EQUIPMENT THE SPRINT DISTANCES ATHLETICS Sprinters wear an aerodynamically efficient Lycra body suit There are four sprint distances. The 60 m, which is usually run and very light shoes that feature spikes up to 3⁄8 in (9 mm) indoors, favors runners with electrifying speed but not long and a thin sole, which improves the competitor’s feel for necessarily high endurance. Unofficially defining the “Fastest the track. Starting blocks allow athletes to drive forward Person on Earth,” the 100 m rewards sprinters who can quickly powerfully at the starter pistol and to begin the race in the achieve and then maintain maximum speed. This demands best position to achieve maximum acceleration. tremendous muscular power and finely honed technique. Two hundred m runners have all the skills of an 100 m runner, with Sure start Foot pedal the additional ability to manage centrifugal forces when Sharp spikes anchor The angle of the pedals rounding the bend. They must start strongly yet have sufficient energy to finish well. Described as an endurance sprint, the the starting blocks can be adjusted to 400 m is the most grueling of all the sprints. Careful pacing of to the running suit the athlete’s this race is vital because after about 30 seconds of running at surface starting style near maximum effort, lactic acid builds up in the muscles, making it more difficult and more painful to maintain speed. STARTING BLOCKS SPRINTS These are used in all of the FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE sprint events and provide A sprinter recording fast times will have talent, a powerful physique, the best possible start. and good tactical awareness; will have trained hard; and will be in good form—physically and mentally. Other factors that may influence performance include the track type (harder surfaces produce faster times) and climatic conditions, particularly wind speed and direction. RACE PHASES Shoulders Pumping arms Head down A sprint can be divided into four phases: the start (see below), forward The arms drive hard to Watching the track helps acceleration (the body leans forward so that the legs can The shoulders provide maximum acceleration), stride (full speed has been are directly propel the athlete the sprinter maintain a achieved and is maintained via a relaxed technique, with the above or a forward quickly low position body now upright), and finish (the arms are pulled back so little in front that the head and shoulders dip toward the finish line). of the hands THE START To begin the race with good balance and maximum velocity is the objective. On your marks Ready position Set Go The sprinter crouches on one knee, The fingers form a high bridge, with the hands At the command of “set,” the hips are On the starter pistol, the sprinter feet on the pedals of the blocks slightly more than shoulder width apart raised a little higher than the shoulders explodes out of the starting blocks STAT CENTRAL MEN’S 100 M: FASTEST TIMES MEN’S 200 M: FASTEST TIMES MEN’S 400 M: FASTEST TIMES TIME ATHLETE (COUNTRY) TIME ATHLETE (COUNTRY) TIME ATHLETE (COUNTRY) 9.58 USAIN BOLT (JAM) 19.19 USAIN BOLT (JAM) 43.03 WAYDE VAN NIEKERK (RSA) 9.63 USAIN BOLT (JAM) 19.26 YOHAN BLAKE (JAM) 43.18 MICHAEL JOHNSON (USA) 9.69 USAIN BOLT (JAM) 19.30 USAIN BOLT (JAM) 43.29 HARRY (BUTCH) REYNOLDS (USA) 9.69 TYSON GAY (USA) 19.32 MICHAEL JOHNSON (USA) 43.39 MICHAEL JOHNSON (USA) 9.69 YOHAN BLAKE (JAM) 19.32 USAIN BOLT (JAM) 43.44 MICHAEL JOHNSON (USA) WOMEN’S 100 M: FASTEST TIMES WOMEN’S 200 M: FASTEST TIMES WOMEN’S 400 M: FASTEST TIMES TIME ATHLETE (COUNTRY) TIME ATHLETE (COUNTRY) TIME ATHLETE (COUNTRY) 10.49 FLORENCE GRIFFITH JOYNER (USA) 21.34 FLORENCE GRIFFITH-JOYNER (USA) 47.60 MARITA KOCH (GER) 10.61 FLORENCE GRIFFITH JOYNER (USA) 21.56 FLORENCE GRIFFITH-JOYNER (USA) 47.99 JARMILA KRATOCHVÍLOVÁ (CZE) 10.62 FLORENCE GRIFFITH JOYNER (USA) 21.62 MARION JONES (USA) 48.16 MARITA KOCH (GER) 10.70 SHELLY-ANN FRASER-PRICE (JAM) 21.63 DAFNE SCHIPPERS (NED) 48.16 MARITA KOCH (GER) 10.73 CHRISTINE ARRON (FRA) 21.64 MERLENE OTTEY (JAM) 48.22 MARITA KOCH (GER)
NEED2KNOW RELAYS The relay is a highly tactical race, and teams pay close attention to the order in which the runners race. Usually, the fastest runner (the anchor) is the last to run. The 4x400 m became a men’s Olympic EVENT OVERVIEW sport in 1908. (The women’s competition The relay race boasts the competitiveness of a sprint race and the drama followed in 1972.) The 4x100 m relay first of the baton changeovers. Each of the four athletes race one section, or appeared at the Stockholm Games in 1912. leg, of the race, handing over a baton to the next member of the team (The women’s event followed in 1928.) within a marked hand-off zone. The most common relays are the 4x100 m The first relay races were held in the US and the 4x400 m, in both men’s and women’s disciplines. The men’s by firemen who ran for charity, passing on 4x400 m is traditionally the last event of any track meet. Less common a red pennant instead of a baton. events are the 4x200 m; 4x800 m; and 4x1,600 m races. NO TURNING BACK RUNNING TRACK IN THE 4X400 M AT THE 1997 WORLD Relay races are run on regular running tracks. Due to the difference in the distance CHAMPIONSHIPS, THE US TEAM run by racers on the inside lane to those in the outer lanes, the racers start at SUFFERED MISFORTUNE WHEN TIM staggered points in both 4x100 m and 4x400 m competitions. The runner in the MONTGOMERY SET OFF TOO EARLY inside lane starts on the finish line in both races, while the other runners start from ON THE SECOND LEG. REALIZING HIS progressively forward positions; the positions are more staggered in the 4x400 m. MISTAKE, HE TURNED AROUND AND The three hand-off zones are clearly indicated on the surface of the track. CRASHED INTO ONCOMING TEAMMATE BRIAN LEWIS. STAYING COOL Passing the baton Steady hands Due to the high speeds involved and The incoming runner It’s crucial not to drop the close proximity of other teams, prepares to pass the good timing and concentration are baton to the receiver the baton; the team required to pass the baton smoothly. will be disqualified This is especially true in the 4x100 m, which is shown here. Baton received THE BATON Taking the baton After taking the The baton is a hollow aluminum tube The receiver gets up baton from his 12 in (30 cm) long, 12⁄3 in (4 cm) in teammate, the diameter, and weighing 13⁄4 oz (50 g) or Smooth surface to speed and puts receiver sets off more. It is the time of the baton around The baton is entirely his hand back, as fast as the track that is measured, not the smooth, so it must be possible on his time of the athlete who carries it. ready for the passer leg of the race handled carefully to plant the baton Keep in lane Runners risk COMPETITOR disqualification if they PROFILE pass the baton outside 4x100 m relay runners need the hand-off zone to have explosive pace, just or stray from their as sprinters do. Runners in own lane all distances must be able to time runs efficiently in order to achieve successful changeovers. 4x400 m runners must also have the stamina to run the extra distance. 12 in (30 cm) Tubular build The baton is made from a tube of metal, usually aluminum. The hollow construction makes it particularly lightweight
LANE DISCIPLINE STAYING IN THE BOX ATHLETICS Athletes in the 4x100 m remain in their lanes from start to finish, so the hand-off The hand-off zone is 20 m in length. The takes place in the relevant lane. In the 4x400 m, runners start in separate lanes baton must be handed over while both but may join the inside lane after the first 100 m of the second leg. In the final two runners are fully inside it and no less than hand-offs, race organizers place the receivers across the finish line according to 5 m from its end. Second-, third-, and their teams’ placings at the time, with the leading team in the inside lane. fourth-leg runners begin running in the run-up zone, 10 m before the hand-off HIGH-SPEED HAND-OFF zone, in order to pick up speed before the Unlike the 4x400 m hand-off, where the length of each leg means that the passers are running transfer. As a result, in 4x100 m relays, the relatively slowly, the 4x100 m hand-off (see below) is an action-packed phase when passer and first athlete runs 105 m, the second and receiver are running at high speed. The three run-up and hand-off zones are staggered around third 125 m each, and the anchor 120 m. the bends of the track so that the length of each leg is the same for every team. Hand-off complete Receiver sets off Receiver awaits RELAYS The passer must hand the baton to the receiver at The receiver picks up speed in The receiver waits for the passer at least 16 ft (5 m) before the end of the hand-off the run-up zone so that the the beginning of the run-up zone zone. In the 4x100 m, completing the hand-off is transfer is as quick as possible and sets off when they draw near the responsibility of the passer Run-up zone 33 ft (10 m) Han66d-fotf(f2z0omne) CHANGING TIMES STAT CENTRAL The transfer of the baton is the crucial moment in a relay race and must be handled delicately. In the 4x100 m relay, the transfer is known as a “blind hand-off,” since the MEN’S 4X100 M OLYMPIC GOLD receiver does not maintain visual contact. The receiver starts to run when the passer reaches a certain point on the track, and the baton-carrier then shouts “stick!” to tell YEAR COUNTRY the receiver to hold out a hand. In the 4x400 m relay, the receiver jogs forward while 2016 JAMAICA looking back at the passer and holds out a hand for the baton. 2012 JAMAICA 2008 JAMAICA UPSWEEP HAND-OFF DOWNSWEEP HAND-OFF The baton is passed in an upward movement, a The passer hands the baton to the receiver in a 2004 GREAT BRITAIN popular method in the 4x100 m relay. The receiver downward movement. This method is popular in the must adjust his grip before the next changeover. 4x400 m relay and is less risky than the alternative. WOMEN’S 4X100 M OLYMPIC GOLD Passer’s hand YEAR COUNTRY The hand-off 2016 UNITED STATES depends on the 2012 UNITED STATES giver releasing 2008 RUSSIA and the receiver 2004 JAMAICA clasping at the Receiver’s hand Receiver’s hand same time MEN’S 4X400 M OLYMPIC GOLD The receiver’s palm faces The palm faces upward; downward, ready to take the grip will be tightened YEAR COUNTRY as soon as contact is felt 2016 UNITED STATES the upsweeping baton 2012 BAHAMAS 26 The number of Olympic gold 2008 UNITED STATES SIDELINES 2004 UNITED STATES medals held by the US athletic team in both 984 The length, in feet (300 m), men’s and women’s’ 4x100 m and 4x400 m WOMEN’S 4X400 M OLYMPIC GOLD events, the most of any nation. The US also of each leg of the earliest recorded relay boasts 14 world titles. YEAR COUNTRY races, held informally between teams of 2016 UNITED STATES firemen in the United States in the late 5.46 The number of seconds that 2012 UNITED STATES 19th century. The batons were red have been knocked off the 2008 UNITED STATES pennants. The first official relay race men’s 4x100 m world record since 1912. was run in Philadelphia in 1893. 2004 UNITED STATES
NEED2KNOW HURDLES Hurdles events are divided into sprint races EVENT OVERVIEW (110 m for men and 100 m for women) and Always big crowd-pullers, hurdling events are among the the 400 m, which is run separately by men most exciting at any athletics meet. The object of a hurdles and women. race is to jump over a series of gatelike obstacles and reach Indoor hurdles are held over shorter the finish line first. There are four main outdoor events: distances—typically 60 m and 300 m. In 100 m for women and 110 m for men (both sprint hurdles), such events, the distance between the and 400 m races for both men and women. hurdles remains the same as in the outdoor events; there are just fewer of them. SPRINT HURDLES In both the 100 m and 110 m hurdles, the competitors start out of the SIDELINES blocks and run along a straight course, jumping over 10 hurdles along the way. In the men’s event, the first hurdle is 45 ft (13.7 m) from the 10 The number of hurdles in a starting line, and the distance between each hurdle is 30 ft (9.1 m). After the final hurdle, the runners sprint the remaining 47 ft 3 in (14.4 m) hurdles race, which remains the same to the finish line. The first hurdle in the women’s event is 42 ft 8 in regardless of the distance run. (13 m) from the blocks. The hurdles are 29 ft 6 in (8.5 m) apart, and the last is positioned 34 ft 6 in (10.5 m) from the finish line. 15 The time, in seconds, of the ONE-LAP HURDLES In the 400 m hurdles, racers start from the blocks and must leap first 110 m hurdles world record, set over 10 hurdles, just like the sprint-distance hurdlers. Racers start in 1908. The 13-second barrier was from staggered points on the track, according to their lane position. broken in 1981. The hurdles are slightly lower in height than their sprint-distance equivalents. The first hurdle is positioned 147 ft 7 in (45 m) from the 19 The number of times in the first start, and the distance between each of the following hurdles is 114 ft 10 in (35 m). The last hurdle is 131 ft 3 in (40 m) from the finish line. 24 modern Olympic Games that gold in the men’s 110 m hurdles was won by an ATHLETE PROFILE athlete from the US. This overwhelming Like any other race runners, hurdlers dominance ended in the first two need speed, power, and stamina. Above Olympiads of the 21st century. all, they need to develop quick reflex actions that will help propel them over a 122 The number of consecutive rapid succession of obstacles without a time-wasting loss of rhythm. Hurdlers also 400 m hurdles races won by Edwin “Ed” Moses between 1977 and 1987. need to be flexible. (They pay particular attention to hip exercises.) Arms race The arms play a critical role in Getting a grip counterbalancing the forces that are applied A plate of small to the torso by the legs as they swing into spikes on the sole of and out of the jumps over the hurdles the hurdler’s shoe provides traction Low trajectory It is important that the trailing leg is kept as low as possible. It is better to hit the hurdle with the knee than to lose speed by making an unnecessarily high clearance Material difference The uprights and bases of the hurdles are made of metal, but the crossbar is wooden
APPARATUS WHOLLY MOSES STAT CENTRAL ATHLETICS The height of the hurdles varies from EDWIN “ED” MOSES WON THE 400 M event to event. The sprint events are HURDLES AT THE 1976 AND 1984 MEN’S 110 M HURDLES OLYMPIC GOLD known as “high” hurdles. Long hurdle OLYMPICS. AFTER RETIRING FROM THE races use slightly lower heights. Hurdles TRACK, HE TOOK UP BOBSLEDDING YEAR ATHLETE (COUNTRY) must all be L-shaped and designed to AND WAS A MEMBER OF THE TEAM fall over forward when hit. Adjustable THAT TOOK BRONZE FOR THE UNITED 2016 OMAR MCLEOD (JAM) hurdles, in which the height of the STATES AT THE 1990 WORLD CUP. 2012 ARIES MERRITT (USA) crossbar from the ground can be altered, 2008 DAYRON ROBLES (CUB) are sometimes used for training. 2004 JLIU XIANG (CHN) 2000 AÑER GARCIA (CUB) 1996 ALLEN JOHNSON (USA) Feet 400 m hurdle:CrossbarWOMEN’S 100 M HURDLES OLYMPIC GOLD HURDLES Hurdles must men 3 ft (0.91 m);Hitting the bar be placed on women 2 ft 6 in (0.76 m)and knockingYEARATHLETE (COUNTRY) the track with Sprint hurdle:over the the feet of the men 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m);hurdle is not 2016 BRIANNA ROLLINS (USA) frame on the women 2 ft 9 in (0.84 m)penalized, but 2012 SALLY PEARSON (AUS) approach side it slows pace 2008 DAWN HARPER (USA) 2004 JOANNA HAYES (USA) Ma3xifmt 1u1min(b(o1t.h2 sme)xes): Ma3xifmt 1u1min(b(o1t.h2 sme)xes): 2000 OLGA SHISHIGINA (KAZ) 1996 LUDMILA ENGQUIST (SWE) “HIGH” HURDLES INTERMEDIATE HURDLES The highest hurdles (for each sex) are used in Slightly lower hurdles, height-adjusted according MEN’S 400 M HURDLES OLYMPIC GOLD the sprint events: the 110 m race for men and to sex, are used in the longer-distance events: the 100 m for women. the men’s and women’s 400 m races. TAKE IT IN STRIDE YEAR ATHLETE (COUNTRY) Hurdlers do not try to maximize the length of their stride. Their main focus is on the approach to each hurdle and maintaining a smooth, uninterrupted flow throughout 2016 KERRON CLEMENT (USA) the race; they should never break step for an upcoming hurdle. The other key to 2012 FELIX SANCHEZ (DMA) success is efficient and economical jumping. To achieve this, competitors “run 2008 ANGELO TAYLOR (USA) through” the hurdles—in other words, they simply lift their legs, rather than jump in 2004 FELIX SANCHEZ (DMA) the conventional sense of the word, and try to stay as close to the track as possible 2000 ANGELO TAYLOR (USA) throughout the race. They generally lead with the same leg over every hurdle. 1996 DERRICK ADKINS (USA) ARMED FOR ACTION WOMEN’S 400 M HURDLES OLYMPIC GOLD The best hurdlers make full use of their arms to balance their bodies. As they attack the hurdle, they stretch forward, reaching for their lead leg with their opposite hand. This action—which is YEAR ATHLETE (COUNTRY) sometimes referred to as “checking the time” because the runner seems to be looking at the top of his or her wrist—brings the forehead close to the leading knee. The other arm swings 2016 DALILAH MUHAMMAD (USA) backward in a normal sprint racing action. 2012 NATALYA ANTYUKH (RUS) CLEARING THE HURDLE 2008 MELANIE WALKER (JAM) Sprint hurdlers lean their bodies farther forward than 400 m 2004 FANI HALKIA (GRE) hurdlers because they need to minimize the height they jump 2000 IRINA PRIVALOVA (RUS) and get their feet back down on the track faster. 1996 DEON HEMMINGS (JAM) Line of approach Belly to knee line Clear to land Follow through The knee is raised The leading knee should To effect a quick landing, On landing, provided the about 6–8 ft (2.5 m) ideally be directly in line with the trailing leg is pulled down athlete is well-balanced, the before the hurdle the center of the body as the as soon as the heel crosses trailing leg should go straight front foot clears the crossbar into the next forward stride the top of the hurdle Low trail The trailing leg is deliberately kept low to minimize the height of the leap and thus maintain the highest possible speed
MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING EVENT OVERVIEW The most common middle- distance events are the 800 m and the 1,500 m, with steeplechasing also regularly included. Many athletes compete in both the 800 m and the 1,500 m, as the training and physical requirements are similar. Tactics play a part in these races, which are often won or lost in the last few feet. Middle-distance races have always been among the core events of the Olympics and all athletic championships. ATHLETE PROFILE Hanging back In the field Leader Middle-distance athletes need physical and While trailing behind can Staying behind The leader takes mental staying power. The distances are too work tactically, there is a the leader allows the full brunt of the long for sprinting, but speed is required for a runner to choose wind resistance and the finish. Tactics are also important. risk of being unable to an acceleration point cannot easily tell catch up at the end and and pace themselves what is happening NEED2KNOW more easily of being boxed in behind them The women’s Olympic 800 m was first THE MAIN EVENTS run in 1928, but shock at competitors’ In the 800 m, runners complete two laps around a standard 400 m track. They start exhaustion meant it did not appear from staggered positions along the track and have to stay in their starting lane until again until 1960. the end of the first curve (about 100 m). The 800 m requires speed and endurance, Women were finally allowed to run in the so competitors plan their race and use carefully considered and practiced tactics. 1,500 m at the Munich Olympics in 1972. The 1,500 m event consists of three-and-three-quarter laps around the standard Steeplechasing of varied lengths has been outdoor track and is often called “the metric mile.” With an increasingly scientific a men’s Olympic event since 1900. It first approach to performance and training, runners have been able to make this race an appeared as a major women’s race in the extended sprint. However, like the 800 m, the 1,500 m remains very mentally taxing. 2005 Helsinki World Championships. STAYING BEHIND—A GOOD TACTIC? BREAKING TO THE INSIDE STAYING AT THE BACK IS NOT Leaving the starting lane after the first curve, called breaking to the inside, allows runners to RECOMMENDED, BUT IN THE 1936 compete against each other more effectively. Breaking lanes must be done without deliberately OLYMPICS, JOHN WOODRUFF WAS obstructing or barging another competitor, although elbow clashing is almost unavoidable. BOXED IN EARLY IN THE 800 M. SLOWING ALMOST TO A STOP, HE RUNNING GEAR THE FOOTWEAR LET THE RUNNERS PASS AND STILL As for all athletics events, the gear a middle-distance Key features of middle- WON. IN 2004, KELLY HOLMES HAD runner wears is chosen with great care. There is an distance shoes are their SUCCESS USING A SIMILAR TACTIC. emphasis on lightweight, technical modern materials aerodynamic with little wind resistance and advanced wicking shape, light properties. A close, flexible, and comfortable fit weight, and are essentials in both the shoes and the clothes. spiked sole.
STEEPLECHASE STAT CENTRAL ATHLETICS Usually 3,000 m, the steeplechase includes 35 jumps, seven of which are water jumps. Normally, four barriers are placed around the track, with the water MEN’S 800 M WORLD RECORDS jump—the fifth barrier—at the top of the second turn either to the inside of lane one or to the outside of the outermost lane. Barriers, which do not fall over if hit, TIME ATHLETE (YEAR) are placed 256 ft (78 m) apart; runners start jumping them after the first half lap. They must be cleared cleanly by jumping, stepping on and over, or vaulting. 1:40.91 DAVID RUDISHA (2012) 1:41.01 DAVID RUDISHA (2010) THE WATER JUMP Solid barrier 1:41.09 DAVID RUDISHA (2010) MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING The water jump combines a barrier and a sloping The solidity of the steeplechasing 1:41.11 WILSON KIPKETER (1997) pool of water. Runners attempt to land as far from barriers, both water and track, adds 1:41.24 WILSON KIPKETER (1997) the barrier as possible, as this is where the water a psychological element to the race is shallower. Water resistance slows runners down, and splashing inhibits freedom WOMEN’S 800 M WORLD RECORDS of movement and vision. Water pit 12 ft (3.66 m) TIME ATHLETE (YEAR) The pit’s bottom slopes up to the level of the running 30–36 in 1:53.28 JARMILA KRATOCHVÍLOVÁ (1983) track. It is often covered in (76.2–91.4 cm) 1:53.43 NADEZHDA OLIZARENKO (1980) 1:54.01 PAMELA JELIMO (2008) matting to reduce stress 1:54.25 CASTER SEMENYA (2018) on landing 1:54.44 ANA FIDELIA QUIROT (1989) 27½ in MEN’S 1,500 M WORLD RECORDS (70 cm) 12 ft (3.66 m) TIME ATHLETE (YEAR) THE FOOTWEAR Rubber sole 3:26.00 HICHAM EL GUERROUJ (1998) Steeplechasing shoes are streamlined and lightweight, Flexible, solid 3:26.12 HICHAM EL GUERROUJ (2001) usually with ¼–3⁄16 in (6–8 mm) pyramid spikes on rubber outer 3:27.34 BERNARD LAGAT (2001) the sole. Spikes provide extra traction for negotiating soles are fitted 3:26.45 HICHAM EL GUERROUJ (1998) the barriers and staying on the track. High-tech 3:26.69 ASBEL KIPROP (2015) midsole and ankle cushioning is also provided. with nylon spike plates WOMEN’S 1,500 M WORLD RECORDS RUNNING TECHNIQUES TIME ATHLETE (YEAR) Posture and balance are important in middle-distance running. These enable acceleration and maintenance of high speeds. The athlete concentrates on 3:50.07 GENZEBE DIBABA (2015) relaxing into the stride, with their arms held close to the body but hanging 3:50.46 YUNXIA QU (1993) loosely from the shoulders, allowing them to swing with the body in a down and 3:50.98 BO JIANG (1997) back movement. In the 800 m race, runners aim to complete both laps in more 3:51.34 YINGLAI LANG (1997) or less the same time. The 1,500 m is also run at a steady pace throughout. 3:51.92 JUNXIA WANG (1993) TRAINING SIDELINES Middle-distance runners need both fast- and slow-twitch muscles—the first for speed, the second for endurance. Interval training, in which fast work is interspersed with short 27 The number of times Moroccan recovery periods, is used to build these, and to increase aerobic and anaerobic fitness. Running at race speeds, as well as slower endurance runs, are included in training. Hicham El Guerrouj has done the 1,500 m STARTING POSITIONS in under 3:30. He also holds the most Runners start without blocks. They world titles—four. Briton Steve Cram stand on the toes of the back foot was first to finish in under 3:30 in 1985. and the ball of the front foot, opposite arms back and forward respectively. 24 The age of Moses Kiptanui Body position of Kenya when he had already won To accelerate at the start, three steeplechasing world titles runners lean forward, but they (1991, 1993, 1995) and had been the soon straighten their body to run first to finish in under eight minutes— his record is 7:59.18. Feet position On “go,” the back foot drives 1,000,000 The forward onto the power foot. The arms swing to aid acceleration amount, in US dollars, won by 800 m runner Maria Mutola in 2003. She was the first athlete to win the IAAF Golden League Jackpot outright.
NEED2KNOW LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING While the men’s 5,000 m and 10,000 m events have EVENT OVERVIEW featured in the Olympics Long-distance running events include 5,000 m and 10,000 m races; cross-country since 1912, the women’s running; and marathons. The 5,000 m and 10,000 m runs and the marathon are 10,000 m and 5,000 m Olympic events. The runs take place on a stadium track, while the marathon route is runs only debuted in 1988 staged around the streets of the host city. Some 5,000 m and 10,000 m races are and 1996, respectively. held off-road, in which case they are usually known as 5 km and 10 km runs. The length of the marathon commemorates the Greek soldier who, in 490 bce, ran from Marathon to Athens with news of the Greek victory over the Persians. Marathons in London, New York, Chicago, Hong Kong, and Honolulu each attract more than 30,000 runners. THE OVAL TRACK In 5,000 m and 10,000 m races, the competitors start off on a slightly curved line across the track but soon move to the inside lane to minimize the total distance they have to run. One lap around the track equals 400 m. Consequently, in a 5,000 m event, the athletes must run 200 m (the starting line is near the 200 m start) and then 12 complete laps. In the 10,000 m event, the competitors run 25 times around the track. Both races finish at the same line. ATHLETE PROFILE Long-distance runners are lighter, more slightly built, and more wiry than the more muscular powerhouse sprinters. Stamina and endurance are essential, as is aerobic strength; it’s vital that the heart pumps blood around the body as efficiently as possible to allow more oxygen to reach tired muscles. Success in long-distance running comes not only through peak physical fitness but also through mental endurance and tactical thinking. Competitors are pushed to their physical and mental limits, and being able to pace yourself to conserve energy, or knowing when to hang back or push forward, is vital. Shoes Lightweight Cool to run HIGH FLYERS Lightweight shorts Runners wear OFTEN DUBBED “THE RUNNING TRIBE,” THE KALENJIN running shoes help loose-fitting, PEOPLE OF THE GREAT RIFT VALLEY IN WESTERN KENYA absorb the impact The runners lightweight, ARE RENOWNED FOR THEIR PROWESS AT LONG-DISTANCE of each stride wear lightweight sleeveless tank RUNNING. ONE POSSIBLE REASON FOR THEIR CONTINUED tops to keep as INTERNATIONAL SUCCESS IS THE HIGH ALTITUDE AT WHICH shorts in a cool as possible THEY LIVE. WITH LESS OXYGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE AT HIGH breathable fabric ALTITUDES, THE BODY MUST PRODUCE MORE OXYGEN- CARRYING RED BLOOD CELLS. WHEN COMPETING AT SEA LEVEL, THESE EXTRA CELLS PROVIDE A HUGE ADVANTAGE, AS THE HEART DOESN’T HAVE TO BEAT AS FAST TO CARRY AN EQUIVALENT AMOUNT OF OXYGEN AROUND THE BODY. SIDELINES 8 The number of records broken in a single women’s 6,255 The number of runners to cross the finish 10,000 m race at the 2002 Asian games in Busan. Chinese runner Sun Yingjie won the race, and the first four finishers line at the first ever London Marathon. The ever-popular produced the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th best times ever. annual event was first staged in the city in 1981. 20 Haile Gebrselassie’s age when he won his first 13 The length, in miles (21.1 km), of a half marathon. World Championship gold in the 10,000 m. He went on to Moses Tanui was the first athlete to complete the event in win another three titles and is one of the most celebrated under 60 minutes, setting the record in 1993 in Milan. long-distance runners of all time.
EQUIPMENT STAT CENTRAL ATHLETICS Whether running a cross-country race, a marathon on city streets, or a long-distance track event, athletes face similar physical and mental MEN’S 5,000 M OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS challenges but need somewhat different equipment. Staying adequately hydrated for the duration of the course is an absolute necessity. It is also YEAR GOLD MEDALIST crucial to provide as much comfort as possible for the feet, since blisters 2016 MO FARAH (GBR) or other skin discomfort can cause a runner to retire from a race. 2012 MO FARAH (GBR) 2008 KENENISA BEKELE (ETH) Cushioned heel Outer sole 2004 HICHAM EL GUERROUJ (MAR) LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING A cushioned layer in the heel Rubber cleats on the 2000 MILLON WOLDE (ETH) and sole helps absorb shocks outer sole provide extra 1996 VENUSTE NIYONGABO (BDI) from hard road surfaces grip on rough ground 1992 DIETER BAUMANN (GER) WOMEN’S 5,000 M OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS ROAD SHOE OFF-ROAD SHOE YEAR GOLD MEDALIST Marathons are generally raced on roads, Cross-country runners race on routes that may 2016 VIVIAN CHERUIYOT (KEN) often through cities. Marathon runners wear go through all types of natural terrain. Runners 2012 MESERET DEFAR (ETH) flat running shoes specially designed to wear shoes with rubber cleats to give them grip 2008 TIRUNESH DIBABA (ETH) absorb the shock of the foot repeatedly on muddy and grassy routes. They are usually 2004 MESERET DEFAR (ETH) striking a hard surface. less cushioned than road shoes. MEN’S 10,000 M OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS CROSS COUNTRY YEAR GOLD MEDALIST Cross-country runs take place off-road over all sorts of terrain, including 2016 MO FARAH (GBR) grass, mud, and even water. There is no fixed length for cross-country 2012 MO FARAH (GBR) running. Women’s races are generally between 1¼ and 5 miles (2 and 2008 KENENISA BEKELE (ETH) 8 km); men’s events may be between 3 and 9 miles (5 and 15 km). 2004 KENENISA BEKELE (ETH) Cross-country running was an Olympic sport until 1924, but was then 2000 HAILE GEBRSELASSIE (ETH) dropped, as it was deemed unsuitable as a summer event. The IAAF organizes the annual World Cross-Country Championships, which is WOMEN’S 10,000 M OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS considered the most important competition in the discipline. YEAR GOLD MEDALIST TEAM EVENTS 2016 ALMAZ AYANA (ETH) Cross-country running is unusual in that it involves athletes competing both as an 2012 TIRUNESH DIBABA (ETH) individual and as part of a team. Usually, it is the first five runners in a team who 2008 TIRUNESH DIBABA (ETH) have their scores put forward to determine the finishing order. 2004 HUINA XING (CHN) 2000 DERARTU TULU (ETH) SETTING THE PACE MEN’S MARATHON OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS One of the most important tactics in long-distance running is the ability to judge pace-setting. Often following a dedicated pacemaker, athletes need to pace YEAR GOLD MEDALIST themselves exactly. If they run relatively slowly to conserve energy, they may not be 2016 ELIUD KIPCHOGE (KEN) able to put on a sufficient burst of speed to overtake the front-runners. However, if 2012 STEPHEN KIPROTICH (UGA) they run relatively quickly, perhaps assuming an early lead, they may not be able to 2008 SAMMY WANJIRU (KEN) sustain their advantage, ultimately running out of steam well before the finish line. 2004 STEFANO BALDINI (ITA) The most skillful runners can force their opponents to make tactical errors. 2000 GEZAHEGNE ABERA (ETH) 1996 JOSIA THUGWANE (RSA) MARATHON 1992 HWANG YOUNG-CHO (KOR) Marathons are run on roads over a course 26 miles 385 yd (42.2 km) long. At the Olympic Games, the race ends in the stadium. The men’s WOMEN’S MARATHON OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS marathon is traditionally the last event of the athletics calendar and is sometimes incorporated into the closing ceremony. The marathon was YEAR GOLD MEDALIST held at the first modern Olympics in Athens in 1896, where the course 2016 JEMIMA SUMGONG (KEN) was only 24.85 miles (40 km) long. The length of subsequent Olympic 2012 TIKI GELANA (ETH) marathons varied slightly (depending on the established route for each 2008 CONSTANTINA TOMESCU (ROU) venue) but was set at today’s distance during the 1924 Games. 2004 MIZUKI NOGUCHI (JPN) 2000 NAOKO TAKAHASHI (JPN) PUBLIC APPEAL 1996 FATUMA ROBA (ETH) Marathons are also popular participation sports, with top athletes 1992 VALENTINA YEGOROVA (RUS) competing alongside hundreds or thousands of amateurs. Notable events take place annually in cities including London, New York, Paris, Tokyo, and Boston.
LONG JUMP EVENT OVERVIEW Center of gravity The long jump—formerly known as the broad For most of the flight phase, jump—is one of the oldest track and field events long jumpers push their weight for men and women. Athletes compete in this backward to produce upward technically demanding event to see which of thrust; then, as they land, them can leap the greatest distance through they lean forward to the air from a running start. There are five main avoid falling back elements to the long jump: the run-up, the last into the pit two steps before reaching the takeoff board, the Running vest takeoff itself, technique through the air, and Running vests shouldn’t be the landing. Over the history of athletics, skintight but must not be so long jump records have been few and far baggy that it billows out between. Bob Beamon’s long jump world behind the athlete record, set at the 1968 Mexico Olympics, stood for almost 23 years. Running shorts It is important that jumpers’ legs can move freely NEED2KNOW Cleated shoes Firm running shoes with running spikes The long jump was included in the first track and field for grip and to withstand the pressure of competitions at Exeter College at Oxford University, England, in 1850. the takeoff stride The long jump is one of track and field’s core events and ATHLETE PROFILE has been part of every modern Olympic Games. One of the keys to success in the long jump is a fast run-up, and it Previously a men-only event, in 1948, the long jump became an is no coincidence that the brightest stars in the event are often Olympic sport for women as well. outstanding 100 m and 200 m sprinters. Height, though not essential, is also an advantage, as the farther an athlete can reach, the greater ONE GIANT LEAP FOR MANKIND jump distance they will achieve. Most of the leading male long jumpers IN MOST SPORTS, WORLD RECORDS CREEP UP—A QUARTER are 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m) or taller; women tend to be over 5 ft 8 in (1.72 m). OF AN INCH HERE, 0.01 OF A SECOND LESS THERE. UNTIL 1968, NO ATHLETE HAD JUMPED MORE THAN 28 FT (8.5 M). LONG JUMP PIT BUT AT THAT YEAR’S OLYMPIC GAMES IN MEXICO CITY, The approach runway, made of cinders or synthetic material, AMERICAN BOB BEAMON CLEARED A MASSIVE 29 FT (8.9 M), should be no less than 131 ft (40 m) long and is often ALMOST 2 FT (60 CM) FARTHER THAN THE PREVIOUS BEST. 147½ ft (45 m). The landing area is a sand-filled pit at least BEAMON’S RECORD STOOD FOR 23 YEARS, 216 DAYS, 29½ ft (9 m) long and 9 ft (2.75 m) wide. Between the two is an BEFORE FALLING TO ANOTHER US ATHLETE, MIKE POWELL. 8 in (20 cm) wide takeoff board. To the front of it, judges may place a strip of plasticine, soft earth, or sand that will show if the jumper’s foot was on the ground beyond the takeoff limit. SIDELINES Takeoff board Landing pit This is set back at least 3¼ ft (1 m) The pit is filled with sand, then 2 Feet per second: the maximum permitted tail wind for from the front of the pit so that judges moistened. After every jump, can tell more easily if the jumper’s the surface is smoothed over a record long jump to be deemed valid. That is the equivalent feet went beyond the forward edge with a rake to the same level of 4.47 mph (7.2 kph). before takeoff as the runway 4 The number of consecutive Olympic gold medals won by US athlete Carl Lewis between 1984 and 1996. 22 The average number of run-up strides taken by a top-class male long jumper. at least 33 ft (10 m)
RULES AND ATTEMPTS MEASUREMENTS ATHLETICS When attempting a jump, competitors may tread on the takeoff board, No matter where on the runway the athlete takes but they must not allow any part of their feet to go over its farthest off, each valid jump is measured from the front edge, called the scratch line. If they overstep the scratch line, the jump edge of the takeoff board to the nearest mark made is invalid. A legal jump is indicated by an official who holds up a white in the sand by any part of the competitor’s body. flag; foul jumps are signaled by a red flag. Each contestant has three (That is why the sand in the long jump pit must be attempts (known as trials), unless there are fewer than eight competitors, completely smoothed after every trial.) Distances in which case they may each have six jumps. At high-level events, are recorded to the nearest quarter of an inch below athletes must participate in two preliminary knockout rounds, the top the actual distance jumped if the distance was not eight of whom contest a final. The winner is the athlete with the longest a whole inch. valid jump in the final round; in the event of a tie, the second-best trials are taken into consideration. FIVE STEPS TO HEAVEN THE FINAL STEP Overstepping the mark LONG JUMP Five elements of a long jump are crucial: a fast approach, a well- The takeoff board is If toe prints are imprinted on the puttylike measured last two strides, an explosive takeoff, a long flight, and a set into the runway strip in front of the board, the jump is illegal well-balanced landing. Because speed in the approach is so important, it is not surprising that many competitive sprinters are also top-level long and may have a small jumpers. There are three main long jumping techniques: the hitchkick, hollow beneath to add the hang, and the sail. There is no “right” or “wrong” technique, and springiness. The telltale athletes choose the one that suits them best. strip in front of the board should be replaced every time it is stepped on. (208cinm) HITCHKICK Cycling legs Lean forward This technique is the hardest to master, but it is the The legs and arms move The torso is method most frequently employed by elite jumpers. in a rapid cycling motion Also known as “running in the air,” the hitchkick in Explosive pushed to shift fact relies on a cycling action to maintain an upright takeoff the center of body position. On landing, hitchkickers touch down As with all feet first and then push their torso forward to prevent techniques, good gravity forward losing distance by falling backward into the pit. lift is crucial at takeoff SAIL Arms up Body forward The sail is the most basic long jump technique. Once The arms are The body follows the airborne, It is important to help force the body stretched as legs into a forward through the air by circling the arms. They should first high as position as the go downward, then backward, upward, and finally possible at athlete descends forward. On landing, they must attempt to push their takeoff body forward so that their feet and arms are forced Body shift in front of them as far as possible. To avoid falling back HANG Head forward Legs forward into the sand, the Both the arms and the legs are extended upward After takeoff, At the apex of the jump, the center of gravity is to reach a maximum distance from the hips. The the head is limbs are kept “long” until after the jumper has pushed forward legs start to move forward shifted forward reached the top of the jump, at which point they Arms back push the legs forward in readiness for landing. The arms are The hang technique is the easiest way to achieve a forward-falling finish, which prevents the thrust backward jumper falling backward and losing distance. STAT CENTRAL WORLD RECORDS (MEN) WORLD RECORDS (WOMEN) ATHLETE DISTANCE YEAR ATHLETE DISTANCE YEAR MIKE POWELL (USA) 29 FT 3 IN (8.95 M) 1991 GALINA CHISTYAKOVA (URS) 24 FT 6¾ IN (7.52 M) 1998 BOB BEAMON (USA) 29 FT 2½ IN (8.90 M) 1968 1994 RALPH BOSTON (USA) 27 FT 4¾ IN (8.35 M) 1965 JACKIE JOYNER-KERSEE (USA) 24 FT 5¾ IN (7.49 M) 1988 RALPH BOSTON (USA) 27 FT 4¼ IN (8.34 M) 1964 1986 IGOR TER-OVANESYAN (URS) 27 FT 3¼ IN (8.31 M) 1962 HEIKE DRECHSLER (GDR) 24 FT ½ IN (7.48 M) 1985 HEIKE DRECHSLER (GDR) 24 FT 4½ IN (7.45 M) HEIKE DRECHSLER (GDR) 24 FT 4 IN (7.44 M)
ATHLETE PROFILE Close fit Triple jumpers are often also good Top and shorts are lightweight and close-fitting sprinters, but they can compensate for to lower wind resistance and to ensure that no any lack of pace down the runway by material will trail the athlete and mark the sand developing power and rhythm. Training focuses on plyometrics (exercises to Athlete ID increase the ability to stretch and contract Athletes must wear race identification muscles in quick succession). numbers on the both sides of the top. They are usually attached to the athletes’ top with pins Jumping spikes Shoes have spikes to help grip on any surface. The soles are specially designed to cushion the impact during the run-up and leaps TRIPLE JUMP NEED2KNOW EVENT OVERVIEW The men’s triple jump was a medal event at the first This track and field event is also informally known as the modern Olympics in 1896. There was no women’s hop, step, and jump, which describes the movements of the equivalent for exactly 100 years. athletes who compete in this thrilling contest. Each athlete If an athlete walks back through the landing runs down a track that is often the same as the one used for pit after they have made their jump, that jump the long jump. On reaching the takeoff board (at full speed), is disqualified. the athlete jumps forward, lands on the takeoff foot, then Proportionally, the largest phase of the triple jump is the takes a step onto the other foot and finally jumps into hop stage (first phase)—about 37 percent; phase two is a sand-filled pit. The competitor who covers the greatest about 33 percent, while the final phase accounts for 30 overall distance is declared the winner. percent of the total leap. Elite triple jumpers cover about twice the distance of elite long jumpers. The current long jump record held by Mike Powell is 29 ft (8.95 m) and the current triple jump record held by Jonathan Edwards is 60 ft (18.29 m). TECHNIQUES Phase 1 Phase 2 A top-level triple jumper usually takes Having sprinted to the takeoff As the jumper lands the hop (on the same a run-up of around 130 ft (40 m). The board, the jumper pushes leg they took off with), they then stretch the approach, which will be at full speed, forward with the takeoff leg other leg as far as possible to step forward. should be so well judged that the jumper and takes one step in midair has no need to look down at the board The legs must not pass each other during takeoff—to do so would compromise HOP the length of the jump. Athletes begin and TAKEOFF end the hop on the same foot; as soon as they have landed, they launch the other foot into the step, stretching to cover as much ground as possible. For the final jump, the athlete uses the extension, hitchkick, or sail technique to bring the legs forward for the landing.
FIELD OF PLAY EDWARDS: THE UNSURPASSABLE? ATHLETICS The takeoff board for the triple jump is set much farther back than that of the long JONATHAN EDWARDS WAS THE jump. The adjustment is made so that the athletes can perform the hop and step FIRST ATHLETE TO BREAK THE 59 FT phases on the cinder or synthetic track before launching the final jump into the (18 M) BARRIER, SETTING A NEW landing pit. A strip of modeling clay, soft clay, or similar material is usually placed WORLD RECORD OF 60 FT (18.29 M) along the leading edge of the takeoff board. This leaves a tell-tale impression of the IN THE PROCESS. IT WAS THE athlete’s shoe so that the officials can detect foul jumps that they may not have EQUIVALENT OF JUMPING A LITTLE noticed with the naked eye. The sand in the landing pit must be level with the track UNDER THE LENGTH OF TWO and should be raked completely smooth after every jump is measured. This is so the DOUBLE-DECKER BUSES. officials can be sure that any mark made in the sand was left by the athlete who had just made the jump. Run-up track Landing pit TRIPLE JUMP Triple jumpers start their approach with a few tentative Some competitors miss their intended final destination by strides to establish a rhythm. They never go at full speed applying so much hip swerve during the step phase that along the runway because excess speed will unbalance them they leap off at an angle and land outside the sand 29½ ft (9 m) 131–147½ ft (40–45 m) Men: 42½ ft (13 m); 9 ft (2.75 m) Watering pit Women: 36 ft (11 m) The landing pit is always watered before competition so that landing marks do not get filled in too quickly RULES & REGULATIONS STAT CENTRAL At larger competitions, athletes have to progress through qualifying rounds before being able to compete in the final round, with the possibility of winning a medal of LONGEST TRIPLE JUMPS (MEN) any color. The athletes have at least three attempts (trials) at a jump. Each jump is measured from the leading edge of the takeoff board to the nearest mark in the MARK ATHLETE (YEAR) sand made by any part of the competitor’s body. The jump is recorded to the nearest 18.29 M JONATHAN EDWARDS (1995) centimeter below the distance cleared. If an athlete is confident that their jump will get 18.21 M CHRISTIAN TAYLOR (2015) them into the next round or win a medal, they don’t have to complete all three trials. 18.14 M WILL CLAYE (2019) 18.11 M CHRISTIAN TAYLOR (2017) 8 in (20 cm) Soft strip FOUL JUMPS 18.09 M KENNY HARRISON (1996) Modeling The officials signal a foul jump by waving a 18.08 M PEDRO PABLO PICHARDO (2015) clay, sand, red flag. Most foul jumps occur when the 18.06 M PEDRO PABLO PICHARDO (2015) athlete oversteps the takeoff board and 18.06 M CHRISTIAN TAYLOR (2015) or clay will show makes an indent in the soft strip on the 18.04 M TEDDY TAMGHO (2013) an illegal jump takeoff board. Sometimes, the jumper will 18.04 M CHRISTIAN TAYLOR (2015) miss the landing pit altogether. A foul may 18.01 M JONATHAN EDWARDS (1995) THUS FAR AND NO FARTHER be called if the athlete takes more than the 18.00 M JONATHAN EDWARDS (1995) One of the most important skills for triple jumpers agreed length of time (usually a minute 17.99 M JONATHAN EDWARDS (1998) to master is to judge the run-up so that the and a half) to complete a jump. Foul jumps leading foot lands as close as possible to the may also be called if the jumper lands the LONGEST TRIPLE JUMPS (WOMEN) edge of the takeoff board without overstepping hop on the incorrect foot or if they jump off the mark and making the jump invalid. two feet instead of just one. Phase 3 The final phase Landing the jump MARK ATHLETE (YEAR) The athlete must land on the The jumping technique may Jumpers land feet-first but 15.50 M INESSA KRAVETS (1995) opposite foot that they took off be a hang, a hitchkick, or a 15.39 M F. MBANGO ETONE (2008) from. To complete the jump, sail maneuver throw their bodyweight 15.34 M TATYANA LEBEDEVA (2004) the athletes take off from the forward so that their mark is 15.33 M INESSA KRAVETS (1996) where they first hit the sand 15.33 M TATYANA LEBEDEVA (2004) landing foot 15.32 M TATYANA LEBEDEVA (2000) 15.32 M HRYSOPIYÍ DEVETZÍ (2004) STEP JUMP 15.31 M CATERINE IBARGÜEN (2014) 15.30 M F. MBANGO ETONE (2004) 15.29 M YAMILÉ ALDAMA (2003) 15.28 M YAMILÉ ALDAMA (2004) 15.28 M YARGELIS SAVIGNE (2007) 15.27 M YAMILÉ ALDAMA (2003)
HIGH JUMP EVENT OVERVIEW Close-fitting clothes Odd shoes The high jump is one of the standard track Tank top and shorts or Jumpers may wear odd shoes: the jump-off foot and field events that takes place at all athletic leotards are close-fitting has a cleated sole, but the other is a smooth-soled meets. Using only the strength of their running shoe. Neither sole should be more than bodies, competitors take running jumps to to help keep from ½ in (13 mm) thick so there’s no room for springs clear a horizontal bar. The high jump is very touching the bar demanding, both physically and technically, and the progression of the world record shows just how much improvement there has been in the conditioning of athletes and the development of technical innovations. ATHLETE PROFILE Both male and female high jumpers are usually above average height. Most men are at least 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m) tall; women are usually over 5 ft 10 in (1.75 m). They nearly all have a lean, slim build but have well-developed quadriceps and calf muscles. Speed, flexibility, and good coordination are also important. Jumpers often work out on the trampoline to accustom themselves to “controlled” falling. NEED2KNOW EQUIPMENT SETUP The modern high-jump bar is made of glass-reinforced plastic or The high jump has been an Olympic event aluminum. The bar is approximately 13 ft (4 m) long with a round, since the 1896 Olympics in Athens. triangular, or square cross-section for most of its length and a square The high jump was revolutionized in the resting point at each end. It is placed at a measured height on two 1960s by the introduction of soft mats that uprights. Directly behind the bar is a soft foam mat that provides a enabled athletes to land on their backs safe landing area. without serious injury. Almost all modern jumpers use a technique CUSHIONED LANDING 16 ft 4 in (5 m) 13 ft (4 m) High bar called the Fosbury Flop, after 1968 Olympic The landing area is normally This is raised as champion Dick Fosbury. made of plastic-covered layers the competition of foam rubber, usually at least SIDELINES 3 ft 3 in (1 m) thick. Old-style progresses sandpits are still sometimes 6' 4'' The height, in feet (1.94 m), of used in school and other junior events, making techniques such Blanka Vlasic, the tallest world-class woman high as the Fosbury Flop impossible. jumper. Vlasic, the Croatian record holder, won silver at the 2009 World Indoor Championships. COMPACT AREA Landing area The high jump takes up less Foam rubber 1,312 The height, in feet (400 m), that room than most athletic events. The run-up area—made of cushions landings an adult human would need to jump to emulate asphalt, like a running track— the high-jump world record of the common flea. allows for approach runs of 9 ft 10 in (3 m) about 40 ft (12 m) from almost any direction. Right-angled approaches to the bar are rare—most jumpers come in from an acute angle.
THE COMPETITION STAT ATTACK ATHLETICS High jumping has few rules. Competitors can leap off only one foot and cannot knock the bar MEN’S WORLD RECORD WOMEN’S WORLD RECORD HIGH JUMP off its supports. Touching the bar is fine, as long as it does not fall—and as long as the jumper HEIGHT ATHLETE (YEAR) HEIGHT ATHLETE (YEAR) doesn’t use any part of her body to hold it up. 2.45 M JAVIER SOTOMAYOR (1993) 2.09 M STEFKA KOSTADINOVA (1987) 2.42 M PATRIK SJOBERG (1987) 2.07 M LYUDMILA ANDONOVA (1984) In competitions, athletes choose the height 2.41 M IGOR PAKLIN (1985) 2.05 M TAMARA BYKOVA (1984) of their opening jump, which is usually relatively 2.40 M RUDOLF POVARNITSYN (1985) 2.03 M ULRIKE MEYFARTH (1983) low. As the competition goes on, the bar is 2.39 M ZHU JIANHUA (1984) 2.01 M SARA SIMENONI (1978) raised by increments—usually 1 in or 2 in, but 2.36 M GERD WESSIG (1980) 2.00 M ROSEMARIE ACKERMANN (1977) ½ in toward the conclusion of the event. 2.35 M DIETMAR MÖGENBURG (1980) 1.94 M YORDANKA BLAGOEVA (1972) 2.35 M JACEK WSZOLA (1980) 1.92 M ULRIKE MEYFARTH (1972) Once a height has been cleared, 2.34 M VLADIMIR JASHTSHENKO (1978) 1.92 M ILONA GUSENBAUER (1971) competitors may not attempt a lower height. 2.32 M DWIGHT STONES (1976) 1.91 M IOLANDA BALAS (1961) They may choose to pass at any height, even 2.29 M PAT MATZDORF (1971) 1.77 M CHENG FENG-JUNG (1957) if they have tried but failed to clear the bar 2.28 M VALERIY BRUMEL (1963) 1.76 M IOLANDA BALAS (1957) already, but as soon as they record three 2.22 M JOHN THOMAS (1960) 1.76 M MILDRED MCDANIEL (1956) consecutive misses, they are out of the competition. The competitor who clears the highest jump is the winner. Ties are decided by the lowest number of failed attempts. DOING THE FLOP EVOLVING TECHNIQUE TRADITIONALISTS WERE AGHAST WHEN US Until the late 1960s, the most popular high-jump techniques were the ATHLETE DICK FOSBURY WON GOLD AT scissor and the Western roll. Using the scissor method, the jumper THE 1968 MEXICO OLYMPICS WITH HIS approached the bar from an angle and threw first their inside leg and NEW TECHNIQUE. US OLYMPIC COACH then their outside leg over the bar in a scissoring motion, landing on his PAYTON JORDAN SAID: “KIDS IMITATE or her feet. For the Western roll, the jumper again approached the bar CHAMPIONS. IF THEY TRY TO IMITATE on a diagonal but used the inner leg for the takeoff, while the outer leg FOSBURY, HE WILL WIPE OUT AN ENTIRE was thrust up to lead the body sideways over the bar. The Fosbury Flop, GENERATION OF HIGH JUMPERS BECAUSE named after American jumper Dick Fosbury who used it to win Olympic THEY WILL ALL HAVE BROKEN NECKS.” gold in 1968, is now almost universal. The last world record breaker not to use Fosbury’s method was Vladimir Jashtshenko in 1978. HIGHER AND HIGHER Since the end of the 19th century, high jump techniques have evolved rapidly. First sideways, then forward, then eventually backward, jumpers have been hurling themselves ever higher. In less than 100 years (1895–1993), the men’s high jump world record rose by nearly 25 percent (see above). SCISSOR JUMP One leg WESTERN ROLL Face down The scissor jump was at a time As they reach the high point The jumper must first used by American The leading leg is of their leaps, jumpers rotate the body Michael F. Sweeney, who raised over the bar first, rotate their torsos to cross as he goes took the world record in immediately followed the bar face down. George over the bar 1895 with a height of by the other leg Horne used the technique 6 ft 5½ in (1.97 m). to clear 6 ft 6¾ in (2 m) The scissor was a in 1912. popular technique until the late 1960s. THE “FOSBURY FLOP” Takeoff Drive up Arched back Over the bar Landing prep A “flopper” takes a curved The jumper makes The legs, hips, and On reaching the Over the bar, the The jumper keeps running approach, then a strong upward shoulders are twisted horizontal head-first, jumper flexes her her back close to launches herself off the push with the during the ascent the jumper arches hips to bring her outside foot, head and takeoff (outside) leg her body backward legs up and over the horizontal, shoulders first, into a ready for an modified scissor jump with her back arching backward L-shaped landing over the bar. By the time the hips pass over the bar, the whole upper body is in descent.
POLE VAULT NEED2KNOW Supportive shoes Close-fitting Vaulters wear Sports tops and Vaulting with poles was originally a running shoes with running shorts should practical method of crossing natural cleated soles for be close-fitting to obstacles such as ditches and marshes. dependable grip reduce the dangers of The first recorded pole vault competition on the runway snagging the pole on was held in England in 1812. the run-up and Broad jumping—a closely related sport in dislodging the which athletes use a pole to gain distance crossbar during rather than height—is widely practiced but the jump has never become an established event at top-class competitive levels. No limits Fiberglass pole The men’s pole vault has been a medal The pole may Wood was most event at every modern Olympics; the first be any length or women’s competition was held in Sydney diameter, but it must popular until the early in 2000. always be round in 20th century, when it profile. There is no limit EVENT OVERVIEW to the pole’s flexibility was superseded by The pole vault is a field event for men and bamboo; aluminum women. Competitors sprint along a runway carrying a long, flexible pole that they plant was preferred in a box and use to lever themselves over between 1945 and a crossbar suspended several feet (meters) above the ground between two uprights. the early 1960s, The height of the crossbar is raised after when fiberglass every round, and athletes are eliminated became the norm from the competition if they fail three consecutive jump attempts. ATHLETE PROFILE Most leading pole vaulters are tall but can be any height. They need speed to build up momentum on the runway; explosive power in the legs for the takeoff; and great strength in the shoulders, arms, and abdomen to lift themselves up into an upside- down vertical position at the top of the flight phase. Spatial awareness is key to avoiding the crossbar. EQUIPMENT AND SETUP Adjustable height The pole vault event requires a runway of 131–147½ ft (40–45 m); Pegs, positioned on the a pole box; two uprights with pegs; a crossbar; landing mats; and, supports inside the uprights, of course, an athlete with a very long, flexible pole. Officials are on allow the crossbar to be hand to oversee the contest and adjust the height of the crossbar. raised as the competition progresses. The crossbar is IN THE BOX 14 ft 9 in (4.5 m) long At the end of the runway is a pole box into which the vaulter thrusts one end of the pole to gain leverage for Landing mat the jump. Wedge-shaped and open at the approach Foam rubber no less than end, the box is 3 ft 3 in (1 m) long. It deepens to 8 in (20 cm) and narrows to 6 in (15 cm). 3–5 ft (1–1.5 m) thick Starting point White lines Extra padding Minimum 16 ft 5 in (5 m) Vaulters sprint down The runway is marked on The areas on either side of the runway to gain each edge by a white line. Minimum 16 ft 5 in (5 m) enough speed to propel It is not an offense to step the pole box are padded them into the air over the lines while running in case the athlete falls before completing the jump 131–147½ ft (40–45 m)
RULES OF THE BAR LEARNING TO FLY ATHLETICS An opening bar height and a sequence of incremental heights Pole vault is a series of phases that, performed perfectly, is decided by an official, and vaulters choose the height at can produce jumps of over 19 ft 8 in (6 m)—although only which they wish to enter the competition. Athletes take 16 male pole vaulters have ever achieved this. A higher grip turns vaulting. If two or more of them have cleared the bar, on the pole allows more leverage into the swing phase, while the height is increased by the agreed distance—typically whipping the takeoff leg through to the vertical position keeps 2 in (5 cm) or 6 in (15 cm). Vaulters may decline to jump at a energy in the flight phase, giving the vaulter more height over certain height and wait to try at a higher one. If at the end of the crossbar. It doesn’t matter if the competitor touches the the competition there is a tie, the number of failures is taken crossbar during the jump, as long as it stays in position and into consideration. If two or more vaulters have the same does not fall. Each phase of the vaulting sequence is crucial number of misses, there may be a sudden-death jump-off. to executing a successful jump. Approach and takeoff Swing and row In flight Clearing the bar Fly-away POLE VAULT Vaulters plant the pole in the The vaulter swings Once in the air, vaulters The vaulter pivots his As the vaulter’s extend their hips and legs to descent begins, the box at an angle of about the trailing leg turn themselves upside down body to face back pole is released and 20°; the pole then bows forward and rows his as the pole straightens toward the runway pushed away so arms downward. This as he pushes himself that it does not away from them under helps bend the pole clear of the crossbar their weight as they enter knock down even more the crossbar the swing phase Run-up Vaulters use the track to build up speed and momentum and are sprinting just before takeoff. They grasp the pole at one end. At the start, they hold the pole up like a lance, then lower it as they near the takeoff point Touch down The vaulter positions himself to land safely on his back in the middle of the thick landing mats STAT ATTACK THE KING OF POLE VAULT UKRAINIAN SERGEY BUBKA IS INDISPUTABLY MEN’S WORLD RECORD WOMEN’S WORLD RECORD THE GREATEST POLE VAULTER OF ALL TIME. HE BROKE 35 WORLD RECORDS HEIGHT ATHLETE (YEAR) HEIGHT ATHLETE (YEAR) DURING HIS CAREER—17 OUTDOOR AND 6.14 M SERGEY BUBKA (1994) 18 INDOOR—AND WON SIX CONSECUTIVE 5.83 M THIERRY VIGNERON (1983) 5.06 M YELENA ISINBAYEVA (2009) WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS BETWEEN 1983 5.82 M PIERRE QUINON (1983) 5.01 M YELENA ISINBAYEVA (2005) AND 1997. HE WAS THE FIRST MAN TO 5.81 M VLADIMIR POLYAKOV (1981) 4.88 M SVETLANA FEOFANOVA (2004) CLEAR THE ELUSIVE 6 M MARK, A FEAT 5.80 M THIERRY VIGNERON (1981) 4.87 M YELENA ISINBAYEVA (2004) HE ACHIEVED IN 44 COMPETITIONS. OLYMPIC 5.78 M WLADYSLAW KOZAKIEWICZ (1980) 4.85 M SVETLANA FEOFANOVA (2004) GOLD MEDALS WERE HARDER TO COME BY, 5.70 M DAVE ROBERTS (1976) 4.82 M YELENA ISINBAYEVA (2003) HOWEVER; HE WON ONLY ONE IN THE 1988 5.67 M EARL BELL (1976) 4.81 M STACY DRAGILA (2001) OLYMPIC GAMES IN SEOUL. 5.65 M DAVE ROBERTS (1975) 4.60 M EMMA GEORGE (1999) 5.63 M BOB SEAGREN (1972) 4.23 M SUN CAIYUN (1995) 4.22 M DANIELA BÁRTOVÁ (1995)
NEED2KNOW EQUIPMENT WOMEN MEN The discus is plate-shaped. It is The discus became an Olympic medal event for women at made mainly of rubber but also 2 lb 3 oz (1 kg) 4 lb 7 oz (2 kg) the 1928 Games. has a metallic or wooden rim 7 in 8½ in (22 cm) The first man to break the 200 ft (60.96 m) mark was and core to make up the American Al Oerter in 1962. required weights. The maximum (18.2 cm) The first woman to throw the discus over 229½ ft (70 m) central thickness is about 13⁄4 in was Faina Melnik of Russia in 1976. (44–46 mm). The weight and dimensions shown here are for adult competitions; both may be reduced for junior events. TERMS OF PLAY BRUTE FORCE AND BALLET Throwers have three attempts, which are called trials. They The thrower takes up position at the back of the circle. He or must release the discus within the circle and remain there she rests the discus in the throwing hand, then makes one until it has landed; they may leave only from the back half of and a half quick, powerful turns on the balls of the feet—like the circle. The discus must hit the ground within the marked uncoiling a spring—to produce the force to release the discus landing sector for the trial to be valid. The length of the throw at shoulder level. As the discus is released off the index or is measured from the front of the circle to the point where the middle finger, it spins clockwise (for a right-handed thrower). discus first lands. Distances are rounded down to the nearest Discus throwers welcome a headwind because it helps half-inch (or centimeter) below the length of the throw. increase the amount of lift, therefore lengthening the throw. Warm up Spin to win Long reach Foot fault The throwing arm Bodyweight The throwing arm The feet must remain is extended behind in the circle for the is taken as far shifts from foot the thrower throw to be good back as possible to foot PRELIMINARY SWING TURNING CIRCLE RELEASE FOLLOW THROUGH The thrower makes two or three The thrower turns in quick spinning The power in the release comes from After releasing the discus, the thrower swings by rotating the torso. This sets jumps from the back of the circle to an explosion of energy in the body and continues to turn, taking the left leg the body into its throwing rhythm and the front. This move winds up the legs. The discus spins as it is released through almost 360º to avoid prepares it for the turn. momentum for the release. from the hand. overstepping the boundary. DISCUS EVENT OVERVIEW Secure grip ATHLETE Originally part of the pentathlon in the The tips of the PROFILE ancient Olympics, the discus throw now fingers grip the rim The world’s leading discus stands alone as a field event in its own of the discus as the throwers are big. Men right. The goal of the competition is to palm rests on top average 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m) throw the discus as far as possible. in height and weigh over Smooth soles 254 lb (115 kg); most FIELD OF PLAY Shoes have smooth female champions are The discus is thrown from a circle 8 ft at least 5 ft 9 in (1.75 m) (2.5 m) in diameter. The landing sector is an soles to help the tall and 205 lb (93 kg). area fanning out at 35° from the center of the thrower pivot Although strong arms and throwing circle. For safety, a U-shaped cage 8 ft (2.5 m) shoulders are needed, the surrounds the throwing circle. The mouth of real power in the throw the cage is 19 ft 8 in (6 m) wide and sits comes from the athlete’s 23 ft (7 m) in front of the throwing circle. legs and torso. Sound surface The surface of the throwing circle must be smooth but not slippery
SHOT PUT Close contact ATHLETICS Shot putters can use EVENT OVERVIEW chalk on their necks SHOT PUT The shot put is a field event for men and to improve their grip women. Athletes compete to see which of them can throw (put) a heavy metal ball on the shot (shot) the farthest into the landing sector. Men’s shot put has been included in the ATHLETE Olympics since its inception in 1896, PROFILE and women’s since 1948. Shot putters are usually tall and powerfully built: the average NEED2KNOW Competition clothing male is 6 ft 2 in (1.87 m) tall Athletes wear a tank top and weighs 277 lb (125.6 kg); The sport is believed to have originated and shorts. The shorts women are over 5 ft 9 in from the practice of throwing heavy stones. may be tight-fitting to (1.75 m) and 200 lb (90 kg). The Codified in the late 19th century, shot putting support the thighs rotational style of shot putting was one of the men’s events at the first Technical footwear allows shorter, lighter athletes modern Olympics in 1896. Olympic women’s Smooth soles help the to compete at the same level shot putting first became a medal event at thrower glide or rotate as bigger and heavier ones. the 1948 Games in London, England. with maximum efficiency Stop board This white board arcs around the front of the throwing circle to mark its edge Throwing circle 8 ft (2.5 m) Set about 1 in (2 cm) below ground level, the circle has a nonslippery cement surface GLIDE OR ROTATE? HEAVY METAL SHOT PUT LAW The two main styles of shot put delivery are the glide The shot is usually made of iron For each of the three shots, technique, which is a linear technique, or the rotational or brass, must have a smooth the competitor may touch the technique, which is similar in many respects to the spinning surface, and must not be modified inside of but not overstep the delivery used by discus throwers. In both techniques, in any way. stop board at the front of the explosive power and core strength are essential to gain circle. The length of the shot medal-winning results. WOMEN MEN is measured from the front of the circle to the shot’s first THE O’BRIEN GLIDE 8¾ lb (4 kg) 16 lb (7.2 kg) landing point and recorded In this method, named after 1950s’ US champion Parry O’Brien, the to the nearest half-inch or athlete begins on one foot in a crouching position at the back of the 3¾–4 in 4–5 in (11–13 cm) centimeter below the actual circle, getting all their weight behind the shot. He or she then thrusts (9.5–11 cm) length of the throw. up and forward to the front of the circle, powerfully launching the shot. SIDELINES THE BARYSHNIKOV ROTATION THE CIRCLE This technique was originated in the 1970s by Soviet athlete The landing area is a sector that 11 The number of Alexsandr Baryshnikov. It borrows heavily from the discus thrower’s fans out at 35° from the center spin and makes it easier to maximize the launch speed of the put. of the throwing circle; its sides Olympic medals out of a Controversial at first, the Baryshnikov Rotation is the style most are usually no more than possible 12 won by American used by shot putters today. 98 ft 6 in (30 m) long. male shot putters in the four Summer Games held between Start position Body torque Energy flow 1948 and 1960. The thrower comes out The power To keep the power, of a crouched position in the spin the body must 116 The number comes from maintain momentum to start the throw the torso of consecutive shot put competitions won by Parry PUSH OFF SPIN THRUST O’Brien in the 1950s. He also The thrower faces away from the The athlete makes one and a half The final step is timed to coincide competed in four Olympic direction of throw with the shot tucked revolutions across the circle. with the release of the shot. games, winning gold in between the neck and shoulder. two of them.
NEED2KNOW JAVELIN approx. 328 ft (100 m) Finns are particularly successful javelin EVENT OVERVIEW throwers, tallying a total of 23 Olympic Javelin throwing is a field event for men and women. Athletes medals, nine of them gold. compete to see which of them can throw a spearlike projectile Despite its long history, javelin throwing over the greatest distance. Despite its popularity, javelin may was not originally included at the modern be omitted from track meets at smaller venues because of the Olympics. It made its debut only at the potential danger to spectators. fourth Games in 1908, when it was a men-only event; women’s javelin was TARGET AREA introduced in Los Angeles in 1932. Athletes run up to the stop For safety reasons, the javelin was board (throwing line) along a redesigned (men’s in 1986; women’s synthetic track that may extend in 1999) to reduce the distance it could across the track. Beyond the travel to around 295 ft (90 m) for men. line, the landing area is a sector that fans out at 29° for about Sharp tip 328 ft (100 m)—the exact size The head measures 10 in is partly determined by the (25 cm). It is made completely space available and partly from metal and must be smooth at the judges’ discretion. Sporting spear grip 98–120 ft (30–36.5 m) This is usually metal, with cord grip wrapped around midpoint Back support Sector lines A belt may be worn Mark the distance of the throw. Judges mark to protect the spine from injury the distance to the nearest half inch Spear lengths PERFECT THROW The men’s is Athletes get three throws each unless there are fewer than eight 102–106 in competitors, in which case they throw six times. For the throw to be (260–270 cm) long legal, the javelin must be released before the stop board and come down and weighs no less point-first within the landing sector. Throws are measured from the stop than 1 lb 12 oz board to the javelin’s first contact with the ground and rounded down to (800 g); the women’s the nearest ½ in (1 cm). In the event of a tie, the winner is the athlete is 86½–90½ in with the longest second-best throw. (220–230 cm) long and at least 1 lb 5 oz EXECUTING THE THROW (600 g) in weight The javelin must be held over the shoulder and is always gripped by the cord that is Footwear wrapped around the fulcrum of the shaft. The athlete accelerates down the runway, Usually, athletes then, on entering the last seven strides, prepares to throw. He or she combines a wear running sudden stop with an explosion of power to propel the javelin as far as possible shoes with light into the landing sector without touching or crossing the stop board. leather or nylon uppers with no more than 11 spikes or cleats per foot ATHLETE PROFILE LEG CROSSOVER DRAW LAUNCH RELEASE Strong hips, shoulders, and elbows are key Near the end of the As the legs untwist, they Throwers keep the The athlete suddenly for success, as is speed along the runway. run-up, athletes cross pull back the throwing arm javelin behind their stops running and thrusts Strength and speed produce the power to their legs in preparation and push the other arm shoulders for as long the throwing arm forward throw the javelin long distances. for getting maximum forward to help with aim as possible before to achieve the greatest torque on the throw. and the follow-through. it is released. possible speed of throw.
HAMMER NEED2KNOW ATHLETICS EVENT OVERVIEW The hammer began to take its current form in the late HAMMER The goal of this track and field event is to throw the hammer 19th century. The sport became an Olympic medal as far as possible from a circle into a marked target area. event for men at the 1900 Games; women followed Although the projectile used is known as a hammer, the term 100 years later. is misleading—it is, in fact, a heavy metal ball attached by In the Middle Ages in England, villages held blacksmith’s a wire to a handle. hammer throwing competitions. Scotland’s Highland Games still feature a version of this traditional sport Strong core Ball and wire using a metal ball attached to a wooden handle. The torso stays erect to The ball is made of solid iron or a similar dense maintain balance and speed metal, or lead covered with a thin layer of other PLAYER PROFILE as the athlete and ball rotate metal; the wire is at least 3/16 in (3 mm) in diameter Hammer throwers are powerfully built, especially in the as a single unit arms, shoulders, and torso, which they develop working out with weights and barbells. The outstanding men in the sport weigh about 243 lb (110 kg) on average; the leading women are about 176 lb (79 kg). Throwers need not be tall, but those who are have a natural advantage. Hand in glove HEAVY HAMMER Hammer throwers often wear The hammer used in men’s events is composed of a ball 41/3–5 in (11–13 cm) in diameter, a steel one leather glove with thick wire measuring 4 ft (1.2 m) in length, and a roughly open-tipped fingers to help triangular-shaped handle measuring 5 in (13 cm) and 4 in (10 cm) at its widest and longest points, them grip the handle respectively. The maximum combined weight is Dress code 16 lb (7.26 kg). Throwers wear a tank top and The women’s hammer ball is smaller and lighter. shorts or leggings, or a tight-fitting It is 3½–41/3 in (9.5–11 cm) across and weighs one-piece. Sometimes, they wear 8 lb 13 oz (4 kg). The wire and handle have similar dimensions to the men’s hammer. a belt for extra support SPIN TO WIN The classic throw consists of four phases. At the Track shoes start, the athlete takes up a stationary position with The shoes have no studs or his or her back to the landing area, then swings the cleats in order to maximize hammer back and forth in a pendulum movement. the sole area in contact with Having gained momentum, the hammer is raised above the head and whirled in what is known the launch pad as the windmill sequence. This lasts for two or three rotations before the hammer is released. 7 ft (2.13 m) CAGED CIRCLE The throwing area is a concrete circle HAPPY HAMMERING with a 7 ft (2.135 m) diameter. In front In most competitions, competitors have three attempts at throwing of the circle, the landing sector fans out at the hammer, each of which must be completed within 90 seconds of 40° and has sides 262–328 ft (80–100 m) entering the throwing circle. In larger events, there may then be a second long. The exact dimensions of the sector round from which all but the eight best performers are eliminated. The are determined by the space available. finalists get another three throws each. If two or more athletes tie, the winner is the one with the second-longest throw. For a throw to be valid, HAMMER CAGE the competitor must stay within the throwing circle until the hammer has For safety reasons, the cage is landed in the landing sector. Top male competitors throw the hammer made of netting capable of stopping about 276 ft (85 m); women throw the hammer around 244 ft (75 m). a hammer traveling at speed. Cage Surrounds throwing area on three sides Circle Area from which the hammer is thrown
DECATHLON AND HEPTATHLON EVENT OVERVIEW NEED2KNOW Often seen as the jacks of all trades of athletics, decathletes and heptathletes specialize in being great all-around athletes. Their Decathlon consists of 10 track and field sports comprise 10 (decathlon) or seven (heptathlon) track and field events; heptathlon of seven. Male athletes disciplines that are contested over two consecutive days. Men compete contest decathlon, while female athletes in decathlon, while women compete in heptathlon. The competitions contest heptathlon. are a test of endurance and concentration to last the distance, as well Both events have developed from the as speed, strength, and skill to win the individual events. Decathlon has ancient Greek pentathlon, which featured in appeared in the summer Olympic Games since 1912 and heptathlon the ancient Olympics from around 700 bce. since 1984. The sequence of events in decathlon has remained unchanged since 1914. SIDELINES 9 026, The record number 17 The age of athlete Bob Mathias 31 The number of years Jackie of points scored in a decathlon when he won Olympic gold in the competition. Czech athlete Roman decathlon at the 1948 Games in London. Joyner-Kersee held the world heptathlon Sebrle attained this feat in 2001, when Despite never having competed in the record of 7,291 points (1988–2019). It is he became the first athlete to score event prior to 1948, he still holds the the longest standing heptathlon record, more than 9,000 points at Gotzis record as the youngest Olympic champion and she is the heptathlete who has gained in Austria. in the discipline. 7,000 points most often. DECATHLON DISCIPLINES DECATHLON COMPETITOR PROFILE This two-day competition comprises Decathletes and heptathletes need to be 100 M 10 disciplines: 100 m, long jump, shot great all-arounders. This not only requires LONG JUMP put, high jump, and 400 m on day one speed and mobility, but also strength and SHOT PUT and 110 m hurdles, discus throw, pole explosive power. They tend to have lean, HIGH JUMP vault, javelin throw, and 1,500 m on day athletic physiques rather than the specific 400 M two. Competitors’ speed and strength adaptations developed by specialists. 110 M HURDLES are challenged in the first day’s events, DISCUS THROW while the second day tests their DOUBLE DALEY POLE VAULT endurance and technical skills. REGARDED AS ONE OF THE WORLD’S JAVELIN THROW BEST-EVER ALL-AROUND ATHLETES, 1,500 M RUN Athletes must compete in all DALEY THOMPSON HOLDS THE disciplines in order to be included RECORD AS THE FIRST PERSON HEPTATHLON DISCIPLINES in the final classification. TO WIN OLYMPIC GOLD FOR HEPTATHLON DECATHLON TWICE, FIRST IN 200 M The women’s seven-discipline 1980 AND AGAIN IN 1984. HE LONG JUMP competition comprises 100 m RETIRED FROM COMPETITION IN SHOT PUT hurdles, high jump, shot put, and 200 m 1992, DUE TO INJURY, BUT THAT HIGH JUMP on the first day and long jump, javelin WAS NOT THE END OF THOMPSON’S 100 M HURDLES throw, and 800 m on the second day. CAREER. IN THE 1990s, HE BECAME JAVELIN Originally, female athletes competed in A PROFESSIONAL SOCCER PLAYER, 800 M the five-discipline pentathlon, but the PLAYING FOR MANSFIELD TOWN, javelin throw and 800 m race were THEN A FITNESS COACH. added in 1981 after the 1980 Olympics in Moscow to create the modern event.
Pumping arms ATHLETICS A high, pumping arm movement allows the Sail technique Shot position DECATHLON AND HEPTATHLON athlete to push himself In this method, jumpers The shot must be held more quickly to the arch backward, then between the neck and finish line throw their arms Long stride and legs forward shoulder before Sprinters aim for maximum before landing it is released stride length, which Long limbs requires more ballistic Athletes stretch their Glide technique strength—explosive power arms and legs as far The competitor hops forward as possible to from the back of the ensure maximum throwing circle to the distance from their jump front to release the shot SPRINTS LONG JUMP SHOT PUT Decathletes and heptathletes compete over The second event for men and the fifth for Athletes have three trials each to score the different sprint distances. The men have two women, the long jump relies on speed in the maximum points available: 1,350 for a 23.99 m sprint events, the 100 m and 400 m, while the run-up, good flight through the air, and a put for men and 1,500 for a 24.40 m throw women race only over 200 m. The maximum forward landing to attain the greatest distance for women. The shots used are the same as points available for 100 m is 1,223. in the pit. those for the individual competition. Arm propulsion Rear leg The arms provide The athlete’s rear leg must clear extra thrust as the hurdle in order for her to keep a the athlete jumps smooth, fast rhythm along the track the hurdle Head and shoulders Active feet Wide radius The athlete initiates The athlete must kick The farther away from his feet up at the end the back arch over the of the jump to ensure the body the athlete bar with his head holds the discus, the and shoulders they clear the bar more leverage he has to launch it farther Winding up The athlete pivots on his toes as he spins across the throwing circle to release the discus HIGH JUMP HURDLES DISCUS THROW This vertical jump appears on the first Raced on the first day over 110 m in the The second of the throwing events is day of both the decathlon and heptathlon men’s decathlon and 100 m in the women’s contested only in the decathlon competition. competitions. The decathletes are chasing heptathlon, the hurdles race carries a There is a maximum of 1,500 points available, a maximum score of 1,392 points, while the maximum score of 1,223 points for but athletes must throw 79.41 m to be women are competing for 1,498 points. men and 1,361 for women. awarded them. Takeoff Throwing arm Relaxed stance The athlete hangs onto The athlete keeps her Over longer distances, throwing arm behind her athletes keep their arms the fiberglass pole more relaxed than when as it lifts him up as long as possible sprinting. This helps toward the bar along the runway conserve energy Core strength Long stride The athlete Maximum torque Athletes still aim for uses his core The athlete crosses her legs a long stride at this strength to lift distance, keeping his legs and as she prepares to release contact with the torso so that he the javelin. This increases track to a minimum ends up upside down before the torque in her body clearing the bar POLE VAULT JAVELIN THROW MIDDLE DISTANCE The second event competed only by The final throwing event, the javelin The last event of both competitions is the decathletes, the pole vault appears on the throw features in both men’s and women’s 800 m for women and 1,500 m for men. second day of the competition. Athletes aim to combined events. Throws of 102.85 m for Final race positions matter less than who beats jump heights of 6.49 m in order to be awarded men and 82.63 m for women will win the whom for the last available points—a maximum the maximum score of 1,396 points. competitors maximum points. of 1,250 for both heptathletes and decathletes.
COMPETITOR COURSES NEED2KNOW PROFILE Most walking races are held Most walkers are tall and lean. on roads. There are judges World-class race walkers can In training, they work on back, along the course to ensure that cover 1 mile (1.6 km) in under abdominal, and thigh muscles competitors walk in accordance six minutes—a speed of about to meet the demands of the with the rules. Often, walkers 10 mph (16 kph). walking action. Their feet must do several laps of a circuit so At major race-walking events, men be in good condition, and they that officials get the chance to compete over two distances— need a lot of stamina. observe them several times 50 km and 20 km—while during the race. women walk 20 km only. Walking gear RACE RULES A race-walking World Cup Athletes wear One foot must be in contact with is held biannually in even- the ground at all times, and the numbered years. loose-fitting tank supporting leg must be straight, tops, which may not bent at the knee, from the SO NEAR AND YET… be in team colors moment the foot touches the AT THE 2000 SYDNEY Baggy shorts ground until the supporting OLYMPICS, AUSTRALIAN Shorts are loose to leg passes below the body. JANE SAVILLE WAS prevent chafing the Walkers are penalized for illegal DISQUALIFIED FOR LIFTING techniques, such as “lifting”— JUST 492 YD (150 M) FROM legs and groin having both feet off the ground. THE FINISH AS SHE LED THE Silver lining Officials report offenses to three 20 KM RACE. SHE WAS ONE Socks are not judges, who may show the OF FIVE ATHLETES DISQUALIFIED essential with offender a yellow warning IN THE RACE. well-fitting shoes but paddle; further violations lead are sometimes worn to a red paddle, and three red to reduce rubbing paddles mean disqualification. REGULATED WALKING Race walking is much more demanding than regular walking. Enthusiasts claim that it is even harder than running—it takes a greater toll on the body because the action is less efficient. Walkers swivel and tilt their hips to lengthen their strides and get up as high as possible on the toes of the trailing foot before placing the heel of the leading foot on the ground. Sole control Shoes have lightweight uppers with thin soles; the heels should be well padded. Shoes wear out quickly and need to be replaced regularly between races EVENT OVERVIEW Front foot Quick step Short stride Bent knee Race walking bears little relation to what Toes raised at about Trailing leg is Small, quick The knee is most people know as “ordinary” walking. 45° so that heel hits raised but bent once the Athletes look more as if they are trying knee kept low steps are leg is past to stop themselves from running. The the ground first for speed efficient vertical position technique—requiring short, rapid steps— CALM ON TOP is difficult to master. Races are a test of The torso is relaxed ONE AT A TIME WEIGHT AHEAD SWING ALONG the walker’s concentration and endurance. and upright for The lead foot must In the middle of Walkers must balance; the work be grounded before each stride, the swing the arms is done by the arms the back foot is lifted: upper body rocks vigorously to propel and legs. both feet off the forward over the themselves ground is running. front leg. forward. RACE WALKING
ORIENTEERING ATHLETICS EVENT OVERVIEW ELEMENT OF SURPRISE Orienteering is a cross-country race in which Competitors must not preplan a route. They are given a map participants use a map and compass to navigate of the course only when they arrive at a rallying point, which is between checkpoints, or controls, on an unfamiliar usually some distance from the starting line. They may all start route. The winner is the first individual or team at the same time or at intervals of one or two minutes. to reach the finish or, in timed events, whoever has reached the greatest number of checkpoints STAYING ON COURSE ORIENTEERING at the end of an allotted period. Certain points are marked on an orienteering map but not the course between them. A triangle marks the start and a Paperwork double circle marks the finish. Single circles show the control The high-grade points that competitors must visit. These are marked by red map is typically to and white or orange and white flags. a scale of 1:15,000 Sprint orienteering may take place in city parks and other Hands free urban settings. In events held at night, control markers should Some compasses have cat’s eyes or other reflective surfaces and competitors are designed to be may wear flashlights on their heads to help them see. worn on the thumb EQUIPMENT Outdoor wear A map and a compass are essential equipment. Competitors Clothing must be normally sign in at control points, but electronic log-in devices called dibbers are sometimes worn on the fingers. At night, waterproof and racers carry a whistle to attract attention in emergencies. lightweight; many competitors wear Scale ruler 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Arrow specially made Lycra Calibrated for Indicates direction of measuring distances 0 0.5 1 ORIENT travel in line with the or nylon suits on the map Ankle anchors compass dial Gaiters may be worn to protect the legs on Rotating dial 1.5 2 Magnifying glass With index line for For viewing small rough terrain taking bearings map details Dry feet Clear base Luminous indicators The running shoes must be Enables competitors to Used in night races light and waterproof with read map underneath rubber and/or metal cleats LAY OF THE LAND A straight line is the shortest distance between two points, but it is not necessarily the quickest route. Race organizers often ensure that there are obstacles, such as gulleys and streams, between control points that runners must circumnavigate. Orienteers read the map to assess the landscape and choose a course between points. They use their compass to establish their position and the right direction, perhaps by taking bearings from easily identifiable landmarks. Course markers COMPETITOR PROFILE NEED2KNOW Brightly colored Successful orienteers have the stamina and speed of indicators are long-distance runners. They need to be able to read a At the annual world championships, there located at all map and compass while on the move and be expert are four timed events: long (90–100 mins control points navigators. Orienteers must be ready to use their for men; 70–80 mins for women); middle initiative when confronted with a range of terrains (30–35 mins); and relay (10–12 mins). that could include steep, rocky ground or marshes, Most contests are on foot, but some involve as well as roads and tracks. the use of mountain bikes or skis.
RACE FORMAT SWIM BIKE Most professional triathletes The swim takes place in a lake, river, or the The cycling phase is a road race that starts compete in Olympic or Ironman ocean. Swimmers may set off in a large bunch or and finishes at the transition area. In Olympic races. The Olympic event smaller groups a few seconds apart. Any stroke races, the pros may cycle in a group and draft consists of a 1,640 yd (1,500 m) can be used, but the crawl is the most popular. in the slipstream of riders ahead. In Ironman swim, a 25 mile (40 km) cycle, Wetsuits are required in cold water. events, triathletes must cycle alone. and a 6¼ mile (10 km) run. The Ironman is the ultimate test of RUN TRANSITIONS endurance. The race consists The run may be a road race or cross country, of a 2½ mile (3.8 km) swim, a and the course may be relatively flat or up To keep transitions smooth and 112 mile (180 km) cycle, and and down a hilly terrain. Regular aid stations efficient, competitors check out the ends with a full marathon provide water and energy drinks to sustain transition area before the race and (26¼ miles or 42.2 km). the athletes. practice removing wetsuits while running and mounting the bike with Carbon cycle cycle shoes attached to the pedals. Pro triathletes use aerodynamic time trial bikes Swimming cap with strong, ultra lightweight This is worn mainly for identification, carbon fiber frames ATHLETE PROFILE but in very cold water, an athlete Stamina, speed, physical and may wear a neoprene cap and body mental strength, technical ability, and the ability to suit to reduce heat loss switch effortlessly from one discipline to the next are all One-piece suit vital. Training typically takes Athletes can wear a up to around 30 hours a one-piece suit or a week for a professional short top and shorts. Ironman triathlete. Pros usually hit peak performances This outfit can be in their late 20s and early 30s. worn for all three disciplines, thus eliminating the need to change Timing tags An electronic chip attached to the ankle enables the accurate timing of all triathletes RULES OF THE RACE RACE REFEREES HAND OUT TIME PENALTIES FOR MINOR OFFENSES, SUCH AS CYCLING IN THE TRANSITION ZONE. DISQUALIFICATION RESULTS FROM SERIOUS OFFENSES, SUCH AS RECEIVING OUTSIDE ASSISTANCE. NEED2KNOW TRIATHLON The International Triathlon Union EVENT OVERVIEW (ITU) organizes a series of world The triathlon is an endurance event that combines three sports in one championship events annually. race—swimming, followed by cycling and then running. A triathlon is The triathlon was first introduced timed from the start of the swim to the end of the run, and the to Olympic competition at Sydney competitors seamlessly switch from one sport to the next in transition in 2000; there are both men’s zones. Smooth transitions reduce race times, so triathletes often treat and women’s events. the two transitions as a fourth discipline. The standard distance for The London Triathlon is the international triathletes is the Olympic triathlon, but formats vary from world’s biggest event, with more short sprints to long-distance Ironman events. Held annually since 1978, than 8,000 triathletes swimming, Ironman Hawaii is the most prestigious event in the triathlon calendar. cycling, and running the course in Docklands in east London. The World Triathlon Corporation organizes the Ironman Triathlon World Championship. Ironman events in countries around the world offer qualification slots for the big race—Ironman Hawaii.
EVENT OVERVIEW NEED2KNOW ATHLETICS Modern pentathlon is a combination of five events in a day: shooting, fencing, swimming, riding, and running. The sport was the brainchild of Pierre de Coubertin, The lineup of events in the MODERN PENTATHLON the founder of the modern Olympics, who believed it to be a measure of the modern pentathlon is based on “complete athlete.” Men and women are awarded points for their performances the romantic vision of the skills in each of the first four events. The points then translate into a time advantage on needed by a cavalry officer the run. The overall winner is therefore the first to cross the finish line on the run. operating behind enemy lines. Athletes with a military MODERN background have traditionally dominated the sport. Women pentathletes competed in the Olympics for the first time at the 2000 Sydney Games. PENTATHLON POINTS FOR SHOOTING FENCING PRIZES The shooting takes place on a 33 ft (10 m) The fencing competition is held on a standard Generally, the rules governing each range. Contestants fire 20 shots with a 4.5 mm piste. Competitors fence each other in turn, event are the same as when they are air pistol at a target that is 6 in (15.5 cm) in and bouts last for one minute. The first to competed as individual sports. In the diameter with nine rings and a center circle, land a hit with his or her épée wins the bout. show jumping contest, however, the which counts the highest. Points are awarded If neither fencer strikes a winning blow, they pentathletes draw lots for their horse according to how near to the target’s center both lose. Athletes who win 70 percent of and have only 20 minutes and up to five the contestant’s 20 shots hit. their bouts are awarded 1,000 points. trial jumps to get to know their animal. Furthermore, there is a staggered start One arm only Body protection for the cross-country run. Under no circumstances Competitors wear may the second arm be ATHLETE PROFILE protective gear Contestants need a wide range of skills. used to support the on the head Older competitors tend to do better in the shooting arm and body more technical events of shooting, fencing, First strike and riding. Younger athletes generally Eyewear excel in swimming and running. Top Shooting glasses A win results from pentathletes are usually more than offer eye protection a strike to any part 28 years old. when on the range of the body SWIMMING RIDING RUNNING The swimming competition takes place in a The show jumping course is between The run takes place on a 3,280 yd standard Olympic pool. Pentathletes race 383–437 yd (350–400 m) long, with obstacles (3,000 m) cross-country course or a road track. against the clock—not each other—in a up to 4 ft (1.2 m) in height. Contestants have The maximum climb of the course is 164 ft 200 m freestyle race. For men, a time of 20 minutes to get used to their horse before (50 m). The overall leader after the previous 2 minutes 30 seconds translates into 1,000 jumping a 12-obstacle course within a specific event—the riding—starts first, with the others competition points, and the equivalent time time limit. Starting with 1,200 points, riders lose behind in order of their placing. The winner of for women is 2 minutes 40 seconds. points for faults and slow times. the running becomes the overall winner. Horse play Up and Running climax Riding an over A staggered unfamiliar Riders lose 28 points for start provides a horse is an demolishing nail-biting end to unpredictable a fence the competition part of the pentathlon Fast lane Speed points Point deductions A good standard Ten points are If an athlete starts before of swimming is his or her allotted time in often considered added to an the handicap, 40 points a precondition of athlete’s total for each second are deducted participation in a pentathlon below the benchmark time
GYMNASTICS
GYMNASTICS SPORT OVERVIEW ON BALANCE Gymnastics is a multidiscipline sport in which men and women compete as individuals or in teams. Individuals can compete in single disciplines SOVIET GYMNAST OLGA KORBUT or as all-arounders. The sport is split into three main sections: artistic SHOT TO FAME AT THE 1972 MUNICH gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, and trampoline. Rhythmic gymnastics OLYMPICS, BRINGING HER SPORT WITH is a discipline for women only. Men’s artistic gymnastics consists of six HER. SHE WAS THE FIRST PERSON TO disciplines: floor exercise, pommel horse, rings, vault, parallel bars, and PERFORM A BACKWARD SOMERSAULT horizontal bar. Women’s artistic gymnastics consists of four disciplines: ON A BALANCE BEAM, AND HER vault, uneven bars, balance beam, and floor exercise. EXPLOSIVE, TECHNICAL STYLE REVOLUTIONIZED THE SPORT. CODE OF POINTS Apparatus Floor exercises The official scoring system (the “code of scoreboard The area for floor exercises and points”) was overhauled in 2006 following This scoreboard gives acrobatic gymnastics measures 39 ft accusations of inconsistent judging at the the marks for the 4 in x 39 ft 4 in (12 x 12 m). Rhythmic 2004 Olympics. However, critics claim the current competitor gymnasts use a slightly larger area new code rewards technical difficulty at in that event the expense of artistry, and the coveted “perfect 10” is now impossible to attain. Raised platform The apparatus and floor mats are all placed on a raised platform. Only competing gymnasts are permitted on the podium during competitions Pommel horse Both the surface of the horse and the surface of the pommels must allow the gymnast to glide over them but must not be slippery Horizontal bar The 7 ft 10½ in (2.4 m) long horizontal high bar is erected 9 ft 2 in (2.8 m) above the floor Uneven bars Featured in women’s artistic gymnastics, the uneven bars are placed 63 in (160 cm) apart and have a height difference of 31 in (80 cm) JUDGE AND JURY B1 B2 Vault runway Top-level gymnastics competitions are A2 B3 Competitors accelerate along the 82 ft (25 m) vault presided over by an apparatus jury. A1 B4 The jury is divided into an A-jury and B6 B5 runway, which is 39 in (1 m) wide a B-jury. The A-jury consists of two COMPETITOR PROFILE judges and the B-jury is made up of Male and female gymnasts come in a variety of shapes and sizes, six judges. Some disciplines require depending on their area or areas of expertise. The men’s rings other officials—such as line judges, for event, for example, requires extraordinary upper-body strength, example, for the floor exercises. The while women’s rhythmic gymnastics relies on flexibility and A-judges sit in front of the apparatus, precise muscle control. Common attributes of all gymnasts where they have a clear view of the are their incredible balance and power—especially remarkable gymnast’s performance. The B-judges considering the diminutive stature of many top-level competitors. are positioned clockwise around the apparatus from the left of the A-jury.
THE GYMNASTICS ARENA STAT CENTRAL GYMNASTICS The gymnastics competition arena, also known as the podium, is arranged to allow different competitions to run at the same time. For example, the men’s bars events MOST OLYMPIC MEDALS can run at the same time as the women’s balance beam, as they occupy opposite ends of the arena. At large events, the competitions may be staged on different INDIVIDUAL ALL-AROUND MEN days, as was the case at the 2004 Olympics in Athens (where the rhythmic gymnastics competition was run in a different venue entirely). COUNTRY NUMBER SOVIET UNION 15 Competition scoreboard Both competitors and spectators can JAPAN 15 FRANCE 8 follow the action of the overall SWITZERLAND 6 competition by seeing which individuals ITALY 5 or teams are in the lead MEN’S TEAM COMPETITION GYMNASTICS Parallel bars COUNTRY NUMBER The parallel bars are 11 ft 6 in (3.5 m) long and JAPAN 13 6 ft 7 in (2 m) high. The space between the bars SOVIET UNION 9 CHINA 7 can be adjusted from 17–20 in (42–52 cm) Rings UNITED STATES 7 FINLAND 6 The rings apparatus stands almost 19 ft 8 in (6 m) tall. INDIVIDUAL ALL-AROUND WOMEN The rings are suspended COUNTRY NUMBER 9 ft 2 in (2.8 m) above the SOVIET UNION 18 floor, 19½ in (50 cm) apart ROMANIA 11 UNITED STATES 8 Vaulting table RUSSIA 4 The surface area of the table CZECHOSLOVAKIA 2 measures 47 x 37 in (120 x 95 cm). It is 53 in (135 cm) tall WOMEN’S TEAM COMPETITION Vaulting board The springboard can be either hard or soft and must always be a different color to the runway GIVE ME 10! COUNTRY NUMBER AT THE 1976 OLYMPIC GAMES IN MONTREAL, ROMANIA 12 ROMANIAN GYMNAST NADIA COMANECI BECAME SOVIET UNION 9 THE FIRST PERSON TO ACHIEVE A PERFECT UNITED STATES 9 SCORE OF 10—AT THE TENDER AGE OF 14. CZECHOSLOVAKIA 6 NOT CONTENT WITH SECURING THE RECORD AS HUNGARY 5 THE YOUNGEST GYMNAST EVER TO DO SO, SHE Floor mats WENT ON TO WIN FIVE OLYMPIC GOLD MEDALS. GROUP RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS Padded floor mats, which are 4 in (10 cm) thick, are a COUNTRY NUMBER key safety feature. The mats RUSSIA 5 around the pommel horse, uneven bars, horizontal bar, BELARUS 3 and rings are 8 in (20 cm) BULGARIA 2 for additional protection ITALY 2 CHINA 1 INSIDE STORY Both as a method of keeping fit and as a form of competition, gymnastics has a INDIVIDUAL RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS long history. The ancient Greeks used to perform the exercises naked. However, the use of clothing and special equipment for each event dates from the 18th century, COUNTRY NUMBER when Germans developed gymnastics in military training. It soon caught on among RUSSIA 7 civilians, too, and spread to other countries. UKRAINE 4 GYMNASTICS GOVERNING BODY EUN 2 A European gymnastics federation was founded in 1881; it became the Fédération Internationale URS 2 de Gymnastique (FIG) in 1921, when non-European countries were admitted. Gymnastics BELARUS 2 competitions were featured at the first modern Olympic Games in 1896, and women first competed in 1928.
NEED2KNOW THE FLOOR Panel of judges Gymnasts perform floor exercises on a square floor Six judges mark the execution of the routine. Of all the disciplines in mat measuring 40 x 40 ft (12 x 12 m). This area is There are also two technique judges and one artistic gymnastics, the surrounded on all four sides by a clearly marked jury resident overseeing all the judges floor exercises are considered boundary line. On most floors, the padded area to offer the best opportunity extends for at least 3 ft 3 in (1 m) beyond 40 ft (12 m) for the gymnast’s personal the perimeter markings to help prevent expression and individuality, injuries. Point penalties are incurred if 40 ft (12 m) particularly in the women’s the gymnast steps or falls outside the event, where dance skills boundary line. are a core element. Gymnastics has been part The focus of attention of the Olympics since 1896. The gymnast performs a solo routine Floor exercises first appeared full of tumbling runs, turns, and rolls in the men’s competition in that he or she has choreographed 1936 and in the women’s Soft and bouncy surface competition in 1952. The mat is made of foam rubber; beneath it is a layer Some national teams hire of plywood, which makes the surface bouncy. The choreographers as well as gymnast uses the “spring” to gain height and/or coaches to help gymnasts speed to his or her tumbling runs with their routines. FLOOR V-SIT POSITION EXERCISES This gymnast is performing the V-sit, a move where the joined legs are raised off the floor and the body is supported by the hands. EVENT OVERVIEW Points of symmetry Floor exercise makes up one of the four In poses such as this, disciplines in women’s artistic gymnastics gymnasts must keep and one of the six disciplines in men’s artistic their feet together and gymnastics. They are among the most popular their toes pointed gymnastics events, giving spectators an Strong head action-packed display of skill and strength. The position of Individual competitors perform choreographed the head is essential routines on a square floor mat and are scored in maintaining for both their acrobatic accomplishment and balance in nearly their artistic inventiveness. Competitors are all gymnastic moves expected to use the whole area of the mat Muscular strength during their routines, and tumbling runs are Gymnasts must be often performed from one corner of the floor very strong, as well to the opposite corner. as supple MEN VERSUS WOMEN Short work The men’s and women’s routines are broadly similar but Male gymnasts differ in some important details. Women are expected wear shorts to demonstrate tumbles, jumps, turns, and dance for freedom of movements. Men are also expected to show tumbling movement, to stay and jumping skills, but in male competitions, there is cool, and so that the greater emphasis on strength. In order to display their judges can see their physical power, male routines normally include presses leg movements such as the V-sit position, where the gymnast takes and White handedness holds his whole weight on his hands (see right). Gymnasts often apply chalk to their hands before performing to give them better grip on the floor
TAKING THE FLOOR SIDELINES GYMNASTICS Women gymnasts perform floor exercise routines for a maximum of 90 seconds to musical accompaniment. (The music must be instrumental only.) 3 The highest number of successive Olympic FLOOR EXERCISES Male gymnasts’ routines can last for a maximum of 70 seconds and are performed without music. Gymnasts must use the whole floor mat but are gold medals in the floor exercise. The winner was penalized for stepping over the boundary marking. Three or four tumbling Larisa Latynina in 1956, 1960, and 1964. runs must be performed in the routine, and competitors have to show both acrobatic and dance skills. 5 The length in years of the ban received in SCORING Floor exercise routines are scored out of 10; obtaining the “perfect 10” 2002 by Romanian Olympic double gold medalist is rare. There are two groups of judges: one group scores a routine on its Lavinia Milosovici for posing topless in a Japanese difficulty and the other awards marks for the proficiency of its execution. fashion magazine. Each floor exercise routine must feature certain required elements (such as the reverse salto, or backward somersault) and is assigned a start value. 15 The number of Olympic medals (seven gold, This varies but is generally about 9.4. Every acrobatic and dance element carries a set value, ranging from A (the easiest) to G. Bonus points may five silver, three bronze) won by Russian gymnast be awarded to competitors who successfully perform all the required Nikolay Andrianov. Floor exercise brought him two of elements at whatever level. However, any slight loss of balance or his golds (at Munich in 1972 and Montreal in 1976) incorrect body line spotted by the judges will lose marks. and a bronze in 1980 in Moscow. He held the men’s record for most Olympic medals until 2008, when Michael Phelps increased his tally to 22. WAYS TO GLOW COSMOPOLITAN RED STAR A high-scoring floor routine will feature dazzling acrobatic skills, SOVIET GYMNAST NELLIE KIM, FLOOR particularly in the tumbling, which includes dynamic combinations of EXERCISE GOLD MEDALIST AT THE 1976 turns, leaps, springs, and somersaults all linked together in a fluid sequence. OLYMPICS, WAS USUALLY DESCRIBED IN THE Acrobatics must be combined with expressive dance movements. The WEST AS “RUSSIAN.” IN FACT, SHE WAS HALF required elements of floor exercises include a turn of 560°, front and back KOREAN AND HALF TATAR, BORN IN TAJIKISTAN tumbling, and a double salto (somersault). Female gymnasts can end their AND TRAINED IN KAZAKHSTAN. tumbles in lunge position (with one foot in front of the other); male gymnasts must land in the stuck position (both feet firmly together). Torso torque Star jump Angle poise The back handspring It is not enough just The lower body and is powered by the to lift the arms: they legs appear to be muscles in the lower must be raised and driving down while back, which are bent the arms stretch as far as they will go lowered together upward and outward BACK HANDSPRING SPLIT LEAP HOLD THAT POSE! In this move, the gymnast starts from a standing The gymnast aims to do the splits in midair, with While the main object of any floor exercise is a fluent position and leaps backward onto her hands and both legs parallel to the floor; extra points are and aesthetically pleasing sequence of moves, there then springs off her hands to land upright again. awarded if the arms are also parallel. The landing should be moments when the gymnasts strike poses. This move is sometimes known as a flic-flac or should be delicate and segue seamlessly into the Even though these last for only an instant, they are a flip-flop and is often seen in tumbling routines. next part of the routine. scored according to the beauty of their execution. REVERSE DOUBLE SALTO Sharper angle Stuck landing A double salto (double somersault) is one of the required elements At the apex of the second flip, the The gymnast in the floor exercises. This gymnast is performing her salto in the completes the pike position, with the legs held close to the torso. gymnast brings her legs up tight to her trunk move by standing stock still (no Launch and descent Right angle steps allowed) The gymnast stands on As she starts the her toes and stretches return to the upright and raising both her arms above her position, her legs hands above head, then performs are at 90° to her her head the first backflip torso Higher aim Hands down Tuck up Final approach As she launches As she flips Hands clasped The hands come into the first back again, the behind the knees, down to the somersault, the gymnast brings the gymnast outside of gymnast goes her arms down brings her body the thighs in for maximum parallel around again preparation for elevation the landing
NEED2KNOW BAR EVENTS After many years of Eastern European domination, modern Olympic bar champions EVENT OVERVIEW are just as likely to come from the West. At the The three bar disciplines—uneven bars, parallel bars, and 2004 Games, Émilie Lepennec of France took horizontal bar—require different skills, but all place huge gold in the uneven bars, and Italy’s Igor Cassina physical demands on gymnasts’ ability to move seamlessly and won the horizontal bar event. gracefully while at times supporting their swinging bodyweight The outstanding nation at the 2011 World Artistic with only one arm. The uneven bars are exclusively for women, Gymnastics Championships was China. and only men compete on the horizontal and parallel bars. HAND GRIPS The latest alternative to bandages, these grips are strapped to the wrists. The upper sections are made of leather, which flexes into the palms of the gymnasts’ hands and up through the top of their fingers. This prevents blisters and slippage on the apparatus. Fingerhole grips Wrist straps Hand protectors The devices are normally have secured around two or three finger sockets the wrists RAISING THE BAR In all three events, the height of the bar or bars is measured from the ground rather than from the surface of the rubber mat, which may be up to 74⁄5 in (20 cm) thick to ensure soft landings and provide a cushion in case of a fall. PARALLEL BARS 1(64¼2––52201c⁄2min) 11 ft 6 in (3.5 m) The parallel bars are made Nonslip of laminated wood or plastic Adjustable 6 ft 6 in (2 m) Men’s leggings or a combination of both; Some parallel bar they should be hygroscopic apparatuses may always have (absorb moisture) so that be adjustable footstraps or they do not become Rubber mat sewn-in feet to slippery. The uprights May be up to 7½ in prevent them may be made of any (20 cm) thick from riding up weight-bearing material but during routines. are normally iron or steel. They have strong The height and width are elastic at the adjustable for junior events. waist for the same reason HORIZONTAL BAR 7 ft 10½ in (2.4 m) The apparatus is made of high-tensile steel and Uprights 9 ft 1 in (2.8 m) mounted on floor plates to The uprights may displace the force of the be adjustable so gymnasts’ movement. It that the height may also be held upright can be altered by four tension cables Body wear anchored to the floor. The Safety mat Men wear sleeveless two uprights are usually of Covers the area tops to maximize the equal thickness. The bar is below the bar 1 in (2.4 cm) in diameter. maneuverability of It may be any color. 3(1i.n3––51.f8t 10 in 7 ft 10½ in (2.4 m) the shoulders; in the UNEVEN BARS m) The uneven or asymmetric 4 ft uneven bars event, bars are made of wood, women wear leotards plastic, or composite 5 ft 6 in (1.7 m) materials. Whatever their 8 ft 1½ in Firm grip composition, they should be (2.5 m) Gymnasts may tape their absorbent and must not be hands with bandages, wear treated with lacquer or Side struts leather grips, or chalk them to polish that would make Prevent bars from moving prevent sweat, which might them slippery. The frame is make them lose their grip of metal or steel. The uprights may be secured with floor-mounted guys.
SWINGOMETRY TAKING PART IN EVENTS GYMNASTICS High-bar routines involve various held positions linked by Bar routines are a compulsory part of artistic gymnastic spectacular swings and turns. Horizontal bar exercises feature competitions and in international events are performed in at least 11 skills, including giant swings with a variety of holds a particular order. Men must compete in both the parallel and turns and releases and regrasps. bars and horizontal bar events, following a floor routine, pommel horse, rings, and vault. For women, the bar routine On the uneven bars, gymnasts must show skills from is part of a four-discipline competition that follows the order five element groups, including a release and regrasp and of: vault, uneven bars, balance beam, and floor exercise. transition moves where they pass from bar to bar. Gymnasts Gymnasts compete both as team members and as individuals. are expected to swing “fluidly” and to “hold” their handstands. HORIZONTAL BAR Toes up A MOVE TOO RADICAL Gymnasts must not touch the bar Held positions such AT THE 1972 OLYMPICS, SOVIET STAR OLGA KORBUT with their bodies. Routines should as this must be WOWED THE JUDGES BY STANDING ON THE HIGHER include forward and backward symmetrical UNEVEN BAR, DOING A BACKFLIP, AND CATCHING THE BAR swings using continuous AGAIN. THE SPORT’S WORLD GOVERNING BODY DECIDED movement—over and under THAT THE MOVE WAS TOO DIFFICULT FOR MERE MORTALS BAR EVENTS the bar—with multiple changes AND PROMPTLY OUTLAWED IT. of grip. The bar should be frequently released and regrasped throughout. UNEVEN BARS Side strut DISMOUNT WITH FLOURISH After a few preliminary swings to Prevents bars from When gymnasts come to the end of a horizontal bar routine, they often build up momentum, gymnasts bending away dismount with an aerial flourish that involves spectacular flips or twists perform sequences of movements from each other during the final descent to the mat. Dismounts from the parallel and in both directions above and Flailing legs uneven bars necessarily have less chance of being spectacular below the bars. All routines should Legs should be together because they are from lower heights. But, no matter which apparatus, feature twists and somersaults it still takes immense skill to achieve the “stuck” landing on both feet that can be executed only with and with no steps to maintain balance. alterations of grip. Flight movements between the bars SWINGOMETRY should be as high and as On all bar events, judges award points in four categories: difficulty, spectacular as possible. form, technique, and composition. They deduct points for execution PARALLEL BARS errors, poor body shape, falls, pauses, and “empty” swings that break On this equipment, gymnasts the sequence of an exercise. The dismount is often crucial. A good one must combine swinging can turn a competent performance into a medal winner; a stumble on movements with held positions landing can ruin everything. that display their strength. They must use the whole length of the Point of release Poised rotation bars and move above and below The release comes at the From an upright them. Bonus points can be gained start of the descent. The by performing somersaults and body flips back and over, held handstand, the other particularly difficult moves. allowing the gymnast to gymnast proceeds face forward on landing through a 360º loop PEOPLE POWER Upward force WHEN ALEXEI NEMOV OF RUSSIA SCORED A MODEST 9.725 Natural momentum ON A HORIZONTAL BAR ROUTINE AT THE 2004 OLYMPICS IN ATHENS, THE CROWD ERUPTED IN NOISY PROTESTS, propels the body FORCING THE JUDGES TO RECONFER. EVENTUALLY, THEY forward UPPED THE POINTS TO 9.762, BUT THE UPROAR CONTINUED, AND IT TOOK APPEALS FOR CALM FROM NEMOV HIMSELF BEFORE THE EVENT COULD PROCEED. SIDELINES 4 The number of artistic gymnastics 16 533. The points score of 5'55\" The height, in feet (1.65 m), medals won by Alfred Flatow at the first the Dutch gymnast Epke Zonderland when modern Olympics in 1896. He took gold he took the gold medal in the horizontal of Russian Svetlana Khorkina, who was told in the parallel bars, silver in the horizontal bar at the 2012 Olympics in London. that she was too tall to make it as a gymnast. bar, and shared another two gold medals with fellow members of the German 0 100. The difference, in points 6 The number of moves in the official team that triumphed in the parallel bars and horizontal bar events. No other scored, between the gold medal winner He Code of Points named after Svetlana Khorkina, gymnast has since matched Flatow’s Kexin of China and fourth-place Beth uneven bars gold medal winner at the 1996 amazing achievement. Tweddle of Great Britain in the uneven bars and 2000 Olympics. No other gymnast has final at the 2008 Olympics. ever had so many.
POMMEL HORSE EVENT OVERVIEW PLASTIC HORSE 63 in (1.6 m) Gymnasts on the pommel horse perform Originally a metal frame with a a fluid sequence of circular and pendulum wooden body and a leather cover, 1(335¾cmin) leg swings without any pauses. They touch the modern pommel horse is the horse and the pommels (handles) typically made of plastic and 45¼ in (1.15 m) 12 in only with their hands, which go through covered with nonslip synthetic (30 cm) complex changes of position. Athletes material. The handles may be have to perfect the artistry and technical metal but are commonly plastic. Keeping cool composition of their routines. The landing mat on which the Lightweight cotton is pommel horse stands is about comfortable and doesn’t POMMEL 9½ in (20 cm) thick. impair movement. A PARAMETERS one-piece leotard is The performer must use every part 15¾–17¾ in sometimes worn instead of the top of the horse but can touch (40–45 cm) it only with his hands, “walking” back Dry grip and forth along it. At least one part of Wristbands prevent a routine must be performed while sweat from the arms holding only one of the handles. Although running onto the hands there is no rule about whether movements and loosening the grip should be clockwise or counterclockwise, most gymnasts show moves in both 4¾ in directions. Among the optional elements, (12 cm) the most common are spindles (180° turns) and flares, or swinging straddles with legs on either side of the horse. MARKING CRITERIA The precise scoring criteria for the horse are altered regularly by the world governing body, the FIG. Whatever the specifics, every competitor starts his routine with a combined score made up of the degree of difficulty (the D-score), which in theory is unlimited, and a score of 10.0 for execution, artistry, and technique (the E-score). The judges deduct marks from the E-score if any part of the apparatus is favored excessively or omitted altogether. The absence of scissor movements is particularly heavily penalized. Nice legs Stirrup tights are worn principally for comfort but also to accentuate the artistic lines of the gymnast’s movements NEED2KNOW Horse sense Pommels are named The pommel horse is probably the most for their resemblance difficult of the six male artistic gymnastic to the high front of events. It is the only one in which contestants some horse saddles do not pause or hold a pose during a routine. The pommel horse is still a men-only event at top level, but women also use the apparatus, both recreationally and competitively.
RINGS Supporting cable GYMNASTICS Plastic-covered steel cables provide strength and flexibility NEED2KNOW The rings are one of the male-only Hand grips RINGS gymnastics events. Comprising a strip of leather Ring exercises usually last around with finger holes and a wrist 90 seconds; they are so demanding strap, hand grips used with that few gymnasts could support chalk give a better grip themselves for longer. The event used to be referred to as the Roman rings, suggesting origins in Italy, but the first recorded use was in 19th-century Germany. EVENT OVERVIEW Tank top Tight leggings Reinforcements The rings, or still rings, are one of the most varied A light cotton Leggings nearly Wrist guards of cotton gymnastic events, taking the gymnast from gravity- tank top is worn defying holds and swings to spectacular aerial always have or foam padding are dismounts in which momentum spins him far above footstraps worn under grips to the height of the apparatus before he lands. Judges absorb sweat running look for a technically difficult and varied program down from the arms that is well executed by the gymnast. onto the hands IN SUSPENSE HANGING RINGS 18 ft 10 in (5.75 m) Judges look for a combination of swings and held Two moisture-absorbent rings, 7 in 9 ft (2.75 m) positions, including at least two handstands. One is (18 cm) in diameter and 1 in (2.8 cm) thick, 20 in (50 cm) entered forward from a position with the arms held are suspended on ropes or cables from at 45° before straightening out, the other exactly either the ceiling or a free-standing frame. the same but entered backward. The legs may be Safety stewards check that they are secure held either together or wide apart. There must be at between each round of every competition. least one front lever hold, with the legs held out at A rubber mat about 8 in (20 cm) thick is 90° in front of the torso. placed directly beneath the rings. SCORING Ring tower Judges deduct points for technical mistakes, but also for A simple steel frame supports the rings whatever strikes them as “unaesthetic,” such as too much Landing mat ring and rope movement. Even falling off the rings is not Soft, thick, and wide enough to cushion necessarily disastrous since the gymnast can remount the even the most flamboyant landing apparatus and loses only 0.5 of the 10 points available. A QUESTION INVERTED CROSS FLAT OUT HANDSTAND PLANCHE MALTESE OF TENSION The legs are held together with the A horizontal position should be held for After performing a handstand, the Success on the rings requires arms starting close together and at least two seconds but not disrupt the legs and body are lowered so they maximum tension be kept on pushing slowly apart. The movement flow of a routine. The rings and ropes are horizontal to the floor; the the cables at all times. This requires great control and strength. should remain as still as possible. arms are held at 45°. stops them from swinging and keeps the rings as still as possible to offer a solid support for the gymnast. Forward and backward swings are performed quickly to limit the time when there is no pressure on the rings.
NEED2KNOW BEAM The balance beam is traditionally for women only. It is EVENT OVERVIEW widely believed that men do not compete because of the The beam demands a supreme display of balance. danger it poses to their genitals; in fact, the distinction On a perilously narrow bar, gymnasts perform leaps, is only by tradition. turns, and flips that most people would find Some of the stunning feats practiced on this apparatus impossible, even on the ground. There is a panel of are all the more amazing in light of the fact that they are judges who looks for technical and artistic skills, carried out on a surface only 4 in (10 cm) wide. dance elements, leaps, and held poses. Dry skin Chalk may be applied EQUIPMENT SETUP to hands and feet to Balance beams were traditionally made of polished wood. reduce risk of sweat They still are wooden, but today they are sprung and covered causing gymnasts to in suede to make contact softer. The rubber mats beneath the slip on the beam beams should extend as far as possible for safe landings. Close crop End to end 16 ft 5 in (5 m) 4 ft 1 in Hair must be short or Gymnasts must make full use (1.25 m) tied up tightly: points may be deducted for of the whole length of the flopping locks beam during their routines Color combinations Leotards may be of any color but are commonly in team or national colors Barefoot balance (104cimn ) Competitors do not wear any kind of shoes, which would Inclusive height affect the sensitive contact The distance between the ground and the with the beam required for upper surface of the beam includes 2 in complete control (5 cm), the thickness of the rubber mat KEY MOVES STRIKE A BALANCE The compulsory elements of the 90-second routine include a 360° turn and a leap with a 180° leg split. There must also be an acrobatic sequence with at least two flight Competitors must perform a sections, during which the gymnast must leave the bar and then return to it mixture of compulsory and in a smooth movement without stumbling or groping to maintain balance. optional moves. These include acrobatic elements, in which No flapping Confidence they leave the beam altogether; Arm moves must To somersault on strength elements, such as not be jerky the beam requires the double leg lift; gymnastic lots of confidence elements (turns, leaps, steps, and runs); balance elements Head up (holding sitting, standing, or lying Wobbling costs positions); and dance steps. points Judges look for elegance, Off beam flexibility, rhythm, balance, The beam exercise tempo, and self-control. Points often ends with a are lost for not doing required somersault elements, supporting a leg against the side of the beam, or DOUBLE LEG LIFT WORK OF ART SOMERSAULT pausing more than three times. In this strength element that also Balance elements must be adopted Routines may include a step-over requires perfect balance, the gymnast smoothly and maintained steadily; the somersault during which the gymnast puts her weight on palms and wrists pose itself must be shapely and must keep her head perpendicular to and brings her knees up to her face. aesthetically pleasing. the beam to maintain balance.
NEED2KNOW GYMNASTICS VAULT Vaulting is an event for both sexes; the equipment is largely the same, although the men’s vaulting table is EVENT OVERVIEW 4 in (10 cm) higher than the women’s. VAULTING Vaulters take a fast run-up of up to 27 yards The traditional vaulting horse has given way to the (about 25 m) before leaping off a springboard vaulting table to reduce the risk of accidents. The onto their hands on the vault table. They use their greater surface area is safer for complicated vaults. momentum to perform different midair moves Leotard before landing squarely on both feet. From takeoff, Vaulters wear a vault takes no more than about two seconds. long-sleeved leotards or two-piece FLIGHT PLAN Lycra outfits Speed of approach and power off the springboard generate the height and rotation to perform different styles of vaults. Vaults may incorporate Hands-on moves such as somersaults and pikes, full spins of the body in the Both hands must be in air, quarter-turns between the springboard and the table, or running handstands to flip from the floor onto the springboard. The landing is an contact with the important part of the vault. The feet should be together but often one vaulting table foot is moved forward or to one side and back again for balance. Increased safety SCORE 3 ft 11 in (1.2 m) The collar of the Gymnasts usually take 3 ft 11⁄2 in (95 cm) two vaults, one after vaulting table was the other. Two panels of Men: 4 ft 5 in (1.35 m); introduced to increase judges mark each vault Women: 4 ft 1 in (1.25 m) in two categories: the athlete safety D-score for degree of difficulty and the E-score for technique, execution, and landing. Judges look for clean takeoffs and landings, height through the air, and precise movements at each stage. THE YURCHENKO VAULT Heavy duty In this vault, the gymnast spins immediately The base of the table is after takeoff, then does a backward padded and heavily weighted handspring off the table followed by either a for safety and stability tuck or a spectacular double twisting flip in midair. The move ends with the compulsory THE LAST STRAW FOR THE HORSE landing: stock-still with both feet together. WHAT IS NOW THE VAULTING TABLE USED TO BE THE VAULTING HORSE. SIDELINES THE CHANGE WAS MAINLY MADE FOR SAFETY REASONS, BUT THE CATALYST 0.031 The number of points by which Spaniard Gervasio Deferr beat his WAS A MIX-UP AT THE 2000 OLYMPIC nearest rival, Evgeni Sapronenko of Latvia, to the gold medal at the 2004 Olympics in GAMES IN SYDNEY, WHERE 18 WOMEN Athens, Greece. Deferr scored a total of 9.737 out of a maximum possible 10 points. PERFORMED BEFORE SOMEONE NOTICED THAT THE EQUIPMENT 4 The number of vaulters who have won gold at consecutive Olympics: Nikolai WAS SET 2 IN (5 CM) TOO HIGH. Adrianov (Soviet Union; 1976 and 1980), Yun Lou (China; 1984 and 1988), Gervasio Deferr (Spain; 2000 and 2004), and Vera Caslavska (Czechoslovakia; 1964 and 1968).
Neat hair RHYTHMIC Hair must be GYMNASTICS neat and fastened back from the face Rope trick EVENT OVERVIEW Whatever apparatus is In this combination of gymnastics and used in a routine, it must ballet, competitors—either singly or in remain in constant motion teams—perform graceful choreographed routines to music while working with All in one different types of handheld apparatus: club, Gymnasts normally wear a hoop, ball, rope, and ribbon. The sport is leotard or unitard, sometimes dominated by women, although a few men also compete, especially in Japan. with an attached skirt PERFORMANCE AREA Known as the platform, this is a carpeted area similar to but larger than that used for gymnastic floor exercises. The ceiling must be at least 26 ft (8 m) and preferably 32 ft 6 in (10 m) above the ground so that the items of apparatus can be thrown as high as possible. On the floor Judges Gymnasts must Between five and 12 judges assess both use the entire the composition of the competitor’s marked-out area routine and her skill in executing it Precise balance 42 ft 6 in (13 m) The gymnast must adopt a variety of 49 ft (15 m) poses to show balance and grace Slippers Gymnasts perform in special soft slippers or in bare feet COMPETITOR “GRACE WITHOUT DANCING” NEED2KNOW PROFILE RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS HAS ITS ORIGINS As for any gymnastic IN EXERCISES DEVELOPED IN THE 19TH Rhythmic gymnastics competitions take place at discipline, competitors CENTURY TO PROMOTE SELF-EXPRESSION national and international levels; the discipline has must have a strong, FOR YOUNG WOMEN—“GRACE WITHOUT been an Olympic sport since 1984. flexible body. In addition, DANCING.” A KEY FIGURE IN THE The world governing body of rhythmic gymnastics is the rhythmic gymnasts need EVOLUTION OF THE SPORT WAS US Fédération International de Gymnastique (FIG), which finely tuned hand-eye DANCER ISADORA DUNCAN, WHO sets the rules for competitions and also trains judges. coordination for REJECTED WHAT SHE SAW AS THE Acrobatic movements such as those used by artistic manipulating the RESTRICTIONS OF CLASSICAL BALLET TO gymnasts do not necessarily find favor with rhythmic apparatus and an CREATE A FREER FORM OF MOVEMENT. gymnastic judges, and some movements—such as instinctive appreciation handsprings—are banned in competitions. of music and rhythm.
PERFORMING PARAMETERS Club size GYMNASTICS Each routine is accompanied by music chosen by the Clubs are 16–20 in competitor and should last 75–90 seconds for an individual Hand hold RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS and 135–150 seconds for teams. Gymnasts perform with four The ribbon (40–50 cm) out of the five pieces of apparatus. Each year, the sport’s is attached in length governing body decides which apparatus is to be excluded. to a short CLUBS SITTING IN JUDGMENT stick Bottle-shaped clubs are swung, spun, Although the number of judges may vary, it is never fewer than five. RIBBON tossed, and caught to demonstrate One judge or group of judges takes into account the degree of difficulty The ribbon, which may be more than dexterity and hand-eye coordination. in a routine, another considers the choreography and artistry, and 20 ft (6 m) long, snakes and swirls as a third evaluates how well the routine was executed and how many the gymnast performs her routine. technical mistakes were made. A judge coordinator oversees the panel and collates the points, while a chief judge supervises the whole competition and has the last word in any dispute. SCORING Bouncy Rigid ring In individual competitions, the maximum possible score is 20 points The rubber ball is The hoop is made of for each of the four pieces of apparatus being used, made up of a 7–8 in (18–20 cm) rigid wood or plastic maximum 10 points for execution and a combined maximum of 10 and may be wound points taken as an average of the technical difficulty and artistic in diameter around with colored marks. In group competitions, the gymnasts’ scores are added together to give the team total. adhesive tape THE APPARATUS On the move Fancy feet The rules and requirements for using the apparatus are All movements Hoop moves precise, and each piece makes specific physical and should be balanced include jumps, intellectual demands. The rope is an explosive, dynamic pivots, and apparatus that calls for leaps and skipping. The ball is gentler held poses and more lyrical, possibly the easiest piece of apparatus to perform with, while clubs test the gymnast’s coordination. BALL HOOP With the ribbon, a performer needs grace and dexterity to The gymnast is not allowed to grip the Competition rules require the hoop create dazzling colored images in the air. Handling the ball but must keep it moving: bouncing to be rotated around the body, thrown, hoop arguably requires the greatest technical skill. it, tossing it, and rolling it around her caught, and swung. Using the hoop is body and on the floor. a difficult skill to master. The clubs and balls were originally made of wood, the hoops of rubber, the ropes of hemp, and the ribbons of satin; INSIDE STORY the modern apparatus is nearly always made of synthetic By the early 20th century, various forms of exercise to music materials such as plastics. had combined in the Swedish school of rhythmic gymnastics. DRESS CODE Although the sport had been introduced to the United States, There are strict costume regulations, and competitors can it aroused little interest. At first, the only signs of growing lose points for not adhering to them. An outfit (and apparatus) popularity were in the former Soviet Union. There, rhythmic cannot be colored gold, silver, or bronze. There are rules gymnastics championships were held from 1948 onward. regarding the pattern and material of a leotard and even the The first international competition took place eight years cut of the garment’s leg or neckline. Points will be deducted later, but the event was admitted to the Olympics only in for wearing jewelry or a nonmatching hair band. In a group 1984 (1996 for group routines). Since then, competitors routine, all the gymnasts must wear identical outfits. from Spain, Italy, and Brazil have challenged the traditional dominance of Eastern European countries. SIDELINES 1 500, The monthly salary in 105 The number of gold medals 16 The age at which gymnasts qualify US dollars offered in 2007 for a Russian or won by Russia at the Rhythmic Gymnastics Ukrainian coach to help develop rhythmic World Championships between 1963 for senior events. Their performing careers gymnastics in Vietnam by teaching schoolgirls. and 2018. are very short. Most rhythmic gymnasts peak in their late teens or early twenties; 1 The number of gold, silver, or bronze medals 2 000, The estimated number only a handful continue past the age of 30. awarded in the all-around group competition at of top-class rhythmic gymnasts in the 14.1 The weight, in ounces the World Championships. Teams include three world today, according to the International or four gymnasts, so they just have to share. Gymnastics Federation. (400 g), of the rhythmic gymnastics ball.
TRAMPOLINING SPORT OVERVIEW Early start Trampolining is a recreational and competitive Many trampolinists develop sport in which individuals perform acrobatics while their skills and power while bouncing on a spring-bound bed. With gymnastic relatively young, often between routines full of twists, turns, and elaborate moves 9 and 14 years of age reminiscent of diving, the sport is popular in the Body control countries of Europe and the former Soviet Union, Trampolinists can control as well as the United States, Japan, and China. the muscle tension in their Trampolinists compete in individual and team limbs, shoulders, trunk, events, including synchronized trampolining, and abdomen double mini-trampolining, and tumble tracking. Clothing Competitors usually prefer to wear leotards and trampolining shoes. Men may wear a T-shirt and tight-fitting pants NEED2KNOW COMPETITOR PROFILE The trampoline was invented by George Nissen in the Regular and intense training United States in the 1930s. He named it after the keeps trampolinists physically Spanish word “trampolin,” which means diving board. and mentally fit and enables The minimum height of the ceiling in a competition hall them to develop timing, is 26.25 ft (8 m) to allow trampolinists plenty of room to coordination, and rhythmic complete their routines safely. movements. The ability to During World War II, the United States Navy Flight School achieve precise balance and used trampolines to increase the aerial awareness of body control while rotating trainee pilots. through the air leads to increased self-confidence. THE TRAMPOLINE Padding Red cross Jumping zone Modern trampolines are safe and stable, providing Around the bed, A cross 28 in The jumping zone good control in the jumping zone and rebound padding protects (70 cm) in diameter is 86 in (215 cm) characteristics that generate the height needed for the trampolinist marks the center long and 43.2 in aerial maneuvers. It consists of a flexible jumping from injury (108 cm) wide bed that is constructed from nylon bands kept of the zone under tension by the surrounding springs. A steel frame supports the bed and raises it off the ground. 7.1 ft (2.14 m) LEARNING SKILLS 14.2 ft (4.28 m) Beginners learn basic skills such as jumping with knees pulled up and landing on their front and back. Intermediate skills include front and back somersaults. Advanced skills include double or triple somersaults and precision moves in fractions, such as one- and three-quarter back somersaults and somersaults with half twists. THE DIVING FOOL SIDELINES 3 333, The world record LARRY GRISWOLD WORKED WITH GEORGE NISSEN IN THE EARLY DAYS OF TRAMPOLINES 18.00 The world record for the number of consecutive AND LATER BECAME KNOWN AS THE DIVING somersaults, achieved by Brian FOOL FOR THE ENTERTAINING ACROBATICS, degree of difficulty score for Hudson in September 2003 at TUMBLING STUNTS, AND CLOWNING TRICKS men, recorded by Jason Burnett the Jumpers rebound center in HE PERFORMED IN A SWIMMING POOL, ON of Canada at a 2010 World Gillingham, UK. The previous A DIVING BOARD, AND ON TRAMPOLINES. Cup event. record was 3,025.
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS SCORING POINTS GYMNASTICS Individual men and women, as well as teams, compete The scoring system judges use at trampolining competitions regularly in international trampolining events such as the may vary, but essentially they assess the style and execution annual World Cup and the World Championship, which of a routine. They look for such aesthetic elements as began in 1964 and alternates every two years with the cleanliness of form, consistency of height, and continuity European Championship and the Pan-Pacific Championship. of movement. They also award points when a trampolinist Trampolining became an Olympic event at Sydney in 2000. achieves moves that have a certain degree of difficulty. BODY SHAPES PUCK TRAMPOLINING Trampolining routines consist of a sequence of acrobatic movements in the air, This body position is a combination punctuated with contact with the trampoline bed. The aerial movements feature of the pike and tuck positions. The puck rotations and jumps with three main body shapes—the tuck, straight, and pike— position is allowed during competitions of varying degrees of difficulty. Longitudinal rotations create somersaults, while when performing multitwisting lateral rotations produce twists. The moves are initiated by taking off and landing multiple somersaults. maneuvers on the bed that involve the trampolinist’s front, back, feet, or seat. TUCK PIKE STRAIGHT The tuck is a body shape formed when the The pike is formed when the trampolinist keeps both The straight is formed when the trampolinist keeps trampolinist clasps the knees with the hands and legs straight and together and folds the body toward the body as straight as possible, with both legs pulls them toward the chest. The tuck is often them, while holding the calf muscles as far down the together, while holding the hands and arms along performed at the top of a straight jump. leg as possible. the sides of the body. Lower limbs Ankles and legs Feet together The lower limbs The trampolinist Keeping the from the toe to keeps the ankles and feet together the knees are legs together ensures the parallel with legs are straight the body Arms to the sides Head The arms and hands The head leans are kept straight and forward toward are held firmly along the chest the sides of the body DOUBLE MINI- 66 ft (20 m) 82 ft (25 m)TUMBLE TRACK Head back TRAMPOLINE As competitors run up the track, they The trampolinist Competitors run up the track, mount the perform a routine of 8 tumbling elements keeps the neck curved bed, and perform two moves that include that are marked for good control, form, with the head back up to 3 contacts with the bed. They then and tempo. They finish their routine in dismount onto the landing zone. the landing zone. INSIDE STORY The World Age-Group Games are Landing zone Landing zone held in the same year and the same The landing zone in The landing zone location as the World Championships. the soft landing area A maximum of 80 athletes from each measures 13.12 ft is 19.7 ft (6 m) federation affiliated to FIG (see below) (4 m) by 6.56 ft (2 m) by 9.8 ft (3 m) are permitted to compete. Some games Trampoline entertain as many as 800 athletes. The trampoline has a Padding Participating athletes are boys and sloped end and a flat Tumblers are girls who compete in four age groups: bed and is 9.35 ft protected by soft 11–12, 13–14, 15–16, and 17–18. (2.85 m) long padding around They compete in individual trampoline, the landing area synchronized trampoline, double Run-up mini-trampoline, and tumbling. The run-up is covered Run-up with floor mats 3.28 ft The run-up track is GOVERNING BODY (1 m) wide and 1 in sprung and padded The Fédération Internationale (2.5 cm) thick de Gymnastique (FIG) is the world’s oldest sports federation. Formed in 1884, it governs the various sports in competitive gymnastics, including trampolining.
NEED2KNOW PERFORMANCE ZONE Acrobats perform on either a rubber mat or a carpeted The World Championships of Sports Acrobatics have sprung floor. The judges sit together so that they have the been held annually since the first event, which was same line of vision and can easily confer. organized by the International Federation of Sports Acrobatics (IFSA) in Moscow in 1974. Sports acrobatics Juries (2) 39.3 ft (12 m) 39.3 ft (12 m) featured as a demonstration sport at the 2000 Olympic The decisions of Safety zone Games in Sydney. the juries are final Around the performance zone is a The sport is most popular in Russia and China, but Chair of judges’ panel safety zone 3.25 ft (1 m) wide. participation has grown in many other countries, Takes overview and rules including the US and the UK. on any dispute Sports acrobatics is also known as acrobatic Difficulty judges (2) gymnastics, or acro. It has close links with more Determine the difficulty conventional gymnastics, and there is increasing value of an exercise crossover between the two disciplines. Execution judges (4) Deduct points (from 10.0) for technical shortcomings Artistic judges (4) Deduct marks (from 5.0) for artistic faults Top man Flexible footwear RULES OF PERFORMANCE In men’s groups, the Shoes should be soft, Sports acrobatics has five events: men’s pairs, women’s acrobat who takes up flexible, and supportive; pairs, mixed pairs, women’s triples, and men’s quadruples. positions at the top of they are usually white Competitors perform three routines to show off different a pyramid is smaller skills, each a maximum of 2½ minutes. The routines focus and lighter than other on balance, dynamism, and a combination of both of these, members of the team respectively. The sequences need to be highly precise; a panel of officials is watching intently (see above). Middle man The acrobat at ACROBATIC SKILLS the heart of the Competitions have three sections, each of which is designed to balancing act highlight one aspect of acrobatics and showcase certain key skills needs both of the different members of the pair or team. strength and suppleness BALANCE ROUTINE Teams adopt and hold complex poses, including Firm base human pyramids. The positions must be held for three seconds. The biggest DYNAMIC ROUTINE Also known as the tempo routine, this part and strongest of the event is more energetic than the balance section. Acrobats members of throw their partners in somersaults, for example, and carry out the team technically demanding tumbling rapidly. form the COMBINED ROUTINE The third routine should be a tour-de-force foundation that combines the skills of the first two parts in a spectacular display. Lycra clothing COMPETITOR PROFILE One- or two-piece Team members usually complement each other: outfit made of Lycra acrobats at the base are tall and strong, while or similar stretchy the “flyers” who stand on or spring off them are material small and supple. All acrobats have a strong HUMAN PYRAMID sense of rhythm, so they make good dancers. Points are awarded for technique and artistry Stabilizer EVENT OVERVIEW in this balance routine. Takes up position Sports acrobatics combines the strength, balance, and grace of gymnastics with teamwork and a musical accompaniment. after the middle Two or more acrobats perform choreographed sequences of man has stepped balancing acts, handsprings, somersaults, and tumbles, onto the base man earning points for execution and artistic impression. SPORTS ACROBATICS
NEED2KNOW SPORTS GYMNASTICS AEROBICS Sports aerobics, also called aerobic gymnastics, developed from Regulation clothing traditional aerobics exercises. Women wear tights; men Trios and groups can be all men, all wear a one- or two-piece women, or mixed, but pairs are form-fitting outfit always mixed. Six team members SPORT OVERVIEW make up a group. Aerobics is a fitness program that became a sport. In 2006, Jinping Ao from China Gymnasts—alone or in pairs, trios, or groups—execute SPORTS AEROBICS became the world men’s champion. routines that must show dynamic and static strength, Elmira Dassaeva from Spain became jumping ability, flexibility, and balance. the world women’s champion. PERFORMANCE AREA OBEYING THE Sports aerobic competitions are held on sprung wooden floors. The RULES performance area measures 23 x 23 ft (7 x 7 m) for individuals, pairs, and Accompanied by a vigorous piece trios. Groups compete on a larger area measuring 33 x 33 ft (10 x 10 m). of music that they have chosen themselves, gymnasts perform a Safety zone Line judges (2) continuous routine that should last A safety zone 3¼ ft (1 m) Watch for overstepping exactly 1 minute 45 seconds. Using wide surrounds the area the edge of the mat the entire performance area and moving rhythmically with the music, 23 ft (7 m) 33 ft (10 m) Cushioned footwear they must demonstrate at least 8 Shoes and socks must be but no more than 12 compulsory white; they should be able elements, including supports, levers, to absorb the impact of jumps, leaps, flexibility, and turns. landing after jumps They have to perform at least two elements from push-ups, free falls, COMPETITOR PROFILE and circles with the legs and display Gymnasts need a high level of cardiovascular capacity. artistic beauty and originality. Outstanding performers tend to be loose-limbed and can move quickly and elegantly in time to music. They all SCORING have superb coordination and suppleness. Competitors start with 10 points, the maximum possible, and the panel of Artistic judges (4) Execution Difficulty Time judge Chair of judges’ judges deducts points for errors. For Assess creative judges (4) judges (4) Deducts points for panel example, they lose 0.2 points for every originality of programs Mark technical Mark performance programs that are too Controls the work of group element they miss and 1.0 point proficiency on strict criteria long or too short the other judges for performing prohibited moves. FLOOR MOVES The splits INSIDE This move STORY A routine has to include at least one element from each of four groups, demonstrates Aerobics became demonstrating flexibility and balance, dynamic strength, static strength, established as a fitness and jumping. Competitors also have to present the seven basic steps: flexibility routine during the late march, jog, skip, knee lift, kick, jumping jack, and lunge. JUMPS 1960s, with its greatest The range of leaps and jumps champion being actress Right foot Holding still includes scissors, straddles, Jane Fonda. At first, aerobics The right leg is One leg is brought and splits (above). struggled to gain credibility held vertically so forward, showing as a sport but gradually the foot touches strength and Out straight achieved acceptance and the right hand suppleness The legs are held horizontally was eventually recognized by the Fédération Internationale Left leg Arm strength Hands de Gymnastics (FIG) in 1994. One leg is held still The whole body is Both hands The first sports aerobics support the body World Championships to support the held by one arm were held in Paris, weight of the body France, in 1995. More than 70 FIG affiliates include HIGH KICK THE CAPOEIRA STATIC SUPPORT aerobics within their The hip of the raised leg is flexed This move demonstrates dynamic The weight of the body is taken gymnastics program. up to 180° while the knee stays strength, an attribute which the on the hands while the gymnast straight and the toes pointed. judges are looking for. performs the splits in midair.
WEIGHTLIFTING NEED2KNOW EVENT OVERVIEW Competitors lift bars, known as barbells, loaded at each Weightlifting was a sport at the first modern Olympics end with weights. They are allowed three attempts at any in 1896. It reappeared in 1904 and became a regular one weight and, after each successful lift, the weight is event for men from 1920. The first women’s Olympic increased. The winner is the person who lifts the heaviest weightlifting competition was held at the 2000 Games. weight. There are two distinct weightlifting techniques: Leading athletes can lift over twice their own bodyweight. the “snatch” and the “clean and jerk.” In 1988, Belarussian Leonid Taranenko, representing the Soviet Union, made the heaviest clean and jerk of HEAVY DUTIES all time, with an astounding lift of 586.4 lb (266 kg). Competitors are divided into categories according to their bodyweight. There are currently eight divisions for men—the Bar Weighty matters lowest is up to 123½ lb (56 kg) and the highest over 231½ lb Women Length: 6 ft 7 in (2.01 m) Weight: The weights are made (105 kg)—and seven for women—from below 106 lb (48 kg) of lead and color coded to over 165¼ lb (75 kg). 33 lb (15 kg) Diameter: 1 in (25 mm). from ½ lb (0.25 kg) to Men Length: 7 ft 2 in (2.2 m) Weight: 44 lb Athletes take turns making attempts at each weight. The 55 lb (25 kg) competitor who has opted for the lowest weight lifts first. (20 kg) Diameter: 1 in (28 mm) Anyone who fails at a given weight can either reattempt it or try a heavier barbell later. Lifting gear LIFTING METHODS The one-piece costume In the snatch, athletes must lift the barbell in a single, steady must not obscure the movement. In the clean and jerk, they must first raise (clean) the judges’ view of knees barbell from the floor to shoulder level and then, in a separate and elbows movement, lift (jerk) the bar until their arms are straight above Tight belt their heads. While lifting, they must avoid touching the floor To support back and with their knees. Once the lifts are completed, they must hold the abdomen; may be no final position until the referee tells them to put the weight down. more than 4¾ in (12 cm) wide THE SNATCH Transit mode Knee thrust Final push Get a grip The lifter straightens The knees may be The legs are The lifter grips the his knees and bent again so that straightened and the weight with hands prepares to bend the lifter can get weight is controlled fairly wide apart and his elbows all his weight below over the head gathers his strength the barbell for the lift Footwear CLEAN AND JERK Lift off Neck brace Last push Ending up Raised heels to help the weightlifter Hands on The first upward pull When the barbell Knees bent to Legs locked to achieve and maintain stability The lifter grips the is powered mainly by reaches neck power final upthrust; complete the lift; the ATHLETE PROFILE bar and squats in thigh and back height, the lifter legs spread for position is held until Weightlifters have highly developed readiness to apply muscles, not the legs brings it close balance; arms the judges’ signal neck, shoulder, stomach, and thigh upward movement to the shoulders completely straight muscles. The effort of lifting and holding weights that are often heavier than their own bodies may produce heart rates of 190 beats per minute. (The normal rate is 60–80.)
POWERLIFTING GYMNASTICS EVENT OVERVIEW NEED2KNOW POWERLIFTING Powerlifting is the ultimate test of pure strength. This relatively recent sport involves athletes raising The first world championships were held in 1970 under the weight-loaded bars in three different lifts: the “squat,” auspices of the International Powerlifting Federation (IPF). the “deadlift,” and the “bench press.” Powerlifting From small beginnings, powerlifting has become champions are justifiably known as the strongest increasingly popular worldwide: the IPF now has more men and women in the world. than 100 member states. PLAYING THE GAME Taking the strain There are four age groups, from over-14s to over-50s. For men, Great strength in the neck there are 11 weight divisions between 114½ lb (52 kg) and muscles contributes to the 275½+ lb (125+ kg); women have 10 bands between 97 lb (44 kg) and 198+ lb (90+ kg). lifter’s stability during sustained holds Each event has three components: squat, bench press, and deadlift. After three failed attempts, athletes are eliminated. The Tight one-piece winner is the competitor who lifts the highest combined weight. These costumes help compress the athlete’s chest and shoulders while lifting ATHLETE PROFILE Solid grounding The key areas of a powerlifter’s Shoes have heels and smooth strength are the shoulders, chest, soles to help balance and arms, back, thighs, and knees. maximize weight distribution Regardless of muscular build, shorter men and women have an advantage over their taller rivals, as they do not have so far to raise the weights. Lifters work out as a matter of course and, before a contest, frequently push themselves to the limit, trying to lift far heavier weights than they would expect to attempt in a competition. MIGHTY METHODS Wrist straps Weight disks Each element of powerlifting demands the use of different Bandages may be used for These are made muscles; competitions test a range of skills, rather than overall support; they must not exceed of lead and may be strength alone, and there are heavy point penalties for deviations 4 in (10 cm) in total width color coded so that from the required techniques. officials can easily see which is which Spread out Going up Strong arms Lift motor Legs are spread to Bar starts at 3 ft 3 in Deadlifts are powered by Although the distribute the weight over (1 m) and is raised in 2 in the biceps and triceps in arms push up, the largest surface area (5 cm) increments to the upper arms the real work in the bench 5 ft 5 in (1.7 m) press lift is done by the back muscles SQUAT DEADLIFT BENCH PRESS Competitors take the barbell off the rack, step back, The barbell is raised until the competitor is upright The competitor reclines on the bench, lowers the and squat with the weight on the shoulders until the with a straight back, and held until the judges’ signal; weight until it touches the chest, then pushes it back hips are below the knees. They then return to the it must then be replaced on the ground, not dropped. up to its original position and replaces it on the rack. starting position and hold it until the judges’ signal.
TEAM
SOCCER Shirt Usually made of polyester, GAME OVERVIEW The beauty and popularity of soccer (or football, as a soccer shirt is light it’s known in most of the world) lies in its simplicity: and breathable. All the two teams of 11 players each attempt to kick a ball players on a team (except into the opposing team’s goal. Compared with the goalkeeper) wear the more complex team sports such as cricket or same colors and patterns rugby, there are fewer rules, and matches are often free-flowing and highly exciting spectacles. Socks and Considered the world’s most popular sport, soccer shinguards is enthusiastically played and watched in just about The socks must every country on Earth. cover the shinguard, which is now a “KING OF SOCCER” Shorts compulsory part of BRAZILIAN LEGEND PELÉ (EDSON Made of a durable synthetic the player’s ARANTES DO NASCIMENTO) IS material, soccer shorts PROBABLY THE GREATEST PLAYER allow freedom of movement. equipment OF ALL TIME. HE WAS PART OF THE Shirts may feature stripes, Good traction BRAZILIAN TEAM THAT WON THE hoops, or other patterns; Studded soccer 1958, 1962, AND 1970 WORLD the shorts are usually one CUPS, AND EARNED 91 CAPS AND color, sometimes with a boots provide SCORED 77 GOALS (A NATIONAL stripe down the sides increased grip RECORD) FOR HIS COUNTRY. WITH on sometimes EXTRAORDINARY TECHNIQUE, Ball SPEED, CREATIVITY, AND FINISHING, The dimensions of the ball are muddy and PELÉ WAS THE PERFECT PLAYER. specified in the Laws of the Game. slippery surfaces If the ball bursts or becomes defective during the course of a match, play is stopped, and the referee requests a replacement ball PLAYER PROFILE Soccer players are mostly lean and athletic, with excellent ball skills. They are strong and balanced runners, able to change direction quickly and repeatedly. Players combine impressive sprinting skills with the huge reserves of energy required for 90 minutes of almost nonstop running. Since soccer is a contact sport, players—particularly the goalkeeper—require a degree of courage, especially when tackling or competing for a header. NEED2KNOW Other forms of the game include beach GLOBAL PHENOMENON soccer and indoor soccer (which is also ACCORDING TO FIFA’S GLOBAL The sport has been officially known as known as “futsal” and is played by two “BIG COUNT” IN 2006, THERE ARE “association football” since the formation teams of five players over two halves 265 MILLION PLAYERS AND FIVE of the Football Association in 1863. The of 20 minutes each). MILLION OFFICIALS. THIS TOTAL term “soccer” was originally derived The world governing body of soccer, OF 270 MILLION PEOPLE ACTIVELY from “association.” Fédération Internationale de Football INVOLVED WITH SOCCER REPRESENTS A soccer match is played by two teams of Association (FIFA), formed in 1904 ABOUT FOUR PERCENT OF THE 11 players on a rectangular field, or pitch. and has 208 member nations. WORLD’S POPULATION. The game consists of two 45-minute halves separated by a short interval.
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