["2023 \u0422. 53 \u2116 1\u0420\/\u044f\u0422\u0431\u0435\u0446\u0445\u0435\u043d\u0432\u0438\u0430\u043a\u0421\u0430 .\u0438\u0410\u0442. \u0435[\u0438\u0445\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043b.\u043e]\u0433\u0438\u0422\u044f\u0435\u0445\u043f\u043d\u0438\u0438\u0449\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u044b\u0442\u0445 \u0435\u043f\u0445\u0440\u043d\u043e\u043e\u0438\u043b\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0438\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043f\u0432\u0438\/\u0449F\u0435o\u0432o\u044bd\u0445P\u043fr\u0440oc\u043ee\u0438s\u0437s\u0432i\u043en\u0434g\u0441: \u0442Te\u0432c.h2n0iq2u3e.s\u0422a. n5d3.T\u2116ech1n.o\u0421lo.g9y7\u2013IISS1SS2NN222307143--19474148 (Print) (Online) https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21603\/2074-9414-2023-1-2419 Review article https:\/\/elibrary.ru\/DVBEZS Available online at https:\/\/fptt.ru\/en Biotechnology of Lactulose Production: Progress, Challenges, and Prospects Svetlana A. Ryabtseva* , Andrey G. Khramtsov , Maria A. Shpak , Alexey D. Lodygin , Georgy S. Anisimov , Serafima N. Sazanova , Yulia A. Tabakova North-Caucasus Federal University , Stavropol, Russia Received: 14.09.2022 *Svetlana A. Ryabtseva: [email protected], Revised: 02.11.2022 https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9803-8709 Accepted: 06.12.2022 Andrey G. Khramtsov: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5188-4657 Maria A. Shpak: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0119-9061 Alexey D. Lodygin: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8460-2954 Georgy S. Anisimov: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9257-9571 Serafima N. Sazanova: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8200-3007 Yulia A. Tabakova: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0077-2778 \u00a9 S.A. Ryabtseva, A.G. Khramtsov, M.A. Shpak, A.D. Lodygin, G.S. Anisimov, S.N. Sazanova, Yu.A. Tabakova, 2023 Abstract. Lactulose is a prebiotic that has found a wide application in medicine and food industry. Commercial lactulose is usually synthesized by isomerization in alkaline media at high temperatures. Enzymatic methods offer a more sustainable alternative and require more moderate processing conditions. This review covers 44 years of scientific publications (1978\u20132022) on the enzymatic synthesis and purification of lactulose. The materials were retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Elibrary databases. The enzymatic approach to lactose-to-lactulose conversion has two methods: isomerization (direct) and transgalactosylation (via hydrolysis). Isomerization exploits cellulose-2-epimerases, but their safety status is still rather vague. As a result, cellulose- 2-epimerases are not commercial. Epilactose is a by-product of isomerization. Transgalactosylation involves \u03b2-galactosidases with an official international safety status (GRAS). It is available on the market, and its action mechanism is well understood. This article systematizes various data on the conditions for obtaining the maximal yields of lactulose by different enzymes. The Kluyveromyces lactis yeast and the Aspergillus oryzae mold are the main sources of \u03b2-galactosidases in lactulose production. The yield can reach 30% if the processing conditions are optimal. Fructose remains the main problem in the production process. No scientific publications revealed a direct relationship between the maximal yields of lactulose and the molar fructose-to- lactose ratios. Cellobiose epimerases make it possible to achieve high yields of lactulose (70\u201380%). However, these enzymes are associated with genetic engineering and mutagenesis, which challenges their safety status. The most promising trends in lactulose biotechnology include secondary dairy raw materials, immobilized enzymes, membrane reactors, complex production processes, lactose-to-lactulose conversion, and purification of final product. Keywords. Lactulose, lactose, bioconversion, enzymes, yield, \u03b2-galactosidase, Kluyveromyces, Aspergillus, cellobiose-2- epimerase, trends Funding. The research was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (Minobrnauka) as part of a comprehensive high-tech production project on the topic \u201cThe first Russian high-tech production of lactulose prebiotic and functional dairy ingredients for import substitution in medicine, veterinary, baby food, and medical preventive products for people and animals\u201d, Decree No. 218 of the Government of the Russian Federation of April 9, 2010. The subsidies were allocated from the Federal Budget for the development of cooperation between state scientific institutions and the real sector of the economy as part of a comprehensive high-tech production project No. 075-11-2022-021 of 04\/07\/2022. The research was conducted on the premises of the North-Caucasus Federal University (NCFU) . For citation: Ryabtseva SA, Khramtsov AG, Shpak MA, Lodygin AD, Anisimov GS, Sazanova SN, et al. Biotechnology of Lactulose Production: Progress, Challenges, and Prospects. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21603\/2074-9414-2023-1-2419 97","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. 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\u0411\u0438\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b: \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u044b \/ \u0421. \u0410.\u202f\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \/\/ \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122. (\u041d\u0430 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b.). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21603\/2074- 9414-2023-1-2419 98","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 Introduction Some isomerization methods use electroactivated Lactulose (\u03b2-D-galactopyranosyl-(1,4)-\u03b2-D-fructo- solutions (catholytes), where an alkaline medium appear furanose) is the best known indigestible prebiotic without new reagents [9, 10]. A recent study reported disaccharide. It can selectively stimulate the growth 37% isomerization of lactose to lactulose as a result and\/or metabolism of beneficial intestinal microflora, of optimization and electroactivation of ultrafiltrated especially bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. Its positive whey permeate [11]. However, the same study also effect on human health has been confirmed by numerous reported that electroactivation foamed secondary dairy studies. Lactulose-based pharmaceutical preparations raw materials, and the unreacted lactose, other sugars, have been used for more than 50 years to treat chronic and by-products had to be removed. constipation and hepatic encephalopathy. Nowadays, lactulose is also used to treat osteoporosis, food poisoning, Enzymatic processing is an alternative to chemical and various infections [1, 2]. This unique carbohydrate production and purification. Enzymes are proteins has a potential to strengthen immune system, reduce that catalyze metabolic reactions in a living cell. In- inflammation, and prevent carcinogenesis [3\u20135]. dustrial enzymes of microbial origin are common Medicine employs lactulose in fairly high concen- in pharmaceutical and food biotechnology. Enzymatic trations, e.g., \u2265 10\u201315 g\/day. However, even 2 g of processing is environmentally friendly, because en- lactulose per day has a positive effect. This dose boosts zymes are reusable, biodegradable, and produced useful metabolites, improves absorption of minerals in from renewable resources. Enzymes are able to cata- the intestine, and has no side effects [6]. Small doses lyze reactions under close-to-physiological condi- of lactulose turn various foods into functional products tions, which is beneficial in terms of energy consum- and render them a number of additional economic and ption [10, 12]. technological advantages, such as a shorter fermenta- tion time, more viable starter cultures, a longer shelf Another advantage of lactulose biosynthesis is life, a better sensory profile, etc. In addition, lactulose that lactose can be obtained from secondary dairy results in a lower caloric value of the finished product raw materials, e.g., cheese whey and\/or curd whey, because it allows for partial sugar replacement. Naturally, ultrafiltration permeates of skim milk and whey, etc. In lactulose is popular in the dairy, confectionery, and additions, enzymes are selective in action; they require bakery food industries. Lactulose can be incorporated no extreme temperatures or pH, and, as a result, produce in the shells of micro- and nanocapsules that deliver fewer by-products. Thus, lactulose purification is cheap probiotics, vitamins, and other beneficial substances and meets modern requirements for environmentally to the lower intestine [1, 7]. friendly technologies and natural products [13, 14]. Lactulose is one of the most valuable derivatives of lactose, which is the main carbohydrate of milk. Experts believe that lactulose production will increase, Lactose makes up a significant proportion of solids in driven by bad dietary habits, as well as by the needs of by-products of cheese, curd, casein, and butter production. athletes and senior population. High R&D investments Therefore, lactulose is a processed food raw material in the food industry will sustain the growth of the global with a high added value and has a good potential for lactulose market through 2022\u20132028 [15]. In Russia, sustainable economy: it can provide a sustainable and the growing demand for lactulose depends on foreign green processing cycle [8]. suppliers, and the development of domestic lactulose The modern industrial production of lactulose relies industry remains an urgent task [1]. mainly on isomerization in alkaline media (pH = 11) at high temperatures (70\u201380\u00b0C). This reaction produces The research objective was to systematize and analyze by-products of caramelization and saccharic acids, as well the data on enzymatic lactulose production in order to as melanoidins that appear in the presence of proteins determine the promising research areas. and peptides. The maximal degree of isomerization is 30% if sodium or calcium hydroxides serve as catalysts. Study objects and methods Hydroxides are removed by electrodialysis, and the The research featured English and Russian scientific remaining lactose is usually crystallized. However, publications on the enzymatic production of lactulose. this process is slow because the resulting mix has a All the articles under analysis were registered in Scopus, complex composition. The yield of lactulose can be Web of Science, PubMed, and Elibrary in the period brought up to 70\u201380% using complexing catalysts, e.g., between 1978, when the earliest publication appea- aluminates or borates. Unfortunately, they are toxic, red, and August 1, 2022. The pool included available and their complete removal requires a selective ion review and research articles on the enzymatic lactulose exchange treatment. The resulting lactulose syrups synthesis, as well as individual articles that substantiated contain residues of lactose, glucose, galactose, fructose, the relevance of the topic, described the properties and epilactose, and other carbohydrates, which have to be mechanisms of enzymes, identified prospective research purified by chromatography [9, 10]. areas, etc. The focus action was on articles published in scientific peer-reviewed journals with a high citation index over the past five years. The review did not include conference proceedings and book chapters. 99","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 Results and discussion catalyze the hydrolysis of O- and S-glycosyl compounds. 1. Processes, enzymes, and mechanisms of lactulose The biosynthesis of lactulose usually involves beta- formation. The biotechnology of lactulose, like that of galactosidases (\u03b2-galactosidases, lactases, EC 3.2.1.23), other functional carbohydrates, includes three interrelated which can hydrolyze the terminal non-reducing residues processes: enzyme production, enzymatic synthesis, and of beta-D-galactose in beta-D-galactosides. These subsequent processing [16]. Most publications featured enzymes are common in nature. In fact, 593 species ready-made commercially purified enzyme prepara- are capable of producing them, including various types tions, free or immobilized, while some of them described of bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals [17]. the preparation of the necessary enzymes with varying \u03b2-Galactosidases are used in the dairy industry to purification degrees. hydrolyze lactose in order to obtain low-lactose and Theoretically, the bioconversion of lactose to lactulose lactose-free foods for people with lactase deficiency. has two main routes: the direct one and the one with They can also prevent lactose crystallization in the intermediate hydrolysis. The direct route requires iso- production of condensed foods, sweet glucose-galactose merase, which transforms the glucose residue of lactose syrups, and prebiotic galactooligosaccharides. The into fructose. A similar ability was discovered about ten most popular commercial \u03b2-galactosidases come years ago in cellulose-2-epimerases (hereinafter referred from such safe sources as Kluyveromyces yeasts to as epimerases) of various origins. However, these (Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces fragilis) and enzymes have no safety status and are not produced on Aspergillus molds (Aspergillus\u00a0 oryzae, Aspergillus an industrial scale. This reaction also yields epilactose niger). Galactooligosaccharide production also uses such commercial preparations as \u03b2-galactosidases from as a by-product. Bacillus circulans and Escherichia coli. The synthesis The second and a more complex route looks as can employ Rhodotorula minuta yeasts, lactic cocci follows. Enzymes break down lactose into galactose and lactobacillus, bifidobacteria, and other microorga- nisms [18\u201321]. and glucose, and then add galactose residue to fructose, i.e., transgalactosylation. Some glycosidases possess The technology of beta-galactosidase production all the required properties, as well as an international includes the following processes. A pure culture is safety status and market availability [10, 12, 14]. The cultivated in elective media under optimal conditions, enzymatic synthesis of lactulose via hydrolysis has followed by isolation and purification of the enzyme. attracted scientific attention for more than 20 years The cultivation process consists of three stages. First, and still remains relevant, as evidenced by the growing the inoculum is obtained and activated, i.e., inoculation. number of publications on this topic. As for the prospects The second stage involves the cultivating and growth of epimerase-related bioconversion, they remain rather of the inoculum biomass. The third stage is the vague (Fig. 1). main fermentation, which covers both the growth of microorganisms and the biosynthesis of the enzyme. The According to the international classification of enzyme isolation process consists of pre-treatment, solid- enzymes, glycosidases are marked as EC 3.2.1, i.e., liquid separation, filtration, concentration, stabilization, they belong to the class of Hydrolases, the subclass and final purification. If the enzyme accumulates inside of Glycosylases, and the subgroup of proteins that cells, the cells of the producer are lysed. If the enzyme Number of publications 4.54.54.54.5 is released into the fermentation medium, it is separated Number of publications 4.04.04.04.0 from the cells of the producer during the separation of the Number of publications 3.53.53.53.5 solid and liquid phases. The cellular material is usually Number of publications3.03.03.03.0 separated from the enzymes by a membrane filtration, e.g., 2.52.52.52.5 ultrafiltration. To obtain a liquid enzyme preparation, it is stabilized, e.g., with glycerol. When the dry enzyme 2.02.02.02.0 preparation is obtained, the ultrafiltration concentrate 1.51.51.51.5 is spray-dried and granulated, e.g., with maltodextrin 1.01.01.01.0 or flour. The finished product falls under the general 0.50.50.50.5 specifications for commercial enzyme preparations [20]. 00 00 The action mechanism of \u03b2-galactosidase includes 202000020020000200200502502005025021001200210012002105125021051250220022002200220022052250220525 three stages. During the first stage, it forms a complex with lactose. The second stage yields a galactosyl complex glygclyogcsoliydgscaildyoseacssoidesasidseases epeimpiemrpaeeisrmpeaisemerasesreases tretnredntlrdientnlreiednneldinleinwe ith the enzyme, and glucose is released. During the third stage, the galactose is transferred to a nucleophilic Figure 1. Publications on the biosynthesis of lactulose, acceptor that contains a hydroxyl group. Galactose by years is formed if water serves as an acceptor. If it is the \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 1. \u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0439 carbohydrate, the reaction results in transoligosaccharides. \u043e \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0437\u0435 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u043c \u03b2-Galactosidase is able to accept nucleophiles other than 100","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 water in the active site. Lactulose may be formed in the reaction remains unknown. However, the isomerization presence of fructose, or the process may yield more of most cellobiose epimerases is much lower than their complex transoligosaccharides. This ability depends on epimerization (\u2264 10%), and lactose is first converted several factors: (1) the tertiary structure of the enzyme to epilactose and only then to lactulose. Cellobiose and the amino acids that form the active center, (2) the epimerases seem to be the only exceptions: their site- concentration of lactose, which is the donor for the directed mutagenesis reduces the yield of epilactose or formation of the galactosyl-enzyme complex, and (3) completely blocks its formation [29\u201331]. the concentration of fructose, which is the acceptor of galactosyl [22]. Cellobiose epimerase producers are bacteria with a dubious safety status. Their production usually involves Processes where hydrolase enzymes serve as genetic engineering and includes the following steps. pseudotransferases are a kinetically controlled synthesis. First, the genomic DNA of the enzyme is isolated Such reactions give short-term maximal yields that depend from producer cells. Then, the gene enters host cells, on the ratio of the synthesis rate of the target product e.g.,\u00a0E. coli or Bacillus subtilis. The resulting culture and the hydrolysis rate of the activated donor. The result grows in elective media under optimal conditions. totally depends on the properties of the biocatalyst; After that, the enzyme is isolated and purified to obtain that is why the choice of the enzyme and the form the enzyme preparation. The cultivation of recombi- is critical. Immobilization can simplify the recovery nant E. coli and B. subtilis cells occurs in an elective of its application and makes it possible to reuse the medium. Kanamycin or ampicillin are added until enzyme, as well as increase its stability, activity, and the required optical density (OD600 = 0.6\u20130.8), after specificity [23]. which isopropyl-\u03b2-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) enters the reaction to inactivate the lac repressor and \u03b2-Glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21) is another glycosidase induce the cellobiose epimerase synthesis. Cellobiose enzyme that can facilitate the biosynthesis of lactu- epimerase is an intracellular enzyme. At the end of lose [24,\u202f25]. It is rather common in nature and tar- fermentation, the cells are destroyed by ultrasound gets beta-D-glucosides. In fact, 467 species can produce or lysozyme. After that, the solid and liquid phases \u03b2-glucosidase. It is a key enzyme for lignocellulose are separated. Affinity chromatography purifies the degradation that participates in commercial synthesis enzymes, but sometimes ultrafiltration may be used of glycoconjugates and oligosaccharides [17]. instead. Purification of the enzyme increases the costs and complicates the technology. Therefore, unpurified Epimerases are fundamentally different enzymes. They enzymes or whole bacterial cells have more commercial belong to the class of isomerases. Cellobiose-2-epimerase prospects. The finished enzyme preparation is tested (EC 5.1.3.11) belongs to a subgroup of enzymes that for purity by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the catalyze the interconversion between D-glucose and presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate to determine its D-mannose. It residues at the reducing end of \u03b2-1,4- activity [28, 29, 31\u201337]. linked disaccharides by epimerization of the hydroxyl group in the C-2 position of the glucose residue [17]. Publications on epimerazes in lactulose produc- Cellobiose-2-epimerase was first discovered in the culture tion occupied less than a quarter of all application fluid of the Ruminococcus albus anaerobic cicatricial identified publications on the topic, and all of them bacteria. It owes its name to its ability to catalyze featured epimerazes of a bacterial origin (Fig. 2). More the epimerization of cellobiose with the formation than 60% of publications focused on \u03b2-galactosidase of 4-O-\u03b2-D-glucopyranosyl-D-mannose. Cellobiose-2- epimerase can catalyze the mutual transformations of Bacterial Yeast beta- monosaccharides, disaccharides, and trisaccharides. In epimerazes 23% galactosidases 35% addition, it is the only epimerase known that affects unsubstituted disaccharides [26]. Bacterial galactosidases 16% Cellobiose epimerases have recently entered the focus of scientific attention. So far, they have Mold beta-galactosidases been found only in anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. 26% Most cellobiose epimerases exhibit nothing but epi- merization activity. However, those that come from Figure 2. Publications on the biosynthesis of lactulose thermophilic microorganisms, e.g.,\u00a0Caldicellulosiruptor by enzymes and their producers saccharolyticus, Caldicellulosiruptor obsidiansis, Dictyoglomus turgidum,\u00a0or\u00a0Spirochaeta thermophila, \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 2. \u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0439 possess isomerization activity. They can convert glucose \u043e \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0437\u0435 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c \u0438 \u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c or mannose disaccharides into fructose, and, therefore, can be used to synthesize lactulose from lactose [27]. Some recent studies report that mesophilic epimerases also exhibit isomerization activity and can be used for lactulose bioconversion [28]. The exact mechanism of this 101","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 of fungal origin as glycosidase producers. Enzymes downstream processing accounts for 50\u201370% of the from unicellular budding micromitzet (yeast) turned total production costs. High-purity products are even out to be a more popular research subject than from more expensive [16]. mycelial fungi (molds). Of all the works on bacterial glycosidase, eight articles described\u00a0 \u03b2-galactosidase, The lactulose yield affects the cost of purification and only two featured beta-glucosidase. and depends on a lot of factors, e.g., the properties of the substrates and enzymes, the reaction conditions, etc. Lactulose biosynthesis is a complex process that Different publications use different units of measurement can be accompanied by other enzymatic reactions that to describe the conditions of lactulose biosynthesis, as produce various carbohydrates. Under certain condi- well as various indicators to evaluate the reaction results, tions, some glycosidases can also catalyze reactions which makes their comparison a complicated task. Some that transfer galactose residue into lactose and produce publications that attempt to generalize the available galactooligosaccharides and\/or transfer galactose residue data on lactulose biotechnology report incomplete, into lactulose and produce fructogalactooligosaccha- fragmentary, and\/or contradictory information [7,\u202f10, rides. The resulting lactulose can be hydrolyzed to 12,\u202f13,\u202f38,\u202f39]. This situation required additional ef- galactose and fructose. The amount of fructose necessary forts to clarify the conditions for the maximal yield for biosynthesis can be introduced into the reaction mix of lactulose and to identify the most important factors as a separate substance or obtained by using glucoiso- associated with different enzymes. merases to isomerize glucose formed during the lactose hydrolysis [10, 12, 14]. 2.\u202f\u03b2-Galactosidases of micromycetes (yeasts and molds). The earliest publication that introduced Figure 3 illustrates the main pathways for the en- biosynthesis of lactulose using yeast \u03b2-galactosidase zymatic production of lactulose with possible side appeared in 1978 [40]. In 2004, Lee et al. reported the reactions. potential of commercial \u03b2-galactosidases of various origins for lactulose synthesis [41]. They tested yeasts The final process of lactulose biotechnology is its (K. lactis, K. fragilis), mold (A. oryzae), and bacteria isolation from the reaction solution which contains the (E. coli). The enzyme obtained from K. lactis gave the enzyme (protein) and a lactose residue. Depending on the highest yield of lactulose. Since that time, more than raw materials and the reaction conditions, the solution 30 articles have been published on the proces- may also contain minerals, nitrogenous substances, ses of lactulose biosynthesis using micromycetic monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, fructose), oligo- \u03b2-galactosidases. Most of these studies featured Kluy- saccharides (epilactose, galactooligosaccharides, fructo- veromyces and Aspergillus. galactooligosaccharides), and other by-products. In the biosynthesis of functional oligosaccharides, the Ga glycosidase Ga Gl Ga + Gl Lactose Ga Ga Gl glucose galactooligosaccharides isomerase Fr epimerase Ga Ga Fr Ga Fr fructogalactooligosaccharides Lactulose Ga + Fr Ga Ma epilactose Ga \u2013 galactose, Gl \u2013 glucose, Fr \u2013 fructose, Ma \u2013 mannose; target reactions are shown by solid lines, additional and side reactions are dotted. Figure 3. Bioconversion pathways from lactose to lactulose \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 3. \u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u044b \u0432 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u0443 102","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 Table 1. Conditions for the maximal yields of lactulose using micromycetic \u03b2-galactosidases \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 1. \u0423\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b \u0441 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u03b2-\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0437 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0442 Producer Enzyme (preparation, Substrate composition, % weight\/volume Processing conditions Yly, %* Source form) \u0440\u041d = 7.2, 37\u00b0\u0421 7.5 [40] Periodic** Kluyveromyces yeasts 6.1 [41] \u0440\u041d = 6.5, 37\u00b0\u0421, 2 h K. fragilis Free Lactose solution 12% Periodic 3.5 [41] and fructose 20% \u0440\u041d = 7.3, 30\u00b0\u0421, 5 h 4 [41] Periodic 5 K. lactis Novo Nordisk Lactose solution 15% 16.5 [42] \u0440\u041d = 7.0, 60\u00b0\u0421, 3 h Free and fructose 5% Periodic 18.5 [42] K. fragilis Sigma Lactose solution 15% \u0440\u041d = 6.5, 40\u00b0\u0421, 1 h 12.4 [43] Free and fructose 5% Periodic 13 [44] K. lactis Free, from untreated cells; Lactose solution 40% \u0440\u041d = 6.5, 40\u00b0\u0421, 45 min Periodic 15.3 [45] ATCC 8585 from cells permeabilized and fructose 20% \u0440\u041d = 6.7, 40\u00b0\u0421, 2 h 7.7 [46] with 50% (v\/v) ethanol Periodic 7.1 [47] K. lactis Maxilact 2000 Lactose solution 20% \u0440\u041d = 7, 30\u00b0\u0421, 2 h Free and fructose 15% Periodic 3.9 [48] K. fragilis Lactozym 2000L Lactose solution 20% \u0440\u041d = 6.5, 40\u00b0\u0421 5.4 [49] Periodic 9.6 Free and fructose 15% 12 [50] \u0440\u041d = 6.8, 38\u00b0\u0421 K. lactis Lactozym 3000L Lactose solution 10% Periodic 8.7 [51] Free and fructose 30% \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 47\u00b0\u0421 6.9 [52, 53] Continuous** 5.2 K. lactis Produced by Novozyme Lactose solution 80% \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 47\u00b0\u0421 6.2 [54] Free and fructose 50% in a two-phase medium cyclohexane:water 95:5 Periodic [55] \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 47\u00b0\u0421 19 K. lactis Lactozym 3000L \u041d\u0420 G Lactose solution 33% Periodic Continuous 23 \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 40\u00b0\u0421 24 Free and fructose 17% 20 Periodic K. lactis Maxilact 5000 Lactose solution 20% \u0440\u041d = 6.7, 40\u00b0\u0421 [56] Free and fructose 20% 6.9 Periodic 15.1 K. lactis Sigma, immobilized Lactose whey 20% \u0440\u041d = 6.8, 40\u00b0\u0421 11.5 Periodic Continuous on carbon nanotubes and fructose 20% \u0440\u041d = 6.8, 40\u00b0\u0421 [57] 21 K. lactis Sigma, immobilized Lactose solution 40% Continuous \u0440\u041d = 7.0, 40\u00b0\u0421 22 on silica gel and fructose 20% [58] Periodic K. lactis Sigma, immobilized Lactose whey 20% 17.5 on silica gel and fructose 20% \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 40\u00b0\u0421 Periodic 21 K. lactis Maxilact 5000 Lactose solution 25% \u0440\u041d = 6.0, 6\u00b0\u0421, 72 h Free and fructose 10% Periodic K. lactis Lactozym 3000L \u041d\u0420 G Lactose solution 12% \u0440\u041d = 6.6, 6\u00b0\u0421, 48 h Free and fructose 36% Periodic K. lactis Lactozym 2600L Lactose solution 24.5% \u0440\u041d = 6.6, 6\u00b0\u0421, 72 h Free and fructose 25.5% K. lactis Lactozym 2600L Lactose solution 12% Free and fructose 36% K. lactis Biolactas\u0435-NL Lactose solution 1.68% Enzeco Lactase NL and fructose 38.2% Maxilact L200 Lactozym Pure 2600L All free K. lactis Maxilact 5000 Lactose solution 15% Free and fructose 3% Free + Mg2+ immobilized Cheese whey and fructose 30% on chitosan with glutaraldehyde K. lactis Biolactase Ultrafiltrated permeate, lactose 5.2% Free and fructose 9% Lactozym Free K. lactis Lactozym Ultrafiltrated permeate, lactose 5.5% Free and fructose 11.7% Biolactase Lactose solution 4.4% + and fructose 9% Free 103","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 Continuation of Table 1. Producer Enzyme (preparation, form) Substrate composition, % weight\/ Processing conditions Yly, %* Source volume K. lactis Crude, immobilized on \u0440\u041d = 7, 50\u00b0\u0421 26.7 [59] chitosan with glutaraldehyde Kluyveromyces yeasts Periodic. Cheese whey lactose 6.5% and fructose 30% K. lactis Lactozym, immobilized on Lactose solution 10% \u0440\u041d = 7, 50\u00b0\u0421 13.8 [23] chitosan with agarose and and fructose 10% Periodic 28 A. oryzae [41] A. oryzae polyethyleneimine Cheese whey lactose 10% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 30\u00b0\u0421, 6 h 1.7 [24] A. oryzae and fructose 10% Periodic 30.3 [42] A. oryzae Sigma 32.8 [45] A. oryzae Free Aspergillus molds \u0440\u041d = 5, 37\u00b0\u0421 28.2 [55] Sigma-Aldrich Periodic 25 A. niger Free Lactose solution 15% [55] Ha-Lactase and fructose 5% \u0440\u041d = 6.5, 40\u00b0\u0421, 50 min 25 A.aculeatus Free Periodic 20 [55] A. oryzae Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase Lactose solution 3.4% [60] Free and fructose 27% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 40\u00b0\u0421 23 A. oryzae Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase, Periodic 20 [61] A. oryzae Fungal lactase for alternative Ultrafiltrated permeate, lactose 20% 31 [62] strains, Tolerase and fructose 15% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 40\u00b0\u0421 25.4 A. oryzae All free Periodic [63] Klerzyme 150 (DSM) Lactose solution 3.1% and fructose 5.5 A. oryzae Free 46.9% 34 [64] A. oryzae Rapidase (DSM) 30 [57] A. niger Free Lactose solution 1.68% 28 [57] A. oryzae Pectinex Ultra (Novozymes) and fructose 38.2% 32 [58] A. oryzae Free [65] Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase Lactose solution 1.68% \u0440\u041d = 3.5, 40\u00b0\u0421 32 Free and fructose 38.2% Periodic 34 immobilized with glutaraldehyde Lactose solution 1.68% \u0440\u041d = 3.5, 40\u00b0\u0421 60 and fructose 38.2% Periodic Sigma-Aldrich 27 Free Lactose solution 2.1% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 50\u00b0\u0421 and fructose 47.9% Periodic 13 Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase Free Lactose solution 16% \u0440\u041d = 4.6, 40\u00b0\u0421 17.8 and fructose 34% Periodic 54 immobilized on: glyoxyl- agarose, amino-glyoxyl- Lactose solution 4% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 50\u00b0\u0421 agarose, chelate-glyoxyl- and fructose 46% (1:20) Periodic agarose Lactose solution 5.3% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 50\u00b0\u0421 Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase and fructose 44.7% (1:16) Periodic Free Lactose solution 7% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 50\u00b0\u0421 immobilized on glyoxyl- and fructose 43% (1:12) Periodic agarose Ultrafiltrated permeate, \u0440\u041d = 6, 6\u00b0\u0421, 48 h lactose 5.2% Periodic Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase immobilized on glyoxyl- and fructose 9% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 6\u00b0\u0421, 48 h Periodic agarose Ultrafiltrated permeate, lactose 5.2% and fructose 9% \u0440\u041d = 4.6, 6\u00b0\u0421, 48 h Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase Periodic Free Ultrafiltrated permeate, lactose 5.8% and fructose 23% \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 50\u00b0\u0421 Maxilact A4 Periodic Free Lactose solution 9.6% and fructose 40.4% (1:8) Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase Free Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactaseimmobilized on glyoxyl-agarose 104","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 Continuation of Table 1. Producer Enzyme (preparation, form) Substrate composition, % weight\/ Processing conditions Yly, %* Source A. oryzae volume 24 [66] Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 50\u00b0\u0421 A. oryzae immobilized by aggregation Aspergillus molds Periodic 24 [67] A. oryzae Lactose solution 9.6% [68] and cross-linking using and fructose 40.4% (1:8) \u0440\u041d = 6, 50\u00b0\u0421 ethanol and propanol Periodic 21 Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase Lactose solution 7% immobilized on quaternary and fructose 43% (1:12) \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 50\u00b0\u0421 ammonium agarose Periodic Enzeco\u00ae fungal lactase Lactose solution 9.6% and fructose 40.4% (1:8) Free * lactulose yield, % of initial lactulose, calculated value is based on published data; ** Periodic \u2013 periodic method, Continuous \u2013 continuous fermentation. * \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b, % \u043e\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u044b, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438; ** Periodic \u2013 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431, Continuous \u2013 \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438. The result of enzyme-catalyzed reactions depends Their difference may be associated with the differences both on their properties, e.g., origin and form, and the in the structure of the enzymes. Lactulose synthesis reaction conditions, e.g., composition and concentration mainly relies on commercial preparations of \u03b2-galactosi- of the initial substrate, temperature and pH, fermentation dase, since most of them have a safety status issued by time, etc. Table 1 summarizes the data on the processing GRAS or its equivalent and are produced on an indust- conditions that yield the maximal concentrations of rial scale in the USA, the EU, Brazil, or China. lactulose. Hereinafter, the presentation in the tables is structured according to the year of publication. The maximal yield of lactulose with yeast lactases of 28% is a relatively new achievement [23]. Only Table 1 shows that the main producers of \u03b2-galac- K. lactis \u03b2-galactosidase provided the best enzymatic tosidases are the K. lactis yeast and the A. oryzae mold. synthesis (50.3%), which even exceeded the results of Although the yields of lactulose vary considerably for chemical synthesis. The maximal lactulose yield catalyzed enzymes from different producers, mold-produced by sulfite and sodium hydroxide was 10.3%, by boric \u03b2-galactosidases usually give higher lactulose yields. acid and triethylamine \u2013 4.7% [69]. Unfortunately, the publication provided no exact conditions that provided such high rates of biosynthesis, so it was not included 70 70 70 in Table 1. All other publications agree that enzymatic 60 60 60 methods remain less effective than those based on lactose Maximal lactulose yield, % isomerization in alkaline media with complexing rea- Maximal lactulose yield, % 50 50 50 Maximal lactulose yield, % gents, e.g., aluminates and borates. 40 40 40 As for mold-based enzymes, A. oryzae achieved the 30 30 30 maximal yield of 60% [64]. However, the result was 20 20 20 short-term, and the yield did not exceed the standard 30% for mold enzymes during the remaining reaction time. 10 10 10 210 20 320 30 430 40 540 50 The carbohydrate composition of the initial substrate 00 0 m\u0444\/mm\u043b f\/mlm\u0444\/m\u043b is an important factor that affects the yield of lactulose, 50especially the ratio of lactose and fructose in the solution. 0 0 100 10 Theoretically, as the concentration of fructose increases, so does the chance that fructose, and not water or Yeas\u0414t l\u0440a\u043ec\u0436taY\u0436se\u0435sa\u0432s\u044bt \u0435la\u043bc\u0430ta\u043as\u0442e\u0430s\u0437\u044b Mold\u041fl\u043ba\u0435c\u0441ta\u043dMs\u0435e\u0432os\u044bld\u0435la\u043bc\u0430t\u043aa\u0442s\u0430el\u0437sa\u044bctose, will act as the galactosyl acceptor. The yield of lactulose was reported to increase three times as the Figure 4. Maximal lactulose yield and the ratio molar ratio of fructose to lactose (mf\/ml) rose from 1 of molar concentrations (mf\/ml) when using micromycetic to 8 [45]. The highest yields of lactulose (\u2265 30%) were obtained when the ratio of mf\/ml reached 8, 12, 16, and \u03b2-galactosidases 20 [27, 62, 64, 65, 67]. However, no direct relationship was detected between the maximal yields of lactulose \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 4. \u0417\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b in [23, 24, 40\u201368] and the molar ratios of fructose and \u043e\u0442 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u0444\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u044b \u0438 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u044b (m\u0444\/m\u043b) \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u03b2-\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0437 \u0438\u0437 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0442 105","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 lactose (Fig.\u202f4). These data can be represented as a reactor, a microchannel, or a packed-bed reactor [25, single diagram, despite the fact that the experiments 47, 52\u201354, 61]. For instance, an enzymatic membrane had different reaction conditions, e.g., pH, tempera- system made it possible to remove the new lactulose, ture, total carbohydrate concentration, etc. In fact, the thus limiting its breakdown. The specific productivity nature of the kinetically controlled reaction means that remained constant at 0.7 mg of lactulose per enzyme the main factor is the origin of the enzyme, not the unit per hour [52]. However, the enzymatic membrane conditions [23, 45, 55]. reactor eventually reduced the enzyme activity as a result of electrostatic interaction between the enzyme Figure 4 shows that when the values of mf\/ml and the membrane surface, as well as due to mechanical reach \u2265 20, the lactulose yield does not increase. More- and thermal inactivation. On day 7, the concentration over, low mf\/ml ratios (\u2264\u202f5) are more financially pro- of lactulose decreased by 31% in an experiment with mising. A larger amount of fructose increases the cost K. lactis \u03b2-galactosidase [54]. of raw materials, while most of the fructose does not become involved in the synthesis of lactulose and remains An automated control of the enzyme feed may be a in the solution, which complicates the purification. The way out. Researchers added new portions of A. oryzae publications on yeast enzymes mostly involved lower \u03b2-galactosidase, i.e., 10% of the initial amount every mf\/ml values than those that used mold enzymes, which 48 h, and the output lactulose concentration maintained characterizes the former as more practical. constant at 8.8\u00a0g\/L (5.5% yield) for 28 days [61]. The lactulose concentration increased 3.3 times when the One of the earliest works on yeast \u03b2-galactosida- packed-bed reactor operated in the continuous mode ses revealed that when mf\/ml rose from 0.5 to 1, the compared to the multiple batch operation mode, although maximal yield of lactulose increased by 1.6 times. But in the latter case the catalyst could be reused as many when mf\/ml reached 2, no further increase in yield as 10 times [48]. followed [41]. An increase in the total concentration of carbohydrates from 37.5 to 60% led to a 1.5-fold increase Some publications compare different enzymes. in the yield of lactulose and protected the enzyme from Guerrero et al. compared eleven different commercial denaturation at 60\u00b0C. However, it reduced the reaction \u03b2-galactosidases of various origins [55]. They tested four rate because the viscosity of the solution also increased. yeasts and six molds for catalytic potential for hydrolysis The same publication was the first to report the idea and transgalactosylation, as well as their affinity for that the ratio of lactulose and galactooligosaccharides galactose donors and acceptors. All the \u03b2-galactosidases could be regulated [41]. This possibility is important, were able to use lactose and lactulose as galactose since lactulose and galactooligosaccharides can have acceptors and donors. However, the yeast lactases a synergistic effect on the prebiotic index [1]. showed a higher hydrolytic than transgalactosylating activity, which was greater for lactose than for lactulose. Table 1 shows that the maximal yields of lactulose When the concentrations of carbohydrates in the solution were obtained at different pH values that did not always exceeded 10%, transgalactosylation prevailed over coincide with the optimal values for this type of enzyme. hydrolysis. When the concentration exceeded 40%, the It ranged 6.0\u20137.5 in the case of K. lactis \u03b2-galactosidases, hydrolysis of lactose and lactulose was more prominent. the optimal pH being 7.0 [55]. For A. oryzae enzymes, it The maximal yields of lactulose obtained from A. oryzae was 3.5\u20136.6, the optimal pH being 4.5 [55]. The reaction \u03b2-galactosidases were by 5% higher than those obtained temperatures also varied. For K. lactis \u03b2-galactosidases, from A. niger and Aspergillus aculeatus \u03b2-galactosidases it ranged from 37 to 60\u00b0C, the optimal temperature and by 1\u20136% higher than those obtained with K. lactis being 50\u00b0C [55]. For A. oryzae enzymes, it was between \u03b2-galactosidases. The concentration and composition of 30 and 50\u00b0C with 65\u00b0C as the optimal temperature [55]. the obtained galactooligosaccharides depended on the type Some experiments were carried out at 6\u00b0C in order of enzyme. A. oryzae enzymes yielded mainly tri- and to increase the microbiological purity of the products tetrasaccharides, while A. niger and K. lactis yielded and gave an unexpectedly high yield of lactulose di- and trisaccharides. These data confirmed that the (\u2264 27%) [57, 58]. origin of the enzyme determines its transgalactosylation potential and the ability to use various molecules as The enzyme concentration also affects the selectivity acceptors of the galactose residue. In addition, the origin of the lactose bioconversion reaction. When the of the enzyme determines the molecular structure of concentration of the enzyme was high (\u2265 15 U\/mL), both transgalactosylated oligosaccharides, e.g., composition, primary (lactose hydrolysis) and secondary hydrolysis hexose units, types of bonds, etc. (lactulose degradation) were faster [61]. As a kinetically controlled reaction, secondary hydrolysis does not stop Schmidt et al. tested seven different \u03b2-galactosidases after it reaches the maximal lactulose concentration. This for their ability to produce lactulose at 6\u00b0C [57]. Three phenomenon has often been described in publications enzyme preparations of micromycetic origin (Biolactase, that featured free (native) or immobilized enzymes [41, Lactozym, Enzeco) produced high yields of lactulose 44, 49, 52]. (\u2265 20%) within 24 h. Enzeco proved highly active at pH 4.5\u20136.5, while Lactozym and Biolactase were effec- Continuous process might solve the problem of lactulose hydrolysis, e.g., in an enzymatic membrane 106","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 tive at pH 6.0\u20136.5. Low-temperature synthesis guarantees fructose to produce lactulose. The reaction was stopped by the microbiological purity of the resulting products boiling. The maximal lactulose concentration of 14.8\u202fg\/L and a long interval of high lactulose concentration, which occurred when the concentration of permeabilized cells provides an industrial-scale inactivation. was 8 g\/L. However, the productivity (1.64\u202fg\/L\u00b7h) was lower than when the cell concentration was 10.4\u202fg\/L Other studies described various forms and types of (2.0\u202fg\/L\u00b7h), which was eventually assessed as optimal. \u03b2-galactosidase immobilization for lactulose biosynthesis: The samples with untreated cells demonstrated the silica gel, nanotubes, chitosan with glutaraldehyde, maximal concentration of synthesized lactulose of agarose and polyethyleneamine, glutaraldehyde, and 17\u202fg\/L, which was comparable to the results of the per- various agarose derivatives [23, 48, 49, 56, 59, 60, meabilized samples (19 g\/L). However, the control 62\u201365, 67, 71]. sample needed 5 h to reach this concentration, whereas the experimental sample needed only 3\u202fh. Therefore, Neto et al. immobilized different commercial K.\u00a0lactis the productivity of the sample with permeabilized cells \u03b2-galactosidases using different methods [23]. The was higher [41]. immobilization affected the properties of \u03b2-galactosidases in kinetically controlled synthesis. The enzyme sample Some scientists tried using secondary dairy raw that was immobilized on glyoxylagarose appeared materials in an attempt to reduce the production inactive in the production of lactulose at 25, 37, and costs. As a rule, they turned to whey and ultrafiltrated 50\u00b0C. The sample immobilized on agarose coated with permeates [23,\u202f42,\u202f47,\u202f49,\u202f56\u201359]. The optimal process polyethyleneimine produced lactulose only at 50\u00b0C. conditions turned out to be 48 h at 6\u00b0C. For acid whey, The sample immobilized on chitosan activated with the process involved Enzeco enzyme from A. oryzae glutaraldehyde was effective at all three temperature with an activity of 2.0 \u00b5kat\/kg at pH 4.4, 1.28 mol\/kg modes. When they applied whey instead of pure lactose fructose, and 0.17 mol\/kg lactose. For sweet whey, and fructose, the yield increased in the agarose sample it was Lactozym from K. lactis with an activity and decreased in the chitosan sample. of 2.8\u202f\u00b5kat\/kg at pH\u202f6.6, 0.74\u202fmol\/kg fructose, and 0.19\u202fmol\/kg lactose [58]. Serey et al. immobilized the enzyme obtained from A. oryzae in quaternary ammonium agarose (QAA) [67]. De Freitas et al. used K. lactis \u03b2-galactosidase The sample with repeated batch operation provided using cheese whey and immobilization on 2.0% (w\/v) better results for total lactulose yield and cumulative glutaraldehyde-activated chitosan [59]. They obtai- specific productivity than the sample with the free ned a highly active and stable biocatalyst capable of enzyme. They were able to reduce the economic costs simultaneously hydrolyzing lactose (42.8% conversion by reusing the quaternary ammonium agarose, which rate) and produced lactulose at a level of 17.3\u202fg\/L. They neither change its maximal enzymatic capacity nor used clarified whey to increase the \u03b2-galactosidase acti- reduced the productivity and selectivity of lactulose vity of yeast and for the main cultivation. The processes synthesis. Ram\u00edrez et al. increased the efficiency of occurred at 30\u00b0C and presupposed 24\u202fh of stirring at biocatalysts by repeated periodic feeding [68]. 180 rp. The cell mass was separated by centrifugation, washed, and suspended in a potassium phosphate Guerrero et al. used cross-linked aggregates of buffer with MnCl2. Mg2+ and Mn2+ (\u2264 5\u00d710\u20133 mM) A. oryzae \u03b2-galactosidase for lactulose synthesis [60]. activated the resulting \u03b2-galactosidase, while Ca2+ Although they recorded a 17% reduction in the yield (\u2265 1 mg\/L) and Zn2+ (\u2265 0.011 mg\/L) inhibited it. As relative to free enzyme, they managed to reuse the an intracellular enzyme, yeast \u03b2-galactosidase can be catalyst 100 times, so that the accumulated mass of extracted by various methods. When the cells were product per mass unit of the used catalyst increased destroyed by shaking with glass beads for 30 min at by a factor of twelve. 2000 rpm, the process was 87% more effective than when the yeast cells were destroyed with ultrasonic Lactulose technology is more economical if waves for 40 min at 25\u00b0C. microorganism cells serve as sources of biocatalysts, not purified enzymes. Lee et al. synthesized lactulose Another important aspect is the possibility in solutions of lactose and fructose using a cellular of forming different conformations of lactulose. suspension of K. lactis permeabilized with ethanol [41]. Enzymatic transgalactosylation may trigger such They cultivated K. lactis on a thick nutrient medium bonds as \u03b21 \u2192 4 or \u03b21 \u2192 1, \u03b21 \u2192 3, \u03b21 \u2192 5, and and activated it in an elective liquid nutrient medium \u03b21 \u2192 6 [39]. Two main isomers appear as a result of at 28\u00b0C for 24 h. After that, they transferred 1% of the enzymatic synthesis of lactulose. Lactulose \u03b21\u21924 is inoculum to a fermentation medium and cultivated it formed during the chemical isomerization of lactose there under the same conditions. The resulting inoculum to lactulose. Lactulose \u03b21\u21921, also called 1-lactulose was centrifuged at 8000 rp for 5\u202fmin. The separated or allolactulose, appears exclusively during enzymatic cells were resuspended in a potassium phosphate buf- transgalactosylation. 1-lactulose is the main product of fer (pH\u202f7.0). To permeabilize the cells, they were this reaction. All yeast \u03b2-galactosidases form > 0.75 resuspended in 50% (v\/v) ethanol, stirred for 15\u202fmin at of this isomer while mold \u03b2-galactosidases form only 4\u00b0C, rinsed twice with distilled water, and resuspended in the potassium phosphate buffer with lactose and 107","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 about 0.6. Shen et al. performed structural studies for \u03b2-galactosidases. Many bacteria can do that, e.g., Ba- a certain K.\u00a0lactis \u03b2-galactosidase by high performance cillus (Bacillus acidocaldarius, B. circulans, Bacillus liquid chromatography [46]. They used the method of coagulans, B. subtilis, Bacillus megaterum, Bacillus nuclear magnetic resonance to detect an additional peak stearothermophilus), Lactobacillus (Lactobacillus aci- generated by similar reactions that corresponded to dophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus 1-lactulose [52]. helviticus, Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens, Lactobacillus lactis, Lactobacillus sporogenes, Lactobacillus the- In general, the maximal yields of lactulose for mophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii), Bifidobacterium biosynthesis with micromycetic \u03b2-galactosidases (Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium infantis), (20\u201330%) were comparable with the results of alkaline as well as Arthrobacter, Bacteriodes, Clostridium, Cory- isomerization (30%), but much lower than in chemi- nebacterium, Enterobacter, Escherichia, Klebsiella, Leu- cal synthesis with complexing borates (70%). Most conostoc, Pediococcus, Propioionibacterium, Pseudo- studies used expensive highly-purified commercial monas, Pseudoalteromonas, Streptococcus, Sulfolobus, preparations of \u03b2-galactosidases to obtain lactulose, Thermoanaerobacter, Thermus, Trichoderma, Vibrio, which significantly increases the production cost. Crude and Xanthomonas [17, 76]. enzyme preparations could solve this problem. Any culture of non-pathogenic lactose-fermenting yeast can Bacterial \u03b2-galactosidases are proteins of intracellular serve as a source of \u03b2-galactosidases, not only K. lactis, localization that differ in molecular weight, number of but also Kluyveromyces marxianus. K. marxianus is a subunits, affinity for various substrates, optimal pH, promising source of enzymes for the food industry and and thermal stability. E. coli \u03b2-galactosidase is very biotechnology because some of its strains can produce well represented in scientific literature. It can be toxic both endo- and exo-enzymes [72]. Lactase-produ- and, therefore, cannot be used in the food industry: cing yeasts have long been the favorites with Russian it usually serves as a model for understanding the scientists [73]. Such strains of K. marxianus as VKM catalytic mechanism of the enzyme action. Like yeast, Y-453, VKM Y-459, VKM Y-460, VKM Y-1338, VKM bacterial \u03b2-galactosidases exhibit maximal activity at pH Y-1341, and VKM Y-1342 have great prospects since 6.5\u20137.5 [55]. their high \u03b2-galactosidase activity was confirmed by independent experiments [74]. Lactic acid microorga- Some bacterial \u03b2-galactosidases need high tempe- nisms can also serve as producers of \u03b2-galactosidases, rature and thermal stability. Only a few publications e.g., those that have long been used as starter cultures. A provide data on \u03b2-galactosidases of meso- and psychro- joint cultivation of yeast and lactic acid microorganisms philic bacteria that are active at low temperatures. For is a promising method of obtaining complex enzyme example, mesophilic bacteria Xanthomonas sp. and preparations of \u03b2-galactosidases [75]. B. subtilis demonstrated the catalytic activity at 10\u00b0C. Guerrero et al. registered the highest catalytic activity Another important and rather new trend is to of the enzyme at 39.7% of the maximum detected at use affordable and inexpensive secondary dairy raw 40\u00b0C [45]. They explained it as a consequence of the fact materials. Cheese and curd whey have a good record for Bacillus sp. produces at least two molecular forms of \u03b2-galactosidase production, while ultrafiltrates of skim the that enzyme protein. \u03b2-Galactosidase obtained using milk and whey can be used in lactulose synthesis. The Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAE 79b had the opti- yields depend on the optimal pH level for the enzymes: mal activity at 26\u00b0C and exhibited at least 33% activity sweet whey works best with K.\u00a0lactis \u03b2-galactosidases, at 4\u00b0C, while the Pseudoalteromonas sp. demonstrated while acid whey requires A.\u00a0oryzae \u03b2-galactosidases. only 20% of the maximum recorded at 40\u00b0\u0421. Fructose is necessary to obtain lactulose with Although a lot of bacteria can produce \u03b2-galacto- \u03b2-galactosidases. This stage can be called the bottleneck sidases, B. circulans is the most popular strain in indust- of this method because: rial production, while Streptococcus thermophilus \u2013 fructose is introduced in high concentrations (\u2265 lactose), and B. stearothermophilus are considered as potential which increases the costs; sources [21, 76]. \u2013 a significant part (\u2264 90%) of fructose does not participate in the synthesis and remains in the solution; its high The method for obtaining bacterial glycosidase is solubility makes it difficult to remove it from the similar to those described for isolating \u03b2-galactosidase reaction mix. from micromycetes. It includes cultivating in elective media under optimal conditions, isolating and purifying As a result, the reaction conditions should be the enzyme, and obtaining the enzyme preparation. such that require a minimum dose of fructose and The main task in the production of enzymes associated provide a maximal yield of lactulose. Section 4 of with the cell wall is to extract them without losing their this article introduces another prospective method: activity. The destruction of bacterial cells makes it the biotransformation of glucose formed during the possible to obtain a sufficiently high yield and activity hydrolysis of lactose into fructose. of \u03b2-galactosidase. The most effective methods include ultrasonic treatment, high-speed bead mills, and high- 3. Applying bacterial glycosidases. Micromycetes pressure homogenizers. The most effective purification are not the only ones with the ability to produce 108","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 methods applied to \u03b2-galactosidase are ultrafiltration, Caldivirga maquilingensis glycoside hydrolase has gel permeation, ion-exchange, and affinity chroma- 100% \u03b2-galactosidase activity (50% glycosidase and tography [77, 78]. 25% xylosidase). According to Letsididi et al., it provided excellent lactose conversion at 85\u00b0C, and the yield The earliest publication on lactulose biosynthesis of lactulose increased together with temperature [83]. with E. coli \u03b2-galactosidase appeared in 1987 [79]. However, further heating above 90\u00b0C led to a significant The first research to feature \u03b2-glycosidase obtained decrease in the activity of glycoside hydrolase, probably from thermophilic archaea Pyrococcus furiosus was as a result of its inactivation. The resulting glycoside published in 2004 [24]. Other publications mentioned hydrolase remained highly active even at pH = 4\u20135. It commercial \u03b2-galactosidases from B. circulans and was synthesized in a slightly acidic medium to reduce some other bacterial species. Table 2 demonstrates the the chances of the Maillard reaction. optimal processing conditions for lactulose production. The genomic DNA of Sulfolobus solfataricus that The glycosidases in Table 2 can be divided into two encoded the synthesis of \u03b2-galactosidase was clo- groups: (1) thermostable with an optimal temperature ned and inserted into E. coli ER2566. The resulting of 50\u201385\u00b0C and (2) mesophilic with maximal activity \u03b2-galactosidase had an optimal pH that ranged from at 37\u201340\u00b0C. The first enzymes are very often used 5.0 to 7.0, while retaining \u2265 90% of its initial activity. for lactulose biosynthesis because thermostable gly- The enzyme exhibited first order thermal inactivation cosidases have a lot of industrial advantages. They kinetics; half-lives (t1\/2) at 75, 80, 85, 90, and 95\u00b0C ensure good substrate solubility, high yield and reaction were 91, 48, 35, 2.6, and 0.72 h, respectively. The rate, low inhibition, and low contamination risk. These \u03b2-galactosidase was the most active at 80\u00b0C. At \u2264 80\u00b0C, enzymes are often obtained with the help of genetic the transgalactosylation reaction proceeded faster, and engineering [24,\u202f25,\u202f83]. For instance, thermostable Table 2. Biosynthesis of lactulose with bacterial glycosidases \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 2. \u0411\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0437 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b \u0441 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0437 Producer Enzyme (preparation, form) Substrate, % weight\/volume Processing Yly, %* Source conditions \u03b2-galactosidases 6.3 [79] \u0440\u041d = 6.8, 37\u00b0\u0421 12.5 [80] Escherichia coli Immobilized on Eupergit Lactose solution 10% Periodic** 1.5 [45] 6.25 [81] Sulfolobus and fructose 50% \u0440\u041d = 6.0, 80\u00b0\u0421 solfataricus Periodic 9 [55] Bacillus Recombinant in Escherichia coli cells Lactose solution 40% 4.4 [82] circulans \u0440\u041d = 5.5, 45\u00b0\u0421 Lactobacillus Free and fructose 20% Periodic 44 [24] acidophilus 45 Bacillus circulans Lactoles L3 Lactose solution 32.8% \u0440\u041d = 7.0, 40\u00b0\u0421 41 [25] Periodic 43 Bacillus Free and fructose 17.4% 43 stearothermophilus \u0440\u041d = 6.0, 60\u00b0\u0421 43 Free Lactose solution 40% Periodic Pyrococcus furiosus and fructose 20% \u0440\u041d = 6.0, 75\u00b0\u0421 Periodic Pyrococcus Biocon NTL 3000 Lactose solution 13.3% furiosus \u0440\u041d = 5.0, 75\u00b0\u0421 Free and fructose 26.6% Periodic Spores immobilized on the surface Lactose solution 20% \u0440\u041d = 5.0, 75\u00b0\u0421 Continuous** of Bacillus subtilis spores and fructose 10% Continuous \u03b2-glucosidases Periodic Continuous Recombinant in Escherichia coli cells Lactose solution 3.42% Free and fructose 27% Immobilized on Eupergit C Recombinant in Escherichia coli Lactose solution 3.4% Free and fructose 27% Immobilized on Eupergit C Immobilized on Amberlite IRA-93 Caldivirga Glycoside hydrolase \u0440\u041d = 4.5, 85\u00b0\u0421 77 [83] maquilingensis Periodic Recombinant in Escherichia coli cells Lactose solution 14% Free and fructose 56% * lactulose yield, % of initial lactulose, calculated value is based on published data; ** Periodic \u2013 periodic method, Continuous \u2013 continuous fermentation. * \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b, % \u043e\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u044b, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438; ** Periodic \u2013 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431, Continuous \u2013 \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438. 109","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 the yield of lactulose increased. At \u2265 80\u00b0C, the amount duct, but the average yield went down. A higher initial of lactulose decreased because \u03b2-galactosidase grew concentration of lactose resulted in more oligosaccha- less stable. Extra Fe2+ cations increased the amount of rides differ from lactulose. Extra fructose brought the lactulose by 10%, while extra Mg2+, Mn2+, Ca2+, and average yield of lactulose up to 48%. However, the Co2+ had no effect on the yield. The composition of reaction was inhibited when the fructose content reached the substrate and the amount of the enzyme had a 36%. The immobilized \u03b2-glycosidase was more stable significant impact on the biosynthesis of lactulose. The and active during biosynthesis. yield of lactulose increased together with the substrate concentration. This effect required a greater activity of the Mayer et al. also tested a continuous enzymatic introduced enzyme [80]. However, this \u03b2-galactosidase process to produce lactulose with trans-galactosylation yielded little lactulose. using free and immobilized P. furiosus \u03b2-glycosi- dase [25]. They obtained free \u03b2-glycosidase (CelB) Such lactic acid microorganisms as L. acidophilus, heterologously in E. coli BL21. Next, they immobilized Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lacto- the enzyme on an anion exchange resin (Amberlite bacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus, Lactobacillus IRA-93) or on Eupergit C. The efficiency of the immo- brevis, Lactobacillus plantarum, and S. thermophilus bilization appeared to depend on the pH level (7.5) are known to produce \u03b2-galactosidase [17]. However, and temperature (30\u00b0C). The activity of \u03b2-glycosidase few publications describe their use in the lactose-to-lac- immobilized on Eupergit C (1500\u202f\u03bckat\/g) was higher tulose bioconversion. The transgalactolizing activity of than in the case of Amberlite IRA-93 (920\u202fnkat\/g). L. acidophilus NRRL 4495 \u03b2-galactosidase was tested The final yield of lactulose was approximately the same for the synthesis of lactulose and oligosaccharides under in all three cases (41\u201343%), but the immobilization various conditions. The prebiotic yield depended on the increased the stability and lifespan of the enzyme. reaction time, the concentration of the enzyme, and the composition of the substrate. The maximal amount of Most bacterial \u03b2-galactosidases are intracellu- lactulose was obtained after 7\u202fh (6.89\u202fg\/L); it decreased lar enzymes. Nevertheless, some microorganisms are between 17\u201324\u202fh. The content of other oligosaccharides known to release them into the medium as a result of after 7 and 10\u202fh was 17.2 and 19.68\u202fg\/L, respectively, cell autolysis after the end of the cultivation process. which exceeded the amount of lactulose obtained. The Montanari et al. tested 32 lactose-fermenting strains concentration of the introduced enzyme was another of L. brevis and 15 strains of L. plantarum obtained factor that affected the lactulose yield. When its content mainly from fermented horse\u2019s milk (koumiss) and was raised from 2 to 8 U\/mL, the amount of lactu- other products, e.g., fermented silage or sausages [84]. lose reached 25 g\/L (3.6 times more than the control) L. brevis were able to release intracellular \u03b2-galactosidase and 15.4 g\/L (2 times more than the control) after 7 into the medium at the end of the cultivation process. and 10 h, respectively. A further increase in the enzyme The release of the enzyme began immediately after concentration to 10 U\/mL inhibited the production of the end of reproduction and was associated with the lactulose. When the bioconversion occurred at pH 7.0 autolysis of cells and the destruction of their walls. and the enzyme content was 2, 4, 6 U\/mL, it increa- L. plantarum did not release \u03b2-galactosidase, since sed the production of tetraoligosaccharides. At 8 and their autolysis occurred in a different way. Therefore, 10\u202fU\/mL, it was pentaoligosaccharides; at pH 5.5 and the screening of microorganisms capable of releasing 8\u202fU\/mL, it was trisaccharides. The composition of enzymes into the medium still remains an urgent task the substrate was insignificant. The lowest yield of and can significantly simplify lactulose production. lactulose (5.05\u202fg\/L) was obtained from the reaction mix that contained 20% galactose, 20% lactose, and Bacterial enzymes allow for a wide temperature 20% fructose. However, these conditions provided a range, from 20\u00b0\u0421 (Arthrobacter) to 75\u00b0\u0421 (Pyrococcus) high yield of other oligosaccharides (17.25\u202fg\/L) [81]. and even 80\u00b0\u0421 (Sulfolobus) [24, 25, 80, 85]. However, most bacterial \u03b2-galactosidases give a low yield of lactu- Immobilization is another promising direction in lose. Genetically engineered P. furiosus glycosidases the enzymatic synthesis of lactulose with bacterial (45% lactulose) and C. maquilingensis glycoside hyd- \u03b2-galactosidases. Lactose releases monosaccharide rolases (77%) were an exception, but the synthesis D-galactose, which is a powerful inhibitor of many was too complicated and expensive. L. acidophilus mesophilic \u03b2-galactosidases. Immobilization reduces \u03b2-galactosidase gave an option of using safe lactic this effect and facilitates further isolation of the acid starter cultures, but this issue requires additional enzyme from the reaction mix. Mayer et al. compared research. Some scientists [1, 85] used f Arthrobacter sp. hyperthermostable P. furiosus \u03b2-glycosidase immobilized Others [45,\u202f55] proved that B. circulans \u03b2-galactosidase on Eupergit C(CelB) with industrial \u03b2-galactosidase A. provided a low yield of lactulose, but a high yield oryzae (Sigma-Aldrich) [24]. \u03b2-Glycosidase yielded of galactooligosaccharides and can be used for their by 14% more lactulose than \u03b2-galactosidase. For both biosynthesis. enzymes, a higher initial concentration of lactose in the reaction mix increased the absolute yield of the pro- Thus, the prospective directions in the biosynthesis of lactulose with bacterial glycosidases include: (1) enzymes that retain their stability at high (\u2265 75\u00b0C) 110","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 and low (\u2264 20\u00b0C) temperatures, as well as low- peaked for 2\u20134 h at pH 6.0\u20139.0: all this time, the degree acidic environmental conditions (pH = 4\u20135); (2) of lactose conversion remained 65%. This methos has \u03b2-galactosidases of safe lactic acid microorganisms two main disadvantages. First, the concentrations of and bacteria that release the enzyme in the cultivation organic solvents to be removed are too high. Second, medium; (3) available and cheap methods of enzyme the immobilization process is too difficult to design. immobilization that require no extra expenditures on their isolation and stability increase but allow for Song et al. used whey to obtain lactose [87]. They secondary use. produced fructose by glucose isomerization and did not add extra fructose to the substrate. They immobilized 4. Combined use of \u03b2-galactosidases and glu- enzyme by adding activated silica gels to a pre-treated coisomerases. The main disadvantage of glycosidase- solution of \u03b2-galactosidase or glucose isomerase at 20\u00b0C based synthesis of lactulose is that it is impossible for 12 h of constant stirring. without fructose in the substrate. Only a part of fructose enters the bioconversion reaction as an acceptor of Song et al. assessed the effect of lactose concentration galactosyl. Its residues have to be removed from the on lactulose synthesis using different concentrations mix after the end of the reaction, which complicates of lactose in the reaction mix (w\/v) [87]. The yield of the process and increases its cost. However, the lactulose increased as the concentration of lactose rose new glucose can be isomerized into fructose, e.g., with from 14 to 20%. At a higher concentration, the viscosity commercial glucose isomerase (EC 5.3.1.18), which is of the reaction mix increased sharply, which eventually used to obtain fructose. Table 3 summarized the avai- inhibited the enzymes. The fructose concentration went lable data on the processing conditions that render up as the proportion of immobilized glucose isomerase the maximal concentrations of lactulose. increased. It reached its maximal concentration of 33.9\u202fg\/L after 2\u202fh when the ratio of immobilized Hua et al. synthesized lactulose by a double enzy- \u03b2-galactosidase and glucose isomerase was 1:6. The matic method in water-organic two-phase media from yield of lactulose increased in proportion to the fruc- lactose and fructose [44]. They immobilized \u03b2-galac- tose concentration until the enzyme ratio became 1:5. tosidase by crosslinking it with magnetic microspheres Probably, it happened because the mass transfer was (5\u201310 \u00b5m) that consisted of Fe3O4 and chitosan. Phosphate limited when the viscosity of the reaction mix started buffer served as the aqueous phase. The organo-aqueous to grow as the amount of the immobilized enzyme inc- media increased the transglycosylating activity of lactase reased [87]. This method has the following disadvan- and the lactulose yield. As the amount of water in the tages. First, purified enzyme preparations are expensive. system increased, both the yield of lactulose and the Second, the immobilization process is too complex. rate of lactose conversion went down. No lactulose Third, the yield of lactulose is too low. developed without water. At the onset of the reaction, the fructose concentration was low because the low Lorenzen et al. used the bi-enzyme system to treat glucose content was low, and extra fructose had to be condensed ultrafiltrated permeate of skimmed milk [86]. added to the reaction mix. The lactulose yield reached its They introduced 0.5% MgSO4\u00b77H2O and incubated the maximal value at 30\u00b0C. When the temperature reached mix with \u03b2-galactosidase and glucose isomerase at 35\u00b0C, the yield dropped by half. The lactulose yield pH 7.8 and 45\u00b0C. The formation rate of transoligosac- charides was higher during the first hour of fermen- Table 3. Biosynthesis of lactulose based on \u03b2-galactosidases and glucoisomerases \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 3. \u0411\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0437 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b \u0441 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u03b2-\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0437 \u0438 \u0433\u043b\u044e\u043a\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0437 Producer Enzyme (preparation, form) Substrate composition, % Processing Yly, %* Source weight\/volume conditions 18.9 [44] Kluyveromyces lactis \u03b2-galactosidase Immobilized \u0440\u041d = 8, 30\u00b0\u0421, 2 h 1.1 [86] Streptomyces murinus Glucoisomerase Immobilized Cyclohexane buffer system Periodic** 95:5 (vol.\/vol.), lactose 3.8 [87] Kluyveromyces lactis (Novozyme) 80% an fructose 10% \u0440\u041d = 7.8, 45\u00b0\u0421 Streptomyces rubiginosus \u03b2-galactosidase Lactozym Condensed ultrafiltrated Periodic Kluyveromyces lactis Free permeate of skimmed milk, \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 53,5\u00b0\u0421 Streptomyces rubiginosus Glucoisomerase Gensweet lactose 40% Periodic Free Lactose solution 20% \u03b2-galactosidase Immobilized Glucoisomerase Immobilized * lactulose yield, % of initial lactulose, calculated value is based on published data; ** Periodic \u2013 periodic method, Continuous \u2013 continuous fermentation. * \u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b, % \u043e\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u044b, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438; ** Periodic \u2013 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431, Continuous \u2013 \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438. 111","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 tation, when 16.4% galactooligosaccharides and 0.7% after 1 h. After 3 h, it decreased and remained below lactulose were obtained, and then decreased. After 4 h, 2%. This method provides a high yield of lactulose and the yield was 21.4 and 1.1%, respectively. is simpler and more environmentally friendly than alkaline synthesis. Unfortunately, borate has to be re- Thus, the combined use of \u03b2-galactosidases and moved using ion-exchange resins, which significantly glucoisomerases makes it possible to completely or increases the production costs. partially solve the problem of introducing fructose into the substrate for lactulose synthesis. However, the Quite often, works on cellobiose epimerase as a process is complex and does not increase the yield of catalyst for lactose bioconversion used a controlled or lactulose. Such methods require additional enzymes random mutagenesis. Most often, its goal was to increase (glucoisomerases). The same problems arise with puri- the thermal stability of the enzyme [28,\u202f31,\u202f32,\u202f35,\u202f36, fied enzyme preparations, i.e., cost, economic sanc- 89,\u202f92]. Thermostable enzymes have a number of in- tions, etc. Still, glucoisomerases can be produced by dustrial advantages. For instance, solubility of the some types of yeast, in particular baker\u2019s yeast, e.g., substrate and the rate of the enzymatic reaction increase Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and they might be introdu- at high temperatures. The recombinant cellobiose-2- ced to obtain crude \u03b2-galactosidases. Another option epimerase of the thermophilic C. obsidiansis demonst- is to use the natural symbiosis of kefir grains, which rated high thermal stability up to 86.7\u00b0C. Its half-life contains several types of lactic acid bacteria and yeast. was 8.1, 2.8, and 0.6 h at 75, 80, and 85\u00b0C, respectively. With lactose as substrate, epilactose appeared very rapidly. 5. Applying bacterial cellobiose epimerases for The highest yield of epilactose (55 g) was achieved lactulose production. Lactose turns into lactulose already after 10 min of reaction, with only 10\u202fg of under the action of cellobiose epimerase. This reac- lactulose formed, i.e., the initial epimerization rate was tion is based on isomerization, where the glucose frag- significantly higher than the isomerization rate. After ment of lactose isomerizes into fructose [26]. The exact 10\u202fmin, the output of epilactose slowly went down, and mechanism of lactose-to-lactulose transformation by lactulose production remained steady for 4 h [32]. using epimerases still remains unclear. Shen et al. developed eight mutants with the C. sac- All known cellobiose epimerases have a near-neut- charolyticus cellobiose-2-epimerase gene, and five ral optimal pH. The optimal temperature depends on of them had a prolonged inactivation half-life at the source organism of the enzyme and ranges from 80\u00b0C [71]. Genetic engineering increased the maximal 8 to 85\u00b0C [26]. However, Chen et al. reported that low activity temperature of the enzyme from 80 to 87.5\u00b0C. temperatures in lactulose biosynthesis yielded epilac- Some E161D\/S180P\/S351G and E161D\/N365P mu- tose as the main reaction product [33]. Epilactose has a tants retained \u2265 50 and \u2265 70% of their activity, res- beneficial biological effect on human health, promotes pectively, even at 95\u00b0C. In addition, the mutant enzy- the development of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, and mes were more resistant to chemical denaturation improves the absorption of calcium and magnesium [26]. and exhibited a wider pH range. The authors believed Several publications focused on epilactose as the main that these mutants had good prospects for lactulose product of lactose conversion [33, 37, 88]. However, biosynthesis but gave no data on its yield. if the aim of the work was to increase the yield of lactulose, epilactose was considered undesirable as the Xiao et al. also confirmed that thermophilic bacterial final product of biosynthesis. Table 4 summarized the cellobiose epimerases as catalysts produce the highest available data on the process conditions that render the yield of lactulose [92]. They obtained cellobiose-2- maximal concentrations of lactulose. epimerase from Dictyoglomus thermophilum, a ther- mophilic microorganism. The resulting enzyme had Table 4 shows that the cellobiose-2-epimerase of a significantly higher initial epimerization rate and a C. saccharolyticus is the most popular raw material larger amount of epilactose produced in the first 10 in lactulose synthesis. The yield of lactulose ranges min of the reaction. After that, the epilactose yield from 43 to 88%. The highest value was obtained by started to decrease, but the synthesis of lactulose went adding boric acid to the reaction mix, probably, due on, providing a sufficiently high yield even after 4 h. to the formation of lactulose-borate complexes [36]. A greater amount of lactose in the substrate did not The binding affinity of borate for lactulose is 59 times increase the degree of its conversion. higher than for lactose. By binding the new lactulose, borate contributes to its removal from the reaction Kim & Oh worked with the C. saccharolyticus mix, and the synthesis process continues. The greater recombinant enzyme [89]. The experiment showed the molar ratio of borate and lactose, the higher the first order kinetics for thermal inactivation and half- degree of lactose isomerization. However, the ratio of lives (inactivation rate constants) of 74, 34, 16, and 5\u202fh 1:1 M results in a plateau, and the degree of lactose at 65, 70, 75, and 80\u00b0C, respectively. The yield of lactu- isomerization reaches its maximum. In addition, 10% lose and epilactose grew together with the concentra- of epilactose appeared as a by-product of the reaction tion of the enzyme until a plateau at 150\u202fU\/mL of cellobiose-2-epimerase. A higher concentration of lac- 112","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 Table 4. Biosynthesis of lactulose using cellobiose-2-epimerases \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 4. \u0411\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0437 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b \u0441 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0446\u0435\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u0437\u043e-2-\u044d\u043f\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0437 Producer Enzyme (preparation, form) Substrate composition, Processing Yly, %* Source 58 [89] Caldicellulosiruptor Recombinant in Escherichia coli % weight\/volume conditions saccharolyticus Free 54.3 [35] Dictyoglomus Lactose solution 70% \u0420\u043d = 7.5, 80\u00b0\u0421, 2 h turgidum Recombinant in Escherichia coli 88 [36] Caldicellulosiruptor Free Periodic** 58 saccharolyticus Recombinant in Escherichia coli Lactose solution 34.2% \u0440\u041d = 7.0, 70\u00b0\u0421, 3 h 56.4 [34] Caldicellulosiruptor Free saccharolyticus Periodic Recombinant in Escherichia coli Caldicellulosiruptor Spores immobilized of Bacillus Lactose solution 70% + \u0440\u041d = 7,5, 80\u00b0\u0421, 3 h saccharolyticus subtilis borate 12% Periodic Caldicellulosiruptor Recombinant in Escherichia coli saccharolyticus Lactose solution 70% Flavobacterium Free johnsoniae Lactose solution 70% \u0440\u041d = 7.0, 80\u00b0\u0421, 4 h Dyadobacter Mutant in Escherichia coli fermentans Free Periodic Ruminococcus albus Recombinant in Escherichia coli UHT milk: fat 1.5%, \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 50\u00b0\u0421, 24 h 57.7 [37] Rhodothermus Free lactose 4.85% Periodic 56.7 marinus 76 [30] Bacteroides Recombinant in Escherichia coli Lactose solution 50% \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 8\u00b0\u0421, 72 h \u02c23 [28] fragilis Free Lactose solution 51% Periodic 6\u20139 [28] Butyrivibrio sp. Lactose solution 51% 6\u20139 [28] AE2015 Recombinant in Escherichia coli Lactose solution 51% \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 80\u00b0\u0421, 4 h 19 [28] Firmicutes Free Lactose solution 51% Periodic \u02c23 [28] bacterium Lactose solution 51% 6\u20139 [28] Caldicellulosiruptor Recombinant in Escherichia coli Lactose solution 51% \u0440\u041d = 8.4, 25\u00b0\u0421 \u02c23 [28] saccharolyticus Free Lactose solution 51% Periodic 58.5 [90] Caldicellulosiruptor Recombinant in Escherichia coli Cheese whey \u0440\u041d = 7.7, 40\u00b0\u0421 obsidiansis Free (lactose 20%) Periodic Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus Recombinant in Escherichia coli \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 20\u00b0\u0421 Caldicellulosiruptor Free Periodic saccharolyticus Recombinant in Escherichia coli \u0440\u041d = 6.3, 70\u00b0\u0421 Dictyoglomus Free Periodic thermophilum Caldicellulosiruptor Recombinant in Bacillus subtilis \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 35\u00b0\u0421 saccharolyticus WB800 Periodic Bacillus Free thermoamylovorans \u0440\u041d = 7.0, 50\u00b0\u0421 Rhodothermus Recombinant in Escherichia coli Periodic marinus Free Ruminococcus \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 35\u00b0\u0421 albus Mutant in Escherichia coli Periodic Spirochaeta Free thermophila \u0440\u041d = 7.0, 80\u00b0\u0421 Recombinant in Escherichia coli Continuous** Immobilized in the form of cross- Lactose solution 20% \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 70\u00b0\u0421, 4 h 55 [32] linked aggregates (CLEAs) Recombinant in Escherichia coli Lactose solution 20% \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 65\u00b0\u0421, 2 h 43 [29] Lactose solution 25% Periodic 58.8\u201361.7 [91] Free Mutant in Escherichia coli \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 80\u00b0\u0421 Continuous Free Mutant in Escherichia coli Lactose solution 20% \u0440\u041d = 7.0, 80\u00b0\u0421 50.7 [92] Lactose solution 40% Periodic 46.7 Free Lactose solution 27.4% 75 [31] Mutant in Escherichia coli \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 70\u00b0\u0421 Lactose solution 27.4% Periodic 69 [31] Free Mutant in Escherichia coli Lactose solution 27.4% \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 70\u00b0\u0421 82 [31] Periodic Free Lactose solution 27.4% 69 [31] Mutant in Escherichia coli \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 70\u00b0\u0421 Lactose solution 27.4% Periodic 56 [31] Free \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 70\u00b0\u0421 Periodic \u0440\u041d = 7.5, 70\u00b0\u0421 Periodic *\u202flactulose yield, % of initial lactulose, calculated value is based on published data; ** Periodic \u2013 periodic method, Continuous \u2013 continuous fermentation. *\u202f\u0432\u044b\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u043b\u043e\u0437\u044b, % \u043e\u0442 \u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0437\u044b, \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438; ** Periodic \u2013 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431, Continuous \u2013 \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0440\u044b\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438. 113","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 tose in the substrate led to a proportional increase in lac- after 2 h. The short reaction time made it possible to tulose and epilactose. This phenomenon distinguishes reduce energy consumption and costs, which is of great cellobiose epimerase from \u03b2-galactosidase, because importance for industrial production. the transgalactosylating activity of \u03b2-galactosidase increases together with the substrate concentration. Another goal of cellobiose epimerase mutagenesis Cellobiose-2-epimerase can produce lactulose even at is to reduce its epimerization activity and, as a result, low lactose concentrations in the reaction mix, which reduce the amount of epilactose, while simultaneously makes it possible to use dairy products with a low lactose increasing the isomerization activity and the yield of content as a substrate. lactulose. Shen et al. developed a G4-C5 mutant of cel- lobiose-2-epimerase obtained from C. saccharolyticus For example, Rentschler et al. used UHT milk DSM 890 [30]. They used random mutagenesis, which as a substrate for lactulose biosynthesis [37]. To had a 3.0-fold higher activity than the natural enzyme maintain microbiological purity, they chose 8 and 50\u00b0C (WT) and did not compromise thermal stability. The because these temperatures produce almost no undesi- G4-C5 mutant also retained higher activity at low rable organoleptic taste changes. The study involved temperatures and a wide range of pH activity compared two bioconversions with different initial activity of to the natural WT enzyme. After 4 h, the yield of lac- C. saccharolyticus cellobiose-2-+epimerase: 4.16 \u00b1 tulose and epilactose, catalyzed by the natural WT 0.21\u202f\u03bckat epilactose, 50\u00b0C and 39.5 \u00b1 1.4\u202f\u03bckat .epilactose, 50\u00b0C enzyme, was approximately 57 and 16%, respectively. In both cases, epilactose was the first rapidly formed The lactulose concentration catalyzed by the G4-C5 lactose conversion product. Its maximal concentra- mutant increased from 0 to 90 min and then gradually tion was reached after 40 and 5\u202fmin, respectively. increased to a constant level of 76%. The G4-C5 mutant After that, its concentration decreased steadily for produced no epilactose. 6\u202fh until the equilibrium. At a 9.5\u202ftimes higher ini- tial activity of the enzyme, the yield of epilactose Park et al. performed a rational genetic modification (% wt.\/wt.) fell in relation to the initial milk lactose of C. saccharolyticus cellobiose-2-epimerase [29]. They from 33.6 to 15.5%. Lactulose appeared with a used the superposition of three known structural models delay. Another bioconversion was performed at 8\u00b0C of this enzyme and identified two residues: Tyr114 and with the initial activity of cellobiose-2-epimerase Asn184. Probably, these residues had an important role CsCE 27.8 \u00b1 1.3 \u03bckat .epilactose, 50\u00b0C Epilactose and lac- in epilactose binding. They modified these residues tulose developed according to the same pattern as to prevent the epimerization of lactose to epilactose at 50\u00b0C, but slower than expected. The maximal and compared the ability of the natural and mutant amount of lactulose was reached after 72\u202fh, and the cellobiose-2-epimerases to synthesize lactulose. Enzyme concentration of epilactose was 13.6%. The synthesis Y114E made it possible to obtain 42% more lactulose conducted at 8\u00b0C resulted in a higher residual cello- and 80% less epilactose than the natural enzyme. biose-2-epimerase activity of 72%, which was almost 10 times greater than when the temperature was 50\u00b0C. Wang et al. tried to increase the isomerization activity These data can be used to produce dairy products and and thermal stability of C. saccharolyticus (CsCE) cel- fortify them with prebiotic lactulose in situ. However, lobiose-2-epimerase [31]. They designed four mutants this method involved genetically modified microorga- by replacing flexible loops. They used CsCE enzyme nisms, which causes concern and controversy among as a protein scaffold and replaced the lower part of its both food producers and consumers. flexible loops with the corresponding parts of four other enzymes, namely Bacillus thermoamylovorans (BtCE), Wang et al. used whey with > 65% lactose Rhodothermus marinus (RmCE), R. albus (RaCE), and and > 11% protein as a substrate for lactulose biosyn- S. thermophila (StCE). All the cellobiose epimerase thesis in the EMR system [90]. The method required mutants except RmC showed low isomerization and B. subtilis as host cells to express the genomic DNA epimerization activity. The isomerization activity of of C. saccharolyticus cellobiose-2-epimerase. Unlike RmC (8.50 U\/mg) increased by 2.2 times compared E. coli, B. subtilis produces no toxins during growth to CsCE (3.85 U\/mg), while the epimerization acti- and development and is recognized as safe for the vity of RmC (43.73 U\/mg) approximated that of CsCE food industry and pharmacy. In addition, genetically (44.22 U\/mg). CsCE was the only variant with the modified B. subtilis produced extracellular cellobiose maximal activity temperature to reach 75\u00b0C: in other epimerase, which reduced the costs and simplifies the mutants, this value dropped to 70\u00b0C. All enzymes exhi- process. The continuous synthesis of lactulose in the bited first order kinetics for thermal inactivation. The EMR system reduced the loss of enzyme, which could half-life value (t1\/2) of StC was 38.29 h, which excee- be reused. The yield of lactulose increased as a result ded that of CsCE (29.07 h). Conversely, the t1\/2 values of its continuous removal from the reaction mix. The of RmC (19.22 h), RaC (17.08 h), and BtC (23.11 h) lactose conversion rate was high during the first 30 were lower than that of CsCE. Therefore, a better cata- min. However, it started to decrease when the sugar lytic activity of an enzyme could lower its thermal conversion exceeded 50% and reached its maximum 114","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 stability. All four mutants demonstrated lactose bio- In general, when lactulose synthesis was catalyzed conversion similar to CsCE and yielded 56\u201382% lactulose by cellobiose epimerases, the yield was rather high and 7\u201310% epilactose. (38\u201388%) and comparable with alkaline and borate isomerization. Such high results mean that the method Gu et al. described another promising direction in can be used for industrial production. lactulose biosynthesis [34]. By immobilizing cellobiose epimerase, they increased the economic efficiency, The type of cellobiose-epimerase producer affects simplified the process of isolation process, and incre- the final yield of lactulose, as does the amount and form ased its stability. In addition, they managed to make of the enzyme. A number of publications reported a the enzyme highly reusable. They induced the C. sac- stable and high lactulose yield of 54\u201358% provided by charolyticus cellobiose-2-epimerase in E. coli BL21 native, not genetically modified, cellobiose-2-epimerase and immobilized it on B. subtilis WB600 spores. The of thermophilic bacteria C. saccharolyticus, D. turgi- strength that bound the enzyme to the carrier was an im- dum, and C. obsidiansis [30, 35\u201337, 89, 90]. However, portant indicator. The amount of cellobiose epimerase directed or random mutation can increase the activity of adsorbed on spores was very sensitive to pH because cellobiose epimerases, improve their thermal stability, the pH of the adsorption medium changed the ioniza- and raise the lactulose yield. Mutant cellobiose epimerase tion state of the enzyme and the spore surface. The were reported to yield 56\u201382% lactulose [31, 71]. highest ability of cellobiose-2-epimerase to bind to the spore surface was observed after 2 h of immobilization Cellobiose epimerases have a great advantage over at pH 4.0\u20134.5 and 4\u00b0C. As a result, the enzyme remained other methods of lactulose synthesis: they need a single active in a wider pH range. Its thermal stability increa- substrate, i.e., lactose, in the reaction medium. As a sed, thus raising the stability of lactulose biosynthesis rule, a greater concentration of lactose in the substrate in general. As a result, the enzyme retained 70% of leads to a proportional increase in lactulose. Cellobiose its activity when it was reused eight times. The init- epimerases can synthesize lactulose from a lactose-poor ial biosynthesis stage had a higher rate of conversion substrate, if whey enters the reaction. under the action of the free enzyme than when the enzyme was immobilized, probably because the Unfortunately, cellobiose epimerases are not com- immobilized enzyme had a granular form and was less mercial. The problem is that cellobiose epimerases homogeneously distributed in the mix. After 4 h, the are produced from Arthrobacter, Dictyoglomus, and immobilized cellobiose epimerase yielded by 52% more Calidicellulosriptor, whose safety status remains vague. lactulose than the sample with the free enzyme [34]. As a result, this method always involves genetic en- gineering of genes responsible for the production of Wang et al. immobilized the cellobiose-2-epimerase cellobiose epimerases in the cells of other microor- of C. saccharolyticus using cross-linked enzyme aggre- ganisms, e.g., B. subtilis or E. coli. Genetically modified gates (CLEA) [91]. They selected fructose-monosac- microorganisms not only complicate the production charide supported CLEA (Fru-CLEA) and sucrose- process but also raise public concerns. disaccharide supported CLEA (Suc-CLEA) as the most effective biocatalysts. CLEA showed no increase in the Thus, the lactulose biosynthesis with cellobiose optimal operating temperature but had an extended tem- epimerases includes the following directions. First, perature range (70\u201380\u00b0C) and retained higher activity genetic engineering and mutagenesis methods can be at 50\u201390\u00b0C. A lower-temperature lactose conversion is used to produce an enzyme with desired properties, e.g., more energy-efficient and preserves the final product. a better thermal stability, a higher isomerization activity, In this case, however, the process of lactulose biosyn- etc. Second, immobilization can increase the stability and thesis with free cellobiose-2-epimerase and CLEA de- activity of the enzyme. This method allows for multiple monstrated no fundamental differences from other use of the enzyme and simplifies the isolation process. methods, and the epilactose content was 9.3\u201310.2%. 6. Purification of lactulose. Various chemical, phy- Cellobiose epimerases of mesophilic microorga- sical, mechanical, and biological methods can be nisms are seldom used in lactulose bioconversion because used to remove ballast substances from lactose-lac- the yield of the prebiotic is quite low. Kuschel et al. tulose solutions. Some publications give a detailed used mesophilic cellobiose-2-epimerase obtained from description of physicochemical methods that isolate Flavobacterium johnsoniae (FjCE), R. albus (RaCE), lactulose as a separate stage of purification [9,\u202f10]. Dyadobacter fermentans (DfCE), Bacteroides fragilis Electrodialysis and ion exchange are popular methods (BfCE), R. marinus (RmCE), Firmicutes bacterium of demineralization. By-products of dark-colored mela- CAG:534, and Butyrivibrio sp. AE2015 [28]. However, noidin and caramelization are usually removed by they failed to raise the lactulose yield. Moreover, the refining, and lactose is removed by crystallization [9]. amount of epilactose was 30%, which exceeded that of The choice of cleaning processes depends on the lactulose. The isomerization activity of these cellobiose product requirements, production volume, and finan- epimerases varied from 8.7 \u00b1 0.1 to 1300 \u00b1 37 \u03bckat\/mg. cial capabilities of the enterprise. Nutritional supple- ments with prebiotic oligosaccharides require rather cheap but promising methods, e.g., high-throughput cascade nanofiltration and\/or activated carbon adsorp- 115","Ryabtseva S.A. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):97\u2013122 tion. These methods separate mono-, di-, and oligosac- ned by enzymatic synthesis with the A. oryzae \u03b2-galac- charides because they have different hydrophobicity tosidase [96]. The resulting product was monosaccha- and spatial orientation of CH groups. Pharmaceutical ride-free and contained 28% lactulose and 20% oligo- preparations require expensive methods of highly selec- saccharides. tive chromatography. Complex and interrelated processes of conversion and purification make it possible to Co-fermentation is a promising trend in lactulose organize continuous work and reduce costs [16]. biotechnology. It can rely on a combined use of lactose- fermenting and non-fermenting enzymes from diffe- Botelho et al. used this approach to build a mem- rent types of yeast, as well as on the co-fermentation brane bioreactor that provided simultaneous synthe- of yeast and lactic acid microorganisms. For example, sis and fractionation of oligosaccharides [93]. They Huang et al. used co-fermentation to improve the mixed \u03b2-galactosidase with a 15% lactose solution to physicochemical and organoleptic properties of goat decrease the permeability of ultrafiltration cellulose milk, while Ryabtseva et al. used it to obtain comp- acetate membranes with respect to monosaccharides, lex enzyme preparations of \u03b2-galactosidases [75,\u202f97]. disaccharides, and trisaccharides by 60, 20, and 75%, Co-immobilization of enzymes in lactulose produc- respectively. The ratio of synthesis and hydrolysis of tion can also involve two or more enzymes, both galactooligosaccharides depended on the cross-flow rate at the stage of lactose conversion and purifica- and the operating pressure. The optimization increased tion. Wilson et al. produced lactofructose syrup from the galactooligosaccharide yield by 60% compared to lactose based on simultaneous fermentation with reactions without membrane processes. coimmobilized \u03b2-galactosidases and glucose-(xylose)- isomerases [98]. Biological treatment methods have recently gained a lot of scientific attention. These methods rely on Conclusion the fact that microorganisms ferment only certain Modern food science knows two ways of enzymatic carbohydrates, and at different rates. Once the cultures lactose-to-lactulose conversion: isomerization (direct) are selected, they can be used to remove particular mo- and transgalactosylation (with intermediate hydrolysis). no- and\/or disaccharides from oligosaccharide solutions. Isomerization requires cellulose-2-epimerases, which S. cerevisiae, K. marxianus, and K. lactis are the most have no safety status and, as a result, cannot be produced popular yeast strains to be used. As a rule, biological on an industrial scale. The reaction produces epilactose as treatment requires neither pretreatment of solutions nor a by-product, and its exact mechanism remains unknown. special equipment. However, it may be expensive since Transgalactosylation involves glycosidases that break it presupposes additional fermentation processes, as down lactose to galactose and glucose, as well as add well as removal of utilized microorganisms and their a galactose residue to fructose. This method usually metabolic products [16]. requires \u03b2-galactosidases, which are officially safe and market-available. Their mechanism of action is a Biotreatment processes are popular in the field of highly researched matter. The publications dynamics galactooligosaccharide studies. Glucose removal me- indicates the high relevance of \u03b2-galactosidase-based thods can be used together with galactose removal or lactulose biosynthesis. alone. They involve non-lactose-fermenting yeast species, \u03b2-Galactosidases are able to accept nucleophiles as well as the removal of mono- and disaccharides. other than water in the active center. As a result, they Kluyveromyces yeast strains with a high rate of glucose, can form not only lactulose, but also more complex galactose, and lactose metabolism make it possible to oligosaccharides, including galactooligosaccharides of obtain 90% high-purity galactooligosaccharides [94]. various structures. They owe this ability to the tertiary structure of the enzyme, as well as the concentration of Similar strategies can be applied in lactulose lactose and fructose in the substrate. This reaction makes technology. Julio-Gonzalez used biological and physi- it possible to control the ratio of carbohydrates, which cochemical methods to purify commercial lactulose is important since lactulose and galactooligosaccharides syrups. They used four commercial preparations are prebiotics and can have a synergistic effect. However, of \u03b2-galactosidase for selective enzymatic hydroly- to obtain pure lactulose, other oligosaccharides have sis of lactose and epilactose. The experiment revea- to be removed, which increases the production cost. led that \u03b2-galactosidases obtained from B. bifidum The Kluyveromyces lactis yeast and the Aspergillus (Saphera\u00ae 2600 L) and B. circulans (Biolactas NTL*2) oryzae mold are the main producers of \u03b2-galactosidases. had the lowest activity towards lactulose and the highest Micromycetic enzymes produce a wide range of lactulose activity towards lactose and epilactose. The samples concentrations, but optimal conditions can result in a with hydrolyzed lactose and epilactose were treated 30% lactulose yield, which makes it as effective as with activated carbon and an aqueous solution of alkaline isomerization. ethanol to remove all monosaccharides. The research No publication has reported a direct relationship resulted in a high-purity product that contained > 94% between the maximal yield of lactulose and the molar lactulose [95]. Guerrero et al. used the S. cerevisiae and K. marxianus yeasts to purify a mix of transoligosaccharides obtai- 116","\u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0421. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 97\u2013122 ratio of fructose:lactose (mf\/ml). The area of mf\/ml \u2264 5 \u2013\u202fcomplex and interrelated processes combine the proved to be the most cost-efficient one. Large amounts production of enzymes, the conversion of lactose to of fructose increased the cost of raw materials, while lactulose, and the purification of finished products, most of the fructose did not participate in the synthesis including co-fermentation and co-immobilization. of lactulose and remains in solution, which makes purification processes difficult. Therefore, the optimal Contribution reaction conditions presuppose the minimal possible S.A.\u202fRyabtseva developed the research idea, de- dose of fructose and the maximal yield of lactulose. signed the study, collected publications, translated The glucose formed during the lactose-to-fructose hyd- them, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. rolysis can be biologically transformed. A.G.\u202fKhramtsov analyzed the data and revised the article. M.A.\u202fShpak, A.D.\u202fLodygin, G.S.\u202fAnisimov, Cellobiose epimerases make it possible to raise S.N.\u202fSazanova, and Yu.A.\u202fTabakova collected publi- the lactulose yields to 70\u201380%, which is the level cations, translated them, analyzed the data, and wrote of chemical catalysis with aluminates and borates. the manuscript. However, this method involves genetic engineering and mutagenesis, which improve the safety of enzymes Conflict of interest but raise public concerns and complicate the techno- The authors reported no conflict of interests regarding logy. The chemical synthesis of lactose has the same the publication of this article. probems. Cheap secondary dairy raw materials, e.g., whey, seem to be a more practical lactose production \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 method. \u0421. \u0410. \u0420\u044f\u0431\u0446\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u2013 \u0438\u0434\u0435\u044f \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u044b, \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438. The most promising methods of lactulose biotech- \u0410.\u202f\u0413.\u202f\u0425\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u2013 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d- nology are cheap and continuous. They include the \u043d\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e following trends: \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438. \u041c.\u202f\u0410.\u202f\u0428\u043f\u0430\u043a, \u0410.\u202f\u0414.\u202f\u041b\u043e\u0434\u044b\u0433\u0438\u043d, \u2013\u202fsecondary dairy raw materials can cultivate enzyme \u0413.\u202f\u0421.\u202f\u0410\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432, \u0421.\u202f\u041d.\u202f\u0421\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0438 \u042e.\u202f\u0410.\u202f\u0422\u0430\u0431\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u2013 producers and synthesize lactulose; \u043f\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a, \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u2013\u202fimmobilization makes enzymes more stable, ac- \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438. tive, reusable, and easy to isolate from the reaction mix; \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0442 \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u2013\u202fdifferent models of reactors, e.g., membrane instal- \u0410\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b \u0437\u0430\u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u043e\u0431 \u043e\u0442\u0441\u0443\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0444\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0442\u0430 lations, can provide simultaneous synthesis and frac- \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u043e\u0432. tionation of lactulose and galactooligosaccharides; References\/\u0421\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043a \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b 1.\tRyabtseva SA, Khramtsov AG, Budkevich RO, Anisimov GS, Chuklo AO, Shpak MA. 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Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):123\u2013130 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21603\/2074-9414-2023-1-2417 Original article https:\/\/elibrary.ru\/DYTGLX Available online at https:\/\/fptt.ru\/en Effect of Microwave Radiation on the Chemical Composition of Chickpeas Valentina N. Khramova , Dmitry I. Surkov* , Kirill A. Lubchinsky Volgograd State Technical University , Volgograd, Russia Received: 04.05.2022 *Dmitry I. Surkov: [email protected], Revised: 14.11.2022 https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2946-5915 Accepted: 06.12.2022 Valentina N. Khramova: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7630-7672 Kirill A. Lubchinsky: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4836-6058 \u00a9 V.N. Khramova, D.I. Surkov, K.A. Lubchinsky, 2023 Abstract. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is rich in protein and has a balanced amino acid profile. However, its characteristic bean flavor limits its use as a functional food ingredient. Microwave treatment may help to solve this problem. The research objective was to select the optimal parameters of microwave treatment to obtain chickpea samples with no bean flavor and to study their chemical composition. The study featured chickpeas of the Volzhanin variety. The experimental samples were processed in a microwave oven with a magnetron frequency of 2450 MHz at different power and time values. The protein tests, the analysis of amino acid profile, and the sensory assessment involved standard research methods. The microwave processing loosened the consistency of chickpeas and eliminated the bean flavor after 5\u20136\u202fmin at 200\u202fW or 3\u202fmin at 400\u202fW. A longer treatment time resulted in a peanut flavor followed by bitterness. The microwave treatment reduced the mass fraction of protein and the amount of essential amino acids. This process could be slowed down by increasing the power of microwave radiation and reducing the processing time. However, the intensification had a negative effect on the content of arginine, methionine, and tyrosine in chickpea protein. The results obtained can make it possible to use chickpeas as a functional food ingredient Keywords. Cicer arietinum L., vegetable protein, amino acid composition, microwave processing, functional products For citation: Khramova VN, Surkov DI, Lubchinsky KA. Effect of Microwave Radiation on the Chemical Composition of Chickpeas. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):123\u2013130. 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[\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 123\u2013130 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432 (B2,\u202fB5,\u202fB6) \u0438 \u043c\u0438- \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 1. \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u044b \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044f\u043d \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432 (Fe,\u202fZn,\u202fSe) \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445. \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043d\u0443\u0442 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0438\u0442 \u043e\u0442 50 \u0434\u043e 67\u202f% \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432, \u0437\u043e\u043b\u044b \u2013 \u043e\u0442 2,8 \u0434\u043e 4,0\u202f% \u0438 \u043b\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u2013 \u043e\u0442 4,9 \u0434\u043e 8\u202f%, Table 1. Microwave treatment parameters for chickpea seeds \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0441\u044b\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u044b\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b- \u043c\u0438 \u0436\u0438\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 [5\u20138]. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 \u0412\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438, \u041c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0431\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043c, \u043c\u0438\u043d \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437- \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0412\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u2013 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439. 1 1 \u2013 2 2 200 \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c \u0438\u0437 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431- 3 3 200 \u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u044f \u0431\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0430 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 4 4 200 \u0437\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0443\u044e 5 5 200 \u0448\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0432 \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f 6 6 200 \u0441\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043e\u0442\u0442\u0430\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0434\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u043e 7 7 200 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043f\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0430- 8 8 200 \u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u044b\u0440\u044c\u044f [9, 10]. \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u0442 9 9 200 \u043e\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0443\u043b (\u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b \u0432 10 1 200 \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0445): \u0447\u0435\u043c \u0438\u0445 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435, \u0442\u0435\u043c \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0435. 11 2 400 \u0412 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0433\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e- 12 3 400 \u0432\u043e\u0439 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043f\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442 \u0434\u0438\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e 400 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f [11]. \u0411\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043a\u0440\u044b\u0448\u043a\u0438 (150\u00d7130\u00d760\u00a0\u043c\u043c) \u043e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043c 1\u202f\u043b, \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e- \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u044b\u0440\u044c\u044f, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0441 \u0438\u043d\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u043a- \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0435\u0436\u0430\u043b \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442. \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0446 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440- \u0434\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0435 \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0438. \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u043d\u044b\u0445 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430 50 \u0433. \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440 [12]. \u041f\u043e \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432 2019 \u0433., \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u041f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0435 \u0438 \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0451\u043c\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u043c 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\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u044b \u043f\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0449\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u0442\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c. \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0439\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u041e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430 (\u0410\u0421) \u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430 (\u0410\u0418) \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 125","Khramova V.N. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):123\u2013130 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0436\u0443\u0440\u044b \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443\u043b\u0430\u043c 1\u20134: \u0441\u043b\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0440\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0448\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0445\u0430. \t \u0410\u0418 = \u2211 \u041d\u0410\u041a (1) \u041d\u0443\u0442, \u043b\u0438\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0430 \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0445\u0430, \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u2211 \u0427\u0417\u0410\u041a + \u2211 \u0417\u0410\u041a \u0441 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u043e\u043c. \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043d\u0443\u0442 \u0441 \u0430\u0440\u0430\u0445\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043c \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0438\u0441- \u043c\u0433\u0433\u0434\/\u044b1\u04350\u0445\u04200\u0430\u2211\u0438\u00a0\u0441\u0433\u041d\u0447\u0437; \u0430\u0435\u0410\u2211\u043c\u0442\u041a\u0427\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0417\u043e\u0438\u0410\u2013\u0434\u043cA\u0435\u041a\u0410\u0440\u0441\u044bj\u0418\u0436\u0443+=\u0445\u043c\u0430\u2211\u2211=\u0430\u043d\u043c\u043c\uf8ec\uf8ed\uf8eb\u0417\u0438\u0430\u2211\u04381\u0410\u044fm0\u0427\u043d\u043d\u041a\u0430i0\u043e\u0417\u0435\u043c\u043a\u0410\u0437\u2013\u00d7\u2211\u0438\u0430\u0438\u041aA\u043d\u0441\u043c\u041d\u0441\u0443\u043e\u043bK\u0435+\u0410\u043c\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0438\u041a\u2211j\u043c\u0442\u0438\uf8f8\uf8f7\uf8f6\u0441,\u043c\u0430\u0417\u043b\u0433\u0410\u044b\u0447\u043e\/1\u0430\u0442\u0445\u041a0\u0441\u044b0\u0442\u0430\u00a0\u0438(\u043c\u0433A\u0447.\u0438\u043d)\u043d,\u043e\u043e\u0433\u0437\/\u043a1\u0430\u04380\u043c\u04410\u0435\u043b\u00a0\u043d\u043e\u0433\u0438:\u0442-, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u044b\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 j==\u0410A\u2211\u0418BK\uf8ed\uf8ec\uf8eb =1\u00d7m01i00\u00d70 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e. \t ak A\u2211K\u041dj \uf8f8\uf8f7\uf8f6\u0410\u041a (2) A \u0412 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u043f- \u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0443\u044e \u0434\u043e\u043b\u044e \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0438- \u0437\u043a\u0433\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0430\u0435\u043c\u0414\t\u0442\u043fA\u044c\u043b\u043eK\u044f\u043c\u043dj\u0440\u0430\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u2013\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0441\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043e\u0435,\u0430\u0434\u0442\u0433\u043c\u0410\u0430\u0435;=\u0410a=\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0421mk\u0421\u0436\u043d\u043ci=\u043eaA\u0430A\u0410\u0438\u2013\u043a\u043dkA\u043daM\u0418j\u0438j\u043caMB\u0438\u043e==k=K\u0441k\u0435\u0430\u043a=\u2211\u2211\u043b\u00d7A\u0441\u0438\u00d7\u00d7j\u043e1\u0441\u2211-\u2211\u0441\uf8ed\uf8ec\uf8eb\uf8ec\uf8ed\uf8ebK11\u0442\u0442\u04300\u043b1100\u044b\u043e\u04270\u0427mm\u043e\u00d7i0000\u0439-\u0442\u0417\u0417i0i01(\u0442\u043d\u0410\u0410\u2211a0\u0430\u043e\u00d7\u00d7\u043ek\u043c0\u0433\u041a\u041a\u041d\u0433AA)\u043e\u0438\u043e++\u0410\u0432KK\u043d\u043a\u0441\u043e\u2211\u041a\u2211\u043e1\u043ajj\u043a\u043c0\uf8f8\uf8f6\uf8f7\uf8f6\uf8f8\uf8f7\u043e\u0417\u0417\u04380\u0440\u043f\u0410\u0410\u0441\u00a0\u0430\u043e\u0433\u043b\u041a\u041a\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0431\u0435\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u043e\u044b\u043b\u0442\u0431\u043a\u0430\u0445\u0432\u0430,\u043e:i\u0433\u0434-.\u0438\u0442(\u043e\u043c3\u043c)\u043e \u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043a\u0441 \u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442- B \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432 (\u0442\u0430\u0431\u043b. 2). \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043aA\u043eK\u043b\u0438\u2013\u0447\u0435\u043c\u0441\u0430\u0442\u0441\u0432\u0441\u043e\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0435\u043c\u0410a\u043b=k\u043a\u0438\u0421\u0430\u043d=\u043e\u0432A\u043aaMB1K\u0438k0\u0441\u00d70\u00d7\u043b\u00a011\u043e\u043300\u0442\u043e0\u044b0\u0431\u0440\u0432\u04301\u0437\u04460\u04300,\u00a0 \u0433 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430, \u0433; \u0418\u0437 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0443 B\u2013 \u0433. \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442- \u043a\u0438. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0441 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043c \u0441\u0443\u0448\u043a\u0438 \t\t \u0410=\u0421 ak \u00d7100 (4) \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 M \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0438 \u0438 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\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 5\u20136\u00a0\u043c\u0438\u043d \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0449- \u0443 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 \u2116 5 (200\u00a0\u0412\u0442, 5 \u043c\u0438\u043d) \u2013 18,84 %. \u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f 200\u00a0\u0412\u0442 (\u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u044b \u2116 5 \u0438 6) \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e \u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044b \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 3\u00a0 \u043c\u0438\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 400\u00a0 \u0412\u0442 (\u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442- \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0446 \u2116 12). \u041f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0438 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430. \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441 \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0445 \u0436\u0430\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u0440\u0430\u0445\u0438\u0441\u0430. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430- \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442- \u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 9\u202f\u043c\u0438\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d 200\u202f\u0412\u0442 \u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u044b\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u043c. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0434\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435. \u0422\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441- \u043b\u043e\u0442 \u043e\u0436\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u0438\u0437-\u0437\u0430 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0410\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0435\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u043e\u043ac\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0438 \u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043a \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e. 126","\u0425\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0412. \u041d. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 123\u2013130 \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 2. \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 Table 2. Protein mass fraction and amino acid profile of chickpeas \u041f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f 18,75 \u00b1 18,84 \u00b1 19,55 \u00b1 19,44 \u00b1 18,51 \u00b1 18,84 \u00b1 18,71 \u00b1 18,81 \u00b1 18,00 \u00b1 18,67 \u00b1 18,42 \u00b1 18,81 \u00b1 18,28 \u00b1 \u0434\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430, % 0,52 0,48 0,59 0,55 0,54 0,51 0,47 0,51 0,48 0,53 0,50 0,46 0,49 \u0410\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e- 1,080 1,104 1,076 1,059 1,062 1,119 1,252 1,121 1,097 1,088 1,160 1,161 1,179 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043a\u0441 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442, \u043c\u0433\/100 \u0433 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d 493 612 532 479 424 403 604 411 433 381 691 611 512 \u041b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d \u0438 1614 1888 1826 1600 1367 1324 1647 1399 1380 1467 1953 1764 1472 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d \u041b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043d 936 1278 1092 986 860 801 961 832 783 830 1127 1004 838 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d 110 149 133 123 118 91 108 96 138 127 146 139 78 \u0422\u0440\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d 423 546 514 439 394 341 395 387 408 393 599 486 406 \u0422\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0444\u0430\u043d 159 171 197 173 197 147 157 199 193 158 130 186 182 \u0424\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d 948 1143 983 854 743 760 875 756 754 791 1032 962 793 \u0418\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e 4683 5787 5277 4654 4103 3867 4747 4080 4089 4147 5678 5152 4281 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442, \u043c\u0433\/100 \u0433 \u0410\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d 971 1188 1146 1021 948 832 832 896 866 782 899 807 667 \u0413\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0434\u0438\u043d 280 427 353 401 343 289 313 227 238 248 456 366 319 \u0418\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e 1251 1615 1499 1422 1291 1121 1145 1123 1104 1030 1355 1173 986 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442, \u043c\u0433\/100 \u0433 \u0410\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d 671 767 748 637 545 490 579 516 583 584 816 741 609 \u0413\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d 595 772 650 558 479 456 545 482 473 551 745 626 505 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d 691 796 719 617 547 530 567 566 554 644 804 751 596 \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d 714 761 822 735 635 501 577 564 666 615 846 772 635 \u0422\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043d 416 530 467 425 366 357 378 388 348 388 325 374 299 \u0418\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e 3087 3626 3406 2972 2572 2334 2646 2516 2624 2782 3536 3264 2644 1250 1250 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u043c\u0433 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u043c\u0433 1121550102501150 1188 10510150 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0430\u043e\u0440\u043a\u0433\u0438\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0438\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0430\u0442\u0438 \u0433\u044b,\u043b\u0438\u0446\u043c\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430, \u043c\u0433 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u043c\u0433 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u043c\u0433 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u04301\u043c25\u04380\u043d\u043e\u043a12\u043850\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d, 1146 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043d, 1\u04411\u043850\u043b\u044c\u043d1\u043e150\u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 190550100501050 1021 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c1\u043805\u043a0\u0440\u043e\u043210\u043e5\u043b0 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. 895500950 950971 899 948 896 782 785500850 850 772 866 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 95\u04300\u043c\u0438\u043d9\u043e50\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f 807 832 832 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0438 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0445\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e. \u041d\u0430 \u0440\u04388\u044150\u0443\u043d\u043a\u04358510 \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0430 675500750 750 650 667 565500650 650 745 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d7\u04355\u043d0 \u0438\u044f \u044175\u043e0\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 626 558 545 551 \u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u044565\u043e0 \u0431\u0440\u04306\u043750\u0446\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430. 455500550 555095 505 479 456 482 473 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0421\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0430\u043b\u0432\u0436\u043d\u0438\u0438\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044f\u044c\u043d\u0440\u043e\u0435\u0436\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0438\u043c, \u044b\u043d\u043e\u043e\u04315\u04405\u0440\u04300\u0430\u0437\u0431\u043d\u043e\u043e5\u0442\u04395\u043a0\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043f\u0449\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043e\u0441\u0434\u0442\u0438\u0438\u043d, \u0430\u043c\u043a\u043e\u043e\u0436\u0432\u043e\u043d\u0439\u043e 6997 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u0442\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u044b45\u04390 \u043e0 \u0431\u044045\u04300\u0437\u043501\u0446 \u2116 121 \u0438\u043c\u043523\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u043034 4500450 040 50 0 111 221 2 33 2 3 44 3 554 664 5 77 5 688 78 89 0 32\u202f% \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u0447\u0435\u043c \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0446 45 56 67\u041f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e78\u043b\u0436\u0438\u0442\u04358\u041f9\u043b\u0440\u043e\u044c\u0434\u043e\u043d\u043b\u041f\u0436\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0435\u04429\u0434\u043b\u044c\u043e\u044c\u043d\u043b\u043e\u041f\u0436\u043c\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u044c\u0438\u043e,\u0442\u043c\u0434\u043a\u0435\u0438\u043e\u043b\u0440\u043d\u043b\u044c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0438\u0432\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0435\u044c\u043b\u043b,\u044c\u043d\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0432\u0442\u043e\u044c,\u0433\u043c\u043e\u0438\u043d \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043c\u0438\u043d \u0441\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u041f\u043d\u0440\u044f\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043e\u0442\u043b\u0436\u041f\u0438\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0435\u043b\u0434\u044c\u043e\u043d\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0442\u044c\u0435,\u043b\u043c\u044c\u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u043c\u0438\u043d200 \u0412\u0442 (\u0410\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d) 400 \u0412\u0442 (\u0410\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d) 200 \u0412\u0442 (\u0413\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d) 400 \u0412\u0442 (\u0413\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d) \u2116\u202f10. \u0423\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u044f 22000\u0412\u0442\u04122(\u04100\u04420\u0440(\u0433\u0412\u0410\u0438\u0442\u043d\u0440(\u0438\u0410\u043d\u0433\u0440)\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0438\u043d\u043d)) 400 \u0412\u0442 4(4\u0410000\u0440\u04330\u0412\u0438\u0442\u043d\u0412(\u0438\u0410\u043d\u0442\u0440) \u0433(\u0438\u0410\u043d\u0438\u0440\u043d\u0433)\u0438\u043d\u043820\u043d0)\u0412\u0442 2(\u04130\u043b0\u0438\u0412\u0446\u0442\u0438\u043d(\u0413)\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d) \u044d\u0442\u0443 \u0442\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044e \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u04302:00\u043f\u0412\u043e\u0442 (\u0441\u04102\u043b0\u04400\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0412\u043d2\u0442\u0438\u043d(\u00a0\u0410)\u043c\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e) \u04314\u04400\u04300 -\u0412\u0442 (\u041040\u04400\u0433\u0438\u0412\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d(\u0410) \u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d) \u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u2013 42\u202f%, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 3\u00a0\u043c\u0438\u043d \u2013 53 %. \u0414\u043b\u044f \u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u044d\u0442\u0438 22000\u0412\u0442\u0412(\u04132\u0442\u043b0\u0438(0\u0446\u0413\u0412\u0438\u043b\u0442\u043d\u0438)(\u0413\u0446\u043b\u0438\u0446\u043d\u0438)\u043d) 400 \u0412\u0442 (\u041344\u043b0\u04380\u04460\u0412\u0438\u0442\u043d\u0412)(\u0413\u0442\u043b\u0438(\u0446\u0413\u0438\u043b\u043d\u0438) \u0446\u0438\u043d) \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 63, 42 \u0438 25 % \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e. \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 1. \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0435 Figure 1. Arginine and glycine content in chickpeas \u0440\u0435\u0437\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0443\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438. \u0421\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0443- \u0442\u043e\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0437\u044f\u0449\u0438\u043c \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0431\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0432 \u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0433\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0437, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0445. \u041a\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0435 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430- \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c \u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430. \u0421\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u2013 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u0432\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0447 \u043f\u0438- \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u044b: \u0432\u044b\u043c\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0449\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0448\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0442. \u043a. \u044d\u0442\u043e \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438, \u043c\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u043d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0432 127","Khramova V.N. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):123\u2013130 \u041f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 3. \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442, \u0433\/100\u00a0\u0433 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d Table 3. Essential amino acids, g\/100 g \u041b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d \u041d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 \u041b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043d \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0422\u0440\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d 2,63 3,25 2,72 2,46 2,29 2,14 3,23 2,19 2,41 2,04 3,75 3,25 2,80 \u0422\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0444\u0430\u043d 8,61 10,02 9,34 8,23 7,39 7,03 8,80 7,44 7,67 7,86 10,60 9,38 8,05 \u0424\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d 4,99 6,78 5,59 5,07 4,65 4,25 5,14 4,42 4,35 4,45 6,12 5,34 4,58 0,59 0,79 0,68 0,63 0,64 0,48 0,58 0,51 0,77 0,68 0,79 0,74 0,43 2,26 2,90 2,63 2,26 2,13 1,81 2,11 2,06 2,27 2,10 3,25 2,58 2,22 0,85 0,91 1,01 0,89 1,06 0,78 0,84 1,06 1,07 0,85 0,71 0,99 1,00 5,06 6,07 5,03 4,39 4,01 4,03 4,68 4,02 4,19 4,24 5,60 5,11 4,34 \u041f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 4. \u0410\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440, % \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d Table 4. Amino acid score, % \u041b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d \u041d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 \u041b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043d \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d \u0422\u0440\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d 52,6 65,0 54,4 49,3 45,8 42,8 64,6 43,7 48,1 40,8 75,0 65,0 56,0 \u0422\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0444\u0430\u043d 78,3 91,1 84,9 74,8 67,1 63,9 80,0 67,6 69,7 71,4 96,4 85,3 73,2 \u0424\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d 90,8 123,3 101,6 92,2 84,5 77,3 93,4 80,4 79,1 80,8 111,2 97,0 83,3 16,8 22,6 19,4 18,1 18,2 13,8 16,5 14,6 21,9 19,4 22,6 21,1 12,2 56,4 72,5 65,7 56,5 53,2 45,2 52,8 51,4 56,7 52,6 81,3 64,6 55,5 84,8 90,8 100,8 89,0 106,4 78,0 83,9 105,8 107,2 84,6 70,6 98,9 99,6 84,3 101,1 83,8 73,2 66,9 67,2 77,9 67,0 69,8 70,6 93,4 85,2 72,3 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c, \u043a\u0438\u043f\u044f\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c [8, 18, 19]. \u0423\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e \u0441 \u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u0439 [20, 21]. \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u0434\u0432\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0435, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0433\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0431\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0441\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0422\u0430\u043a \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044f\u043d \u0438 \u0438\u0445 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u0446\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c. \u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u044b \u2116 5 \u0438 12 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442 \u0434\u043e\u0441- \u0442\u0438\u0447\u044c \u0446\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0418\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u044b\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430- \u0438\u0445 \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0439. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0432 \u044d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0435 (\u0424\u0410\u041e\/\u0412\u041e\u0417), \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0441\u043e- \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443\u043b\u0430\u043c 2\u20134 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439, \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043e\u0441- \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0438 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441- \u0442\u0430\u0432 \u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440 (\u0442\u0430\u0431\u043b.\u202f3 \u0438\u202f4). \u0420\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0430. \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0435: \u041f\u0440\u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0438 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 ==\u0410\u0410\u041a\u041a 00,,449933 \u00d7\u00d7110000 == 22,,6633 \u0433\u0433 \u2116 5 (5 \u043c\u0438\u043d, 200\u00a0\u0412\u0442) \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u0442\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440- 1188,,7755 \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0442\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0444\u0430\u043d \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 22,,6633 \u043d\u0430 7,5\u202f%, \u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 14,2 %, \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 14,3\u202f%, ==\u0410\u0410\u0421\u0421 55 \u00d7\u00d7==110000 5522,,66 %% (5) \u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 14,4\u202f%, \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 17,3\u202f%, \u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d \u0441 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c \u2013 \u043d\u0430 18 %, \u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 18,3\u202f%, \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u0418\u0437 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043d\u0430 19,4\u202f%, \u0444\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 19,8\u202f%, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0446 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043b\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442, 23,3\u202f%, \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 23,4 %, \u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u043d\u0430 27 % \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d \u2013 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d \u2013 16,8 %. \u043d\u0430 29,8\u202f%. \u0412 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0435 \u2116 12 (400\u00a0\u0412\u0442, 3\u00a0\u043c\u0438\u043d) \u0414\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u043f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u0432 \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0443 \u043c\u043e- \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d (31,3\u202f%), \u0436\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043a \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0430\u043c \u0441 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d (29,1 %) \u0438 \u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043d (28,1 %). \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442: \u0444\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043e\u043a \u0438 \u0442\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0439. \u041f\u043e\u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u0438 16,4 %, \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 15,1 %, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 13,7 %, \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0430 11,1 %, \u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 10,5 %, \u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 9,2 %, \u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0430 \u044d\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430 8,8 % \u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 4 %. \u0438\u043d\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b \u0431\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c [21]. \u0417\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431- \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e 128","\u0425\u0440\u0430\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0412. \u041d. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 123\u2013130 \u041c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u0433\u0443\u0431\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 14,3 %, \u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 14,4\u202f%, \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430. \u0427\u0435\u043c \u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c- \u043d\u0430 17,3\u202f%, \u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0441 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439\u0446\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c \u2013 \u043d\u0430 18 %, \u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u0448\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0438, \u0442\u0435\u043c \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 18,3\u202f%, \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 19,4\u202f%, \u0444\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430. \u043d\u0430 19,8\u202f%, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 23,3 %, \u0433\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 23,4\u202f%, \u0430\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 27\u202f% \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 29,8\u202f%. \u0412 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u044b \u2116 5\u00a0 \u0438\u00a0 12, \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0435 \u2116 12 (400\u00a0\u0412\u0442, 3\u00a0\u043c\u0438\u043d) \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438 \u0442\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0442\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442- \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043f\u0435\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043d (31,3\u202f%), \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043d (29,1\u202f%) \u043d\u044b\u0439 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\u043d\u0435\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d. \u041d\u0443\u0442 \u0441 \u0430\u0440\u0430\u0445\u0438\u0441\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u043e\u043c \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u044b\u0442\u044c \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043e- Contribution \u0432\u0430\u043d \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u0441\u044b\u0440\u043e\u0432, \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0439 V.N. Khramova supervised the research, collected \u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e. the data, provided consultation, and wrote the article. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f D.I. Surkov and K.A. Lubchinsky collected, processed, \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u0442 \u0443\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 and analyzed the data, as well as drafted and proofread \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043a \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u043d\u0443\u0442\u0435 the text. \u0438 \u0443\u0445\u0443\u0434\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0430, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u043a \u043f\u0430- \u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442. \u0412 \u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 5\u00a0\u043c\u0438\u043d Conflict of interest \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 200\u00a0 \u0412\u0442 \u043e\u043d\u043e \u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest \u0442\u0440\u0438\u043f\u0442\u043e\u0444\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 7,5\u202f%, \u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 14,2\u202f%, \u0430\u0440\u0433\u0438- regarding the publication of this article. References\/\u0421\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043a \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b 1.\tOryeshkin MV. The problem of protein deficiency \u2013 approaches to. Bulletin of the Luhansk National University. 2017;4(1):19\u201322. (In Russ.). 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Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):131\u2013139 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21603\/2074-9414-2023-1-2420 Original article https:\/\/elibrary.ru\/FOEDXY Available online at https:\/\/fptt.ru\/en Chemical Composition and Sensory Profile of Sauerkraut from Different Cabbage Hybrids Elena V. Yanchenko1,* , Galina S. Volkova2,** , Elena V. Kuksova2 , Ivan I. Virchenko1 , Aleksey V. Yanchenko1 , Elena M. Serba2 , Maria I. Ivanova1 1 All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Vegetable Growing, Vereya, Russia 2 All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Food Biotechnology , Moscow, Russia Received: 18.04.2022 *Elena V. Yanchenko: [email protected], Revised: 20.06.2022 https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3165-7238 Accepted: 05.07.2022 **Galina S. Volkova: [email protected], https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4051-1828 Elena V. Kuksova: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6497-6828 Ivan I. Virchenko: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2435-0377 Aleksey V. Yanchenko: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1031-9459 Elena M. Serba: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1660-2634 Maria I. Ivanova: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7326-2157 \u00a9 E.V. Yanchenko, G.S. Volkova, E.V. Kuksova, I.I. Virchenko, A.V. Yanchenko, E.M. Serba, M.I. Ivanova, 2023 Abstract. Fermented foods have a longer shelf life and higher nutritional value. Sauerkraut products depend on the quality of the raw material. Not every cabbage variety is suitable for processing. The present research objective was to test several cabbage hybrids for natural fermentation, microbiological parameters, and native sugar content after four months of storage. The study featured twelve new-generation white cabbage hybrids of Russian selection and sauerkraut foods. The experimental batches were stored for four months at \u20131\u20130\u00b0\u0421. Fermentation occurred at 21\u00b0C and final pH \u2264 3.6. The sugar content and titratable acidity were measured by standard methods. The method of limiting dilutions was applied to determine the microbial count. The microbiological seeding process followed standard procedures. The highest content of total sugars before fermentation belonged to the late-ripening hybrids Prestizh F1 (5.92%), Gertsoginya F1 (5.82%), and Idillia F1 (5.28%), as well as to the late-ripening Atlant F1 (5.49%). The greatest sugar content was registered in Prestizh F1 (4.78%), Kontinent F1 (4.30%), and Gertsoginya F1 (4.07%). The mass fraction of titratable acids in terms of lactic acid averaged 1.04% for all the samples. The difference in the chemical composition depended on the hybrid and microbial count during fermentation. The lactic acid bacteria content was as high as 8.17\u00d7107 CFU\/cm3 in Severyanka F1. All the samples were resistant to undesirable microflora, i.e., yeasts and molds. All the cabbage hybrids were suitable for fermentation even after four months of storage. Their own lactic microflora was sufficient for fermentation and traditional sensory properties. Keywords. White cabbage, quality, fermentation, sugars, lactic acid bacteria, microbiological parameters, nutritional value Funding. The research was performed on the premises of the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Vegetable Growing, branch of the Federal Scientific Vegetable Center, as part of research no. FNRN-2019-0069 \u201cEffect of mineral and organic fertilizers on the yield, quality, and storage of new-generation varieties and hybrids of white cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, and beet grown in alluvial meadow non-chernozem soil\u201d. For citation: Yanchenko EV, Volkova GS, Kuksova EV, Virchenko II, Yanchenko AV, Serba EM, et al. Chemical Composition and Sensory Profile of Sauerkraut from Different Cabbage Hybrids. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):131\u2013139. 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\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 F1 (4,30 %) \u0438 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u044f F1 (4,07 %). \u0412\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 4\u20135 \u0441\u0443\u0442\u043e\u043a pH \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0434\u043e 3,4\u20133,7. \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0443 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0412\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0441\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u044f F1 (3,12 %) \u0438 \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436 F1 (3,63%). \u0414\u0438\u0441\u0430- \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u043b\u043e\u0440\u044b \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043d\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043f\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 F1 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0438, \u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u043a, \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0439 (1,37 %), \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436 F1 (1,15 %) \u0438 \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439 F1 (1,12 %). \u0442\u043a\u0430\u043d\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439, \u0431\u043e\u0433\u0430\u0442 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0432 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0417\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u043c\u043c\u044b \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f \u043c\u043e- \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0418\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u044f F1 (\u043d\u0430 54,2 %) \u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439. \u0421\u0430\u043c\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u0440\u043e- \u0438 \u041e\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439 F1 (\u043d\u0430 40,4 %). \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0443\u043c\u043c\u044b \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0437 7\u201310 \u0441\u0443\u0442\u043e\u043a [15]. \u0421\u043f\u0438\u0440- \u0432 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435, \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0441\u043e \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0436\u0435\u0439, \u0441\u043d\u0438- \u0442\u044b, \u0442\u0438\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0442\u044b, \u043d\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0438\u0434\u044b \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0437\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 30,1 %, \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 18,0 %, \u043c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430- \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0440\u043e\u0432 \u2013 \u043d\u0430 33,6 %. \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b. \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d \u0438 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0446\u0438\u043d. \u0412\u044b\u044f\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e- \u0418\u0437 \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043e\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432 (\u0440\u0438\u0441. 1). \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0441 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0443\u043a\u0441\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u0441\u044b\u0440\u044c\u044f, \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043d\u0430 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432, \u2013 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0444\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440 \u0432 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0443. \u041c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0440\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 134","\u042f\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u0415. \u0412. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 131\u2013139 \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 1. \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430\u0445 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0447\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439, % Table 1. Sugars in fresh cabbage and sauerkraut, % \u0413\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434 \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0436\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u041a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0414\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u042f\u0445\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 F1 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0421\u0443\u043c\u043c\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u041c\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0414\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0421\u0443\u043c\u043c\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 1,03 \u00b1 0,05 \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 F1 3,35 \u00b1 0,17 2,11 \u00b1 0,11 0,61 \u00b1 0,03 2,72 \u00b1 0,14 4,38 \u00b1 0,22 \u0410\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0442 F1 3,36 \u00b1 0,17 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u044b\u043d\u044f F1 0,94 \u00b1 0,05 \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 2,39 \u00b1 0,12 0,38 \u00b1 0,02 2,77 \u00b1 0,14 \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439 F1 4,22 \u00b1 0,21 4,30 \u00b1 0,22 \u041a\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f F1 4,08 \u00b1 0,20 0,89 \u00b1 0,04 3,54 \u00b1 0,18 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 F1 3,93 \u00b1 0,19 1,27 \u00b1 0,06 \u041f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 2,65 \u00b1 0,13 0,87 \u00b1 0,04 3,33 \u00b1 0,17 \u041e\u0440\u0438\u043e\u043d F1 3,91 \u00b1 0,19 5,49 \u00b1 0,27 1,12 \u00b1 0,06 3,55 \u00b1 0,18 4,06 \u00b1 0,20 1,05 \u00b1 0,05 3,96 \u00b1 0,19 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u044f F1 4,02 \u00b1 0,20 0,53 \u00b1 0,03 4,61 \u00b1 0,23 2,46 \u00b1 0,12 1,37 \u00b1 0,07 4,30 \u00b1 0,22 \u0418\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u044f F1 0,74 \u00b1 0,04 3,37 \u00b1 0,17 \u041e\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439 F1 4,42 \u00b1 0,22 0,74 \u00b1 0,04 4,67 \u00b1 0,23 2,43 \u00b1 0,12 \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436 F1 4,32 \u00b1 0,22 0,95 \u00b1 0,05 4,07 \u00b1 0,20 \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0435 4,19 \u00b1 0,21 0,80 \u00b1 0,04 4,71 \u00b1 0,23 2,91 \u00b1 0,15 0,25 \u00b1 0,01 2,42 \u00b1 0,12 3,97 \u00b1 0,19 0,48 \u00b1 0,02 2,89 \u00b1 0,15 3,99 \u00b1 0,19 0,83 \u00b1 0,04 4,89 \u00b1 0,24 2,93 \u00b1 0,15 0,87 \u00b1 0,04 4,89 \u00b1 0,24 2,63 \u00b1 0,13 \u041e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 1,40 \u00b1 0,07 5,82 \u00b1 0,29 3,12 \u00b1 0,16 0,96 \u00b1 0,05 5,28 \u00b1 0,26 2,17 \u00b1 0,11 0,70 \u00b1 0,04 4,85 \u00b1 0,24 2,41 \u00b1 0,12 1,95 \u00b1 0,10 5,92 \u00b1 0,29 3,63 \u00b1 0,18 1,15 \u00b1 0,06 4,78 \u00b1 0,24 1,00 \u00b1 0,05 4,98 \u00b1 0,25 2,65 \u00b1 0,13 0,82 \u00b1 0,04 3,48 \u00b1 0,17 \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0440 \u02c2 0,05 (n = 3). The data are statistically significant at p \u02c2 0.05 (n = 3). \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 1. \u041e\u0442\u0431\u043e\u0440 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0443 \u041b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043a\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0440 (\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437- \u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0424\u0411\u0423\u041d \u0413\u041d\u0426 \u041f\u041c\u0411, \u0433.\u202f\u041e\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a). \u0423\u0441\u043b\u043e- Figure 1. Brine selection \u0432\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u2013 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u044d\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e, \u043e\u043f\u0442\u0438\u043c\u0443\u043c \u0440\u041d \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435 \u2013 5,5\u20135,8, \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430- \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0438\u044f \u2013 36 \u00b0\u0421. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u044e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435. \u0440\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0430\u0445 2\u20134 \u0438 \u0432 \u0442\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0435 2. \u0414\u043b\u044f \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432 \u0438\u0437 \u0412 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0442\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0435- \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 (\u0440\u0438\u0441. 3). \u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0443 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0445 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0435 0,81\u20131,32 %, \u041d\u0430 \u0447\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0430\u0445 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430\u0445 \u0432 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043c \u2013 1,04 % (\u0442\u0430\u0431\u043b. 2). \u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u2013 Lactobacillus plantarum, \u0414\u043e\u043b\u044f \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0432 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 Lactococcus sp. \u0438 Lactobacillus brevis. \u0412 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044b\u0434\u0443- \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0438- \u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0432 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e- \u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u0432\u0430\u0441\u043e\u043a, \u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u0442 \u0442\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043e\u0442 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u044b Leuco- \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e- nostoc mesenteroides, L. plantarum, Lactobacillus \u0441\u0435\u0432 \u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0442- cucumeris \u0438 L. brevis [18]. Lactobacillus \u043c\u043e\u0433\u0443\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e- \u0434\u0443\u0446\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0443 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0430\u043d- \u0442\u0438\u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0446\u0438\u043d\u044b, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0433\u0443\u0442 \u0438\u043d\u0433\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435 \u0444\u0435\u0440- \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u043f\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0433\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0432, \u0432\u044b\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0443 [19,\u202f20]. \u0412\u044b\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043e- \u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u041d \u0438 \u0438\u043d\u0433\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u044b, \u0432\u044b\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0447\u0443, \u043d\u043e \u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0432\u043b\u0438\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043f\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442 \u044d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0443\u043c\u0435\u043d\u044c\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441 \u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0443\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0430 [21]. 135","Yanchenko E.V. et al. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):131\u2013139 \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 2. \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442 \u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0443 \u0432 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 Table 2. Titratable acids in terms of lactic acid in sauerkraut from various cabbage hybrids \u0413\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434 \u041c\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043b\u044f \u0442\u0438\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442 12 34 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0443, % \u042f\u0445\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 F1 \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 56 78 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 F1 0,81 \u00b1 0,04 9 10 11 12 \u041f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0410\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0442 F1 \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 2. \u041c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u044b\u043d\u044f F1 0,94 \u00b1 0,05 \u0438\u0437 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432 (\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439 F1 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f): 1 \u2013 \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436 F1; 2 \u2013 \u041a\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f F1; \u041a\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f F1 1,20 \u00b1 0,06 3 \u2013 \u0410\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0442 F1; 4 \u2013 \u0418\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u044f F1; 5 \u2013 \u042f\u0445\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 F1; \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 F1 1,10 \u00b1 0,06 6 \u2013 \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439 F1; 7 \u2013 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 F1; 8 \u2013 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 F1; \u041e\u0440\u0438\u043e\u043d F1 0,85 \u00b1 0,04 9 \u2013 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u044b\u043d\u044f F1; 10 \u2013 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u044f F1; 11 \u2013 \u041e\u0440\u0438\u043e\u043d F1; 1,30 \u00b1 0,07 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u044f F1 1,02 \u00b1 0,05 12 \u2013 \u041e\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439 F1 \u0418\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u044f F1 1,28 \u00b1 0,06 Figure 2. Microbiological inoculation of undiluted brine: \u041e\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439 F1 \u041e\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0439 1 \u2013 Prestizh F1; 2 \u2013 Kilastop F1; 3 \u2013 Atlant F1; 4 \u2013 Idillia F1; \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436 F1 0,85 \u00b1 0,04 5 \u2013 Yakhromskiy F1; 6 \u2013 Dobrodey F1; 7 \u2013 Kontinent F1; \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0435 0,86 \u00b1 0,04 8 \u2013 Severyanka F1; 9 \u2013 Barynya F1; 10 \u2013 Gertsoginya F1; 1,32 \u00b1 0,07 0,90 \u00b1 0,05 11 \u2013 Orion F1; 12 \u2013 Orphey F1 1,04 \u00b1 0,05 \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0440 \u02c2 0,05 (n = 3). The data are statistically significant at p \u02c2 0.05 (n = 3). \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 3. \u041c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u041a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u0440\u0443\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e, \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b (1:5) \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0447\u0435\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0439. \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u043a\u0432\u0430- Figure 3. Microbiological seeding of sauerkraut brine (1:5) \u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0432\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043e\u0442 8,17 \u00b1 0,04\u00d7107 (\u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 F1) \u0434\u043e 1,07 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7106 (\u0410\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0442 F1) \u041a\u041e\u0415\/\u0441\u043c3. \u0420\u0438\u0441\u0443\u043d\u043e\u043a 4. \u041c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 1:5 (\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u044b \u2116 2 \u0438 8) \u041c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043d\u043e\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u0442 \u043d\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043e\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u043e \u0438 \u043e\u0442 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044b [22]. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438 Figure 4. Microscopy of sauerkraut brine diluted as 1 to 5: \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u043e\u0431- samples 2 and 8 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430\u0445 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0439. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e- \u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0430 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0413\u041e\u0421\u0422 10444.12-2013 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u0442\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0435 4. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0435 \u041a\u0438- \u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f F1 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0443\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u0439. \u0412\u0441\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u044b \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e\u0442 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\u043c, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u044a\u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u043c\u044b\u043c \u043a \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u043c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0430\u043c (\u0422\u0420 \u0422\u0421 021\/2011). \u041e\u0442\u0441\u0443\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u0430\u0445 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e, \u0442. \u043a. \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0440\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f 136","\u042f\u043d\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043a\u043e \u0415. \u0412. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 131\u2013139 \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 3. \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0432 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435- \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0435\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0444\u043b\u043e\u0440\u044b, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0438\u0437 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0435 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e- \u0433\u043e \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u041d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u041a\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f F1 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0433\u043e Table 3. Total microbial count in sauerkraut brine samples \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043c\u043e, \u043e\u043d\u043e \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u044d\u0442\u0430\u043f\u0435 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0413\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434 \u041e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0432, \u041a\u041e\u0415\/\u0441\u043c3 \u041f\u043e \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436 F1 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u0430- \u041a\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f F1 1,46 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7106 \u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u044b, \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0410\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0442 F1 1,10 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7106 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0438\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0430\u0445 \u0438 \u0438\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0418\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u044f F1 1,07 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7106 \u0441\u043e\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438. \u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441 \u2013 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0435 \u042f\u0445\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 F1 1,10 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7106 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u2013 \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0445\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u0438\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0441- \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439 F1 \u0442\u0430\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f. \u0412 \u0442\u043e \u0436\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u044f \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438- \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 F1 1,08 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7106 \u0432\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u044b \u2013 \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0438 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 F1 9,34 \u00b1 0,04\u00d7106 \u0443\u043a\u0441\u0443\u0441\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044f\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431- \u0411\u0430\u0440\u044b\u043d\u044f F1 5,67 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7107 \u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438. \u0413\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u044f F1 8,17 \u00b1 0,04\u00d7107 \u041e\u0440\u0438\u043e\u043d F1 7,36 \u00b1 0,04\u00d7107 \u041d\u0430\u0438\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u041e\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439 F1 1,49 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7107 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430, \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0434\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d \u0434\u043e 2,28 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7107 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0430, \u0442. \u0435. \u0434\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430. \u041d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 2,92 \u00b1 0,03\u00d7107 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441. \u041a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0440 \u02c2 0,05 (n = 3) \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0433\u043b\u0443\u0431\u043e\u043a\u043e, \u0442. \u0435. \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0441\u043e \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043c \u043e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 The data are statistically significant at p \u02c2 0.05 (n = 3). \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442 1\u202f% \u0438 \u0434\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0434\u043e 1,3\u202f%. \u0412 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435 \u0432 \u043d\u0435\u0439 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0442 0,5 \u0434\u043e 1\u202f% \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 4. \u0420\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0432\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430. \u041a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441, \u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043e\u043b\u0435 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u043d\u043e \u0432 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0430 \u0432\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0430 \u0441\u043c\u044f\u0433\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430- \u0438 \u043f\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u0430\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430. \u0412\u043a\u0443\u0441 \u043c\u043e\u0436- \u043d\u043e \u043e\u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u043e-\u0441\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0439. Table 4. Microbiological culture results for yeast and mold in sauerkraut brine \u0424\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u044b \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u0440\u0430- \u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u044f\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0441\u0432\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0441 \u0413\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434 \u0420\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0414\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0438, \u041f\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438, \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044c\u044f, \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e- \u041a\u041e\u0415\/\u0441\u043c3 \u041a\u041e\u0415\/\u0441\u043c3 \u0447\u0430\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0433\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0435, \u0441\u043d\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438 \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436 F1 102 \u0438\u043c\u043c\u0443\u043d\u043d\u043e-\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0438 \u0443\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435- \u041a\u0438\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f F1 103 0 0 \u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0437\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u044c\u044f. \u0415\u0436\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431- \u0410\u0442\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0442 F1 0 0 \u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0418\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u044f F1 102 \u0432\u044b\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u0438\u0448\u0435\u0447- \u042f\u0445\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 F1 103 1,3\u00d7103 0 \u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f \u0443\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e- \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0439 F1 0 0 \u043a\u0438\u0448\u0435\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0432 \u0443 \u043f\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0430\u0437- \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442 F1 102 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u0438\u0448\u0435\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430. \u041a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 (\u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f) \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 F1 103 0 0 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0446\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e- \u0411\u0430\u0440\u044b\u043d\u044f F1 0 0 \u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432: \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0413\u0435\u0440\u0446\u043e\u0433\u0438\u043d\u044f F1 102 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043d\u044b, \u041e\u0440\u0438\u043e\u043d F1 103 0 0 \u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u043f\u0442\u0438\u0434\u044b \u0438 \u0444\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441- \u041e\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439 F1 0 0 \u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430. \u0414\u043b\u044f \u043e\u0432\u043e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435- 102 \u043d\u0438\u0435 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0442\u0438\u043f\u043e\u043c \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. 103 0 0 \u041d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440, \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b. 0 0 \u0412 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0435 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044b\u0435 \u0431\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438 102 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u044e\u0442 \u0443\u0433\u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0434\u044b, \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0441\u044b\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0432\u043e- 103 0 0 \u0449\u0430\u0445, \u0432 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0443. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u043a \u043f\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e 0 0 pH, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0442\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e- 102 \u0431\u043e\u0432, \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043f\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u044c, \u0438 \u043d\u0435\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435. 103 0 0 \u041a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0443 \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0444\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 0 0 \u043e\u0432\u043e\u0449\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u044b\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0442 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0435\u043c \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043e- 102 \u043b\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u0430. \u0418\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435 103 0 0 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u044b \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e- 0 0 \u043a\u043e\u0447\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 102 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All the authors contributed equally to the re- \u041c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u044b\u044f\u0432\u0438\u043b \u0441\u0442\u0430- search design, experimental studies, data analysis, \u0431\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0444\u043b\u043e\u0440\u044b and drafting. \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043e\u0432\u043e\u0449\u0435\u0439 \u2013 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0436\u0435\u0439 \u0438 \u043f\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0439. \u041f\u0440\u0438 \u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0446\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0444\u043b\u043e\u0440\u0430 Conflict of interest \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u0432 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432- The authors declare that there is no conf- \u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0430\u0437\u0435 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f. lict of interest regarding the publication of this \u0412\u0441\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u044b\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0433\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0434\u044b \u043a\u0430\u043f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u044b article. \u0431\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0447\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u0432\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 4-\u0445 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0446\u0435\u0432 \u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f. 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Scientific Reports. 2018;8. https:\/\/ doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-018-26787-6 139","2023 \u0422. 53 \u2116 1 \/ Mayurnikova L.A. et a\u043fl\u0438. \u0449Fo\u0435\u0432o\u044bd\u0445P\u043fr\u0440o\u043ec\u0438e\u0437s\u0432si\u043en\u0434g\u0441\u0442: T\u0432e\/chFnoioqduPesroacnesdsTinegc:hTneoclhongiyq.u2e0s2a3n;d53T(e1c)h:n1o4l0o\u2013gy14II9SSSSNN 2074-9414 (Print) 2313-1748 (Online) \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21603\/2074-9414-2023-1-2421\t \u041e\u0440\u0438\u0433\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u044f https:\/\/elibrary.ru\/FYGLPC\t\t\t\t https:\/\/fptt.ru \u0410\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0437 \u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0432\u044b \u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f 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2074-9414-2023-1-2421 140","\u041c\u0430\u044e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u041b. \u0410. [\u0438 \u0434\u0440.] \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432. 2023. \u0422. 53. \u2116 1. \u0421. 140\u2013149 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21603\/2074-9414-2023-1-2421 Original article https:\/\/elibrary.ru\/FYGLPC Available online at https:\/\/fptt.ru\/en Public Catering Enterprises: Analysis and Prospects of Innovative Development Larisa A. Mayurnikova* , Arkadiy A. Koksharov , Tatyana V. Krapiva , Anna I. Petkovich , Vladislav O. Meshkov Kemerovo State University , Kemerovo, Russia Received: 18.10.2022 *Larisa A. Mayurnikova: [email protected], Revised: 22.12.2022 https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4592-8382 Accepted: 10.01.2023 Arkadiy A. Koksharov: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2782-5833 Tatyana V. Krapiva: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9441-8744 Anna I. Petkovich: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9209-546X Vladislav O. Meshkov: https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3643-0390 \u00a9 L.A. Mayurnikova, A.A. Koksharov, T.V. Krapiva, A.I. Petkovich, V.O. Meshkov, 2023 Abstract. Public catering has become an important healthy food provider in Russia. As a rule, this sphere is represented by small businesses with no experience in innovation. Their prospects for innovative development depend on the form of ownership, size, and target audience. The present research objective was to develop recommendations on how to restructure a public catering enterprise as part of an innovative development strategy. The study featured public catering enterprises together with their innovative potential, activities, and factors that contribute to or hinder their development. The innovative restructuring scenarios were based on the synthesis method. The authors developed a goal-centered classification which includes commercial and socially oriented public catering enterprises with their own advantages and disadvantages. The list of disadvantages includes decentralization, overstaffing, and multi-format, which make it difficult to introduce innovations and strategizing. The restructuring process requires a new management system optimized by specialists competent in the field of innovation, as well as a new matrix of strategic resources. An audit of public catering enterprises makes it possible to assess their competitiveness and strategic prospects. The current lack of personnel with experience in innovations hinders the development of the industry. Universities and regional innovation infrastructure should provide public catering with specialists in innovation management. Keywords. Public catering, innovation, restructuring, personnel, strategy For citation: Mayurnikova LA, Koksharov AA, Krapiva TV, Petkovich AI, Meshkov VO. Public Catering Enterprises: Analysis and Prospects of Innovative Development. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):140\u2013149. 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Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2023;53(1):140\u2013149 \u0422\u0430\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430 2. \u041e\u0431\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0435\u0439 \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u044d\u0442\u0430\u043f\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f Table 2. 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\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0436 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 (\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445) \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433, \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u044b \u043c\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0438\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438; \u2013 \u0440\u0007 \u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0430\u0443\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0430, \u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0435 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f; \u2013 \u0007\u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043a\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0430\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e-\u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430. \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 (\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438) \u0438 \u043e\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0443\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b (\u0431\u0438\u0437\u043d\u0435\u0441-\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0431\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440, \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0438\u0438, \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0436\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0440\u043a \u0438 \u0442. \u0434.). \u0444\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439\u0447\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0442\u043e \u0441\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435\u043c \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u044c \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430- \u0442\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0443\u0440\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430- \u0414\u043b\u044f \u043e\u0441\u0443\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f. \u0434\u043e\u043b\u0436\u043d\u043e \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0443\u0440\u0441\u043e\u0432. \u0420\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430- \u043d\u044b \u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0440\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430- \u0417\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u043e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f- \u043d\u0438\u044e \u0433\u0440\u0443\u043f\u043f \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0443\u0440\u0441\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0438\u0439 (\u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439) \u0441\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e \u0442\u043e\u043c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0438\u043d- (\u0440\u0438\u0441.\u202f1). \u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0443 \u0438\u0445 \u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432. \u041e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0422\u0430\u043a \u043a\u0430\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0443\u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0438\u044f\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0438 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043a \u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u043a\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0437\u044b- \u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0438 \u043e\u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 146"]
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