Eileen S. Flicker, Janet Andron Hoffman - Guiding Children's Behavior_ Developmental Discipline in the Classroom (Early Childhood Education Series (Teachers College Pr)) (2006)

88 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom children, trouble focusing occurs regularly—every their destination, creating an alternative geogra- Friday afternoon, immediately following lunch, or phy lesson. These somewhat nontraditional ap- at the end of the school day. When special events proaches to misbehavior in class avoid conflict, are anticipated, talking with friends and joking turn negative interactions into teachable mo- around during lessons and work periods are not ments, and validate children’s experiences. When necessarily acts of defiance but rather restlessness students believe that their teachers care about and impatience. Teachers who try to conduct busi- what they care about, behavior is dramatically ness as usual during these times may find their improved and learning is more successful. efforts to contain children’s exhilaration to be fu- tile. Ms. Ryan is having such an experience in her No Recess classroom. Despite her repeated warnings that Miguel behave appropriately, he remains disinter- Ms. Ryan should reconsider whether taking ested and distracted. away recess from a child who is having trouble sitting still is a logical response. Teachers regularly Teachers must make a decision when they re- threaten and then remove recess from children for alize that they are losing or have lost students’ disruptive behavior, talking back, and not com- attention. They can forge ahead, reaching some of pleting assignments or homework. They may as- but not all the children. Time constraints and the sume that recess matters the most to children and demands of a mandated curriculum pressure therefore helps to deter them from misbehaving. teachers to move forward regardless of the effec- That may be true, temporarily. However, children tiveness of their instruction. When teachers opt to only internalize rules and develop self-control continue an unproductive lesson, they can either when they have experienced consequences that ignore inattentiveness and disruptions or invest are directly related to their previous actions. They effort and time in disciplining children. Ms. Ryan will do the right thing to not lose a prized privi- chose to correct Miguel’s behavior and eventually lege, but they will not do so independently of that impose a consequence on the entire class. Her ac- anticipated “punishment.” Recess should only be tions did not facilitate her instructional goals but shortened if a child broke the rules during recess. rather created more disorder in the classroom. If Sitting out for a period of time, possibly watching instruction is not going well, either because of the other children enjoy themselves, will help a behavior problems or a lack of understanding on child understand the necessity of behaving as ex- the students’ part, shifting gears is an essential pected. Eliminating an entire recess should be re- strategy. Lessons can be altered, in style, presen- served for extreme circumstances when a child is tation, or content. Teachers may need to tap dance physically or verbally hurtful to others. For if necessary to keep students on task. Often a brief Miguel, not being allowed to go to the playground stretch or a change in seating (e.g., moving from and run around will not improve his ability to sit desks to the floor) is sufficient to reengage stu- quietly and pay attention in class but rather in- dents. Bargaining can also work. A teacher can crease his need to be active. suggest, “Give me 5 more minutes and then we’ll take a fruit break.” Rather than disregarding the Group Punishments circumstances that distract children, a teacher’s addressing them directly can lead to creative Another question for Ms. Ryan to ponder is compromises. Knowing that Miguel is only think- whether the entire class should be penalized for ing about vacation, Ms. Ryan could say, “Miguel, Miguel’s misbehavior. The issue of fairness is I know you’re excited about winter vacation, and profound for children, and adults have a respon- you’re having trouble following what we are sibility to model and implement justice whenever doing. Let’s take the next 15 minutes to discuss possible. Teachers often think of their class as a our plans for the break. Then, I’ll expect you to whole and not as individual students, with the work your hardest to stay focused.” Ms. Ryan majority doing what is asked of them. It is discon- could also ask the class to write a poem about certing for a child who is well behaved to be rep- how they are feeling or a play about an upcom- rimanded when he or she has done nothing ing special activity. Students who will be travel- wrong. Likewise, when teachers offer rewards to ing could calculate the distance from home to

Commonly Used Disciplinary Practices: How Effective Are They? 89 groups who are following directions, individual Although some discipline books espouse the children can suffer. It is routine practice to praise importance of having children apologize (Charney, or first call on the cluster of students who are 2002; Frankel, 1996), adult-imposed apologies do cleaned up and sitting quietly. Children who are little to deter future occurrences of undesirable be- unfortunate enough to be seated in a cohort with havior. In fact, requiring children to apologize may, a noisy or slow child never get the opportunity to ironically, have the opposite effect. Children learn line up first or hand out the papers. Ms. Ryan is early on that once they apologize, the reprimands hoping that peer pressure will persuade Miguel to are over. All they have to do is say the expected calm down. In essence, she is asking the children words, and they can resume their activities. There to do what she is unable to accomplish herself. are no consequences. Some children become “reflex While classmates can and do influence one apologizers.” They automatically say that they are another’s actions, it seems that in this case, the sorry as soon as it is obvious that they are in trouble. group punishment will inevitably undermine Children may apologize even before they realize Miguel’s relationships with his peers. Ms. Ryan what they did wrong. While closure is desirable for might instead tap into the power of group dynam- both children and adults, without an understand- ics in the context of a class meeting by asking stu- ing of the ramifications of the mistake, nothing has dents to share their feelings regarding disruptive been learned. To the victim of mistreatment, a classmates (no names, please). forced apology means that the other child got away with it. COERCED APOLOGIES What adults fail to recognize is that in most Mrs. Carter is escorting her third- cases, children are not sorry for their actions. They grade class to the school library. As did what they did for a reason, whether to get a they walk down the hallway, Thomas desired object or to purposefully hurt another. and Joe are elbowing each other. Children may be upset that they were caught, but Mrs. Carter turns around and sees Joe they are not necessarily repentant. Demanding poking Thomas and says, “Joe, you’re that children say words that do not reflect how holding up the whole class. Say you’re they actually feel stifles genuine communication. sorry to Thomas.” Joe looks toward the Teachers want to encourage children’s expression floor and says nothing. Mrs. Carter and validate their feelings. They say, “It’s OK to repeats, “Say you’re sorry.” There is a feel angry, but you may not hurt your friends,” or long pause and then Joe softly states, “I understand that you are disappointed that you “I’m sorry.” Exasperated, Mrs. Carter can’t be first on line, but today is not your turn.” exclaims loudly, “Now say it like you However, when teachers tell children how they are mean it!” Reluctantly, Joe does as he is supposed to feel (i.e., sorrow, regret), then told, and the class proceeds to the children’s authentic voices are silenced. This ulti- library. mately dissuades children from sharing their emo- tions. Some teachers note that they do not insist Apologies are generally viewed as necessary upon apologies, but instead suggest, “Don’t you endings to conflicts and misbehavior. Saying “I’m think you should apologize?” Asking, rather than sorry” is a way to express regret and subsequently demanding, is really no different and has the same receive forgiveness. Children as young as 18–24 outcome because children know exactly what is months are taught to say “I’m sorry” when they expected of them. have broken the rules. Educators ask or insist that children apologize for a variety of infractions such In the vignette given above, Joe did not “say as talking back, being physically aggressive, or it like he meant it” because he did not mean it. hurting someone’s feelings. It is believed that if He and Thomas were just fooling around; Joe was children are remorseful, they will not repeat their not trying to hurt Thomas. Mrs. Carter’s goal was negative actions. Verbal or written apologies are to get her class to their special on time and did thought to ensure that children are remorseful. not take Joe’s perspective into consideration. Her strategy was ineffective not only because Joe and Thomas were free to resume their disruptive behavior but also because Joe was pressured to lie.

90 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom Had Mrs. Carter observed more carefully and inves- have hurt or destroyed. Through experience, how- tigated the situation, she might have employed a ever, children come to see that some mistakes can- different approach, perhaps having Joe and Thomas not be easily remedied. For example, gossiping and walk in front of her. Additional supervision was the lying can permanently tarnish another person’s consequence for breaking hallway rules. If the boys’ reputation. When a child causes irreparable dam- behavior were an ongoing problem, they would age, a community service project can help give back have been in Mrs. Carter’s view from the start. This to others in the classroom or school. simple strategy would prevent a reoccurrence of the behavior. Coerced apologies just create an illusion Educators can and should encourage children that the problem is resolved and does not discour- to acknowledge their faults. This is accomplished age children from repeating their actions. not by having children say the specified words, but through modeling. When children observe teach- With young children, the words apologize and ers and parents over time making mistakes and I’m sorry have little meaning. These are concepts naturally apologizing for them, they come to that develop gradually over several years. understand the purpose of those words. Opportu- Through maturation and social experiences, chil- nities for modeling apologies happen daily: when dren acquire an ability to consider other perspec- a teacher erroneously accuses a student of not turn- tives and see the impact that their behavior has on ing in homework, or blames the wrong child for people and situations. Freud (1966) suggests that misbehavior. Setting an example is a powerful children do not begin to experience guilt until they mechanism that can teach children the importance have completed the Oedipus stage and developed of genuine apologies with little effort. Although a superego, sometime after 6 years of age. Guilt some educators are reluctant to apologize to chil- and an ability to imagine other’s feelings are nec- dren for fear that it suggests weakness, it demon- essary if one is to have genuine remorse. Apolo- strates that it is fine to err as long as one learns from gies are inappropriate unless they are authentic, the experience (Bluestein, 2001; Fields & Boesser, based on self-reflection, and an acknowledgment 2002; Mackenzie, 2003). of personal wrongdoing. The Value of Genuine Apologies CONCLUSION Although coerced apologies should be avoided, Regardless of the particular disciplinary strat- teachers are encouraged to help children reflect on egy employed, once it has been repeated more than and recognize their mistakes. Pointing out the harm twice for a child, it is probably ineffective. Respond- (or potential harm) they have caused, children be- ing in the same way sends a message that the child gin to recognize the impact of their behavior. Chil- can get away with the misbehavior. Teachers must dren should be told directly that they have hurt also switch strategies if it hurts the child in any someone and how the other person probably feels. way. Modifying children’s behavior requires con- Whenever possible, children should be given an tinual monitoring of the intervention and a will- opportunity to make amends, not in words but in ingness to be flexible and creative. Specifically, on actions. An “apology of action” is an extension of a the basis of this chapter, we recommend that teach- verbal apology in which children are urged to take ers do the following: responsibility for the harm they caused (Fillion, Garsh, Poliner, Shilalie, & Vincent, 2005). Students • Be cognizant of your teaching style and in- demonstrate their remorse by trying to rebuild the teractions with children trust they have destroyed. They can be asked, “What do you think you can do to make your friend • Use time-out judiciously feel better?” or “How can you fix what you have • Avoid taking away children’s free play or done?” With guidance, children come to see that they have a responsibility to try to repair what they recess • Take bullying and excessive teasing seriously • Refrain from forcing children to apologize

8CHAPTER Pulling It All Together Every educational institution has its own set of in a positive manner, conflicts are bound to hap- rules and standards for behavior; these reflect its pen. Anytime people share a living space, differ- underlying value system. These principles can be ences in perspectives (opinions, views, values) can seen in the way children and faculty interact, re- lead to discord. The way that individuals cope with solve conflicts, and even choose to dress. Upon and resolve their disagreements differentiates the entering a school, one has an immediate sense developmental discipline model. Skilled observa- about its environment, whether it is welcoming tions by the faculty enable them to respond to inci- or cold, structured or chaotic, calm or tense. For dents in a timely and consistent manner. Paying a perceptive individual, a first impression can be careful attention to the nuances of children’s inter- indicative of the overall social, emotional, and actions help teachers to be proactive. Knowing that educational climate of the school. an altercation is likely to occur between certain chil- dren, a thoughtful teacher restructures the group What characterizes a school that embraces de- composition, the activity, or the environment. velopmental discipline? There are a number of qualities that distinguish developmental discipline Because the expression of feelings and beliefs schools. Most important, children and adults all is supported, students are more apt to speak out treat one another with respect. All staff members, against injustice when someone has been treated including custodians, aides, teachers, and admin- badly. They are sensitive to wrongdoing and feel istrators, speak to one another and to children and empowered to affect change. Moreover, children their families with kindness and sensitivity. This feel that they must stand up and be heard. In de- sets the tone for how children are expected to en- velopmental discipline schools, students do not gage with peers and adults. Modeling is the key to tolerate bullying, hurtful teasing, or physical ag- creating a community of caring. What may seem so gression. It takes a great deal of ego strength, natural is in reality quite challenging. Educators are courage, and support for children to resist nega- competing with the onslaught of negative messages tive peer pressure and to listen to their own inner in the media, in neighborhoods, and sometimes in conscience. Classroom and community meetings, families. Children are inundated with images of discussed previously, promote the learning and aggression, sexuality, profanity, and maliciousness. expression of these skills and values. Preferably, To safeguard schools from these influences, teach- these lessons are extended and reinforced ers, administrators, and parents must build an alli- through participation in community service. Vol- ance. A unified commitment with high expectations unteerism and fund-raising activities are oppor- and related consequences for misbehavior nurtures tunities to demonstrate compassion and giving children as they grow. on a wider scale. When these are carried out in collaboration with families, schools have a larger While children in developmental discipline educational impact. schools understand that they are to communicate 91

92 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom TRAINING FACULTY • Taking individual children’s temperament, feelings, and developmental level into ac- Training is central to successful implementa- count when setting expectations tion of developmental discipline. It ensures that each staff member clearly understands the school’s • Recognizing the need for a range of disci- commitment and mission. There are ample oppor- pline strategies to match the particular child tunities to develop observational skills, for self- and situation reflection, and for dialogue. Learning how to conduct productive meetings with students and • Establishing rules and consequences facilitating role-playing are critical aspects of the training. An underlying goal of training is that TRAINING SESSION 2 educators let go of discipline practices that are ei- ther ineffective or that inadvertently contribute to Goal: Building observational skills the problem. Topics: Schools will vary in their ability to dedicate • Review of various observational techniques: time and resources to developmental discipline narrative, anecdote, checklist, rating scale, training. Some schools can finance the services of and so on outside consultants, while others rely solely on administrator-led workshops and peer support. • The observational process: planning, observa- Training can take place over the summer, on fac- tion, documentation, interpretation, assess- ulty in-service days, during staff meetings, and at ment, recommendation, follow-through lunchtime. Ideally, the first year of implementation would consist of intense interactive learning fol- • Observational methods—a practicum lowed by less frequent meetings in subsequent • Teacher self-reflection years. One variable to consider when planning is • Helping students examine their own the level of experience and expertise of the faculty. It may be necessary for veteran teachers to review behavior and update their discipline methods, while nov- ice teachers may need to focus on the basics: TRAINING SESSION 3 teacher presence, clarification of rules, and consis- tent follow-through. Goal: How curriculum influences behavior Topics: The suggested outline is a sequence for train- ing faculty in the developmental discipline ap- • The physical environment proach. As mentioned previously, learning must • Children’s movement and activity be differentiated to match the levels and needs of • The social-emotional environment the participants. Therefore, educators are encour- • The delivery of instruction aged to modify this framework accordingly. Ses- • Transitions sions can be repeated or extended as needed. TRAINING SESSION 4 TRAINING SESSION 1 Goal: Creating community Goal: Whole-group introduction to developmental Topics: discipline • The concept of class and community meetings Topics: • Positive communication • The value of role-playing • A comprehensive approach to shaping • Use of contracts children’s behavior and attitudes • Links to the larger community • Facilitating group meetings—a practicum • Teachers’ observations of children in plan- ning interventions TRAINING SESSION 5 • Integrating teacher’s prior knowledge of child Goal: Brainstorming and developing strategies development and professional experiences Topics: • Consideration of ineffective or short-lived disciplinary strategies

Pulling It All Together 93 • Activities/times that are most likely to trig- conflicts and problems in perspective. Teachers ger conflicts: transitions, recess, lunchtime, can remain true to themselves while facilitating a hallways, and so on positive learning and social environment. Perhaps the most important characteristic of teachers who • Review and application of developmental are effective in their discipline methods is an open- discipline strategies (see Appendix I) ness to learning and change. No matter how many years of professional experience, it is necessary to TRAINING SESSION 6 fine-tune one’s skills and switch gears when a strat- egy is not working. Collaboration between faculty Goal: Building an alliance with families provides opportunities to share and brainstorm Topics: solutions. Good collegial relationships enable teach- ers to vent, support one another, and even make • The value of partnering with families suggestions. A willingness to hear and consider • Encouraging ongoing parent involvement in constructive feedback from peers and supervisors contributes to professional success. the classroom and schoolwide activities • Sharing developmental discipline strategies REACHING OUT TO FAMILIES to foster continuity between home and One of developmental discipline’s primary goals school is engaging parents in the process. Their input is • Communicating observations from home invaluable. Consistency between home and school and school is as important as within the school. However, uni- formity is not realistic. What is possible is sharing TRAINING SESSION 7 a commitment to the child’s best interests. Without a doubt, building an alliance with some families can Goal: Integrating developmental discipline into present a challenge. When confronted with families teachers’ practice (Faculty is divided into small who disagree, are combative, or are negligent, groups based on grade, subject taught, teachers must continually focus on how best to help experience level, or interest) the child. Blaming the parents serves no purpose. Teachers need to look beyond the parents’ affect Topics: and behavior to recognize their genuine love of their child. It starts with listening to family members’ • Analyzing and brainstorming solutions to hopes, dreams, and expectations. When the faculty behavior problems (vignettes from book or respects parents’ points of view, parents are more teachers’ own experiences) likely to be active participants and ask for help. The door is then open for offering suggestions that will • Critical review of excerpts from this book improve the child’s behavior. and discussion Educating parents about effective discipline • Practicing and evaluating strategies: role- strategies can take many forms. Parents often re- play quest workshops around issues such as helping with homework, enforcing bedtimes, and setting TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS limits about the use of computers and television. When schools make workshops accessible to fami- An overall objective of faculty training is to cre- lies by providing food, child care, and both day ate consistency in practice and in attitude. While and evening meeting times, attendance is greatly heterogeneity is an asset because individuals con- increased. Tailoring workshop topics to the par- tribute diverse strengths, values, and perspectives, ticular interests of the population sends a message teachers and administrators should have a similar that parents’ opinions matter. approach. The ideal teacher will use observation and reflection in order to understand each child’s Including parents begins before the first day of developmental level and needs. Maintaining sen- school. Welcoming letters and school handbooks, sitivity, respect, and appreciation of differences in children is an important attribute. Being attuned to oneself and the student guides teachers to the best response. Interventions can be unique and creative. Humor also helps teachers by keeping

94 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom which provide details about procedures, sched- CONCLUSION ules, contact numbers, and curriculum, set the tone for future communication. Back-to-school night is Schools may adopt developmental discipline both informative and interactive. Questions and differently. However it is applied, what is necessary concerns are addressed, and teachers make a pledge is a shared vision. Unless a school implements de- to be available. Phone calls, e-mails, and notes are velopmental discipline from its inception, changing responded to in a timely manner. Parents are en- philosophy and practice is an arduous process. It couraged to volunteer in a variety of ways: field takes time, patience, and commitment. A willing- trips, reading to the children, lunchtime supervi- ness to self-reflect and revise attitudes and expec- sion, and sharing of special talents and occupa- tations goes a long way. There will be frustrations, tions. Some schools have a family lounge, which disappointments, and inevitably successes. Small can be as simple as a room with a few chairs, a table incremental steps lead to profound transformations with a pot of coffee, and access to child-rearing and within the school community. This journey begins educational materials. and ends with observation.

Appendix A Observation Training Form Observer____________________________ Date__________________________ Directions Record child’s name and age. Record observer’s name and date. Describe the context: a) physical setting b) situation Note the time at regular intervals (include beginning and ending time). Record exactly what the child does in the behavioral descriptions column. Record your interpretations/inferences. Child’s Name____________________________ Child’s Age______________ Context: Physical Setting Situation Time Behavioral Descriptions Interpretations/Inferences (objective) (subjective) Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University 95

Appendix B Guidelines for Narrative Observation Context Description Where does the observation take place? What is the physical environment like? Who is present during the observation? (e.g., the teacher, number of students, learning specialist, aide, visitor, administrator) Did anything unusual happen prior to the observation? The Child Within the Space What are the expectations for the child within the physical space? Does the child keep his or her work area (i.e., table or desk) neat and organized? Does the child use communal areas (e.g., learning centers, computers, library) appropriately? Child’s Interactions with Peers How does the child interact with peers? How does the child handle conflicts? Does the child communicate clearly and appropriately to peers? How does the child respond to inappropriate behavior by others? Child’s Interactions with Adults Does the child communicate clearly and appropriately with teachers and other adults in the school? How does the child respond to the teacher’s directions? How does the child respond to the teacher’s corrections? Does the child have appropriate boundaries with adults? The Learning Process Is the child on task? Does the child actively participate in the lesson? Does the child complete tasks within the required time? Does the child answer questions requiring memory and facts? Does the child answer questions involving critical thinking and problem solving? Transitions Does the child follow directions in regards to preparing for the next activity/lesson? Is the child quiet and cooperative in between activities/lessons? How does the child behave when standing on line? How does the child behave in the hallways? 96 Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University

Narrative Observation Report Name of Child: ___________________________________ Grade: ___________ Age: ___________ Date of Observation: ______________________________ Time: _____________________________ Observer: ____________________________________________________________________________ Context Description The Child Within the Space Child’s Interactions with Peers Child’s Interactions with Adults The Learning Process Transitions Inferences Recommendations Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University 97

Appendix C Peer Interaction Checklist Name of Student ___________________________________________ Grade/Class ______________________ Date of Observation ________________________________________ Observer _________________________ Setting Overall Behavior Observed Not Observed N/A Child typically engages in positive interactions with peers. Child has developed appropriate and meaningful relationships with peers. Child demonstrates tolerance when mildly provoked. Comments Small Groups Within Classroom Observed Not Observed N/A Child expresses ideas clearly to peers. Child demonstrates ability to listen to peers. Child compromises as needed for the group process. Comments Unstructured Periods (Lunch, Recess, Snack Time, Transitions) Observed Not Observed N/A Child finds a place within a group. Child refrains from following those who are misbehaving. Child possesses ability to resolve conflicts peacefully. Comments 98 Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University

Appendix D Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory Name ______________________________________________ Date of Observation ____________________________ Directions: Rate each item. Think about one or two examples to support each answer. 1 = never 2 = rarely 3 = sometimes 4 = often 5 = always Tone 5 Relationships with Children My tone is positive and nonthreatening. 5 I establish relationships with the children in my class. 5 1234 12345 I modulate my voice as a teaching tool. I look at children’s faces and body language to gauge their reactions. 1234 12345 My students understand my humor. I use active listening skills with the children. 1234 12345 Comments Comments Language Classroom-Management Skills My students understand my vocabulary and the way I use language. I clarify classroom rules and expectations on a regular basis. 12345 12345 I state my expectations clearly. I respond consistently with logical consequences. 12345 12345 I individualize my responses to each child. I encourage the children to communicate and problem solve. 12345 12345 Comments Comments Reflections and Goals Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University 99

Appendix E Student Self-Reflection Inventory Name ___________________________________________________ Dat e ___________________________________ Directions: Rate each item as 1, 2, or 3. Think about one or two examples to support each answer. 1 = rarely 2 = sometimes 3 = usually I am good at following rules in I am a good listener In small-group work Class 2 3 12 3 1 When my teacher is teaching 3 12 3 Specials 2 3 With my friends 1 12 3 3 Hallways 2 3 3 1 Lunch and recess I am respectful to my 12 3 Teachers 1 2 Classmates 2 1 Other adults in school 12 Complete the following I get in trouble because I could do a better job in school by My friends like me because Something important to know about me is 100 Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University

Appendix F Parent Observation Form Date _______________________________________________ _ Child’s Name ____________________________________________________ Parent’s Name ___________________________________________________ Choose from the following situations that are problematic for your child. Complete one Parent Observation Form for each situation. Coming home from school Chores Homework Following rules and routines After-school activities Bedtime Mealtime/food Grooming (baths, brushing teeth, toileting, dressing, etc.) Playdates/peer interactions Separations Waking up/Getting ready for school Sibling interactions Travelling in the car Other Problematic Situation When It Occurs Frequency/Duration Observation Your response What do you think is really going on? Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University 101

Appendix G Observation of Teacher’s Disciplinary Practice Teacher _____________________________________ Class _____________________________________ Observer ____________________________________ Date ______________________________________ Directions Consider the following behaviors demonstrated by teachers, and put a check in a column for observed consistently, observed on occasion, or not observed. For each behavior not observed, support your statement with examples in the comments sections. Social-Emotional Environment Observed Observed Treats children with respect. Consistently on Occasion Not Observed Takes into account children’s developmental needs. Listens and actively encourages listening. Facilitates dialogue. Comments Teacher Tone and Language Observed Observed Moderates voice according to situation. Consistently on Occasion Not Observed Looks at children when speaking to them. Speaks to children sensitively and at their level. Responds to misbehavior discretely without embarrassment. Comments 102 Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University

Relationships with Children Observed Observed Supports students academically. Consistently on Occasion Not Observed Is available to talk to students after class. Students seek out teacher for counsel. Is flexible in dealings with children. Comments Strategies Observed Observed Corrects behavior consistently. Consistently on Occasion Not Observed Administers consequences that are related to the misbehavior. Follows through on warnings and consequences. Uses a variety of strategies to address children’s behavior. Comments Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University 103

Appendix H Assessment of Bullying in the School Classroom Date ___________________________________________ Location of Assessment _________________________ (e.g., classroom, lunchroom, playground, hallway, Observer _______________________________________ bathroom, etc.) Directions Complete this assessment to identify incidences of bullying in your classroom and school. Teachers, specialists, administrators, aides, and parent volunteers can use this form. Fill out the form initially to determine if there is a problem and then as a follow-up every few weeks as indicated. Circle any of the following behaviors that you have observed directly or that have been reported to you. For every item highlighted, note the frequency of the behavior according the scale below: = observed once = observed more than once = observed regularly Teasing_____ Name-calling_____ Humiliation_____ Belittling_____ Malicious whispering_____ Spreading rumors/lies_____ Hurtful notes_____ Dirty looks_____ Manipulation_____ Scapegoating_____ Backstabbing_____ Intimidation_____ Ignoring_____ Exclusion_____ Cliques_____ Ganging up_____ Threats_____ Intentional tripping_____ Physical aggression_____ Using objects as weapons_____ Inciting others to be mean_____ Comments: (Identify all bullies and victims and describe the context of their behavior.) 104 Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University

Appendix I Developmental Discipline Strategies Educators are encouraged to refer to the following menu of strategies, which have been culled from the text. Selecting strategies that match one’s particular style can help build a reservoir of techniques that can be adapted to various situations. Proactive Strategies Observe interpret reflect intervene Integrate a multicultural curriculum year-round Consider the child’s developmental level and Prioritize the needs of gifted children temperament Have clear aisles for easy classroom movement Be familiar with typical and atypical developmental norms Avoid shelf clutter Recognize signs of anxiety and depression in children Rotate materials regularly Understand the relationship between physical ailments Create rules for the use of the environment and its and psychological struggles materials Create an emotionally safe environment for children Rearrange the room to suit the particular lesson Discourage teasing and hurtful humor among children Use voice code to monitor the noise level in the room Encourage listening rather than interrupting: hands down Give children an activity during transition time (e.g., when children or teacher are speaking game or song) Avoid putting children in situations that might elicit Provide children with a menu of tasks when they are undesirable behavior finished with their work (e.g., silent reading, a problem-solving task, or completion of an unfinished Allow children ample time to be mobile assignment) Anticipate aggressive behavior so it can be avoided; Give ample warning prior to transitions carefully consider group composition, seating, and line arrangements Get children’s attention by flicking the lights on and off, lowering your voice, or using a clapping pattern Monitor children’s peer relationships Conduct weekly classroom meetings Praise children for exhibiting positive behavior Conduct community meetings to establish goals for the Examine your tone and length of verbalizations larger group Use role-play with students to explore and express Assign homework that is meaningful and developmentally feelings and teach coping and problem solving appropriate in terms of content and length Share books that help children understand and work Individualize homework as needed through sensitive issues Provide children with organizational support and study Encourage children to articulate their feelings skills Be cognizant of nonverbal communication Clearly convey expectations Individualize schedules for young children Be consistent about the rules with all children Offer alternatives to unstructured lunchtime and recess Use external rewards, such as sticker charts, sparingly time Model apologies when relevant Provide individual and small-group time for children when necessary Employ the services of consultants: psychologists, social workers, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and Adopt an antibullying/social skills curriculum speech pathologists Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University 105

Reactive Strategies Observational Techniques Document observations (narrative, anecdotes, frequency Encourage children to reflect on their actions counts, checklists, rating scales, or a combination of Change strategies that are not working these); include time, date, and context Consequences must be individualized and relate to the Observe at various times of the day and in different contexts infraction Minimize bias through reflecting on understanding culture Use time-out sparingly and only if effective and collaboration with others Redirect children to appropriate activities Use videotapes to distinguish observational data from Teach children to use negotiation to resolve conflicts subjective interpretation Empower kids to stand up to wrongdoing Use clipboards, index cards, or an audio recorder to Use contracts with individuals and the whole class facilitate the observational process Use external reinforcement cautiously Share observations with colleagues Separate children when negative exchanges persist Have children take turns with toys rather than force them Family Outreach to share Maintain ongoing communication with families through Remove toys and materials when all else fails journals, e-mails, and phone calls Provide a shadow to a child who is having trouble Be accessible to families; provide flexibility in scheduling controlling impulses meetings Ignore tantrums and whining, to extinguish the behavior Include families in classroom activities Collaborate with colleagues and consultants to get a Have parents conduct formal observations of their child comprehensive perspective Share observations with parents Communicate homework expectations to parents Maintain firm boundaries with parents Have a list of local referral sources 106 Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University

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112 Index Index Acting out Behavior problems Chess, S., 12 contracts and, 23 contracts and, 24–25 Child-centered approach, 2 factors leading to, 12, 16 observing, 18 Child guidance movement, 2 of infants and toddlers, 41–43, 46 trends in, 1 Children’s Defense Fund, 4 of preschoolers and kindergartners, 58, Child Study Association of America, 59–62 Benjamin, A., 77 of school-agers, 69 Bentzen, W. R., 32–34 2 social skills and, 69 Berger, E. H., 2 Child-study movement, 72 during transitions, 20 Berk, L. E., 73 Ching, W., 40 unkind behavior of students and, 11 Biting Circle time, 22, 51, 59–60, 61–62 Clark, B., 76, 77 Aggression during infancy and toddlerhood, 41–43 Class meetings, 21–22, 91 bullies and bullying, 84–87 preventing, 42 infant and toddler, 41–44 shadowing and, 42 behavior change and, 70–71 preschooler, 60–62 Bluestein, J., 90 planning, 22 Boesser, C., 16–17, 90 role of, 11 Albano, A. M., 72 Boll, E. S., 2 scheduling, 21–22 American Psychiatric Association, 72 Bondy, E., 21–22 Classroom environment Andrews, J. D., 4 Bossard, J. H. S., 2 as factor leading to misbehavior, 12– Anecdotes Bourne, E. J., 73 Brady, K., 51 13 nature of, 33–34 Brainstorming, with parents, 72 unkind behavior and, 11 sample, 35 Brazelton, T. B., 3, 44, 51, 59, 60 Classroom management Anxiety Bredekamp, S., 10, 12 classroom rules and, 9, 16, 24 in children, 71–73 Brennan, M., 8 observation and, 27 school stressors and, 73 Bronfenbrenner, U., 14 as positive experience, 13 signs of, 73 Browne, K. W., 8 Classroom rules, 9 Anxiety Disorder Association of America, 72 Buddy teacher system, 84 contracts and, 24 Apologies, coerced, 89–90 Bullies and bullying, 84–87 curriculum and, 16 Arrangement of desks Assessment of Bullying in the School Clayton, M. K., 19 teachers’ values and, 16–18 Clifford, R. M. S., 32 transitions and, 20–21 Classroom, 87, 104 Collins, C., 1 Assertive discipline, 2–3 bullying defined, 85 Commission, errors of, 34 Assessment. See also Self-reflection bystanders and, 86–87 Communication, in home-school grading in, 77 environmental influences on, 85–86 high-stakes testing and, 65 followers and, 86–87 connection, 14, 27, 54–55, 61, 71 in observation process, 29–31 school response to, 85–86 Communication journal, 54–55 Assessment of Bullying in the School Bully Prevention Program, 87 Community contract, 23 Bullyproofing Your School curriculum, 87 Community meetings, 22–23, 91 Classroom, 87, 104 Burns, D. E., 76 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder planning, 23 California Department of Education, 1 role of, 22–23 (ADHD), 10, 12, 66 Campbell, S., 5 Conflict resolution, 9 Attention spans, 42–43, 66 Canter, Lee, 2 Connectedness, 69 Authoritarian parenting, 3–4 Carr, J. F., 16 Contracts, 23–25 Authoritative parenting, 3–4 Center for the Study of Prevention of additional reinforcement and, 24– Autonomy, establishing, 48 Axtmann, A., 29 Violence, University of Colorado, 87 25 Chan, S., 28 behavior problems and, 24–25 Balaban, N., 41 Chapman, C., 77 modifications of, 23–24, 25 Balter, L., 3 Character education, 65 sample, 23, 24 Bandura, A., 4 Charney, R. S., 11, 21–22, 84, 89 Cooperative work groups, 27 Barlow, B., 79 Checklists. See also Documentation Copeland, M. E., 73 Battered women, 86 Copple, C., 10, 12 Baumrind, D., 3 frequency counts, 32, 34 Corporal punishment, 3 Bedtimes, 93 Homework Environment Checklist, 67– Co-sleeping, 45 Behavior modification, 13 Cotton, K., 1 68 Cryer, D., 32 during infancy and toddlerhood, 48 nature of, 32 Crying, during infancy and toddlerhood, during preschool and kindergarten, 51–54 sample, 33 41–43 112

Index tantrums and, 43, 58 113 theoretical foundations of, 8–9 Culture trends in behavior problems and, 1 Gender differences assessing climate of classroom, 74 unkind behavior and, 11 in bullying behavior, 85–86 homework battles and, 68 unprepared child and, 13–14 during pubescence, 81–82 infancy and toddlerhood and, 40, 41, 43 Developmentally appropriate practice, 10, 12 observation process and, 28 DeVries, R., 21 Genishi, C., 8 racial issues and, 73–76 Dewey, John, 2 Gestwicki, C., 4, 62 sharing and, 43 Discrimination, 73–76 Giannetti, C. C., 85, 87 sleep routines and, 45 Disruptive behavior, 9–11, 17–18, 87–89 Gifted children, 76–80 unkind behavior and, 11 Distracted child, 9–11 Divorce, 62–64 identifying, 76–77 Cummings, C., 4 Documentation, 28–29 meeting needs of, 77–80 Curriculum, 15–25 Assessment of Bullying in the School nature of, 76–77 Ginott, H. G., 2 anti-bullying programs in, 87 Classroom, 87, 104 Glickman, C. D., 36 class meetings in, 11, 21–22, 70–71, 91 Narrative Observation Report, 32, 45, 97 Goal setting, 28 community meetings in, 22–23, 91 Observation of Teacher’s Disciplinary Godfrey, A., 44 contracts in, 23–25 Goleman, D., 65, 80 defined, 16–17 Practice, 83, 102–103 Gordon, T., 2 for gifted children, 77–80 Observation Training Form, 29, 30, 32, 95 Grace, C. O., 55, 69, 74, 84, 85, 87 home-school connections and, 25 Parent Observation Form, 61, 62, 101 Grading, 77 observation and, 18, 27 Peer Interaction Checklist, 33, 56, 98 Greenfield, P., 4 physical environment and, 16–18 Student Self-Reflection Inventory, 36– Greenspan, S. I., 51 standards for, 16 Gregory, G. H., 77 teaching and learning styles and, 15–16 37, 38, 100 Greven, P. J., 3 transitions in, 19–21 Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory, 36, Grey, L., 2, 3 Cursing, during preschool and Griffin, A., 64 37, 52, 99 Gross, E., 4 kindergarten periods, 64 Domestic violence, extent of, 4 Group contagion, 12–13 Curwin, R. L., 2, 4 Dow, S. P., 57 Group dynamics, observation and, 18 Downtimes, 19 Group meetings, 21–23 Dangerous situations, limit setting and, 40 Dreikurs, R., 2, 3 Group process Defiance, unkind behavior of students Duffy, R., 3 in community meetings, 22–23 Dysfunctional families, 62–64 physical environment of classroom and, and, 11 Depression Early childhood education. See also 17 Infancy and toddlerhood; Preschool Group punishments, 88–89 in children, 71–73 and kindergarten Gubbins, E. J., 76 school stressors and, 73 Gurian, M., 82 signs of, 73 theoretical perspectives on, 55–57 Derman-Sparks, L., 75 Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale Hall, G. S., 2 Developmental discipline Hand clapping, during transitions, 20 anxiety and, 71–73 (Harms et al.), 32 Handouts, 21 appropriate expectations and, 48–49 Edwards, C., 2–3 Harms, T., 32 atypical social skills and, 68–71 Ehrensaft, D., 4 Harris, D. E., 16 biting and, 41–43 Elkind, David, 55, 57–58, 71 Harris, J. R., 12, 86 coerced apologies and, 89–90 Emergent curriculum, 10 Hawthorne effect, 28–29 common practices, 81–90 Erikson, E. H., 48 Heacox, D., 77 as conceptual framework, 11 Erwin, C., 3 Heart Start principles, 64–65 contracts in, 23–25 Event sampling, nature of, 32–33 Henley, P., 82 current trends in, 3–4 Expectations, of teachers for students, 18, High-stakes testing, 65 curriculum and, 15–25 Hinson, C., 69 depression and, 71–73 28, 48–49, 81 Hobson, D., 36 developmental process and, 8–9 Eye contact, 28 Holderle, K. E., 72 disruptive behavior and, 9–11, 17–18, Homeostasis, during infancy and Family system, unprepared child and, 14 87–89 Family violence, extent of, 4 toddlerhood, 39–41 distracted child and, 9–11 “Feelings” box, 21 Home-school connections. See also Parents dysfunctional families and, 62–64 Feldman, R. S., 28 factors leading to misbehavior, 12–13 Ferber, R., 39 anxiety/depression of children and, 72 faculty training for implementing, 92–93 Fields, M. V., 16–17, 90 assessment process, 31 gifted children and, 76–80 Fillion, S., 90 in behavior management process, 25 goals of, 5, 7–8 Floor time, 51, 69 bullying and, 86 group meetings and, 21–23 Follow-through, in observation process, 31 communication in, 14, 27, 54–55, 61, 71 Heart Start principles and, 64–65 Forton, M. B., 51 contracts and, 25 historical perspective on, 2–3 Fraiberg, S., 60 homework battles and, 67–68 home-school connections in. See Home- Frankel, F., 89 during infancy and toddlerhood, 46– Frantz, D., 1 school connections Freud, Sigmund, 2, 90 48 homework battles and, 66–68 Friendships interpersonal relationships and, 35–36 individualized approach of, 22 parent-teacher conferences, 27, 63 during infancy and toddlerhood, 40–41 imaginary friends, 60 during preschool and kindergarten lying and, 59–60 during preschool and kindergarten, 55 nature of, 1 Fristad, M. A., 72 periods, 54–55, 61, 62–64 observation in. See Observation Froebel, Friedrich, 2 reaching out to families, 93–94 overprogramming of child and, 57–60 in social skills development, 71 preschool aggression, 60–62 Games unprepared child and, 14 racial issues and, 73–76 in class meetings, 22 Homework, 66–68, 93 rules for behavior and, 9, 16, 24 during transitions, 20 guidelines for, 68 selective mutism, 55–57 support for, 66–68 sharing and turn-taking and, 43–44 Garbarino, J., 1, 4 Homework Environment Checklist, 67–68 sleeping issues and, 44–46 Garsh, L., 90 Honesty, of preschoolers and social changes and, 4–5 Gartrell, D., 2, 83 strategies for, 105–106 Geisel, T. S., 75 kindergartners, 59–60 Humiliation, by teachers, 82

114 Lying, of preschoolers and kindergartners, Index 59–60 Huntsinger, C. S., 40 Observation Training Form, 29, 30, 32, Huntsinger, P. R., 40 Lynch, E., 28 95 Hurried child (Elkind), 57–60 Hyman, I., 3 Macintyre, C., 5 Olds, A., 17 Mackenzie, R. J., 90 Omission, errors of, 34 Imaginary friends, 60 Macklem, G., 22 Open Circle, 22 Independence, establishing, 48 Magical thinking, 60 Overcrowded classrooms, 4–5 Individual differences (Piaget), 9 Malach, R., 28 Overprogramming, 57–60 Individuals with Disabilities Education Marland, S., 76–77 Oversensitivity, 12–13 Marzano, R. J., 11 Act, 47–48 Maslow, A. H., 69 Parents. See also Home-school connection Indulgent parenting style, 3–4 Maxfield, L. R., 76 dysfunctional families and, 62–64 Infancy and toddlerhood, 39–49 Mealtimes, during infancy and overprogramming of children and, 57– 60 adult beliefs about discipline during, toddlerhood, 39–40 unkind behavior of students and, 11 40–41 Meetings Parent effectiveness training, 2 biting during, 41–43 class meetings, 21–22, 70–71, 91 Parenting styles, 3–4 limit setting in, 40 community meetings, 22–23, 91 Parent Observation Form, 61, 62, 101 routines in, 39–41 schedule for, 21–22 Parent-teacher conferences, 27, 63 sharing during, 43–44 Mendler, A. N., 2, 4 Park, S., 76 sleeping issues and, 39, 44–46 Minde, K., 45 Parker, R., 32 tantrums during, 43 Modeling process, 9, 90, 91 Pascua, Leo, 29 turn-taking during, 43–44 Montessori, Maria, 2, 17, 52 Payne, R., 4 typical and atypical behavior during, Morning meetings, 21–22 Peace Builders, 87 Moss, S. E., 57 Peers 46–48 Motivation, success of children and, 10 Inference, in observation process, 28–29 Mutism, selective, 55–57 bullying and, 86–87 Ingraham v. Wright, 3 group punishment and, 88–89 Interpersonal skills Name-calling, 84–87 preschool aggression and, 61–62 Naptime, 44–46 Peer Interaction Checklist, 33, 56, 98 development of, 69 Narrative observation Permissive parenting style, 3–4 home-school connections and, 35–36 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 2 observation and, 35–36 guidelines for, 96 Phillips, C. B., 75 Interpersonal space, transitions and, 20–21 Narrative Observation Report, 32, 45, 97 Physical abuse, extent of, 4 Interpretation, in observation process, 29 National Association for the Education of Physical environment Intervention, in observation process, 31 importance of, 16–18 Young Children, 4 transitions and, 20–21 Joe, J., 28 National Association of School Piaget, J., 8–9, 55, 57, 63 Jones, E., 10 Planning Journaling Psychologists, 85 of class meetings, 22 National Research Center on Gifted and of community meetings, 23 communication journal in, 54–55 in observation process, 27–28 by teachers, 36 Talented, 76 Poliner, R., 90 Natural consequences, developmental Pollack, W., 41 Kaiser, B., 4, 11 Popham, W. J., 16 Ketts, S., 21–22 discipline and, 8 Porter, D., 51 KidStress Survey, 58 Negotiation, during preschool and Positive reinforcement, during preschool Kindergarten. See Preschool and kindergarten, 52 and kindergarten, 51–54 kindergarten Nelsen, J., 3 Potty learning, 40 Knopf, I. J., 72 Nimmo, J., 10 Poverty Kohn, A., 3, 12–13, 24, 52 No Child Left Behind Act, 16 Kolozak, K., 74 Noffke, S. E., 8 extent of, 4 Kraut, R., 4 Noise code, 20 sharing and, 43 Kriete, R., 21–22 Nonverbal communication, preschooler Praise, 89 Preschool and kindergarten, 50–65 Labeling, of gifted children, 78 and kindergartner, 51 aggression, 60–62 Langan, P., 85–87 beginning school, 50–55, 93–94 Lange, L., 22 Observation, 26–38 dysfunctional families and, 62–64 Learning centers of biting behavior, 42 Heart Start principles and, 64–65 in curriculum development, 18, 27 home-school connections and, 54–55, 61, gifted children and, 79–80 errors in, 26–27, 28–29, 34–35 physical environment of classroom and, importance of, 26–27, 91 62–64 interpersonal relationships, 35–36 lying and, 59–60 17 as key to understanding behavior, 8, 17 modifying learning environment in, 51– Learning materials, transitions and, 20–21 nature of, 18 Learning skills, homework and, 67–68 observational methods, 32–34 54 Learning styles observer bias and, 26–27, 28–29, 34–35 nonverbal communication and, 51 process of. See Observation process overprogramming of child, 57–60 success of children and, 10 regular, 26–27 selective mutism and, 55–57 teaching styles and, 15–16 self-assessment and, 36–37 Professional development Learning time, during transitions, 19 of teachers, 35–36, 82–83, 102–103 for implementing developmental Lee, C., 40 during transitions, 19 Leonard, H. L., 57 discipline, 92–93 Levin, D. E., 4 Observation of Teachers Disciplinary observation of teachers and, 82–83 Levine, M. D., 8 Practice, 83, 102–103 Professional intervention Likert scales, 32 dysfunctional families and, 63–64 Limit setting Observation process, 27–31 during preschool and kindergarten importance of, 93 challenges of, 31 during infancy and toddlerhood, 40 step 1: planning, 27–28 periods, 63–64 Lockers, 19 step 2: objective observation/ Punishment Logical consequences approach documentation, 28–29 developmental discipline and, 8 step 3: interpretation, 29 excessive use of, 12–13 to discipline, 2 step 4: assessment/recommendations, group, 88–89 Lubeck, S., 10 29–31 reward-and-punishment system, 3 Lunchtime, individual, 69–71 step 5: intervention/follow-through, 31 Puritans, 2

Index Sleeping issues 115 bedtimes, 93 Racial issues, 73–76 during infancy and toddlerhood, 39, 44–46 Thompson, M., 55, 69, 84, 85, 87 responding to children’s insensitivity, during preschool and kindergarten, 62 Time-out, 83–84 74–76 sample lesson plan, 75 Smith, K., 5 defined, 83 Snack times, during infancy and reasons for using, 83 Rasminsky, J. S., 4, 11 strategies for effective, 84 Rater bias, 26–27, 28–29, 34–35 toddlerhood, 39–40 teacher’s role in, 83–84 Rating scales Social-emotional climate, in observation Time sampling, nature of, 32–33 Toddlerhood. See Infancy and nature of, 32 process, 29 sample, 34 Social skills toddlerhood Rea, L., 32 Toilet training, 40 Recess adaptations in school, 69–71 Tomlinson, C. A., 18, 77 individual, 69–71 atypical, 68–71 Tracking, of gifted children, 78 withholding, 88 programs to develop, 65, 69, 74–75 Transitional objects, 46, 51 Red-flag behaviors, 46–48 social skills programs, 22 Transitions, 19–21 Reis, S. M., 76 Sonies, B. C., 57 Renzulli, J., 76 Sparrow, J. D., 59, 60 lack of clarity during, 19 Responsibility, acceptance of, 8 Specimen descriptions. See Narrative nature of, 19 Responsive classroom (Charney), 21–22 preparing for, 20 Rewards observation during preschool and kindergarten, 51–54 excessive use of, 12–13 Spock, Benjamin, 2 problems in, 19–20 reward-and-punishment system, 3 Spoiling Childhood (Ehrensaft), 4 as teachable moments, 19 Ritchie, J., 9 Springate, K. W., 4, 11 voice code/noise code in, 20 Role-play Stanford-Binet test, 76 Transmission, errors of, 34 bullying and, 87 State of America’s Children, 4 Turn-taking, during infancy and in circle time, 59–60 Stegelin, D. A., 4, 11 in class meetings, 22 Steyer, J. P., 4 toddlerhood, 43–44 in implementing developmental Sticker charts, 53 Twenge, J., 72 Stone, J. G., 17 discipline, 92–93 Student Self-Reflection Inventory, 36–37, Underachievement, 76 racial issues and, 75 Unell, B. C., 3 Ross, P. O., 77 38, 100 U.S. Department of Education, gifted Rothenberg, M. B., 2 Subjectivity Routines, during infancy and children and, 77 minimizing, 28–29 University of Colorado, 87 toddlerhood, 39–41 in observation process, 28–29 University of the State of New York, 16 Running records. See Narrative Subrahmanyam, K., 4 Unkind behavior, 11 Substance abuse, extent of, 4 Unprepared child, 13–14 observation Suggestions box, 21 Supervision, of teachers, 35–36, 82–83, Values Sagarese, M., 85, 87 cultural, 28 Scheib, D., 57 102–103 physical environment of classroom and, School-agers, 66–80 Szczepanski, M., 43 16–18 sharing and, 43–44 anxiety in, 71–73 Tantrums of teachers, 5, 16–18 atypical social skills, 68–71 of infants and toddlers, 43 depression in, 71–73 of preschoolers and kindergartners, 58 Van, B., 21 gifted children, 76–80 Velting, O. N., 72 homework battles, 66–68, 93 Teachable moments, during transitions, 19 Video games, 4 racial issues and, 73–76 Teachers. See also Home-school connection Videotapes School refusal, 72 Schools Attuned approach (Levine), 8 bullying and, 87 in classroom, 28–29 School stressors, 73 characteristics of, 93 observer bias and, 28–29 Seefeldt, C., 8 collaboration between, 93 in teacher self-reflection, 36 Seeley, K. R., 76 developmental discipline and. See Vincent, K., 90 Seeman, H., 51 Violence, children and, 4 Seigle, P., 22 Developmental discipline Visual cues, during transitions, 20 Selective mutism, 55–57 educational philosophy of, 7–8 Voice codes, 20 Self-control, as goal of developmental expectations for students, 18, 28, 48–49, 81 Vygotsky, L. S., 8–9, 56–57 in implementing developmental discipline, 7–8 Waiting time, 20, 60 Self-esteem discipline, 92–93 Warnings, 20 observation by. See Observation Washington, V., 4 bullying and, 84–87 observation of, 35–36, 82–83, 102–103 Watson, J. B., 2 fostering, 2 role in time-outs, 83–84 Westberg, K. L., 76 Self-reflection self-reflection by, 36, 37, 52 Whitehead, B. D., 4 individual lunchtime/recess and, 69– temperaments of, 10–11 Whitemore, J., 76 tone of group meetings and, 21 Whole child approach, 60–61, 68 71 trends in behavior problems and, 1 Williamson, G. G., 43 observation and, 18, 36–37, 52 values of, 5, 16–18 Willis, W., 1 by students, 36–37, 38 Teacher interventions, 81–83 Winnicott, D. W., 51 by teachers, 36, 37, 52 Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory, 36, 37, Wiseman, R., 74 Setzer, N. J., 72 Witkin, G., 58 Shadowing, 42, 51 52, 99 Wood, C., 51, 69, 71 Sharing Teaching styles, learning styles and, 15–16 Working parents, 4 during infancy and toddlerhood, 43– Teasing, 84–87 Wyckoff, J., 3 Temperament 44 Yang, A., 84 of preschoolers and kindergartners, disruptive behavior and, 9–11, 17–18, 87–89 Zeitlin, S., 43 60 Zone of proximal development Shaver, A. E., 72 as factor leading to misbehavior, 12–13 Shilalie, J., 90 nature of, 50–51 (Vygotsky), 8–9, 56–57 Short-Camilli, C., 87 preschooler and kindergartner, 50–51 Simmons, R., 85, 86 of teachers, 10–11 Sisk, D., 76 Terman, L., 76 Thomas, A., 12 Thompson, K., 4, 74

About the Authors Dr. Janet Andron Hoffman is an educator, teacher-trainer, licensed clinical social worker, and con- sultant. After practicing psychotherapy and facilitating parenting groups, she earned a doctorate from Teachers College, Columbia University in curriculum and teaching. In addition to her position as an adjunct assistant professor in early childhood education at Teachers College, Dr. Hoffman designs and presents workshops on topics including child development, discipline, emotional intelligence, and balancing work and family life. Dr. Hoffman has been consulting with an inner-city Bronx, New York preschool program that was awarded a federal grant to promote literacy. Currently Dr. Hoffman is serving as a school social worker at the Abraham Joshua Heschel School in New York City. She is married with three children. Along with a doctorate in curriculum and teaching from Teachers College, Columbia University, Dr. Eileen Flicker holds masters degrees in developmental psychology, educational psychology, and early child- hood education, as well as teaching and administrative certifications. She has worked as a teacher, child- care director, curriculum coordinator, college professor, program developer, and educational and mental health consultant. Currently Dr. Flicker works in schools where she facilitates differentiated instruction and social skills groups. Dr. Flicker resides in upstate New York with her husband and three children. 116