUES AND TACTICS SPIN A good stance is a key factor in being able to attain the The most important technical ability in snooker is using spin to control balance needed to play shots with confidence, and this can be the direction of the cue ball and its final resting position. Striking the achieved by bending your front leg but keeping your back leg cue ball in different areas will generate one of three types of spin— straight. Hold the cue with enough grip so that you are fully in backspin, sidespin, and topspin—that each have a particular effect on control of it, but not too tightly—you will then be in an ideal the behavior of the ball. position to place the cue in the “bridge” (hand position on the table) and line up a shot. Once you have decided which ball Topspin plus Topspin you are going to attempt to strike (the “object” ball) and what sidespin Topspin plus type of spin you are hoping to impart, pull the cue back and Sidespin then forward into the cue ball in one smooth motion. sidespin CUEING Backspin plus Sidespin An effective cueing action will provide you with consistently accurate sidespin Backspin plus shots that will enable you to accumulate the points needed to win a Backspin frame. Keep your arm over the cue, and as you are about to strike the sidespin ball, ensure that the elbow with which you are holding the cue is in a SWERVE straight line with the cue. Maintaining this position through the shot Swerve is a skill that can help get Hand position will enable you to hit the ball straight. a player out of a tricky situation or Raise your palm off OPEN BRIDGE even make a difficult pocket. The the table to create a Place your hand flat on the table and shot is played by lifting the back position the cue between your raised of the cue and hitting down on the high bridge thumb and index finger. Raise your cue ball either just left or right of palm to follow through on a shot or center. Combined with spin, it keep it flat to screw the ball back. is an effective weapon in a player’s armory. CLOSED BRIDGE Strike down Again, put your hand flat on the table, Strike down on the but this time feed the cue under your cue ball to the left of index finger and move your thumb up center for left swerve, as so that there is a complete circle here, or to the right of around the cue. The cue should center for right swerve be able to move smoothly through the circle. Object ball With a little luck and a lot of practice, you should be able to hit the object ball and either steer yourself out of trouble or make a pocket BREAKING BUILDING A BREAK The break takes place at the start of each frame, with the The most important aspect of amassing points in one visit to basic premise that the player breaking must strike one of the the table is thinking ahead to the next shot and the cue ball red balls. A good break will see the cue ball hitting a red ball position needed to get on that shot. You may forego an easy with the minimum disruption to the pack of reds and then shot in order to get position on or pocket a ball of higher come back up the table to rest as close to the baulk cushion value. Getting balls into pocketable positions is also vital, so as possible. This will then put pressure on the opposing player. a shot that opens up the pack of reds can pay rich dividends. Corner ball SAFETY SHOTS Strike the base It’s not just about pocketing the balls. In certain situations, it is more of the pack, but beneficial to play a shot that will leave the cue ball in a difficult ensure you apply position for your opponent and open up the possibility of them playing sidespin to return a foul stroke. The ultimate safety shot is a “snooker,” when the to a safe position consequence of the stroke you have just played is that your opponent back up the table is now unable to get a direct line to a red or colored ball that they must play. Frames can easily be won with strong safety play. INSIDE STORY GOVERNING AUTHORITY Snooker developed out of variants of the game of billiards Snooker’s governing body is the World Professional Billiards and Snooker that were played by British Army officers stationed in India Association (WPBSA). It has a commercial arm known as World Snooker that in the 1870s, with colored balls added to games previously runs the professional tournament circuit and negotiates television rights consisting solely of 15 reds and a black. The word snooker around the world. The body has had great success in developing the East itself came from a term for a new army recruit and was Asian market, where the sport is rapidly gaining in popularity. This is due reputedly first used in 1875 by a Colonel Neville Chamberlain partly to the rise through the ranks of a number of high-quality players from to describe the (inexperienced) players of this new game. the region, such as Ding Jinhui from China and James Wattana from Thailand.
BILLIARDS TARGET SPORTS NEED2KNOW GAME OVERVIEW BILLIARDS There are many different types of billiards, the most popular forms being carom Carom billiards tables are billiards and English billiards. A carom table has no pockets, with scoring achieved heated to warm up the cloth by striking two balls into one another. An English table does incorporate pockets, and thereby enable the balls and scoring takes place either in the carom style or by pocketing the balls. to travel faster across the playing surface. THE TABLE Other names for carom A billiards table is made up of a raised flat slate bed that is covered with fine woolen billiards include straight cloth. The playing surface is surrounded by cushioned edges that are flush around the rail, French billiards, and table for carom but have six pockets set within them for the English variety. carambole. Early versions of billiards CAROM TABLE 5 ft (152 cm) were first played in the There are no pockets 15th century. on a carom table, so the balls remain in play SCORING at all times. In carom, a “count” (point) is scored each time a player hits 10 ft (304 cm) both the object ball and their opponent’s cue ball in one Proportions Hot shots stroke. In English billiards, this With it’s length being double The playing surface is is known as a “cannon” and is it’s width, a carom billiards often heated to 9°F (5°C) worth 2 points. Extra points table is a perfect rectangle above room temperature are scored by pocketing or for fast play going in off the red ball (3 points) or your opponent’s cue ball (2 points). A single stroke can amass different types of points. For example, a cannon followed by pocketing the red will secure 5 points. THE BALLS Flat bed 12 ft (366 cm) Both carom and English billiards use The slate bed can be just three balls: two cue balls (one adjusted with built-in 6 ft 1½ in (187 cm) white and one spotted white or yellow levelers to ensure a ball) and one red object ball. Each perfectly level surface player is assigned their own cue ball that they keep throughout the game. Spotted white ENGLISH TABLE cue ball Longer and wider than a carom table, an English billiard table also has six pockets, one at each corner and one on Yellow cue ball each side of the midline. PLAYING BY THE RULES STRINGING At the start of a game of carom billiards, the balls are placed on three spots on the This is the method used to determine table: the red ball on the foot spot, the opponent’s cue ball on the head spot, and the order of play in English billiards the breaker’s cue ball no more than 6 in (15 cm) from the center spot on the head (known as lagging in carom). Before a string. The only rule is that the breaker must hit the red ball first. Foul shots include game, the players take an as-yet- striking the wrong cue ball and playing two safety shots in succession. These incur unassigned cue ball each and hit it a penalty of missing a turn and losing any count that resulted from the foul stroke. from the baulk line so that it rebounds off the top cushion. The player whose In English billiards, the red ball is positioned on a spot at the top of the table and ball stops closest to the baulk cushion the breaker’s cue ball is placed within the D. (The opponent’s cue ball is left off until has the choice of which cue ball to use their turn.) Penalty points are added to the opponent’s score for failing to strike a ball and the option of shooting first. (1 point) and for pocketing the cue ball without hitting a ball (3 points).
NEED2KNOW POOL The most widely played form of pool is the version known as 8-ball. The most popular form of the sport in the United States is 9-ball pool—it attracts TV coverage and COMPETITOR sponsorship money for competitions. PROFILE Pool players need to develop a steady cueing action and Pool was named after the poolrooms, or SPORT OVERVIEW good arm-eye coordination betting parlors, in the United States during Popular in clubs and bars around the to enable them to hit the white the 19th century. Tables for playing pool world, pool is a cue sport played with a ball at exactly the right speed helped patrons pass the time between set number of balls on a dedicated table and direction. They also need horse races. with 6 pockets. Various forms include to be able to judge angles Pool matches can be over any number of 8-ball, 9-ball, blackball, and 14:1 continuous perfectly in order to pocket games, but the World Pool Association the object balls and to put 8-ball final winner is the first to 17 games. the correct spin on the white ball to control its subsequent position precisely. pool (straight pool). Rules may vary from OBJECT BALLS place to place. There are many local, In all forms of pool, the cue ball is white national, and world championships for and the object balls are colored and individuals and teams in men, women, usually numbered. In 8-ball pool and blackball pool, there are 15 object balls: and junior categories. 7 ft 8 in or 8 ft 4 in (2.3 m or 2.5 m) those numbered 1 to 7 have different solid colors, while balls numbered 9 to 15 are white with different-colored stripes and the 8-ball is solid black. (The numbers on the 6- and 9-balls are underscored to avoid possible confusion.) One variation of 8-ball pool that is common in Great Britain uses 7 red and 7 yellow balls without numbers except for a numbered black. Players of 9-ball pool use 9 of the numbered object balls—1 to 8 are solid colors and the 9-ball is striped. In the game of 14:1 continuous pool, the 15 29¼ in–31 in (74.3–78.7 cm) 3 ft 10 in or 4 ft 2 in (1.1 m or 1.3 m) object balls are numbered. STAT CENTRAL WPA WORLD 9-BALL CHAMPIONS YEAR NAME (COUNTRY) Escape tray Balls that have been pocketed roll 2018 J. FILLER (GER) down chutes into the escape tray 2017 C. BIADO (PHI) 2016 A. OUSCHAN (AUT) where the referee can see the order in which they went down WEPF WORLD 8-BALL CHAMPIONS Cue tip Cue shaft Chalk cube The cue tip may The wooden shaft must Players apply chalk YEAR NAME (COUNTRY) be no more than to the tip of their cue ½ in (14 mm) in be at least 39½ in 2018 MICK HILL (ENG) diameter (1 m) long. It may have for “true” contact 2017 with the white ball 2016 an internal ferrule for 2015 weight and balance 2014 2013 MICK HILL (ENG) 2012 2011 SHAUN CHIPPERFIELD (ENG) 2010 2009 MICK HILL (ENG) 2008 TOM COUSINS (WAL) TOM COUSINS (WAL) JOHN ROE (ENG) ADAM DAVIS (ENG) Bridge for support To help them with shots that MICK HILL (ENG) are hard to reach, players use Racking up a bridge (also known as a rake In 8-ball, a triangle is PHIL HARRISON (ENG) or crutch) to support their cue used to arrange the object balls at the GARETH POTTS (ENG) start of each game
FAIR AND FOUL DO THE HUSTLE TARGET SPORTS In 8-ball pool, the player who pockets the first ball must HUSTLERS HANG OUT IN POOL continue pocketing balls of the same type (either solids or HALLS LOOKING FOR PLAYERS stripes). A player who pockets all seven of their balls can then WHO THINK THEY ARE BETTER try to pocket the black. Whoever pockets this 8-ball in a THAN THEY ACTUALLY ARE. THEY nominated (“called”) pocket wins the game. In 9-ball pool, SUGGEST A GAME, LOSE IT, THEN players have to hit the lowest numbered ball on the table but PLAY ANOTHER ONE FOR MONEY. do not have to pocket the balls in sequence. The 9-ball must AT THIS POINT, THEY START PLAYING be pocketed last. In 14:1 continuous pool, players call a ball WELL, COMPREHENSIVELY BEAT and a pocket, scoring a point each time they achieve it. THEIR OPPONENT, AND POCKET THE STAKES. THE “ART” WAS Players continue shooting until they either fail to pocket an IMMORTALIZED BY PAUL NEWMAN object ball or commit a foul—for example, by pocketing the IN THE MOVIE THE HUSTLER. white ball or an opponent’s ball. Any player who prematurely pockets the 8-ball in 8-ball pool or the 9-ball in 9-ball pool POOL automatically forfeits the game. Rubber cushions SPIN & SWERVE TOPSPIN The height of the Pool players, like snooker players, can Topspin makes the white ball run on after it has hit triangular-shaped spin the cue ball in a number of ways. the object ball. Players hit the cue ball above its rubber cushions is As they pocket an object ball, they may “equator,” causing it to revolve forward on its axis apply topspin, backspin, or sidespin to faster than normal. between 62.5–64.5% help them gain a good position for their of the width of the ball next shot. Sometimes, the path of the Run on cue ball is blocked by an opponent’s ball For topspin, Cue ball or by the 8-ball, preventing a player from players hit The cue ball is slightly hitting their object ball easily. Skilled smaller than the others so players get around this by hitting the ball the top of that, if it is pocketed, it off-center, causing it to swerve: the the cue ball misses the chute and is farther to the left or right of center, the brought back into play greater the deviation. This is known as BACKSPIN “putting side on it.” To swerve around Backspin makes the white ball move backward after Big mouth a ball that is very near the cue ball, hitting the object ball. Players hit the cue ball below The mouth of a corner players use the massé shot (from the its “equator,” causing it to return toward them. pocket is about 4½ in French “to rub”), hitting the white off-center with a downward movement. Pullback (11.6 cm) wide. The For backspin, mouth of a side pocket players hit the is about 5¼ in (13 cm) bottom of the cue ball Corner balls Foot spot Playing surface Head string The two corner The apex ball sits Baize made of The opening balls at the base on the foot spot 85% combed break is made of the 8-ball when the balls worsted wool from behind the rack must be of are racked in and no more than line of the head different types 8-ball 15% nylon string Baulk area INSIDE STORY The baulk Eight-ball pool is most popular in Great Britain and Europe, where it is played in area behind clubs and pubs, as well as in dedicated the head pool halls. Variation in the rules of 8-ball, string is particularly in Britain, include positioning the black on the foot spot when the balls sometimes are racked at the start of a game and known as giving two shots to an opponent after the kitchen committing a foul. The World Eightball Pool Federation (WEPF) was set up in SIDELINES 128 The number of finalists 1992 to unite the various organizations who promote 8-ball pool, to set criteria 626 The number of balls (from more than 40 countries) in the for the players, and to organize an annual men’s 2018 World Pool Championships World Championship. pocketed consecutively without a miss in Qatar. The competition opened with by one player in a single session. This 16 groups of eight; the top four in WORLD POOL-BILLIARD record-high run was achieved by US each went forward to a knockout. ASSOCIATION (WPA) champion John Schmidt in 2019 as The first prize was $40,000. The WPA was a founding member of part of a year-long attempt to break the World Confederation of Billiard Sports the previous world record. (WCBS) in 1990. The WPA organizes a World 9-ball Championship and an annual World 8-ball Championship that rivals the event organized by the WEPF.
Follow-through Nonthrowing hand After the throw, the The player holds the remaining darts with arm is fully their points in his palm extended Personalized DARTS shirts NEED2KNOW GAME OVERVIEW Loose-fitting shirts In this enthralling and popular game, two may be personalized Although the target score is players—male or female—take turns usually 501, it can also be 301, throwing three arrowlike projectiles at a with the player’s 601, 801, or even 1,001. circular board. The target area is divided into name on front The throwing line is known as a total of 62 sections, each of which counts a and back or in the oche (pronounced “okky”), different number of points when a dart sticks national colors from the French “ocher,” to in it. The object is to score exactly 501 in cut a groove. fewer throws than the opponent, with the last Toeing the line More than 6 million people dart hitting one of the sections that scores A throw does not count if the regularly play darts. double points or, less commonly, the bull’s- The quickest way to get 501 is eye. The game is mainly about accurate player oversteps the oche in 9 darts. aim and steel nerves, but it is also about Darts is a popular TV sport, mathematics: players need to be able to with audiences of up to 5 work out how best to reach the target score. million in countries such as Britain and the Netherlands. HARROWING ARROWING PLAYER PROFILE ALL PLAYERS DREAD “DARTITIS,” OR THE YIPS, Darts still has a close link with bars, A NERVOUS CONDITION THAT PREVENTS THEM although professionals no longer drink FROM THROWING SMOOTHLY. NO ONE KNOWS or smoke while playing. Today, younger WHAT CAUSES IT—OR HOW TO CURE IT. ONE players are increasingly drawn to the sport. HIGH-PROFILE VICTIM WAS FORMER WORLD Concentration and hand–eye coordination CHAMPION ERIC BRISTOW, WHO WAS are keys to success, along with being able EVENTUALLY FORCED TO GIVE UP THE GAME. to repeat the same movement countless times with only tiny adjustments. STAT CENTRAL Scorer or referee Announcer Oche Thrower Nonthrower May be two officials; Announces the score after Feet must be Throws from Must not TOP CHECKOUTS sometimes both roles every three darts and the behind the as close as are performed by score still required at the oche, but the obstruct or SCORE OUTSHOT one person thrower may possible to be in the start of what may be lean across it eye level thrower’s 170 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 20, BULL the last three darts 167 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 19, BULL field of vision 164 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 18, BULL 7 ft 91⁄4 in (2.37 m) 161 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 17, BULL 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) 160 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 20, DOUBLE 20 158 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 20, DOUBLE 19 157 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 19, DOUBLE 20 156 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 20, DOUBLE 18 155 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 19, DOUBLE 19 154 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 18, DOUBLE 20 153 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 19, DOUBLE 18 152 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 20, DOUBLE 16 151 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 17, DOUBLE 20 150 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 18, DOUBLE 18 149 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 19, DOUBLE 16 148 TRIPLE 20, TRIPLE 16, DOUBLE 20
BOARD DISCUSSION CHECKOUT TIME TARGET SPORTS The bed of a dartboard is made of cork, sisal, and synthetic materials to give it a For the first few darts, players try to score “bristle” appearance. Wire separates each scoring section; a dart that lands within a as much as possible, normally going for section scores the points, even if it bends the wire out of place. A dart that bounces triple 20 each time. Nearing zero, they back off the wire does not count. often try to leave themselves 32, so they can throw at double 16. This is the checkout of choice because a narrow miss that scores a single 16 leaves them on double 8; if that fails and they get a single 8, they can go for a double 4; if the same thing happens again, they are still left with a double 2. Well-balanced DARTS The dart is held close 173⁄4 in (45 cm) to horizontal with three fingers in support STANDARD GRIP The shaft is gripped between the thumb and index finger and steadied on the middle and third fingers; the little finger is withdrawn slightly out of the way. Doubles Outer Bull Triples High style A dart that lands in any A dart landing in A dart in this red A dart that lands in any part The tip is angled part of this perimeter area this green section section counts as 50 of this area scores three slightly higher than in scores twice the number times the number shown the standard grip to shown on the rim (here, scores 25 (in this case, 3 x 10 = 30) compensate for for example, 2 x 16 = 32) the reduction in power that results from holding the dart with only two digits PENCIL GRIP The dart is held between thumb and forefinger alone. This common variant of the standard grip is used by many leading players, including 16-time world champion Phil “The Power” Taylor. ARROWS OF Types of tip Finger grip Spinning shafts Stabilizing end DESIRE The choice between The thick cylindrical Some darts have shafts that spin The flight has four The maximum permitted hard (tungsten) and other casing around the while in flight. Although this does weight of a dart is 1.8 oz “soft” tips is a matter of middle section of the tailplanes at 90° (50 g). The pointed tip may be individual preference shaft helps balance not make them fly straighter, it from each other made of brass (the cheapest the dart and makes it does help the thrower to get close material), alloys of nickel and easier to hold groupings on the board, because it silver, or tungsten (the most enables the flights to slip in next to expensive). The shaft is made of plastic or solid aluminum. each other. Rigid shafts increase The flight is detachable and the likelihood of rebounds replaceable; it is either tough nylon or flexible plastic. Approx. 6 in (15 cm) INSIDE STORY PROFESSIONAL DARTS CORPORATION (PDC) Darts may have developed from archery—early dartboards had concentric targets, In 1992, one of the world’s leading players, Phil as in archery, and darts is still known as “arrows.” Darts was a regional game in Taylor, led 15 other top players out of the BDO to Britain until the rules were codified in the 1920s. The sport enjoyed a heyday in form a rival body, the Professional Darts Council the 1930s—helped when King George VI and his wife, Queen Elizabeth, were (PDC). The PDC has held its own world championship photographed throwing darts in a pub near Windsor. The sport’s next boom came in since 1994. It now runs a thriving tour with the 1970s, with the introduction of TV games, the emergence of the first darts stars, competitions as far afield as Blackpool and Las and the establishment of the World Darts Federation (WDF) and the British Darts Vegas. Top BDO player Raymond van Barneveld Organization (BDO). The WDF now has 70 member nations. defected to the PDC in 2006.
GAME OVERVIEW NEED2KNOW Archery today is far removed from its roots in hunting and warfare. As a modern sport, it involves two or more archers competing against each other to get the The World Archery Federation highest score by hitting a target that is usually circular, but may also be the is the world governing body outline of a wild animal. Most competitions are held in several stages, at each for archery and has held annual world championships of which the archers shoot from different distances to display their versatility. since 1931. Round targets are marked in rings: the closer the ring to the center, the greater Archery for hunting and the number of points for a hit. On animal targets, the top scoring areas are those warfare has been practiced in which a blow to a real animal would be lethal. The winner of an archery for at least the last 5,000 years. As a sport, archery tournament is the contestant with the highest points total after a previously developed from military agreed number of shots. training exercises. There are five Olympic events, all over 70 m: men’s individual, women’s individual, men’s ARCHERY team, women’s team, and mixed. ATHLETE PROFILE Arm guard Bow shaft Archers need steady arms, a good aim, A brace protects Once universally made from wood, the and concentration, but these are not the against burns from the modern bow is a mixture of carbon fiber only requirements. Much of the string after release and fiberglass bonded with plastic foam pressure is psychological—the need to hit a certain score to Sharpshooter win may make a target harder A protruding metal or plastic rod to hit than it would be in a practice session. with a viewfinder at the end is Nock nock used by the archer to sight A mark on the string on the target indicates the nock point—the point Steady as she goes at which the indent Long or short stabilizers jut in the rear of the forward to increase vertical arrow should balance and sideways or in be placed Excuse fingers a V-shape to assist Leather tabs are worn to horizontal balance protect the first two or three fingers of the drawing hand Row of officials Traffic lights Bowstring Judges check Archers may not shoot on The string is made distances and red; green means they from high-strength adjudicate any may fire; amber means polyethylene fiber disputes; there they have 30 seconds left Accessible quiver should be at least The arrows are held one for every 10 in a tube worn on targets. Scorers the same side as the work out the points archer’s drawing after each round hand for ease of 98–120 yd (90–110 m) reloading after every shot RECURVE BOW 33 yd (30 m) The recurve bow is the type most often Stand fast used by field archers, and is the only Archers wear sturdy type used at the Olympics. It has shoes with smooth tips that bend away from the archer. soles to maximize the area in contact FIRING RANGE Director’s chair Visual aid with the ground Target archery may take place indoors or The director of A telescope helps outdoors. The normal indoor distances are archers see what 82 ft (25 m) and 59 ft (18 m). There are a shooting controls they have scored range of other events: field archery involves the competition and and calculate what shooting up and downhill, making the target receives point tallies harder to sight. In ski and run archery, they still need competitors shoot at targets after skiing or from the scorers running a set course, a little like the biathlon. Flight archery, rarely seen in competition, is one of the purest forms of the sport. here is no target: the aim is simply to fire an arrow as far as possible.
A ROBIN HOOD White outer: 1 point TARGET SPORTS ONE OF THE RAREST ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARCHERY IS White inner: 2 points SPLITTING THE SHAFT OF AN ARROW ALREADY IN THE Black outer: 3 points 2 ft (61 cm) ARCHERY TARGET WITH A LATER SHOT. ARCHERS WHO PERFORM Black inner: 4 points THIS FEAT—KNOWN AS “A ROBIN HOOD,” AFTER THE Blue outer: 5 points 2 ft 8 in or 4 ft (80 cm or 122 cm) LEGENDARY 12TH-CENTURY ENGLISH BOWMAN—GET Blue inner: 6 points TO KEEP THE ARROWS AS A PROUD TROPHY OF THE FEAT. Red outer: 7 points Red inner: 8 points FLIGHT CONTROL Gold outer: 9 points In FITA tournaments, archers have a fixed amount of time to Gold inner bull’s-eye: 10 points shoot 12 rounds (a total of 36 arrows) at targets between TARGET TIME 33 and 98 yd (30 and 90 m) away. Scores are updated after Conventional targets are six arrows at longer distances and three at shorter distances. made of straw ropes and split into bands 21⁄2 in (6 cm) An arrow touching two colors or a dividing line scores the or 13⁄4 in (4 cm) wide. 3D higher value, and one that rebounds from or passes through archery targets are shaped the target counts only if it leaves a clear mark. In the event of like hunting animals. a tie, the winner is the archer with the most scoring hits. Nock Fletching display Shaft structure Top tip A V-shaped indentation in Once made of feathers, Arrows used to be made from The sharp point screws onto the end of the shaft holds modern flights are made of the arrow steadily in place plastic; they help arrows wood but are now usually the arrow so that it can be on the bowstring maintain speed and direction made of carbon fiber or an adjusted forward or backward, alloy of carbon and aluminum as the archer prefers 60 m line 3–16 yd (2.5–15 ON TARGET Only used in 90 m line Archers with a dominant right eye hold the bow in their left hands, women’s and vice versa. Each shot takes only about 15 to 20 seconds from events loading to firing, but holding the bow and pulling the string is still tiring. Archers rest (“let down”) their bows in between shots to m) per target conserve their strength. PREPARATION FOR SHOT Safety first The archer stands with the The bow must be leading shoulder toward pointed downward the target and the feet set shoulder-width apart. He or as it is loaded she points the bow at the 60 m line 70 m line ground and loads the arrow by placing the front of its shaft 50 m line 90 m line on the arrow rest and the Only men bowstring into the V-shaped shoot at nock at its fletching end. this range 30 m line DRAWING AND TAKING AIM 30 m line 50 m line 70 m line Holding the string between the On the level The shortest A common The outdoor Olympic index and middle fingers, or There is a straight outdoor range range for men distance for both men the index and middle and ring and women and women fingers, the archer pulls it back, line from right raises the bow, and looks down elbow to left hand the sight at the target. This position is held at the “anchor point.” Some bows have a clicker that sounds when the archer reaches the right draw length. INSIDE STORY FOLLOW THROUGH Steady on Archery featured in the Olympics from 1900, but As the archer prepares to The drawing hand remains at was dropped after 1920 because there were no fire, his or her bowstring hand internationally agreed rules. The establishment of should be resting against the shoulder height after the FITA in 1931 changed all that, and the sport was cheek. The arrow is fired by arrow has flown reintroduced at the 1972 Games for both men and relaxing and straightening the women. FITA was established by seven countries. fingers of the drawing hand. It was renamed World Archery in 2011, and now Once the shot has been made, has more than 160 member countries. the archer “lets down” the bow to rest and reaches into the quiver for the next arrow.
NEED2KNOW PISTOL SHOOTING Pistol shooting debuted in the first Olympic Games of 1896. The events SPORT OVERVIEW have evolved as the manufacturing In this sport, competitors stand and, with one hand, fire a pistol at a of guns has developed and changed. circular target divided into 10 concentric rings. The nearer to the center Some nations with strict gun the shots land, the higher they score; the center (the bull’s-eye) scores control laws do not televise 10. The sport takes place on a shooting range. There are a number of shooting events. events that are distinguished by the type of pistol used and the distance Target pistol shooting in its modern the competitor stands from the target. form is the conservationist’s alternative to pigeon shooting. Ear protection Shooting arm There are five pistol events in Contestants wear earplugs, The arm that holds the pistol the Olympic Games. earmuffs, or some other form of ear protection while in the is extended and must be COMPETITOR completely unsupported PROFILE vicinity of the firing line Pistol shooters need extraordinary powers of concentration and mental Competitor’s gun focus to remain relaxed under Three types of pistols are used, pressure, since any nervous tension in the shooting arm could cause the shot depending on the event to go off center of the target. Shooters also need strength and stamina. Eye protection Competitors wear shatterproof safety glasses or similar protection to guard their eyes during the event Competitors’ clothing No specific clothing is required, but garments that would help immobilize the arms, legs, or body are not allowed, and only low-sided shoes without ankle supports can be worn Free hand SHOOTING RANGE The nonshooting hand must not Pistol shooting events take place on a shooting range. Safety be used in any way; it is usually is of paramount importance, and officials are on hand to check tucked into a pocket or belt the competitors’ pistols, check the targets, and sometimes take note of the scores after each round of shooting. SIDELINES CONCENTRIC RINGS 161 The number of The target is composed of concentric rings. The numbers are the points scored when a shot hits the ring. Shots hitting a line are awarded the national federation members higher point. Targets and the central ring (the 10th ring) vary in size. from five continents that are affiliated with the International Outer rings Inner rings Shooting station Shooting Sports Federation. Rings scoring 1 Rings scoring 7 Each shooting station is 4 ft 1 in to 6 are white to 10 are black 3 The number of Olympic golds by 8 ft 2 in (1.25 by 2.5 m) won by German sportsman Ralf Group of competitors Schumann, the most successful A group of competitors will pistol shooter to date in the 25 m all compete at the same time. rapid-fire event. His victories In Olympic finals, there will came in 1992, 1996, and 2004. be six to eight competitors 583 The world record at the shooting station score for the 50 m pistol event, set by South Korean shooter Jin Jong-oh at the 2014 World shooting Championships. A perfect score is 600; a score of around 570 is considered to be world-class.
TYPES OF PISTOL OLYMPIC EVENTS TARGET SPORTS Different types of pistol are used for the different events—the 10 m There are five Olympic pistol shooting events— air pistol, the 25 m pistol, and the 50 m pistol. A pistol’s caliber is the two for women and three for men. The 10 m air diameter of its barrel. For safety reasons, the ammunition must be made pistol event, which first featured in the Olympic of lead or a similarly soft material. Regulations only allow open sights Games in 1988, includes both men and women on the weapons, so mirrors, optical sights, and telescopic sights are (in separate events). Men shoot 60 shots within all prohibited. Officials carefully check each competitor’s weapon 105 minutes, while women shoot 40 shots within before an event begins to make sure the pistol complies with the 75 minutes. Women compete in the 25 m pistol event’s regulations. If a competitor’s weapon malfunctions during event, firing two rounds of 30 shots. Men compete an event, he or she has 15 minutes to repair or replace it. in the 25 m rapid-fire pistol event, which also consists of two rounds of 30 shots. Men compete 10 M AIR PISTOL Ammunition propulsion in the precision 50 m pistol event, firing 60 shots PISTOL SHOOTING Competitors use .177 in (4.5 mm) The ammunition is propelled within 120 minutes. caliber pistols that fire lead pellets by precompressed air or by at targets 32¾ ft (10 m) away. a carbon dioxide cylinder OVERALL WINNER The maximum allowable weight In each event, all competitors take part in a qualification of the pistol is 3 lb 3 oz (1.5 kg). round, from which the best eight (or six for 25 m Rapid-Fire The diameter of the 10-ring is Men event) proceed to the final. The scores they achieve in ½ in (11.5 mm). the qualification round are added to their final round; whoever has the most points overall is the winner. 25 M PISTOL Rapid firing PERFECT SCORES The same requirements govern This type of pistol must Scoring in the events can be complicated, but competitors the women’s 25 m pistol and the be capable of firing five aim for perfect scores. For example, in the 25 m rapid-fire men’s 25 m rapid-fire pistol shots without reloading event, the perfect match score is 600 for qualification rounds, events. The guns have a caliber of Single cartridge and a score of 592 is categorized as world-class. .22 in (5.6 mm) with a maximum The pistol is loaded with weight of 3 lb (1.4 kg). The one cartridge only ONE-HANDED CHAMPION diameter of the 10-ring in the KAROLY TAKACS WAS A MEMBER OF THE rapid fire target is 4 in (10 cm). HUNGARIAN PISTOL SHOOTING TEAM WHEN, IN 50 M PISTOL 1938, HE LOST HIS RIGHT HAND IN A GRENADE Competitors use .22 in (5.6 mm) EXPLOSION. HE TAUGHT HIMSELF TO SHOOT caliber pistols, which have a LEFT-HANDED AND BECAME HUNGARIAN PISTOL special customized grip but no SHOOTING CHAMPION IN 1940. HE WENT ON TO maximum weight regulation. The WIN GOLD MEDALS IN THE RAPID-FIRE PISTOL precision target stands 165 ft EVENT AT THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN LONDON IN (50 m) away and the diameter 1948 AND AGAIN IN HELSINKI IN 1952. of its 10-ring is 2 in (5 cm). Target distance INSIDE STORY The targets are 10 m, Along with other target-shooting disciplines, 25 m, or 50 m away pistol shooting is governed by the International from the competitors, Shooting Sports Federation (ISSF), which was depending on the event established in 1998 and was formerly the International Shooting Union (ISU). The ISSF 164 ft (50 m) supervises the World Championships every four years, two years after the Olympic 82 ft (25 m) Length of the range Competitors’ targets Games. Pistol shooting events in the World The target range has no Each competitor has Championships are organized for individuals 33 ft (10 m) stipulated overall length but his or her own target to and teams in men, women, and junior categories. will be more than 164 ft (50 m) fire at. A competitor is The ISSF also supervises World Cups, Continental long to allow sufficient room penalized if one of their Championships, and Continental Games. The for targets to be set up for shots accidentally hits introduction, in 1989, of a new electronic the 50 m pistol event a neighboring target scoring system eliminated paper targets at final competitions and enabled spectators to know results immediately. A new television era was born at the Olympic Games in Barcelona in 1992, when viewers all around the world witnessed coverage of the shooting events for the first time. INTERNATIONAL SHOOTING SPORTS FEDERATION (ISSF) The target shooting sport throughout the world is governed by the International Shooting Sports Federation, which is based in Germany.
SHOTGUN SHOOTING EVENT Optical sights Shotgun barrel OVERVIEW Any devices that Skeet-shooting guns Shotgun shooting is an event can be fitted to often have a shorter where competitors use a smooth- the gun to help the barrel than trap- gauged (unrifled) shotgun to shoot shooter sight the shooting guns, at clay targets that are released target, such as (24–28 in/60–71 cm) from a machine called a trap. Clay magnifying lenses, compared to about Target shooting can be broadly are prohibited 28–34 in/71–86 cm), split into three categories—trap, because of the skeet, and sporting. Trap and skeet shorter-range targets are both performed at the Olympic Games, while sporting involves Ear protection Shotgun gauge shooting at targets designed to Competitors are The shotguns used are simulate those found in nature. advised to wear generally of 12-gauge caliber. earmuffs or some other Smaller-gauge guns can be Sleeveless jacket form of protective gear used, but anything larger than No specific clothing is required, but shooters tend to wear to protect their hearing 12-gauge is not allowed a loose sleeveless jacket with large pockets in which to store their cartridges. Shooters generally wear a fairly FIELDS OF PLAY loose-fitting T-shirt or shirt so their arm movements are The skeet and trap events utilize not restricted different fields of play. The Olympic skeet field features eight shooting Shooting position stations arranged in a semicircle. The In all shotgun shooting events, the competitors shoot from each station in competitors fire at the targets from turn. The targets are released from a a standing position high and a low trap house at either side of the semicircle. The trap field features COMPETITOR PROFILE five banks of three traps that sit within Shotgun shooters need to focus, both a trench that is 49 ft (15 m) from the mentally and physically. They need shooters. In the double-trap event excellent hand-eye coordination and (not illustrated here), two targets are visual-spatial skills. They need to be released simultaneously at different able to anticipate the trajectory of a heights and angles from the center bank fast-moving target and shoot slightly of traps, with competitors getting one ahead of it so they can hit it. shot at each target. There are five shooting stations, but unlike the trap field, they are set in a straight line. NEED2KNOW Trap shooting has been part of the SPORTS CONTROVERSY Olympics since 1950, whereas skeet The modern sport of shotgun shooting shooting appeared at the Games for IN 1992, CHINA’S SHAN ZHANG (both trap and skeet) derives from the the first time in 1968. BECAME THE FIRST WOMAN TO WIN custom of shooting birds—in particular, The word “skeet” is derived from an A MIXED-SEX SHOOTING EVENT IN pigeons and pheasants—for sport. old Scandinavian word that means THE OLYMPIC SKEET. THE EVENTS Skeet shooting was invented in 1915 as a “shooting.” The term was adopted by WERE SUBSEQUENTLY SEGREGATED, recreational sport. Live pigeons were used the sport in 1926. AND SHAN WAS NOT ALLOWED TO at first, but they were eventually replaced DEFEND HER TITLE. with clay targets.
THE OLYMPIC Single and double targets COMPETITION TARGET SPORTS SKEETFIELD The round features both single and double There are currently five shotgun shooting A standard round of 25 targets are shot from targets. A single target is released from either events at the Olympics, but the schedule eight stations in a semicircle. At the ends of the high or the low trap. Doubles mean that of events has changed in the past. There the semicircle are the high and low trap targets are released simultaneously from both have been more events in the past; the houses from which targets are released on a women’s double-trap event was dropped fixed trajectory and within defined limits. A set the high and the low trap after 2004. The World Championships combination of single and double targets feature a greater range of events, are shot from each station and scored on including skeet, trap, and double trap SHOTGUN SHOOTING the basis of 1 point per target hit, and the for both men and women. shooter is only allowed one shot at each target. All shooters on the squad (up to Target crossing point six people) must have completed the station Targets properly released must pass before moving to the next one. through a circle located above the High trap house target crossing point Targets from the high trap house emerge at a Position 8 height of 10 ft (3.05 m) The eighth shooting station is the and can travel about largest—it is 35½ x 73 in (90 x 213 ft (65 m) 185 cm), while the other stations are 35½ x 35½ in (90 x 90 cm) Positions 1 to 7 The competitor will start Low trap house at station one and The low trap house releases targets at a height of 3½ ft progress from station to (1.05 m). The targets may travel at about 55 mph (88 kph) station. These stations are 26½ ft (8.1 m) apart TRAP FIELD Clay targets Target distance In the trap event, six shooters (a squad) are The traps are set to shoot out the targets The trench containing the on the field at any one time. The targets are at a variety of heights, speeds, and target-pullers is 49 ft (15 m) released immediately on the shooter’s call, angles (between 0 and 45 angles, to both away from the shooting stations but the shooter does not know which trap the left and right). The competitors can Target-puller trench in a group of three will release the target. take two shots at each target The trench contains 15 target-pullers, The target reaches an exit speed of about arranged in five groups of three. The 80 mph (130 kph). Each shooter is permitted trench is 6½ ft (2 m) deep and 6½ ft two shots at each target. Each shooter fires (2 m) wide in turn from the shooting station until 25 targets (a round) have been shot at by all of the squad members. Shooting stations There are five shooting stations. Each is served by three traps (hence there are a total of 15 traps in the trench) Field width The total width of the field of play is 65½ ft (20 m) SIDELINES 18 The distance, in meters, the targets in 0–3 The maximum number of seconds 198 The current world record score for double-trap shooting are set to travel when between a skeet shooter calling for the target released from the trap (equivalent to 180 ft). and the target being released. The time interval double-trap shooting. This record was set by Double-trap shooters generally hit the targets is deliberately random to increase the difficulty Great Britain’s Peter Wilson at a World Cup from a distance of 82–131 ft (25–40 m). of the shooting challenge. event in 2012 and is the combined score out of 200 from the qualifying round and final. A 3 The number of shotgun events that 324 The number of gold medals won perfect score in the qualifying round would be 150; the highest score recorded so far is 148. have been discontinued at the Olympics. This by Russia at the ISSF world championships This score has been achieved by several includes live pigeon shooting. Clay targets were since 1897. The World Championships are held shooters, so there is no overall record holder. substituted for live birds, but the traps tried to in a different country every four years, two simulate the erratic patterns of birds in flight. years after each Olympic Games.
EQUIPMENT Butt plates Barrel length Barrel choke Competitors in shotgun events These plates are movable Shotguns for skeet have a The choke (constriction at the end of the commonly use 12-gauge shotguns that so the length and height shorter barrel for quicker, barrel) can be tailored to the range of the fire cartridges containing small pellets. of the buttstock can be close-range shooting. Trap targets. Shotguns for skeet shooting give Guns for trap shooting are the heaviest adjusted to suit shotgun barrels are longer a wider shot pattern, as the targets are at around 9 lb (4 kg), have the longest the shooter barrels, and have a single trigger for shot at closer range; shotguns for trap rapid firing. Shotguns used for skeet Stock changes give a tighter shot pattern shooting weigh about 6½ lb (3 kg) and a The adjustable shorter barrel for better maneuverability. comb allows the SHOTGUN Double-trap guns are similar to those head of the shooter Shotguns differ from pistols and rifles, as they are smooth- used in trap, but the pellets have a to be comfortable gauged rather than rifled and are sometimes built with wider spread. more than one trigger. In shotgun shooting events, the guns are loaded with two cartridges. CLAY TARGET SHOTGUN CARTRIDGES TRAP The saucer-shaped “clay” The cartridges are loaded The trap releases the targets automatically target is actually made from with buckshot (lead via a microphone system that responds to pitch and chalk. They are pellets) and weigh 7/8 oz the shooter’s call. Traps can be modified to approximately 4 x 1 in (24 g). The exit speed of adjust the height, throwing angle, and (110 x 25 mm); most are the cartridge will be close speed of a target. Some traps can hold as colored for better sighting. to 950 mph (1,530 kph). many as 400 targets. RULES AND REGULATIONS SCORING In the Olympic competition, there are preliminary rounds from which six competitors One point is scored for every target hit. proceed to the final. For the men’s skeet and trap events, there are five rounds of To qualify for a hit, the target must be 25 targets followed by a final round of 25 targets. In the women’s skeet and trap seen to be broken—the referee must events, there are three rounds of 25 targets culminating in a final round of see at least one piece fall from it. The 25 targets. In the double trap (contested by men only), there are three rounds referee indicates a target “dead” or of 50 targets leading to a final round of 50 targets. “lost” and the scorer marks a “/” or “X” for dead and the figure “0” for lost. In Olympic skeet shooting, competitors have one shot at each target, and there is The targets used in finals rounds also a delay of up to three seconds before the clay appears. In trap shooting, contenders contain a powder that is more easily can take two shots at each target. In double trap, two targets are released seen by spectators and on television simultaneously, so the shooter takes one shot at each. when the target is hit. STAT CENTRAL Over and under OLYMPIC SKEET CHAMPIONS One shotgun barrel is Trap shooting position YEAR NAME (COUNTRY) Trap shooters hold their on top of the other 2016 GABRIELE ROSSETTI (ITA) 2012 VINCENT HANCOCK (USA) shotgun in position before Marker tape 2008 VINCENT HANCOCK (USA) calling for the target To monitor the position of 2004 ANDREA BENELLI (ITA) Pocket ammo the gun, competitors have a marker tape fixed to the 2000 MYKOLA MILCHEV (UKR) Shooters keep unused outside of their jacket. This 1996 ENNIO FALCO (ITA) rounds in their jackets tape is yellow with a black 1992 SHAN ZHANG (CHN) TRAP STARTING POSITION border and is 10 in x 1¼ in 1988 AXEL WEGNER (GDR) Trap shooters begin with their 1984 MATTHEW DRYKE (USA) shotgun already in the shooting (25 cm x 3 cm) position and aiming at the SKEET STARTING POSITION OLYMPIC TRAP CHAMPIONS target. The clay is launched on Olympic skeet shooters begin the call of “Pull!” with their gun held to their YEAR NAME (COUNTRY) side; the bottom of the 2016 JOSIP GLASNOVIĆ (CRO) INSIDE STORY buttstock rests on a marker 2012 GIOVANNI CERNOGORAZ (CRO) Shotgun shooting with clay targets tape attached to their jacket. 2008 DAVID KOSTELECKY (CZE) first emerged in the 1880s. Shotgun 2004 ALEXEI ALIPOV (RUS) shooting featured at the first Olympics ISSF in 1896, and the lineup of events has The International Sports 2000 MICHAEL DIAMOND (AUS) changed frequently since then. The first Shooting Federation (ISSF) is 1996 MICHAEL DIAMOND (AUS) World Championships featuring shotgun the governing body of shotgun 1992 PETR HRDLICKA (CZR) shooting were held in 1897. shooting. The ISSF holds world 1988 DMITRI MONAKOV (USR) championships every four 1984 LUCIANO GIOVANETTI (ITA) years (two years after the Olympics), featuring more events than the Olympics.
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