Eileen S. Flicker, Janet Andron Hoffman - Guiding Children's Behavior_ Developmental Discipline in the Classroom (Early Childhood Education Series (Teachers College Pr)) (2006)

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION SERIES Leslie R. Williams, Editor ADVISORY BOARD: Barbara T. Bowman, Harriet K. Cuffaro, Stephanie Feeney, Doris Pronin Fromberg, Celia Genishi, Stacie G. Goffin, Dominic F. Gullo, Alice Sterling Honig, Elizabeth Jones, Gwen Morgan Guiding Children's Behavior: Major Trends and Issues in Early Childhood Developmental Discipline in the Classroom Education: Challenges, Controversies, and Insights, 2nd Ed. EILEEN S. FLICKER & JANET ANDRON HOFFMAN JOAN PACKER ISENBERG & What If All the Kids Are White? MARY RENCK JALONGO, EDS. Anti-Bias Multicultural Education with Young Children and Families The Power of Projects: Meeting Contemporary Challenges in Early Childhood Classrooms—Strategies LOIUSE DERMAN-SPARKS & PATRICIA G. RAMSEY and Solutions The War Play Dilemma: What Every Parent and JUDY HARRIS HELM & SALLEE BENEKE, EDS. Teacher Needs to Know, 2nd Ed. Bringing Learning to Life: The Reggio Approach to DIANE E. LEVIN & NANCY CARLSSON-PAIGE Early Childhood Education Possible Schools: LOUISE BOYD CADWELL The Reggio Approach to Urban Education The Colors of Learning: Integrating the Visual Arts ANN LEWIN-BENHAM into the Early Childhood Curriculum Everyday Goodbyes: Starting School and Early Care— ROSEMARY ALTHOUSE, MARGARET H. JOHNSON, A Guide to the Separation Process & SHARON T. MITCHELL NANCY BALABAN A Matter of Trust: Connecting Teachers and Learners in the Early Childhood Classroom Playing to Get Smart ELIZABETH JONES & RENATTA M. COOPER CAROLLEE HOWES & SHARON RITCHIE How to Work with Standards in the Widening the Circle: Including Children with Early Childhood Classroom Disabilities in Preschool Programs CAROL SEEFELDT SAMUEL L. ODOM, ED. In the Spirit of the Studio: Children with Special Needs: Learning from the Atelier of Reggio Emilia Lessons for Early Childhood Professionals LELLA GANDINI, LYNN T. HILL, MARJORIE J. KOSTELNIK, ESTHER ETSUKO ONAGA, LOUISE BOYD CADWELL, & CHARLES SCHWALL, EDS. BARBARA ROHDE, & ALICE PHIPPS WHIREN Understanding Assessment and Evaluation in Early Developing Constructivist Early Childhood Childhood Education, 2nd Ed. Curriculum: Practical Principles and Activities DOMINIC F. GULLO RHETA DEVRIES, BETTY ZAN, CAROLYN HILDEBRANDT, REBECCA EDMIASTON, & CHRISTINA SALES Negotiating Standards in the Primary Classroom: The Teacher’s Dilemma Outdoor Play: Teaching Strategies with Young Children JANE PERRY CAROL ANNE WIEN Embracing Identities in Early Childhood Education: Teaching and Learning in a Diverse World: Diversity and Possibilities Multicultural Education for Young Children, 3rd Ed. SUSAN GRIESHABER & GAILE S. CANNELLA, EDS. PATRICIA G. RAMSEY Bambini: The Italian Approach to Infant/Toddler Care The Emotional Development of Young Children: LELLA GANDINI & CAROLYN POPE EDWARDS, EDS. Building an Emotion-Centered Curriculum, 2nd Ed. Educating and Caring for Very Young Children: MARILOU HYSON The Infant/Toddler Curriculum Effective Partnering for School Change: Improving DORIS BERGEN, REBECCA REID, & LOUIS TORELLI Early Childhood Education in Urban Classrooms Young Investigators: JIE-QI CHEN & PATRICIA HORSCH The Project Approach in the Early Years WITH KAREN DEMOSS & SUZANNE L. WAGNER JUDY HARRIS HELM & LILIAN G. KATZ Let’s Be Friends: Peer Competence and Social Inclusion in Early Childhood Programs Serious Players in the Primary Classroom: Empowering Children Through Active Learning KRISTEN MARY KEMPLE Experiences, 2nd Ed. Young Children Continue to Reinvent Arithmetic— SELMA WASSERMANN 2nd Grade, 2nd Ed. (continued) CONSTANCE KAMII

Early Childhood Education Series titles, continued Telling a Different Story: The Full-Day Kindergarten: Teaching and Literacy in an Urban Preschool A Dynamic Themes Curriculum, 2nd Ed. CATHERINE WILSON DORIS PRONIN FROMBERG Young Children Reinvent Arithmetic: Assessment Methods for Infants and Toddlers: Implications of Piaget’s Theory, 2nd Ed. Transdisciplinary Team Approaches CONSTANCE KAMII DORIS BERGEN Managing Quality in Young Children’s Programs: Young Children Continue to Reinvent Arithmetic— The Leader’s Role 3rd Grade: Implications of Piaget’s Theory MARY L. CULKIN, ED. CONSTANCE KAMII WITH SALLY JONES LIVINGSTON Supervision in Early Childhood Education: Moral Classrooms, Moral Children: Creating a A Developmental Perspective, 2nd Ed. Constructivist Atmosphere in Early Education JOSEPH J. CARUSO & M. TEMPLE FAWCETT RHETA DEVRIES & BETTY ZAN The Early Childhood Curriculum: Diversity and Developmentally Appropriate Practices A Review of Current Research, 3rd Ed. BRUCE L. MALLORY & REBECCA S. NEW, EDS. CAROL SEEFELDT, ED. Changing Teaching, Changing Schools: Bringing Early Childhood Practice into Public Leadership in Early Childhood: Education–Case Studies from the Kindergarten The Pathway to Professionalism, 2nd Ed. FRANCES O’CONNELL RUST JILLIAN RODD Physical Knowledge in Preschool Education: Inside a Head Start Center: Implications of Piaget’s Theory Developing Policies from Practice CONSTANCE KAMII & RHETA DEVRIES DEBORAH CEGLOWSKI Ways of Assessing Children and Curriculum: Windows on Learning: Stories of Early Childhood Practice Documenting Young Children’s Work CELIA GENISHI, ED. JUDY HARRIS HELM, SALLEE BENEKE, & KATHY STEINHEIMER The Play’s the Thing: Teachers’ Roles in Children’s Play ELIZABETH JONES & Bringing Reggio Emilia Home: An Innovative GRETCHEN REYNOLDS Approach to Early Childhood Education Scenes from Day Care LOUISE BOYD CADWELL ELIZABETH BALLIETT PLATT Master Players: Learning from Children at Play Making Friends in School: GRETCHEN REYNOLDS & ELIZABETH JONES Promoting Peer Relationships in Early Childhood Understanding Young Children’s Behavior: PATRICIA G. RAMSEY A Guide for Early Childhood Professionals The Whole Language Kindergarten JILLIAN RODD SHIRLEY RAINES & ROBERT CANADY Understanding Quantitative and Qualitative Research in Early Childhood Education Multiple Worlds of Child Writers: Friends Learning to Write WILLIAM L. GOODWIN & LAURA D. GOODWIN ANNE HAAS DYSON Diversity in the Classroom: New Approaches to the Education of Young Children, 2nd Ed. The Good Preschool Teacher WILLIAM AYERS FRANCES E. KENDALL The Piaget Handbook for Teachers and Parents Developmentally Appropriate Practice in “Real Life” ROSEMARY PETERSON & CAROL ANNE WIEN VICTORIA FELTON-COLLINS Experimenting with the World: Visions of Childhood John Dewey and the Early Childhood Classroom JOHN CLEVERLEY & D. C. PHILLIPS HARRIET K. CUFFARO Starting School NANCY BALABAN Quality in Family Child Care and Relative Care SUSAN KONTOS, CAROLLEE HOWES, Ideas Influencing Early Childhood Education MARYBETH SHINN, & ELLEN GALINSKY EVELYN WEBER Using the Supportive Play Model: Individualized The Joy of Movement in Early Childhood Intervention in Early Childhood Practice SANDRA R. CURTIS MARGARET K. SHERIDAN, GILBERT M. FOLEY, & SARA H. RADLINSKI

Guiding Children’s Behavior DEVELOPMENTAL DISCIPLINE IN THE CLASSROOM EILEEN S. FLICKER JANET ANDRON HOFFMAN Foreword by Leslie R. Williams Teachers College, Columbia University New York and London

Published by Teachers College Press, 1234 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY 10027 Copyright © 2006 by Teachers College, Columbia University All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher, with the exception of the Appendices, which may be photocopied for classroom use. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Flicker, Eileen S. Guiding children’s behavior : developmental discipline in the classroom / Eileen S. Flicker, Janet Andron Hoffman. p. cm.—(Early childhood education series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8077-4713-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8077-4713-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. School discipline—United States. 2. Behavior modification. I. Hoffman, Janet Andron. II. Title. III. Series: Early childhood education series (Teachers College Press) LB3012.2.F55 2006 371.5—dc22 2006010061 ISBN-13: 978-0-8077-4713-1 (paper) ISBN-10: 0-8077-4713-0 (paper) Printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 87654321

To our children, Marti, Max, Sam, Hannah, Yardena, Dave, Ilan, Ariel, and Zorro, who supplied us with endless opportunities to practice developmental discipline. v



Contents Foreword by Leslie R. Williams ix Class and Community Meetings 21 Contracts 23 Acknowledgments xi Home–School Connections 25 Conclusion 25 Introduction 1 Historical Perspectives 2 3. Building Observational Skills 26 Current Trends 3 The Observation Process 27 Social Changes 4 Observational Methods 32 Goals of Developmental Discipline 5 Observational Errors 34 Overview of this Book 5 Supervisory Issues 35 Self-Assessment 36 1. What Is Developmental Discipline? 7 Conclusion 37 Observations—The Key to Understanding Behavior 8 4. Challenges in the First 3 Years 39 Theoretical Foundations 8 Routines 39 The Distracted Child 9 The Child Who Bites 41 Unkind Behavior 11 Tantrums 43 Factors Leading to Misbehavior 12 Sharing and Turn Taking 43 The Unprepared Child 13 Sleeping Issues 44 Summary 14 Typical and Atypical Behavior 46 Conclusion 48 2. The Relationship Between 15 Discipline and Curriculum 16 5. The Preschooler and 50 Curriculum Defined 17 Kindergartner 50 The Physical Environment 18 Beginning School 55 Observation 19 Selective Mutism Transitions vii

viii 57 APPENDIX A: Observation Training Contents 60 Form 95 Overprogramming 62 Preschool Aggression 64 APPENDIX B: Guidelines for Narrative 96 Dysfunctional Families 65 Observation Heart Start Principles Conclusion 66 APPENDIX C: Peer Interaction 98 66 Checklist 6. School-Ager Issues 68 Homework Battles 71 APPENDIX D: Teacher Self-Reflection 99 Atypical Social Skills 73 Inventory Anxiety and Depression in Children 76 Racial Issues 80 APPENDIX E: Student Self-Reflection 100 Gifted Children Inventory Conclusion 81 81 APPENDIX F: Parent Observation 101 7. Commonly Used Disciplinary 83 Form Practices: How Effective 84 Are They? 87 APPENDIX G: Observation of Teacher’s Teacher Interventions 89 Time-Out 90 Disciplinary Practice 102 Bullies and Bullying Class Disruptions 91 APPENDIX H: Assessment of 104 Coerced Apologies 92 Bullying in the School Conclusion 93 Classroom 93 8. Pulling It All Together 94 APPENDIX I: Developmental Discipline 105 Training Faculty Strategies Teacher Characteristics Reaching Out to Families References 107 Conclusion Index 112 About the Authors 116

Contents ix Foreword Few aspects of teaching are as worrisome to nov- years, the authors illustrate many of the ways that ice teachers as that of children’s “behavior.” children from infancy through the elementary Haunted by memories of the substitute teacher school years may challenge their teachers’ expec- who struggled in vain to control the rowdy and tations for constructive and productive classroom unsympathetic 4th graders who were torturing behavior. Their first premise is a straightforward her, these teachers-to-be remember that even they one—behaviors of all varieties are learned in the (the “good” children in the class) had not rescued context of the sociocultural environments in which her. Surely their time of retribution is coming as children are embedded. To each encounter, chil- they enter their first year of full-time teaching. And dren bring with them their past observations and contrary to their expectations, their ongoing teacher experiences and are sensitive to the responses preparation has not magically resolved their fears. modeled by those in authority around them. In Few of their courses or field experiences have di- order for children to develop positive and affirm- rectly addressed their concerns about losing control ing ways of treating themselves and others, their of the classroom. teachers must think through and anticipate the con- sequences of their own actions. All such reflection Nor is it novice teachers alone who are con- must be built conscientiously on their observations sumed with such doubts. Even highly experienced of children’s behaviors, knowledge of child devel- teachers are aware that working with children en- opment, and awareness of the children’s (and their tails a continual balancing act between the aims of own) cultural patterns of initiation and response in children and their own aims as teachers, as each situations of stressful exchange. attempts to use the power of the moment to best advantage. Children wish to satisfy their urge to To maintain this high level of awareness on learn and to grow beyond present capability. which to base effective action, teachers must value Teachers wish to have the satisfaction of success and invite interaction with families, to learn from in their teaching, to know that they have made a them at the same time as they share their perspec- difference in the development of the children in tives as educators. They must develop links with their care. What resources might teachers find to the ethos of the communities within which they strengthen their intent and hone the skills needed work in order to understand the meanings of par- to channel the energies of learning to best effect for ticular behaviors and the power those behaviors all involved? hold for the children themselves. Nothing about this approach to classroom behavior is formulaic. Happily for both groups of teachers and all those It is envisioned as an active response to a highly in between, Eileen Flicker and Janet Hoffman’s dynamic situation—the condition of living fully in Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline each moment of exchange with children, engaging in the Classroom offers both the theory and the prac- with the present while recognizing its connection tice to yield such results. Strongly rooted in recog- to both the past and the future. nition of the importance of the early childhood ix

x Foreword A distinctive feature of Flicker and Hoffman’s analyses of these instances to illustrate how reflec- work is their articulation of all aspects of Guiding tion can open new paths for action in ways that Children’s Behavior with their vision of curriculum. honor the needs of children and recognize the They never lose sight of their second premise— children’s strengths; and they include a variety of that the purpose of guiding behavior in construc- tools that can be used either as they are or adapted tive ways in classrooms is to facilitate learning. The to particular circumstances to support problem- corollary to that connection is that the domain of solving in the alignment of behaviors toward pro- knowledge and skills is at the heart of schooling. motion of learning. These concrete suggestions are The functions of the mind are intended to be re- bound to be helpful not only to novices reading fined in the school, and that can happen only if this book, but also to experienced teachers who all concerned—children, teachers, and families wish to reformulate their practice. —demonstrate behaviors that support learning. Thus, an important connection is established and In their concluding chapters, Flicker and Hoff- maintained in this approach to behavior. Class- man point out that, in order to reach the full benefit room discipline is not a thing in itself. It is not of developmental discipline, it requires investment advocated for its own sake, but as a path to growth of time and energy. Commitment to the approach in knowledge and skills. requires not only allegiance to the concepts behind it, but rehearsal of the skills involved within a like- The authors make their position clear through minded community of educators. This is a caution use of vignettes that illustrate moments when that experienced teachers will understand well, as learning could proceed or be subverted. The text they have in their careers undoubtedly seen many abounds with descriptions that even novice teach- instances of how intention alone can be swept ers will recognize as all-too-common events that away by lack of concentrated action. This book threaten children’s learning as children interfere provides a resource needed by those experienced with one another’s work, exclude particular chil- teachers, as well as by novices, to actualize the dren from engagement, or sabotage their own vision of constructive connection that permeates growth by creating conditions that work against the work. I think you may agree that the invest- their learning. The authors also include abundant ment of such energy will be well spent. examples of ways that teachers may themselves set barriers to children’s learning in order to assert —Leslie R. Williams, Ed.D. authority at the expense of a particular child or a Professor of Education, group of children. They also provide thoughtful Teachers College, Columbia University

Acknowledgments We would first like to thank Dr. Leslie R. Wil- ing us to climb the next mountain, whether per- liams of Teachers College, Columbia University, sonal or professional. They enabled us to pursue for her steadfast and supportive role in our pro- our interests and to accomplish our dreams. fessional lives. Leslie showed us how to be effective educators by always focusing on the Our husbands, Lee and Kenny, deserve a spe- positive and by stressing the importance of nur- cial thanks for their ongoing support throughout turing students. We have been blessed by Leslie’s this arduous process. We appreciate their love, pa- mentorship and this book is the result of her en- tience, and good humor. Without them, this project during influence on our practice. Leslie’s editorial could never have been completed. expertise was invaluable. We are most grateful to the many teachers and Thank you also to our editors, Susan Liddicoat, administrators who welcomed us into their class- Marie Ellen Larcada, and Karl Nyberg, for their rooms and shared their insights and observations. thoughtful comments and thoroughness, and for guiding us through the world of publishing. Finally, we thank the hundreds of children and families who inspired us with their ordinary and We are indebted to our parents for encourag- unique challenges. We remain committed to work- ing collaboratively with them. xi



Introduction Fighting, cursing, disrespect, outbursts, and de- ity of inappropriate behavior, which disrupts struction—these and other behavioral problems classroom learning, has demanded more attention have plagued schools. Even experienced teachers in recent years. Cotton (2000) suggests that about find classroom management to be a daunting one half of all classroom time is spent, not on in- challenge. Children have expressed both resent- struction, but rather on discipline problems and ment and fear of disruptive behavior from their transitions. Even experienced teachers have peers. As educational and mental health consult- observed the deterioration of conduct in their ants, we have observed children out of control in classrooms. A study conducted by the California early childhood and elementary schools, in class- Department of Education in 1992 (Collins & rooms, hallways, lunchrooms, assemblies, recess, Frantz, 1993) compared disciplinary problems and specials. in schools in the 1940s and 1980s. The results reveal that in the 1940s teachers focused on issues Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Dis- such as getting children to stay in line and throw cipline in the Classroom is written for teachers and out their trash. By the 1980s, however, teachers administrators addressing challenging behavior in were dealing with drug use, aggression, stealing, young children. Developmental discipline em- and promiscuity. Garbarino (1995), when discuss- phasizes observations and insights as a guide to ing raising children in a toxic society, noted intervention. This approach is not a set of isolated a similar trend when querying educators who strategies to specific disciplinary problems, but had been teaching since the 1950s. Teachers rather a system through which teachers help chil- reported that in the 1950s children were repri- dren to monitor behavior and to understand the manded for “gum chewing, talking back, dis- ramifications of their actions. At the same time, order in the hallways, making a mess in the teachers assess their own curriculum, pedagogi- classroom, dress-code violations and being noisy” cal style, and quality of communications with stu- (p. 1). More recently, teachers experience similar dents to determine the effectiveness of their antisocial acts to those that were cited in the Cali- practice. The adult and child are partners in a dis- fornia Department of Education study. While ciplinary process in which they reflect on the such behaviors are more commonly found in nature of behavior. Sensitivity to the child’s middle and high school students, most experts individual temperament, communications, and agree that even in elementary school, classroom needs is necessary to achieve a harmonious dy- management poses bigger challenges today than namic. Weaving cultural awareness into observa- in the past (Willis, 1996). A variety of societal tions and interactions enhances understanding changes that affect both families and schools have and improves relationships. reduced the effectiveness of traditional classroom management strategies. Problematic behavior at school is not a new phenomenon. However, the degree and complex- 1

2 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES “firm and friendly” approach to discipline (Spock & Rothenberg, 1985, p. 401). Spock discouraged Reviewing how children’s behavior was per- parents from spanking their children, believing ceived in the past helps us understand how we that it made children resentful and inadvertently have evolved to this point. Children’s behavior led to more violent behavior. Ginott’s work (1965) and adults’ responses have always been predi- continued in this vein by encouraging parents to cated by the sociological, philosophical, and psy- talk about feelings and discipline in a positive man- chological influences of the day. Schools too are ner. Similarly, Ginott (1972) encouraged teachers a reflection of these societal trends. Both teachers to consider alternatives to punishment that would and children are a product of their own upbring- foster children’s self-esteem. He believed that ing, cultural background, and disciplinary prac- punishment made children more “careful, not more tices, and these dynamics are often played out in honest and responsible” (p. 151). the school setting. The logical consequence approach was pro- In American history, society has witnessed the posed by Dreikurs and Grey (1968), who stated swinging of the pendulum from punitive disci- that children should be given choices rather than pline to a more permissive model. The use of strict be forced to comply with teacher-imposed direc- discipline to control children’s behavior, an off- tives. These authors were proponents of a demo- shoot of Calvinist belief, was evident in the 1600s cratic classroom system in which students play during the time of the Puritans. Religious leaders an active role in determining rules. A good rela- espoused obedience and an unwavering adher- tionship between teachers and pupils is an essen- ence to rules. New England schools reinforced a tial ingredient in these classrooms to emphasize stern approach by demanding respect for teachers children’s acceptance of their mistakes as they and good manners. Teachers would regularly slap experience the logical consequences of their and spank children with birch rods, cat-o’-nine- actions. tails, and paddles to maintain order in the class- room (Bossard & Boll, 1966). The “parent effectiveness training” model of the 1970s (Gordon, 1970) endorsed “active listen- In the early 1900s there was a continuation of ing,” whereby parents reflect their children’s feel- the use of punishment at home and in schools to ings back to them. Both verbal and nonverbal build character. The behaviorist theory of J. B. expressions demonstrate that parents are genu- Watson recommended a strict scheduling of rou- inely listening. Gordon advocated the use of “I tines and minimal expression of affection toward messages” to help parents communicate with their children to ensure obedience and develop char- children. I messages consist of three parts: how the acter. The obedience model (Curwin & Mendler, parents feel, a description of the problematic be- 1999) was characterized by absolute compliance to havior, and a statement of why this behavior is so rules without consideration of children’s perspec- upsetting to the parents. Parents were encouraged tives. Punishment was used to inhibit children’s to pay attention to their own feelings and to pro- natural impulses. This model was in direct contrast vide a forum for constructive communication so to the teachings of the Child Study Association of that both positive and negative feelings could be America, based on the work of Sigmund Freud and shared. Gordon (1976) extended this model to in- G. S. Hall, which advocated permissiveness and a clude a teacher effectiveness training program that more nurturing style of interaction (Berger, 2000). stressed a child’s ownership of the problem, envi- ronmental modifications to change behavior, and The child guidance movement (Gartrell, 2004), active listening between teacher and student. based on the work of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel, Maria Montessori, and John Assertive discipline, an alternative model de- Dewey, was a child-centered approach to disci- signed by Lee Canter in the late 1970s, uses be- pline. Children’s developmental readiness was havior modification and encourages teachers to incorporated into teachers’ practice. The empha- be clear and decisive in their establishment of sis was on children’s self-control rather than on rules and expectations. Being an assertive teacher externally imposed discipline. requires being firm, being straightforward in ex- pressing desires and feelings, and following By the mid 1940s, parents were influenced by through on words with actions if necessary Dr. Benjamin Spock, who promoted a balanced,

Introduction 3 (Edwards, 2004). A system of positive conse- calls an authoritative discipline style. Baumrind quences as a reward for desired behavior is used. describes three broad categories of parenting styles, which relate to teaching styles as well. Au- CURRENT TRENDS thoritarian parents enforce rules with harsh, pu- nitive discipline. They have low tolerance for Currently, there are two contrasting styles of children’s misbehavior and offer little nurturance, discipline in American society, reflecting both past warmth, or affection. Permissive parents discipline and present child-rearing philosophies. Child de- either inconsistently or not at all. Baumrind further velopment specialists almost unanimously oppose separates permissive parents into two distinct corporal punishment and instead endorse positive patterns: indulgent and neglectful. Indulgent par- methods to teach children right from wrong (e.g., ents exhibit a high level of warmth and affection Balter, 1985; Brazelton, 1992; Hyman, 1997; Nelson, while at the same time giving in to their child’s Erwin, & Duffy, 1995; Wyckoff & Unell, 1984). These every whim. Neglectful parents, by contrast, are experts recommend discipline through discus- emotionally uninvolved and express little interest sion, explanation, limit setting, and enforcing con- in their child’s behavior. Finally, authoritative dis- sequences instead of intimidation or physical ciplinarians provide a warm and loving environ- force. ment while still maintaining clear limits and high expectations. Dreikurs and Grey (1968) apply a At the same time, many parents (and educators similar conceptualization to teachers: an autocratic as well) use physical punishment to control behav- style, whereby teachers exercise a firm control of ior. As early as the 1800s, corporal punishment was the classroom without input from the students; seen as the routine method of discipline in schools, permissiveness, in which there is a lack of enforced stemming from the belief that “to spare the rod rules; and a democratic approach, which gives the was to spoil the child.” “Paddling of recalcitrant students a voice in the classroom and encourages children has long been an accepted method of pro- student accountability. moting good behavior and instilling notions of responsibility and decorum into the mischievous Baumrind (1967) discovered that children hearts of school children” (Greven, 1992, p. 102). raised in permissive homes were found to be ag- Only two states, Massachusetts and New York, gressive, impulsive, noncompliant, and lacking in prohibited this form of discipline in public schools self-control. Children raised in authoritarian envi- prior to 1977. In that year a landmark decision by ronments tended to be aggressive, moody, and the Supreme Court (Ingraham v. Wright), upheld easily annoyed. Children raised in authoritative the right for both teachers and administrators to homes, however, were more self-reliant, self- discipline by physical means within the public controlled, and cooperative with adults and better schools, providing that this force was “reason- able to cope with stress. We suggest that excessive, able.” It was not until March 1990 that 20 addi- inconsistent, or nonexistent discipline at home tional states prohibited corporal punishment in contributes in part to the deterioration of class- schools. Kohn (1999) reports that corporal punish- room behavior. ment in public schools is still permitted in most of the United States, though long abandoned in most It seems that a permissive child-rearing atmo- developed nations. However, many teachers rely sphere is a particularly harmful environment for on a reward-and-punishment system to manage young children because without limits and guide- behavior in the classroom. Rewards might include lines children feel insecure and scared. While chil- stickers, pizza parties, and “no homework” passes. dren may insist on having their own way and may Time-out, loss of recess, and removal from the seem happy when they initially get it, they are classroom are standard practices to punish chil- really crying out for boundaries, which create a dren in school. sense of safety and security. Without consistent discipline, they typically act out to get those very Discipline practices in our society appear to lean limits that have been denied them. One may not toward the extremes: adults being overly punitive be overly concerned with the toddler who has fre- or excessively lenient. Parents and teachers often quent temper tantrums or refuses to go to sleep. lack a middle ground, or what Baumrind (1991) However, without timely and thoughtful interven- tion, negative behaviors in young children may

4 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom continue and escalate into more inappropriate and The advent of women in the workforce has also destructive patterns of behavior. Ehrensaft, in her altered the nature of child rearing. As of 1998, Spoiling Childhood (1997), emphasizes that middle- 65.2% of mothers with children under the age of 6 class parents are overly indulgent and unwilling to and 70% of mothers with school-age children were say no. “Parents offer friendship instead of guid- in the workforce (Washington & Andrews, 1998). ance. They treat their children like princes and prin- Children of working parents are often inadequately cesses and prime them for success even before they disciplined because working parents have less time exit the birth canal” (p. 3). This lenient style may be and energy to devote to their children. Stressed and more predominant in today’s generation of parents, exhausted parents are not necessarily thinking who are rebelling against their own parents’ au- about the long term but rather surviving another thoritarian approach (Cummings, 2000). day, and they may subsequently pay a price for not enforcing rules. Furthermore, caregivers may not SOCIAL CHANGES be reinforcing parents’ rules either. Children suffer from not having clear, firm, and consistent limits In addition to child-rearing styles, there have and are more at risk in their development. been changes in the nuclear family itself that have resulted in difficulties in raising and disciplin- Another precipitating factor in the increase of ing children and subsequently in classroom man- behavior problems in schools is children’s regular agement. Only one in four families consists of a exposure to violence and provocative themes in married couple living with their children (Washing- television, movies, video and computer games, ton & Andrews, 1998). According to the State of and the news. It is estimated that 67% of house- America’s Children Yearbook (Children’s Defense holds with children own a video game system Fund, 2001), one in every two children will live in (Subrahmanyam, Kraut, Greenfield, & Gross, a single-parent family at some point during child- 2001). Furthermore, nearly two-thirds of video hood. Additionally, there are currently 5.4 million games rated “E for Everyone” include intentional children living in households headed by relatives violence where injuring or killing characters is other than their own parent. Children living with rewarded or required for advancement in the only one adult are six times as likely to be poor game (Thompson, 2001). The number of violent (Whitehead, 1993). Nearly one in five children acts embedded in children’s television program- (18.9%) lives in poverty; this percentage is doubled ming is steadily increasing, along with the degree for Blacks and Hispanics (Gestwicki, 2000). to which these images are portrayed realistically (Levin, 2003). Longitudinal research has found Poverty, homelessness, substance abuse, and that by the time children reach adolescence, they family violence are all factors that increase stress view 18,000 acts of television violence (Curwin & in adults trying to parent effectively. Garbarino Mendler, 1999). Research further indicates that (1995) identifies these forces as socially “toxic” for watching violent imagery increases the likelihood children. Children living under such conditions of aggressive behavior in children (Bandura, are more vulnerable in their overall development 1963; Children’s Defense Fund, 2001; Kaiser & and are more likely to exhibit problematic behav- Rasminsky, 1999; National Association for the Edu- ior in the classroom. Payne (1998) associates pov- cation of Young Children, 1990). Steyer (2002) sug- erty with disrespect, arguing, anger, vulgarity, and gests that when children watch an excessive verbal and physical abuse. She further asserts that amount of television, the media becomes the “other given the high incidence of poverty in the United parent.” The media’s influence is then insidious. States, more than 25% of students manifest these behaviors in the classroom. Contrary to what many Overcrowded classes and inadequate support might believe, affluence is not necessarily a safe- systems for the increasing behavior problems in our guard against family dysfunction and behavioral schools further tests teachers and administrators. difficulties in school. Substance abuse and domes- Additionally, the pedagogical and political shift tic violence are equally prevalent in middle- and from tracking to heterogeneous grouping and inclu- upper-middle-class families (Springate & Stegelin, sion makes teaching all the more difficult. Meeting 1999). the needs of children from various cultures presents unique challenges. Cultural differences in expecta- tions, values, and language can sometimes create

Introduction 5 misunderstandings between children, or between variety of conflicts that arise in early childhood children and teachers. Assumptions are made based programs and elementary schools. There are no on one’s worldview, and differences in perspectives magical solutions for resolving classroom behav- yield dissimilar interpretations of the same situa- ior problems. Observations alone do not simply tion (Campbell & Smith, 2001). Teachers’ values, give teachers answers, but rather provide clues. which may be related to culture and socioeconomic Reflective questioning along with systematic ob- status, may inevitably influence expectations for servations yield fresh perspectives on what teach- children’s behavior. Guiding Children’s Behavior: ers are seeing in their classrooms. Developmental Discipline in the Classroom will help educators look beyond the specific behavior to un- OVERVIEW OF THIS BOOK derstand the child within the context of the school, family, and society. In Chapter 1 we introduce the developmental discipline approach. The vignettes are used here to GOALS OF DEVELOPMENTAL emphasize the importance of observation in effec- DISCIPLINE tive discipline. Adults are asked to consider the various factors that cause children to act out or An overall goal of developmental discipline is misbehave, including developmental, cultural, and for teachers to better understand the reasons for environmental causes. Observations are the start- children’s misbehavior in order to guide them sen- ing points for learning what the operative factors sitively and effectively. Specific goals include: are and how to best respond to specific situations. • Enhancing the classroom learning environ- Using principles of developmental discipline, ment in Chapter 2 we encourage teachers to see chil- dren and curriculum as interrelated. Every child • Strengthening the classroom community is viewed as an individual learner as well as a through improved social interactions member of the classroom community. We empha- size the teacher’s role in preventing and manag- • Helping teachers to recognize and be sensi- ing challenging behaviors through curricular tive to diverse cultural patterns of behavior changes within the social milieu. • Reducing stress in children and teachers by Observation, the focus of Chapter 3, is an es- building coping skills sential component of developmental discipline. Teachers and administrators observe children in • Fine-tuning teachers’ observational skills the various environments within the school to and encouraging them to reflect on their learn more about the specific circumstances sur- practice and consider the following: rounding the misbehavior. The educator uses ac- tion research (Macintyre, 2000) to determine how —Why is this child acting out? best to respond. Self-reflection by students and —Are my responses effective? adults is an integral part of this process. —What is the impact of my actions on the In Chapter 4 we stress the importance of rules child and the entire class? and limits in the early years. Developmental dis- —How does my curriculum influence behav- cipline starts in infancy with parents and teachers/ caregivers developing positive behavior patterns. ior and the social/emotional climate of the Parents often fall into the trap of not disciplining classroom? children early enough, to later be faced with the task of breaking bad habits. Typical daily • Encouraging children to reflect and under- caregiving routines are prime opportunities for stand their own behavior parents and child-care providers to introduce lim- its to very young children. Adults are encouraged • Partnering with parents to provide continu- to look at the child’s “negative” behaviors, such as ity between home and school their saying no or hitting, within the context of normal child development. Throughout this book, vignettes are used as a springboard for discussion about classroom behav- ior problems. Teachers will likely relate to these real-life situations and discover how developmen- tal discipline can be implemented to address a

6 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom In Chapter 5 issues affecting the preschooler and these practices are questioned in regard to their kindergartner are addressed. Children between 3 effectiveness. The practices include removing and 5 years of age are confronted with many new disruptive children from the classroom and elimi- experiences outside of the family setting. They must nating recess as a response to negative or in- adapt to an environment filled with new adults and appropriate behavior. Although it may seem children and expectations different from those of appropriate to insist that children apologize for home. Typical concerns that emerge during these their misbehavior, there are consequences of this years are discussed, and developmentally appropri- practice, and they are examined in Chapter 7. The ate strategies are presented. importance of helping children feel and express genuine remorse is discussed. With its focus on A discussion of common issues confronting observation of the individual child and the school-age children and their influences on behav- teacher’s role, developmental discipline offers an ior is taken up in Chapter 6. Some of these concerns alternative approach to discipline. have plagued our youth throughout history and in all cultures while others are particular to our con- In the final chapter of the book we emphasize temporary high-pressured society. Developmental the importance of teachers, administrators, and discipline offers an approach to understanding chil- parents working together to create more consis- dren as they grapple with social, emotional, and tency between home and school. To that end, a physical changes. developmental-discipline training module for fac- ulty is presented. A menu of suggested strategies In Chapter 7 we look at discipline methodolo- from which educators can draw is included. gies that are frequently used in schools. Some of

1CHAPTER What Is Developmental Discipline? Darryl and Anthony are 5-year-olds block or being removed from the block area might playing in the block area of their kinder- exacerbate the situation even further. garten classroom. For the most part they are working independently, al- Teachers often intervene with the goal of stop- though they occasionally talk to each ping an inappropriate behavior while not consid- other. Suddenly, both reach for the ering the long-term ramifications of their actions. same block and begin to struggle. After Children may cease fighting over the block out of a few moments of pulling and yelling, fear of punishment or the adult’s authority and not Anthony pulls back his arm as if to truly learn how to resolve their own conflicts. It is punch Darryl. reasonable to expect a teacher, faced with children fighting over materials, to automatically respond Teachers approach this situation in very differ- if a child is being threatened with harm. Separat- ent ways depending upon their experience, train- ing children, removing toys or learning materials, ing, and belief systems. One might immediately and using time-out are part of a teacher’s reper- intervene, either by separating the boys, putting toire for resolving classroom conflicts. Yet these Anthony in time-out, or taking away the desired strategies do not always work, because the conse- block. Another would go to Anthony and encour- quence is not always related to the infraction, the age him to use his words. Still another teacher individual child, and the unique set of circum- would watch closely to see if the boys resolved stances. Furthermore, these commonly used dis- their dispute on their own. A teacher, at her wit’s ciplinary techniques do not help children regulate end, might even lose her temper and yell at the their own behavior in other situations when the boys to stop fighting or else they would lose their adult is not present. recess. Ideally, the goal of discipline is for children to These various responses, all of which are under- understand the ramifications of their actions and standable, reflect in part the philosophies of the to develop self-control. The disciplinary process is educator and school. However, they may result in only successful when children incorporate adults’ very different outcomes depending on the fit be- rules into their own inner voices, which remind tween the child and the intervention. There are them what is acceptable and what is not. Children some children for whom time-out and reprimands become cognizant of their effect on other people are meaningless. They would either ignore the and situations when they clearly recognize con- teacher’s request, or would resume their scuffle sequences. They need to be allowed to naturally once the teacher’s back was turned or the time-out experience the impact of their behavior without period was over. For other children, removing the being shielded from it. For example, a child who immediately is sent to the principal for destroying 7

8 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom a classmate’s diorama would not have the oppor- their questions and responses, and the choices tunity to witness his classmate’s reaction or its they make. From these observations teachers impact on the class as a whole. While it is possible infer children’s individual learning styles, that he might have intended to cause a reaction, strengths, weaknesses, preferences, and needs. it is also possible that he was not aware of how They also gain an understanding of children’s devastated the other child would be or how dis- functioning in all developmental domains, which ruptive his behavior actually was. should influence curricular decisions. Teachers also use observation to effectively deal with be- Natural consequences expose children to the havior; they watch, document, interpret, and then direct outcome of their conduct. When children are act. Both child assessment and the added compo- encouraged to reflect on their actions and feelings, nent of teacher reflection are enhanced through they become more in control of them; they develop ongoing and systematic observation. a sense of ownership. This is critical in order for children to assume responsibility for their behavior. Developmental discipline, an approach based Logical consequences—a related concept—require on observation, helps teachers integrate their an adult to make sensible and timely responses knowledge of child development with their un- that specifically relate to the misbehavior (Browne, derstanding of the individual child and situation. 2000). Here, the adult purposefully creates a situa- Considering the child’s developmental level tion that holds the child accountable. For example, (skills and comprehension) as well as recogniz- a child who does not participate in the cleanup of ing his or her uniqueness is also paramount to art materials is prohibited from using them on the effective discipline. With developmental disci- following day. In order to link children’s misbehav- pline, teachers are scientists who collect objective iors with logical consequences, it is critical for teach- information, reflect on those data, and then use ers to use observation. them to intervene appropriately. This method is an extension of action research (e.g., Brennan & OBSERVATIONS—THE KEY TO Noffke, 1998), in which teachers gather pertinent UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOR information on children to reflect on their teach- ing and disciplining. Observation is most benefi- Observation enables teachers to interpret chil- cial when it engages children in the process. dren’s behavior and intervene most effectively. When teachers understand the underlying motiva- THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS tions, they can respond in a way that best reaches children. Removing a privilege from a child who is Developmental discipline draws upon the theo- acting out because she is depressed does not ad- ries of Piaget (1929) and Vygotsky (1978), who be- dress the root of the problem. Merely acknowledg- lieved that children are active participants in their ing the manifest negative behavior will more than cognitive and social/emotional development. Chil- likely result in its repetition, because the latent situa- dren are dynamically engaged in the acquisition of tion has not been recognized. knowledge and are not just passive recipients of information from adults. Both Vygotsky and Piaget Learning about children through observation is maintained that development is a gradual process the basis of teaching and interacting. According to and that mastery of skills and concepts occurs Seefeldt (1998), observation is “probably the oldest, slowly over time. Experiences need to be repeated most frequently used and most rewarding method for knowledge and skills to be acquired and ulti- of assessing children, their growth, development mately integrated into children’s cognitive and and learning” (p. 313). Genishi (1992) and Levine behavioral framework. Vygotsky developed the (1992), in his Schools Attuned approach, also em- concept of the “zone of proximal development” to phasize the use of observation for assessing children highlight the significant relationship between and developing curriculum. Observation is the teachers and learners. Applying the insights gained heart of teachers’ work. It guides teachers’ thinking, from observations, teachers bridge the gap between planning, and implementation. Teachers observe all what children are capable of achieving indepen- the time. They observe children’s interactions with dently and what they can accomplish through in- one another, the content of their play and learning,

What Is Developmental Discipline? 9 teractions with a more knowledgeable or skillful Knowing that about Anthony, she might have peer or adult. waited and watched to see if the boys could work out their disagreement independently. Under the Piaget also used observations extensively to watchful eye of a teacher who will assist if neces- discover how children construct knowledge. This sary, children can learn the skill of conflict resolu- learning takes place in stages through children’s tion. Sometimes, they can just work it out on their interactions with people and objects in their world. own without a teacher’s interference. Encouraging While Piaget’s conceptual framework centers on children to solve their own problems conveys a invariant and universal progression through de- sense of trust and confidence in their abilities and velopmental stages, there are considerable indi- improves their future interactions. Most 5-year- vidual differences in development and not every olds are not yet able to fully articulate how they child fits neatly into these categories. Ritchie (2001) feel, nor are they consistently able to listen to other has questioned Piaget’s premise of a single path perspectives. Having opportunities to practice of development and suggests that it causes adults these skills, even very young children will develop to have rigid expectations of children’s abilities. the ability to problem solve. When teachers con- tribute to this learning process through modeling, Children’s individual differences in learning offering suggestions, and providing words, they and development are based on familial and cultural are demonstrating Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of experiences that require adults to adapt their disci- proximal development in action. pline strategies to meet their unique needs. While Vygotsky did not directly address the issue of the There still exists the possibility that Anthony discipline of children, he also suggested that behav- could have hurt Darryl and that an active response ior was determined by social factors. Vygotsky and by the teacher was necessary. Perhaps Anthony Piaget would concur that incorporating rules of was taught at home to defend his property with behavior does not occur in a vacuum and requires aggressive or assertive behavior. However, if the a dynamic interplay between the child and the teacher knew from past observations that hitting physical, social, and emotional environment. might occur in a situation such as this, she might not have allowed the children to be in the block Developmental discipline is based on the con- area without close supervision. It is fairly common viction that learning rules for behavior is a dy- for children to argue when the space is limited, namic and constant process that begins in infancy when the materials are in short supply, or when and requires continued interaction and guidance there is only one of the desired objects available. from parents and teachers. The fluidity of an ex- While classroom discord is inevitable, observation change between adult and child is dependent on helps teachers prevent its escalation and the fre- the adult’s willingness to look, see, and consider quency of its occurrence. Through ongoing obser- the many ways in which to respond. vations, teachers know those situations in their classrooms that are likely to be problematic and Returning to the vignette featuring Darryl and what is the best way to respond. Developmental Anthony, we see that the boys’ conflict can be an discipline advocates different approaches based important learning opportunity for them as well on each child’s needs, his or her developmental as for their teacher. Regular observations of Darryl level, and the presenting situation. It also encour- and Anthony would provide their teacher with ages spontaneous and creative teacher responses information about their temperament, their im- when children’s behavior is unpredictable. pulse control, their potential for aggression within the block area, and how they resolve their differ- THE DISTRACTED CHILD ences. When teachers take the time to actually document what they observe, they reflect, consider Caitlin is a 7-year-old girl in first grade. the many variables that contribute to behavior, Throughout the school year, Mrs. and discover alternative responses. Learning how Baker has noticed that Caitlin is rarely to effectively observe is discussed in detail in on task and disrupts the class during Chapter 3. Through ongoing observations of her structured lessons. She talks to her students, Anthony’s teacher might learn that Anthony does not generally hit other children. In these types of conflicts, Anthony’s body language typically communicates warnings, and not threats.

10 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom neighbors, rocks in her chair, and have best when teachers adapt their curriculum frequently asks to go to the bathroom. and teaching style to the needs of each child in the Caitlin repeatedly drops her pencil, then class. This approach is known as an emergent cur- gets out of her seat to retrieve it. riculum (Jones & Nimmo, 1994). In an emergent When this occurs, she will often curriculum, children’s interests, observations, and poke her neighbor with the pencil. questions largely determine the content of what is Mrs. Baker consistently corrects taught. Motivation is considered a key factor in Caitlin’s behavior verbally but is frus- children’s success in acquiring skills and knowl- trated as the behavior persists. edge. Engaging children through stimulating sub- ject matter helps to channel their behavior in Every teacher knows a child like Caitlin and can a constructive manner. Curriculum therefore probably relate to Mrs. Baker’s frustration. While emerges as a balance between children’s choices, Mrs. Baker’s repeated attempts to reduce Caitlin’s the teacher’s values, the school’s academic require- disruptive behavior were undoubtedly with the ments, and the state’s learning standards. Obser- best of intentions, the outcome was not successful. vation informs teachers about unique children’s The underlying reasons for Caitlin’s behavior were learning styles so that they can customize their not addressed. teaching to best serve children. By learning more about Caitlin’s issues through observation, Mrs. Consider the many possible causes of Caitlin’s Baker’s responses would be better aligned with her inability to attend to Mrs. Baker’s lessons. Per- specific needs. haps Caitlin is not yet developmentally ready to participate in structured lessons during which Developmentally appropriate practice, a frame- she is asked to be still for an extended period of work for early childhood education (Bredekamp & time. Some children innately have a higher activ- Copple, 1997), also advocates that teachers be cog- ity level, which makes sitting and listening more nizant of children’s developmental levels and build challenging. It is also possible that Mrs. Baker has learning experiences around their abilities. How- a limited tolerance for children such as Caitlin ever, children have unique timetables for growth and that Caitlin’s behavior is not really excessive. and development, and therefore an individualized Mrs. Baker could perhaps be singling out Caitlin approach is necessary. Perceptions about children because of her misconceptions about Caitlin’s must be broadened to incorporate this diversity. ethnicity or prior knowledge of her family. Some Variations in behavior too must be understood teachers stigmatize children from particular eth- within the context of these developmental levels as nic groups and have low expectations for their well as individual differences. behavior (Lubeck, 1994). Developmental discipline takes into account Learning issues may also play a role. Caitlin may who children are and how they learn within the be overwhelmed by the content of the lesson and context of their environment. At the same time, misbehave as a means of getting attention or avoid- understanding ourselves as teachers with our own ing work that she is not able to master. Her distract- strengths and weaknesses is as important as under- ibility and impulsivity could possibly be an standing the child. Developmental discipline asks indication of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Dis- teachers to integrate their own temperaments, order, (ADHD). Preoccupation with problems at teaching styles, and past experiences with children. home or interpersonal issues at school might also When teachers observe and reflect on their feelings contribute to Caitlin’s inability to pay attention. and practice and separate their subjective experi- When the cause of the behavior problem is under- ences from what is actually seen, they become more stood, interventions can be more finely tuned and adept at discipline. They may ask themselves: are more likely to be effective. • How did I respond to that child’s behavior? Another important factor to consider is the fit • Were my expectations realistic? between the child and the classroom learning en- • What did I learn from the child and how can vironment. Every child comes to school with unique abilities, interests, and degree of willingness to I modify my teaching and interactions for a learn. Learning is most effective and children be- better outcome in the future?

What Is Developmental Discipline? 11 With developmental discipline, observations class meetings during which feelings are shared, and reflections, coupled with an understanding expectations are clarified, and rules are reinforced of child development and culture, are central are vital to creating a successful classroom com- to predicting and preventing problem situations. munity (Charney, 2002). Class meetings are dis- cussed in greater detail in Chapter 2. UNKIND BEHAVIOR To optimize Michael’s positive behavior, his Mary, a third-grade teacher, is con- parents would need to be included in the process. cerned that Michael is mean to Justin. They could share relevant information about Michael tells jokes about Justin to his Michael’s relationships with children outside of classmates, taunts him during recess, school and problem solve with the educational and refuses to work with him on staff about ways to help him. Furthermore, they projects. Mary wants the children to would ideally reinforce strategies developed in get along well and intervenes whenever school to provide consistency for Michael. Cul- she sees Michael being unkind. She tural differences between home and school may tells him to act nicely to his friends and create obstacles, as this situation may be viewed to apologize for his actions. Michael with varying degrees of concern. With sensitiv- complies with his teacher’s requests ity and respect, educators and parents from di- but resumes his negative behavior verse communities can come together to build a when he believes she is not looking. climate of mutual understanding (Springate & Stegelin, 1999). In addition to considering Michael’s feelings, temperament, and experiences, the classroom en- It is important to keep in mind that all children vironment must be examined in order to facilitate act out. In fact, it is normal and healthy for chil- permanent change: dren to assert themselves and test the adults in their lives. Recognizing that children must estab- • Is it a community in which children and lish their autonomy as they grow, a process that teachers learn to treat one another with at times manifests itself as defiance, promotes tol- respect? erance rather than anger and frustration about children’s actions. However, inappropriate behav- • Are the rules and consequences clear, appro- ior cannot and should not be condoned. Through priate, and consistently reinforced? the use of developmental discipline, teachers can help children to respect and follow the rules while • Is Michael learning the impact of his actions at the same time being cognizant of their underly- on his classmates? ing needs. Looking at Michael’s behavior within the context Developmental discipline is a conceptual of the classroom can be a window into planning framework, not merely a set of procedures. It is effective interventions. Apparently, asking an approach that incorporates observations when Michael repeatedly to behave nicely and to apolo- rules, limits, and consequences are developed. gize is not working. Michael needs to learn that These observations enable teachers to individu- his behavior has repercussions not only for his alize responses to children. Research indicates victim but also for the entire classroom commu- that educators are most successful in classroom nity. One possible intervention is to restrict management when they use different strategies Michael from working or playing with any of his with different children (Marzano, 2003). Devel- peers when he exhibits hurtful behavior. Justin opmental discipline helps children regulate their also needs to be supported in his efforts to stand own behavior and ultimately resolve conflicts. up for himself and express his feelings. At the Teachers assist children in developing self- same time, Michael’s other classmates can be control without trying to control them. Children encouraged to tell him how they feel about his with self-control are more cooperative and com- unkind words and treatment of Justin. Regular petent members of not only their families and classrooms but also the larger community (Kai- ser & Rasminsky, 1999).

12 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom FACTORS LEADING TO Figure 1.1. Factors That Cause Children to Act Out MISBEHAVIOR Emotional Understanding the many factors that contrib- ute to a child’s misbehavior enables teachers to • Temperament respond sensitively. In Figure 1.1 we present a list • Anger of factors that cause children to act out. Fatigue, • Defiance illness, hunger, and poor nutrition affect children’s • Assertiveness overall development and most certainly their daily • Frustration behavior. Inadequate housing, homelessness, and • Anxiety violence in the community undermine children’s • Fears sense of security and may also contribute to diffi- • Boredom culties in school. Family stressors such as divorce, • Overstimulation illness, substance abuse, and even demanding work • Need for attention schedules may further influence children’s feelings • Jealousy of self-worth and efficacy and subsequently their • Low self-esteem behavior. Peers too have a powerful influence on children’s behavior in both positive and negative Family ways (Harris, 1998). Group contagion may also perpetuate misbehavior. • Inadequate limit setting/excessive permissiveness • Overly controlling discipline Individual temperaments may make it more • Sibling rivalry difficult for some children to meet the demands of • Demanding work schedule their environment (Thomas & Chess, 1996). Some • Work-related travel children have an innate low tolerance for frustra- • Relocation of home and school tion, while others are impulsive. Oversensitivity to • Divorce loud noises, crowds, or excessive visual stimuli is • Substance Abuse another characteristic that can compromise learn- • Domestic violence and neglect ing. A child who is experiencing speech and lan- guage delays, ADHD, or other learning or physical School challenges may have a more difficult time follow- ing the rules of behavior in the classroom. • Too many children • Too much noise and stimulation The classroom environment can sometimes • Lack of developmentally appropriate curriculum deleteriously affect children’s behavior. Too many • Poor classroom organization (e.g., cluttered, too many toys) children, cluttered and disorganized spaces, cha- • Competitive or violent games otic transitions, and overstimulation are just some • A “no” environment of the factors creating stress in children. Devel- • Lack of clearly stated and enforced rules opmentally appropriate practice advocates for limited class size and small teacher-child ratios Physical (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Classrooms that do not adhere to these recommendations may result • Poor nutrition in increased conflicts among the children. Another • Hunger dynamic within classrooms that can increase nega- • Fatigue tive behavior are conflicts among the teaching • Illness staff. Differences in values, vision, teaching styles, • Pain expectations, and temperament are inevitable. • Allergies Unless colleagues respect one another and engage in an active, ongoing dialogue to build their part- Learning Difficulties nership, the children will sense any interpersonal tensions. • Developmental disabilities/delay • ADHD Ironically, teachers’ excessive use of rewards • Perceptual and punishments can also negatively influence • Auditory processing/Sensory integration • Speech and language • Pervasive Developmental Disorder • Other special needs Environmental • Peer influence • Seasonal factors • Poor housing • Poverty • Violence in the community and in the media • Terrorism and war

What Is Developmental Discipline? 13 children’s behavior (Kohn, 1999). While there is lesson, Jessica is feeling anxious about certainly justification for using behavior modifica- being able to do her work. tion techniques in many situations, they only ad- dress the behavior at that moment and not the Jessica’s school day is starting off poorly. Some cause. When children are not simultaneously children are able to bounce back from a chaotic helped to cope with the underlying problem, be- morning and integrate themselves into the daily havior modification plans lose their effectiveness school routine. However, as is typical for many over time. children, Jessica’s late arrival and lack of prepared- ness have upset the beginning of her day. Through developmental discipline, educators teach children to follow the rules while respect- Most educators would be worried about ing their emotional needs. Classroom manage- Jessica’s repeated tardiness and its impact on her ment can be a positive experience for teachers and schoolwork. A concerned teacher might sit down children when adults have the confidence and with Jessica to find out what the problem is and skills to clearly communicate their expectations convey her belief that Jessica is capable of doing to children. When teachers acknowledge chil- much better. Another teacher could implement a dren’s feelings as well as their own while cor- reward system to encourage Jessica to submit her recting behavior, children sense that they are homework promptly. One may also choose to call respected and will comply more readily. Both home to discuss her lateness and brainstorm pos- societal forces and inner struggles may predis- sible solutions. While these responses are all valid, pose children to be more vulnerable. Being com- there are additional ways of intervening. passionate in the face of these various obstacles and making the classroom environment support- Developmental discipline reminds us to look ive rather than overwhelming is an essential task beyond a child’s behavior and examine all possible for educators. reasons for that behavior so that teachers can re- spond most appropriately. It begins by asking Teachers can use developmental discipline in some basic questions based on observations. conjunction with their work with families. Obser- vations in schools are shared with parents to give • Is this behavior ongoing or a new issue for them a clear picture of their child’s functioning Jessica? away from home. At the same time, parents are encouraged to communicate their experiences with • Is Jessica disorganized in her classwork or their child at home as well as offer their own in- just in her homework? sights. This reciprocity between parents and teach- ers builds a bridge of consistency that results in • Is she keeping up academically? happier and more self-controlled children. • How does Jessica feel about the situation? THE UNPREPARED CHILD If this were a new problem for Jessica it might be beneficial to provide her with some strategies, Eight-year-old Jessica and her mother such as packing her bag the night before, placing arrive at school 30 minutes late. her homework in a special folder, and keeping a Jessica has missed her school bus for daily planner. In this case, helping Jessica to de- the third time this week, and her velop organizational skills would be more bene- mother is visibly angry because she is ficial in the long run than just reprimanding again late for work. With her hair her for not having her work done. Simply prom- unkempt, papers falling out of her ising Jessica a reward might entice her to com- backpack, and a pout on her face, plete some assignments, but it is unlikely that she Jessica enters the classroom. She has would acquire the skills to produce her work already missed her journal-writing time consistently. and cannot find the homework that she completed the previous night. It is also important to consider how Jessica’s When the teacher begins the math family manages routines: • Is it only Jessica who has a hard time in the morning, or is the entire household in disarray?

14 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom • What time does Jessica go to sleep at night SUMMARY and what time does she awaken? Throughout this chapter, vignettes have been • Are the parents fully informed about the used to illustrate behavior problems that teach- school’s schedule and Jessica’s assignments? ers commonly face. Various strategies of devel- opmental discipline were proposed as possible Clearly, language barriers and differing expecta- solutions. The following list summarizes the char- tions of the child challenge parent-teacher commu- acteristics of the developmental discipline nication. Yet collaborating is absolutely essential approach. in customizing a positive solution. • It is a conceptual framework, not just isolated When considering that Jessica herself is only one solutions to a problem part of a larger family system, which contributes to her behavior, the possibilities for intervention be- • It is an ongoing process from birth through come greater. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological adolescence model suggests that issues affecting parents also affect children. A child’s world is seen as a series of • It uses teachers’ knowledge, insights, and interrelated systems including the home, school, expertise and larger community. Because of the interdepen- dency of these various systems, educators must take • It encourages educators to observe children’s them into account as part of their work with chil- individual temperaments, strengths, and dren. While our ultimate goal is to help children weaknesses function well in and outside of school, children must be seen within the context of their family. • It allows teachers to understand and accept children for who they are and at their devel- In communicating with families, teachers must opmental level be sensitive about the content of their message and its delivery. Simply informing Jessica’s mother • It helps teachers to integrate observations about the problem, something she is already aware into their interventions of, could perhaps make her feel inadequate and re- sentful. She herself may be at her wit’s end after • It underscores the importance of reflective making numerous attempts to help her daughter questioning prepare for school. Parents often feel that teachers blame them for their child’s difficulties, which can • It encourages teachers to examine their own interfere with a positive working relationship. teaching styles and relationships with Jessica’s mother might, as a result, be reluctant to children share her concerns with the teacher for fear of being judged. • It promotes the adaptation of curriculum to meet the social, emotional, and cognitive Communication between teachers and parents needs of children is a vital component of developmental discipline. Educators do not simply report to parents about • It enhances communication in the classroom problems but work with them on shared goals. • It minimizes conflicts and maximizes posi- Because children are part of both family and school systems, it is imperative that parental input is in- tive interactions cluded and that efforts involve problem solving • It helps children to observe and understand with the child and with the family as well. Broad- ening our lens to see the whole child and using that their own behavior perspective to guide our behavior is the basis of • It teaches children self-control and account- developmental discipline. ability for their actions • It empowers children to resolve their own conflicts • It uses conflicts, spontaneity, and the unex- pected as teachable moments for children • It builds communication between teachers and parents working together on shared goals

2CHAPTER The Relationship Between Discipline and Curriculum Mrs. Reeves, a veteran teacher, has a situated at the back of the classroom traditional second-grade classroom. and is used primarily for student con- Children’s desks are paired together, ferences. Center time is an integral aligned in rows. Mrs. Reeves’s desk is part of the classroom routine in which situated diagonally in the front left children participate in learning activities corner of the classroom. Bulletin independently and in small groups. A boards are colorful and attractive, math lesson is currently under way, displaying children’s work within various and Ms. Hanson is leading a group of units of study. The room has three five students while the rest of the class designated learning centers: the li- engages in a variety of problem-solving brary, the computer, and math activities. The room is noisy and messy, manipulatives. However, the materials and some children are moving about, in these centers are underused and do not completing their work. not reflect the ongoing learning. Mrs. Reeves, standing at the chalk- The teacher’s pedagogy influences the class- board, has just completed a lesson on room milieu, which in turn affects both the na- three-digit addition with regrouping. ture of learning and the behavior of the students. She instructs the students to work on a This milieu includes the physical layout, routines, series of problems independently at learning activities, and social climate of the class- their seats. While most of the students room. In both Mrs. Reeves’s and Ms. Hanson’s are proceeding with the assignment, a classrooms, we can see how learning and behav- few children are becoming restless and ior are affected by the style of the teachers and how disruptive. Notes are being passed, the lessons are structured. In other words, the chil- paper airplanes are flying, and the dren are responding not only to the content of the noise level is gradually increasing. lesson but also to the manner in which the lesson Mrs. Reeves reminds her students to is presented. While the majority of the children in get back to work. both classes are following their teacher’s assign- ment, others are not on task. Some children thrive Ms. Hanson’s second-grade classroom in any educational setting because of their tem- is primed for hands-on, cooperative perament and inherent abilities, while others re- learning. Desks are arranged in clus- quire a more individualized approach. When ters of four or five to facilitate group teaching and learning styles do not match and the interaction. Ms. Hanson’s desk is teacher is unaware of this mismatch, children are 15

16 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom more likely to behave inappropriately. As the pre- dents affect the curriculum? When considering ceding vignettes illustrate, some children misbe- these questions, it is helpful to begin by defining have because the learning environment is not curriculum. Simply stated, curriculum is a plan; a conducive to their temperament or individual plan for teaching and for learning. It consists of needs or because expectations for behavior have many layers that address the who, what, where, not been clarified. when, why, and how of learning. Curriculum in- cludes not only the specific areas of study but also When exploring the different factors of why the underlying values of a teacher, school, and children act out, educators must look beyond be- community as well. These values form the foun- havior and be cognizant of children’s unique so- dation of the classroom, determine rules for behav- cial, emotional, physical, and cognitive needs to ior, and are related to all social interactions. better adapt the curriculum. As pointed out in Chapter 1, teaching that incorporates a develop- To better understand these implicit messages mental discipline approach emphasizes observa- or values, we must look past the manifest content tion as part of curriculum development and and structure of the curriculum. Teachers, when implementation. Yet there are other practical con- thinking about curriculum, may emphasize lesson siderations that need to be acknowledged. Cur- plans and thematic units. These written curricula rently, state core curriculum standards (Carr & are essential for a well-run classroom and typically Harris, 2001) and high-stakes testing (Popham, include goals and objectives, time frame, learning 2001) drive public education. Educational initia- activities, and evaluation. Curricular plans may tives, such as the federal No Child Left Behind articulate the rationale for the particular area of Act (Executive Summary of the No Child Left study and the broader context in which the lesson Behind Act of 2001, 2001), seek to improve the takes place. Whether intending to or not, through academic performance of all children by mandat- lesson plans and thematic units, teachers convey ing an adherence to standards, maintaining con- their values about how children learn, what is sistency within and between schools, and making necessary for them to learn, and how they are to teachers accountable for students’ achievement. behave in the classroom and beyond. These val- As a result, teachers often lose control over the ues are imbedded in and come from one’s cultural content of their lessons. history as well as educational background. The length of time spent on a topic and the level of However, core curriculum standards articulate enthusiasm can indicate how much the educator what is to be taught, not how to teach. Teachers actually cares about that skill or concept. continue to have choices in the manner in which they present their material. For example, in New Other values that are not necessarily considered York State, the English Language Arts Standard 1 a part of the curriculum but are nonetheless states that students will read, write, listen, and implicit in the teacher’s plans are the rules for speak for information and understanding (Univer- classroom behavior: listening, sitting quietly, co- sity of the State of New York, n.d.). One teacher operating, taking turns, and respecting the prop- might ask her students to read a biography, write erty of others. However, when these values are not a book report, and present it to the class. Another made clear to the children, they lose their signifi- teacher might allow students to work in groups, cance in the realm of classroom management. Re- research a topic of their choice, and write a play gardless of the age of the learner, the importance that dramatizes the essential themes. Creative of explaining and then reminding students of the application of curriculum as a means of engaging rules and expectations for classroom behavior in children can help diffuse as well as prevent mis- a developmentally appropriate fashion cannot be behavior. underestimated. By making a conscious effort to emphasize the social guidelines for behavior, as a CURRICULUM DEFINED teacher would do with the specific subjects of a curriculum, teachers are able to actualize their What is the relationship between curriculum belief systems. and discipline? How does curriculum influence behavior, and how does the behavior of the stu- One specific aspect of the curriculum in which teachers’ values are inherently expressed is the physical environment. The design of the classroom

The Relationship Between Discipline and Curriculum 17 space is inextricably linked not only to the learning establish clear guidelines on the use of classroom but to the behavior of the students as well (Fields materials. For example, during frontal math les- & Boesser, 2002). What materials are present in the sons, Mrs. Reeves should encourage children to classroom, where they are located, and the extent use manipulatives from the math center. However, to which they are available to the students reflect the children are not permitted to obtain these the philosophy of the teacher, the school, or both. materials at other times without permission. Early childhood educators typically invest a signifi- cant amount of time in designing their classrooms When centers are being used, children need to with elaborate learning centers (Stone, 2001). know whether work is to be completed indepen- Montessori (e.g., 1965; 1967) and Olds (1987) both dently or with the assistance of peers or teacher. cite the physical setting as paramount in children’s If children are having difficulty with a task, learning and well-being. should they request assistance or do the best they can on their own? The teacher’s role during cen- THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ter time is as vital as in whole-group lessons and must be thoughtfully planned and communicated The arrangement of desks, whether in clusters to the children in advance. Additionally, rules re- or in rows, influences the level of student inter- garding the maintenance of learning centers are actions and the prevalence of group work. In critical to their success. Leaving the materials as Mrs. Reeves’s classroom, the placement of desks they were found and cleaning up the workspace encourages the students to focus primarily on the demonstrates a respect for property as well as for teacher, which supports her traditional, frontal classmates who will use the center at a later time. teaching style. The desks in Ms. Hanson’s class Order in Ms. Hanson’s class would be enhanced encourage peer interaction and small-group learn- if she would regularly articulate the need for a ing. This is not to suggest that group work is nec- neat classroom. essarily determined by the placement of desks. However, the configuration of the furniture, A teacher’s methodology is translated not only whether deliberately or randomly, conveys a through the physical environment but also in the message of how the group is to interact and also manner in which learning takes place within that facilitates the primary means of learning in the space. Learning can be an active or passive expe- classroom. rience, and optimal classrooms strike a balance between the two. Both Mrs. Reeves and Ms. Han- Children’s behavior is affected by not only the son should expect students to sit quietly at their placement of furniture and materials but also by the desks at times, while at other times engage in teacher’s communication about the use of the class- active exploration. Being in tune with their stu- room space. Whatever the setting and philosophy, dents’ level of understanding will help them de- children must be instructed and reminded of the termine when a structured approach is needed and expectations in that particular classroom. Mrs. when students require hands-on experiences to de- Reeves and Ms. Hanson need to clarify when move- velop a true understanding of concepts. Observ- ment in the classroom and talking to peers are ac- ing behavior during lessons informs teachers of ceptable. The placement of desks in groups should who is on task and who needs additional assis- not signal to the children that talking is always per- tance. Their willingness to be malleable and missible. Rather, children need to be informed modify the original lesson plan in response to stu- when group interaction is integral to the lesson and dents’ signals will contribute to a successful learn- when they need to be quietly focused on the teacher ing experience. or working independently. Frustration caused by a lack of understanding Similarly, the presence of curricular materials of the material can be a major cause of disruptive in learning centers does not imply that they are behavior in the classroom. Often, sitting for pro- available for use at all times. Understanding the longed periods without an opportunity to move parameters of center use is essential for children about can lead some children to misbehave. Some to maximize their learning potential. Before a les- of the children in Mrs. Reeves’s classroom might son begins, at any grade level, the teacher must be restless because they have been at their desks too long. Perhaps they are struggling with the complexity of the subject matter or possibly are

18 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom bored because they find the problems too easy. A that a child has difficulty cooperating within a frontal lesson to a whole group of heterogeneous particular group may choose to change the group students is not always the most effective way to composition or seating arrangement. A teacher teach. In any given class, children have different may also decide to shorten or even stop a lesson abilities and learning styles that must be identi- based on observing the students. Observation fied and accommodated. While there are many gives teachers the tools to be flexible and to redi- advantages to a highly structured, teacher- rect the group. This redirection can take many directed curriculum as well as a more activity- forms, including a snack break, a stretch, engag- driven, student-centered process, children can be ing students in a discussion of the lesson, or per- lost in either program. When Mrs. Reeves and haps introducing manipulatives or other hands-on Ms. Hanson tune in to individual children within activities to interrupt a negative interaction or fur- their classrooms, they learn about students’ par- ther enhance understanding. ticular learning styles, timing and activity levels, ability to grasp new concepts, and struggles Teachers may also use observation as a means and strengths. Differentiation of instruction, of self-reflection. Thoughtful introspection and meeting the needs of diverse learners within the reflective questioning based on observations of the same classroom, is rooted in observation and children and oneself in the class leads teachers to assessment (Tomlinson, 2001). Using teacher ob- fine-tune future interactions and curriculum. They servations to “tweak” the curriculum is essential can consider if their teaching style is effective in for students’ achievement in any educational reaching every child and whether their tone and setting. language are conducive to optimal learning. It is through observation that teachers can modify their OBSERVATION own methodology as well as the curriculum to address both the learning needs and behavioral Teachers observe on many different levels. challenges of the children. They use information gleaned from observations not only for curriculum development and imple- The students in Ms. Hanson’s classroom are mentation but also for preventing behavior prob- actively engaged in their studies, learning in small lems. Teachers observe the interactions between groups that match their skill level. However, be- students to determine under what circumstances havior problems can arise in these types of settings intervention is needed. They learn over time when the teacher is not observing carefully or the which situations, social or academic, may precipi- expectations have not been clarified. Some stu- tate a child getting into trouble. Group dynam- dents may see group work as an opportunity to get ics, which includes who is friendly with whom lost in the crowd or to defy their teacher. Other and who is on the periphery of the group, influ- students may act out because they are having dif- ence learning and the social composition of the ficulty concentrating on their work in an overly class. stimulating environment. Still others may be doing their work, but are disruptive to the rest of the class Comprehensive observations take into account because an appropriate noise and activity level has overt behavior, verbalizations, dialogue, and non- not been established. verbal communication. Body language, gestures, and eye contact speak volumes about how chil- It is in the gray area of curriculum, where ex- dren feel about themselves and their comfort level pectations of the students are not clearly defined, in the classroom environment. These indicators that behavioral problems are more likely to occur. vary between cultures and may be misinterpreted The developmental discipline approach, which or misunderstood as deviance or misbehavior. advocates explicit guidelines, creates an environ- Equipped with rich data on the learning needs, ment in which children know what is expected of behavioral issues, and cultural differences of indi- them. When uncertainty is minimized, children vidual children, teachers can revise the curriculum are more able to focus on the task presented to appropriately. For example, a teacher who notices them. For students of all ages to function most ef- fectively in school, they need rules and reminders about appropriate behavior to be presented in a structured and ongoing framework.

The Relationship Between Discipline and Curriculum 19 TRANSITIONS of uncertainty in children. Without definitive in- structions during these “downtimes,” a number of Mr. Jordan has just completed a outcomes are possible. Children can get wild, per- lengthy lesson on the colonial period haps out of control, because they lack a specific and the American Revolution in his fifth- task. It is here that teasing, physical altercations, grade class. He has instructed his and even vandalism are likely to occur. Children students to take their history textbooks may experience feelings of isolation or fear of being to their lockers in the hallway and bring penalized because they are not conforming to the back their writing journals. If they have majority of the group. Some may feel anxious not already finished their writing assign- about who is in charge and what they should be ment, they are to do so. Students who doing at that moment. Children who are attempt- have completed their journal writing ing to complete their work may be frustrated by should wait at their desks until they are the chaos around them. In Mr. Jordan’s classroom, called by Mr. Jordan to conference the lack of clarity during the transition period has with him. Some students exchange created an excessively disruptive environment. their books quickly and immediately begin to work, while others are consid- Clayton (1997) describes transitions as the “glue erably slower to return to their desks. that holds the structure of the teaching day to- As time goes on, more and more gether” (p. 4). Whether children are moving from students are out of their seats, talking one location to another or from one subject to an- and disturbing those who are still other, transitions set the tone for the activities that writing in their journals. Mr. Jordan follow. Too frequently, precious learning time is periodically reminds the students to wasted with lengthy and disorganized transitions. return to their seats and to quietly wait Teachers can facilitate quick, smooth transitions their turn, but the noise level steadily through meticulous planning and by either includ- increases. ing children in that process or informing them of the rules. Observation by the teacher is crucial both One part of the school day that is typically chal- prior to and during the transition period. When lenging to both children and teachers, yet is often teachers thoughtfully consider the existing rou- overlooked in the curriculum-design process, is tines, the physical layout, and how students move transitions. Transitions are opportunities for teach- within the classroom, they can “clean up” sloppy ers to clarify what is expected of children, yet these transitions. tend to be chaotic and to lack definition. They are those in-between times that are not necessarily If Mr. Jordan were to key into the behavior of the planned for, such as lining up, cleaning up, mov- students in his class in between social studies and ing from one lesson or activity to another, or wait- his next formal lesson, it would be apparent that ing for dismissal. During these periods children many were not on task. At that point Mr. Jordan often get into trouble because they typically do not could evaluate why some of his students were not know what they are to do and are not necessarily productive and consider how to modify the rou- good “waiters.” With mandated curricula becom- tine, the environment, and even his instructions. ing more demanding and the pressure for students Mr. Jordan might recognize that the students to perform well on standardized achievement tests needed to be supervised at their lockers because the intensifying, teachers have an even greater need temptation to fool around when a teacher is not to maximize class time. Transitions must be seen watching is too great for many fifth graders. Since as teachable moments and should not be wasted. Mr. Jordan cannot hold his student conferences and be in the hallway simultaneously, one solution is to The transition between subjects can be stress- have students get their writing journals out of their ful for both teachers and students, primarily be- lockers at the same time that they retrieve their his- cause this time is not structured, as are other areas tory books. Fewer visits to lockers and cubbies mean of the curriculum. Transitions may trigger a sense less disruptions in the classroom. One obvious problem in Mr. Jordan’s class- room is that students have nothing to do once they

20 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom complete their journal writing. In any class there example, a teacher in fifth grade might pose the are students who work more quickly than others. following problems to solve while waiting: What Teachers must anticipate this and provide students is 596 plus 201? Or what is 16% of 25? A teacher with a series or choice of activities to partake in could also ask children to think of the many ways during independent work periods to give children to get to the number 24. direction and a sense of purpose. Some possibili- ties are peer conferencing, silent reading, board or Preparation is essential for managing transi- computer games, problem-solving tasks, brain- tions effectively. Instituting warnings for an up- storming about an upcoming project, and even an coming change not only alerts the children to what opportunity to begin homework. is coming but also demonstrates respect for their timing and work. It allows them to wind down and Mr. Jordan could further improve the dynam- achieve a sense of closure and takes into account ics in his classroom and transitions by clarifying their need to make a cognitive shift. Any change and then enforcing a voice code. A voice, or noise, in the external environment, including a variation code is a system whereby the teacher explicitly of focus, activity level, or venue, requires children communicates the expectations for noise or activ- to make an internal adjustment. Teachers too must ity level at any given time. For example, a voice respond to changes that affect the children and code of zero might signify no talking or moving curriculum. Depending on the style of the teacher about the classroom; one means whispers only, and needs of the children, warnings may range two is for soft conversations when students are from nonverbal signals such as dimming lights or working together, and three is for outdoor or playing a musical interlude to verbal reminders. gross-motor activities. In early childhood settings Teachers might warn the children 5 minutes prior and in the lower elementary grades, voice codes to the end of an activity or perhaps give them time may be accompanied by a visual representation cues throughout the work period. Through obser- such as a traffic light. Red could signify no talk- vation, teachers may note that certain children ing, yellow means soft talking in the classroom, need a longer warning period or more reminders and green is for “outdoor voices.” Voice codes are prior to the transition. most effective when teachers use them consis- tently and give students ample opportunities to There are myriad ways that teachers can get talk at appropriate times. children’s attention in order to alert them about upcoming transitions or to redirect or reinforce Waiting on line is another transitional time that behavior. Raising one’s voice above the children’s is ubiquitous throughout the school day. Children out of frustration or because it is part of one’s style are typically asked to stand on line to go to lunch, is a natural response. How else to get their atten- recess, specials, dismissal, assemblies, and even tion? Some teachers may lower their voices to a perhaps the bathroom. Without clear expectations whisper to engage the children. Others simply for appropriate behavior, including talking and raise their hand, perhaps in a peace sign, to visu- where to keep hands and feet, children are likely ally cue the children. Hand clapping to a pattern to get loud and invade one another’s interpersonal that requires students to listen and then imitate is space. Attention must be paid to the placement of also an effective strategy. Many teachers rely on children on line. It is not advantageous to have two rhyming verse such as, “One, two, three. All eyes children stand next to each other who either do not on me.” get along or typically act out when they are to- gether. When necessary, teachers might alternate Making the environment transition friendly is boys and girls on line or position themselves next a necessary part of the curriculum. Creating suffi- to children who need additional supervision. cient pathways between desks and activity centers Some students may need something to do while can alleviate congestion, which slows down tran- they are waiting. Singing songs or playing word sitions and precipitates altercations between chil- or number games or even Simon Says are construc- dren. Children’s interpersonal space must also be tive ways to make time pass more quickly, thereby considered important in environmental planning. filling in the downtime. Children might be given Having fewer materials available at a given time a mental math problem to work on while they are may actually improve the classroom flow. Creative waiting either inside or outside the classroom. For storage and rotation of learning materials will have a positive outcome in terms of children’s

The Relationship Between Discipline and Curriculum 21 behavior. Thoughtful placement of centers and when patterns of behavior are being created, but materials, and frequent house cleaning, can mini- teachers can introduce them at any time. The na- mize clutter, a way of life in many early childhood ture of these meetings is flexible, with the focus and elementary school classrooms. Veteran teach- directed to the needs of individuals and the larger ers assemble over the years a large collection of group. Meetings are actually an investment in assorted resources. To make these collections most time, ultimately creating more teaching and learn- useful and not detrimental to the organization of ing opportunities. the classroom, teachers must periodically review and then discard materials that are no longer rele- Charney (2002) talks extensively about class vant. Because teachers are likely to evolve in their meetings in the “responsive classroom.” She ad- teaching methods, so should the learning materi- vocates creating an environment in which children als in the classroom. One formula to apply is to feel comfortable saying what “they think and not remove all papers, posters, books, boxes, games, what they think we want to hear” (p. 280). Accord- toys, and items for recycling that have not been ing to Charney, the primary goal of class meetings used in the past two years or that are broken or is to encourage open and honest communication. incomplete. Additionally, she sees meetings as a way to help children learn to problem solve. DeVries and Van While classroom clutter can disrupt easy move- (1994) discuss the function of group time as that ment, insufficient materials that are poorly placed of being an opportunity for making rules, deci- can also wreak havoc. For example, a teacher’s sions, and discussing social and moral problems asking children to come up to her desk to take a in the classroom. handout may lead to chaos if there is only one pile of handouts. Having more than one pile or assign- Basic guidelines for class meetings must be es- ing a few students to be responsible for handouts tablished for them to be effective. Children can can expedite distribution. Some teachers choose to learn to communicate in a constructive, positive maintain an adequately stocked supply caddy at manner without blame, accusations, and labeling. each table to save time and keep order. Marking Some children may be reluctant to share their feel- storage areas and keeping them tidy will further ings at meetings, particularly if they are at odds improve classroom flow, as children know where with the teacher or fear being penalized for their things are. honesty. An anonymous suggestion or “feelings box” can address the concerns of children who are CLASS AND COMMUNITY MEETINGS not comfortable expressing themselves verbally. Other children may use meeting time as an oppor- One of the most effective ways to communicate tunity to provoke the teacher and seek attention expectations and facilitate smooth transitions is for themselves. Teachers have a critical role in set- through group meetings. Class and community ting the tone for meetings. They plan the agenda, meetings are an integral part of developmental keep the group on task and on time, and also discipline. They are a time to share, explain, and model and maintain a climate of respect, tolerance, reinforce rules of behavior and the inevitable con- and support. Teachers encourage children to lis- sequences of breaking those rules. Meetings are a ten to one another without interruption and to forum for students to develop their interpersonal speak honestly to their peers. Lashon hara, Hebrew skills, review past learning, reflect on behavior, for “bad speech,” is strongly discouraged because and look forward to what is next. Children and it involves talking unkindly about others, gossip- teachers communicate concerns and ideas that fa- ing, and spreading rumors. Classes that hold meet- cilitate positive group dynamics. Ideally, meetings ings become environments where lashon hara is should be scheduled on an ongoing basis to func- unacceptable, and children learn to talk directly to tion preventatively or to address an immediate those with whom they have conflicts and to treat problem. Impromptu meetings are also beneficial others with decency. for confronting issues that arise between regularly scheduled sessions. The best time to initiate this Charney (2002) suggests that classroom meet- group format is at the beginning of the school year, ings take place at the same time every week. She believes that “meeting once a week gives children time to digest and reflect, and makes the procedure special” (p. 285). She proposes that meetings last

22 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom 30–45 minutes, depending on the age of the chil- elicit student’s expression of feelings. Games and dren. Other educators (Bondy & Ketts, 2001; Kriete, activities are effective techniques for facilitating 1999) recommend teachers hold morning meetings communication. For example, a teacher may ask on a daily basis. They contend that daily meetings two children who have had a conflict to role-play provide a sense of continuity and an opportunity by switching identities with one another. Teach- to emphasis those critical values that foster commu- ers may also present hypothetical situations for the nity building: trust, respect, cooperation, and re- students to ponder. Students may be asked, “What sponsibility. Further, morning meetings are said to would you do if your friend asked to copy your directly increase students’ ability to attend, listen, homework?” or “What would you do if you found and communicate. Early childhood educators have a wallet with $100 in it?” Teachers may also focus long understood the value of morning meetings and their meetings on a theme or concept such as typically hold daily circle times to help transition friendship, trust, respect, or courage. Social skills children from home to school. Circle time usually programs, such as the Open Circle (Seigle, Lange, includes discussion of the calendar, weather, plans & Macklem, 2003), provide educators with a struc- for the day, and the sharing of stories and experi- ture for guided class meetings. These curricula are ences. Morning meetings can go beyond circle time most valuable with novice teachers because they to incorporate more of the children’s voices and provide a script and minimize planning time. As ideas and at the same time clarify rules of behav- with any curriculum, teacher training helps to ior and expectations. ensure that the faculty is knowledgeable about the program, supported throughout the initial process, The developmental discipline approach in- and better able to implement it successfully. cludes classroom meetings as a central component of curriculum. Teachers needing to follow a man- The community meeting, a variation of the class dated curriculum and meet established standards meeting for third grade and up, consists of a larger may be reluctant to devote precious class time to group of students coming together to share ideas this medium. However, class meetings are pos- and concerns. Similar to what occurs in the more sible in any setting and may even be as short as intimate class meeting, rules and expectations are 15 minutes a week. To optimize limited class time, emphasized. Community meetings may consist of teachers can integrate content learning into their an entire grade level or a wing of the school with meetings by making associations between stu- mixed age groups. dents’ discussions and specific vocabulary, con- cepts, and current events. Because the group is significantly larger, an or- ganized procedure is essential for the group to be Thoughtful planning of these meetings is essen- most productive. It is recommended that items for tial. Such planning includes observations of the discussion be identified ahead of time and student individual students and the group, timing, loca- representatives be chosen to facilitate the group tion, and seating arrangement. Consideration process. Student representatives, or speakers, must also be paid to how long students are allowed should be rotated to provide students who wish to speak so that they learn to share and not inter- to participate with that opportunity. This may be rupt or monopolize the discussion. One strategy accomplished through elections or a random is using an egg timer to clearly delineate the time drawing of names. As in classroom meetings, top- for each speaker and to keep the meeting moving ics can be generated from both student and faculty along. Eventually, students develop the ability to observations and experiences. The frequency and express themselves more succinctly. Teachers duration of these forums must again be in accor- should also determine ahead of time if students dance with the scheduling logistics of the particu- will sit on the floor in a circle or at their desks and lar school, but every 4–6 weeks is a reasonable whether every student has to be positioned in the guideline. same way. Community meetings serve as a form of checks In accordance with the individualized ap- and balances for the larger school system in terms proach of developmental discipline, teachers may of the way teachers, administrators, and students need to experiment and observe the results to de- talk to one another. It is imperative for all school termine the best time, space, and procedure for personnel, from the principal to the lunchroom their meetings. It can sometimes be challenging to monitor, to model respect, kindness, and good

The Relationship Between Discipline and Curriculum 23 manners. Whether the interactions take place in Figure 2.1. Class Contract formal meetings or informal settings, such as hall- ways, lunchrooms, and faculty lounges, members We, the students of class 4-H, developed a list of rules for of the community need to be sensitive to the con- our classroom on September 5, 2002. It is important to tent and tone of their language. have rules to guide our behavior while living, learning, and working in a school community. This contract reminds us A possible focus within community meetings of what is appropriate and expected of us. The following is is the planning of community-service projects. It our list: is a powerful experience for children to be part of the decision-making process and to participate in Respect yourself and others; speak kindly to and a group charity or volunteer effort. Students can about other people. advocate for a particular institution or activity by When someone is speaking, listen, show him or her researching the organization and then presenting courtesy, and pay attention. that research to the group. For example, some stu- Raise your hand when you want to say something. dents might want to serve food in a soup kitchen, Listen to directions, follow instructions, and work contribute to a clothing drive, or institute a letter- quietly. writing campaign. Individual classes or groups of Clean up your mess, and help clean up the mess of students can follow through by taking responsi- others. bility for specific tasks related to the community Respect property. project. Keep yourself and others safe. CONTRACTS We have agreed that these are the guidelines we will follow. The members of this class have promised to follow Contracts are a natural extension of classroom these rules to make our school life the best it can be. or community meetings. They are an effective means with which to concretize the goals of both ________________________________________________ the teacher and students and can help facilitate [Teacher’s signature] follow-through. Contracts may address a specific academic or behavioral problem or the general ________________________________________________ rules within the classroom or school. An evalua- [Learning specialist’s signature] tion process needs to be implemented to ensure that the contract has been adhered to. ________________________________________________ One can imagine how classroom meetings and ________________________________________________ subsequent contracts might improve the overall environment in Mrs. Reeves’s, Ms. Hanson’s, or ________________________________________________ Mr. Jordan’s classes. The teachers could address the disruptive behavior of the students and brain- ________________________________________________ storm with them possible causes and realistic solutions. When students are engaged in the ________________________________________________ contract-writing process, they assume a sense of ownership and commitment to the agreed-upon ________________________________________________ goals. See Figure 2.1 for an example of a classroom [Students’ signatures] contract. behavioral, or academic issues. Rather than call- A community contract may also be indicated ing excessive attention to a child who is acting out when rules are formulated for the entire school, during a lesson, the teacher may work with the such as in the use of computers. All students must child to create a personal contract. When behav- sign and adhere to the contract, which may include ior is carefully documented through ongoing ob- not accessing inappropriate Web sites or students servations, teachers can monitor how the child is creating their own Web sites. doing and adjust the contract accordingly. Did both parties keep their ends of the bargain? Were Additionally, contracts can be used on a more any consequences enforced as dictated by the con- individualized basis to address a student’s social, tract? All contracts need to be reviewed on a daily basis and modified as needed. Modifications may include adding a behavioral goal or raising the expectation regarding a particular behavior. Ide- ally, a contract is used for a limited period of

24 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom time, with the hope that the improved behavior is Figure 2.2. Example of a Student-Teacher Contract internalized. First-Week Contract Between Sarah and Mrs. Taylor Sarah, a third grader, regularly calls out to her teacher, Mrs. Taylor, with- Date__________ out raising her hand. Mrs. Taylor recognizes that her frequent reminders Sarah’s Goals for Sarah to behave appropriately seem to be reinforcing Sarah’s disruptive I will raise my hand at least five times a day and behavior. She decides to meet with wait to be called on by Mrs. Taylor. Sarah to discuss Sarah’s difficulties and I will remain in my seat while raising my hand. include her in the problem-solving I will remain quiet while my hand is raised. process. Mrs. Taylor’s Goals In preparation for her meeting with Sarah, I will make every effort to call on Sarah first when Mrs. Taylor reflects on Sarah’s disruptiveness in she raises her hand. conjunction with the overall classroom environ- ment. She reviews how rules for classroom behav- When we meet these goals, a second contract will be ior have been communicated. Mrs. Taylor notes written. that while most students continue to raise their hands to get her attention, Sarah’s calling out has ________________________________________ had a contagious effect on some students. She re- [Sarah’s signature] members that when Sarah is absent students con- sistently raise their hands to be called on. Perhaps ________________________________________ the students see that calling out gets the teacher’s [Mrs. Taylor’s signature] attention more quickly than raising hands. Some- times merely responding to negative behavior re- hard to break, so for the first week Sarah would inforces it. It is very easy for teachers to fall into be expected to raise her hand only five times the trap of answering students who enthusiasti- throughout the day and Mrs. Taylor would call on cally call out. Resisting the urge to reply to inter- her immediately. The contract would be revised ested students is necessary to send a clear message when Sarah has mastered this first step. The goal about classroom rules. is for Sarah to increase her hand raising with the understanding that she would not be called on first Mrs. Taylor hopes to further help Sarah modify every time. When this second goal has been met, her behavior by developing a contract between the subsequent contract would stipulate that Sarah them to remind Sarah of the expectations regard- would always raise her hand and that Mrs. Tay- ing classroom participation. Although Mrs. Tay- lor may or may not call on her. lor has a specific agenda for her meeting with Sarah, she still wants to include Sarah. After all, if Certain children may initially need additional Sarah actively participates in problem solving she reinforcement to meet their goals. Mrs. Taylor be- will be more invested in the solution. lieved that Sarah being recognized in a timely fash- ion was reinforcement enough. Under certain In the course of the meeting, Mrs. Taylor reem- circumstances, external rewards may be indicated. phasizes the need to follow the rules for commu- For example, a teacher could allow a child to read nication and listens to Sarah’s explanation for her a book to the class, write on the chalkboard, or help behavior. Sarah articulates that she feels that the decorate a bulletin board as an incentive. How- smart kids are always called on first and she is frus- ever, when a teacher’s first response is to use ex- trated when not recognized. Mrs. Taylor hears this ternal rewards such as stickers and promises of response and proposes to Sarah that they make a pizza parties, children’s natural inclination to be- deal in the form of a contract. In the contract, have appropriately is lessened (Kohn, 1999). Sarah agrees to raise her hand, and Mrs. Taylor will make an extra effort to call on Sarah first (see While contracts may be a powerful tool for fos- Figure 2.2). Mrs. Taylor understands that habits are tering behavioral changes, they often lose their

The Relationship Between Discipline and Curriculum 25 effectiveness when the novelty wears off. Some- solving. Contracts are also an effective way to fol- times the need for contracts diminishes when the low through with agreements made at family child has accomplished the stated goals. In other meetings. circumstances, the contract may be rewritten to better motivate the child. Close supervision of the CONCLUSION process and the dynamics between student and teacher is necessary to determine the duration of Meetings, contracts, observation, and thought- the contract. There are times when a contract is ful planning are various tools that enhance curricu- no longer useful, and another strategy must be lum implementation. When teachers see behavior introduced. and learning as interdependent, a dynamic relation- ship ensues. Curriculum and behavior must When a contract is developed between teach- complement each other for the instruction to be ef- ers and students, parents are generally informed fective, resulting in the acquisition of concepts, of the nature of the problem and ensuing interven- knowledge, and skills. Recognizing children’s tion. Including parents in this process will further needs and tailoring lessons to them may circumvent reinforce the child’s following through on the con- many disciplinary problems. Educators constantly tract. Parents may even be included in the planning make choices about how they teach and respond to of the contract and sign it along with the student children. The developmental discipline approach and teacher. For example, when the issue is com- empowers teachers to customize their teaching to pleting homework or getting to school on time, respect and accommodate the children within the parents are an important variable. learning process. Specifically, building on this chap- ter, we recommend that teachers do the following: HOME–SCHOOL CONNECTIONS Sometimes parents ask teachers and adminis- • Observe children as they engage in learning trators for assistance with behavior management tasks at home. They may be experiencing similar con- flicts and need help in handling the situation at • Adapt the curriculum and teaching style to home. Educators can suggest to parents that they the individual learner use the same strategies of developmental discipline. These include clarifying expectations and observ- • Change the classroom setup, activity, and ing to determine logical consequences. Family location and pace of the lesson to maintain meetings, a variation of classroom and community students’ focus meetings, can encourage dialogue about feelings, ideas, and concerns and facilitate group problem • Plan for transition and downtime • Convey clear expectations for students’ behavior • Conduct classroom and community meetings

26 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom 3CHAPTER Building Observational Skills Mrs. Korn has been teaching third Samantha’s social, emotional, behavioral, and aca- grade for more than 25 years and demic functioning? One direction for inquiry considers herself adept at meeting her might be Samantha’s social interactions: her rela- students’ needs. However, this year, tionships with peers, teachers, parents, and pos- she has a student who is particularly sibly siblings. A closer look at Samantha’s ability troubling and Mrs. Korn does not know to connect with others and sustain meaningful how to help her. Samantha rarely relationships will help Mrs. Korn assess the situa- smiles or laughs, never raises her tion. Mrs. Korn will need to observe how Saman- hand, and is reluctant to participate in tha communicates feelings and if her affect is discussions or group activities. She appropriate. Samantha’s behavior in school and does not seem to have any friends in her level of academic achievement also need to be the class. The other students report documented to gain a more complete picture of her that Samantha lies and is not nice. overall development. These inquiries contribute to Mrs. Korn finds Samantha to be ex- a comprehensive observational program. tremely whiny, clingy, and manipulative. Samantha repeatedly asks to go to the As we pointed out earlier, observation is an in- nurse with various physical complaints, tegral part of evaluation and intervention. It enables which affects her class work. The high teachers to assess a child’s specific strengths and quality of Samantha’s homework is not weaknesses and then effectively facilitate growth necessarily indicative of her capabilities, and change. Thoughtful, systematic observation can as Mrs. Korn suspects Samantha may alert educators to subtle problems that might other- not be doing her own work at home. wise be overlooked. However, too often, the formal When Mrs. Korn consulted with observation process is reserved for children having Samantha’s second-grade teacher, she significant difficulties and omitted from routine was told that Samantha did struggle a work with children. bit academically and was relatively quiet in class but had no major problems. Regular observations are useful because they are a starting point for conversations between col- How can Mrs. Korn better understand Saman- leagues in an effort to help children. Having tha’s difficulties so that she can intervene effec- multiple perspectives can also help to minimize tively? Stepping back and formally observing as observer bias. When teachers communicate obser- well as gathering pertinent information from those vations of children to administrators, other edu- involved in Samantha’s life will help Mrs. Korn see cators, therapists, and parents, children’s needs are Samantha more clearly. What does Mrs. Korn need more likely to be met. An effective team discusses to know in order to address her concerns about the observations, brainstorms, and suggests the most appropriate methods of intervention. This pertains to typical school-related challenges such 26

Building Observational Skills 27 as completion of homework, keeping up with de- Whether a teacher is reviewing positive aspects manding class work and peer struggles as well as of a child or discussing concerns, observations more serious issues including developmental de- can make parent-teacher conferences and infor- lays, language difficulties, and learning differences. mal communications more meaningful. Likewise, parents who observe systematically to get a better As discussed in Chapter 2, observation is also handle on their children could present pertinent a central component in curriculum development. information to teachers. For example, if Saman- When teachers plan their lessons and activities, tha’s parents were to keep track of her behavior they need to consider the various levels of skills while she was doing homework and then share and comprehension within their classroom. Re- those details, Mrs. Korn would have a more in- corded observations of children at work and at depth view of Samantha’s work habits and aca- play provide teachers with knowledge of their demic abilities. Samantha’s parents could also academic level, learning styles, and interests. The carefully note her interactions with friends in most successful teachers will modify their plans the neighborhood, making it clear whether to address students who need additional support Samantha’s difficulty socializing with peers was and those who are quick learners and need exten- restricted to school or also manifested itself in sions or enrichment. For example, Mrs. Korn other settings. Additionally, Samantha’s parents could use her observations in her teaching by would be vital in reporting about Samantha’s af- assigning Samantha to work groups that are par- fect outside of school and the existence of any ticularly cooperative or by providing oral direc- physical ailments. Including parents in the obser- tions if Samantha has had difficulty deciphering vation process by having them actually record and written instructions. then communicate their findings extends the bene- fits of developmental discipline by incorporating Classroom management can also be improved parent expertise. with the integration of an ongoing observation process. Typically, teachers do not formally plan THE OBSERVATION PROCESS for disciplining children or the prevention of dis- cipline problems. When they do, the plan tends to There are several distinct steps in the obser- be a rigid formula that sets the rewards and conse- vation process: planning, objective observation/ quences ahead of time and does not take into ac- documentation, interpretation, assessment/rec- count the individual child. Incorporating an ommendations, and intervention/follow-up. observational system enables teachers to develop These steps are cumulative and cyclical. The ob- strategies that fit the specific behavioral patterns of servational regimen can be carried out within a children within their classroom. If Mrs. Korn were finite period of time or can be ongoing to address to document Samantha’s positive and negative in- long-term difficulties or concerns. Ideally, all rele- teractions, she would be more aware of the unique vant adults in a child’s life would be included and situations or dynamics of children that might elicit would meet periodically as a team to review the Samantha’s behavioral difficulties. For example, progress. Mrs. Korn might note that Samantha’s lying only seems to occur when she is with a particular group Step 1: Planning of children. This piece of information might lead Mrs. Korn to wonder if Samantha feels inadequate The first step in the observation process is plan- with those children and if her need to fit in would ning. Here the teacher considers the purpose of the compel her to lie. Mrs. Korn could then make a observations and what is to be accomplished. Re- special effort to be around when Samantha is with flecting on an existing problem and all the contrib- this group and help her to contribute more uting variables enables one to set goals to keep the constructively. observations focused on relevant behavior. Plan- ning includes deciding the location of, timing of, Another use of observations is in teacher-parent duration of, and even whom to include in the ob- communication. Teachers can share observations, servations. A clarification of responsibilities can relating not only to academic performance but also to social and emotional development. Parents may be more receptive to a teacher’s views when they are substantiated with objective observations.

28 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom ease any later confusion about roles. A method for Examining how culture illuminates our field of recording behavior is also selected; more than one vision is critical (Lynch, 2000). Culture shapes not may be desirable. The choice of observational re- only our behavior but also our attitudes about how cording techniques depends upon the nature and others behave. While it is important to respect eth- frequency of the behavior problem, the contexts in nic, racial, and religious differences, understanding which the behavior is manifested, and the personal others’ viewpoints and behaviors can be difficult preferences and comfort level of the observers. when identification with a culture of origin is (Recording methods will be discussed in greater strong. For example, a teacher may interpret a detail in a later section of this chapter.) Anticipat- child’s aversion of eye contact as suspicious. How- ing potential obstacles such as limited time and ever, in the Asian community direct eye contact is resistance by colleagues or parents is also an es- considered a sign of hostility and disrespect, and sential part of the planning. While modifications children are taught not to look directly at others in the process are inevitable, as a result of the in- (Chan, 2000). This is also true in Native American formation that is gathered, planning for observa- communities, where children are encouraged to tions provides direction and focus. refrain from using direct eye contact (Joe & Malach, 2000). Knowledge of the values of various cultures Goal setting begins by highlighting what is al- of children in classrooms enhances teachers’ abil- ready known about the child. With Samantha, it ity to relate appropriately and observe more objec- has been noted that she rarely smiles or laughs in tively. A teacher’s own upbringing may influence school, seeks attention from her teacher in nega- her views about how children should be dressed for tive ways, fabricates, does not actively participate school and how they are to speak to adults. How- in class, does not interact appropriately with ever, these expectations might not fit with what is peers, and frequently reports that she does not acceptable or typical in that particular population. feel well. Additionally, what Mrs. Korn does not Leaping to conclusions based on a narrow vision know about Samantha will contribute to future will affect the integrity of the observations. inquires. For example, Mrs. Korn does not know if Samantha exhibits similar behaviors outside Even videotapes can fall victim to the observer’s her class. Mrs. Korn’s goals for the observational bias. When the videotape is turned on and off, the process will therefore include formal observa- width of the visual field and the direction of the tions of Samantha in a variety of activities, includ- video camera are chosen by the viewer and there- ing transitions, lunch, recess, specials, arrival, fore contribute to the outcome. The Hawthorne ef- and dismissal. Observational planning does not fect (Feldman, 2002), which suggests that the act of take place in isolation. In order to optimize this observation itself changes the nature of what is process, Mrs. Korn will work collaboratively with being seen, is always operational. Many factors can her colleagues to ensure a thorough examination. affect observations. These may include mood, the environmental conditions in which the observation Step 2: Objective Observation/ takes place (e.g., temperature, lighting, seating), Documentation fatigue level, familiarity with the child being ob- served, feelings for the child, and the enthusiasm The heart of this process, the recording of ob- of the observer. Whether the observer is engaged jective observations, can be particularly difficult. or participating in the interaction or watching One must gather authentic, pertinent information from afar is yet another component to consider without tainting that data with personal opinions when interpreting an observation. Having the or judgments. Eliminating all subjectivity is not luxury of observing without direct responsibility realistic. However, a reasonable expectation is to for the children provides an added degree of per- minimize as much bias as possible. This is accom- spective. Additionally, the skill level of the ob- plished in part by reflecting on one’s own unique server will most certainly affect the quality of the perspectives, philosophies, lifestyle, and culture. observations. A good observer acknowledges how past experi- ences as a teacher and as a member of a family or How do educators record with a minimal intru- specific ethnic or socioeconomic group might in- sion of bias? Being cognizant of its inevitable pres- fluence perceptions and attitudes. ence is as essential as recognizing the individual’s role within the observation dynamic. Despite the

Building Observational Skills 29 anticipated presence of one’s own bias, springing may yield an inaccurate understanding of the from the issues noted here, a proficient observer situation. Given Mrs. Korn’s past observations of is trained to distinguish what is actually seen or Samantha’s difficulties with peers, it would not heard from what is presumed to be occurring. be surprising if she automatically blamed Separating objective observation and subjective Samantha for her inability to work productively inference is key to minimizing bias. For example, in her rain forest group. However, keeping an if Mrs. Korn were to observe Samantha sitting with open mind might lead Mrs. Korn to acknowledge a group of peers during lunchtime and conclude, that other factors may be operative. Mrs. Korn’s as a result, that she was making friends, her per- observation of Samantha in this group raises ques- ceptions could be inaccurate. Samantha’s merely tions not only about Samantha’s social skills but sitting adjacent to classmates does not necessarily also about how her peers relate to her. No one in indicate that she is engaging in relationship build- Samantha’s group responds to her question about ing. It is possible that she was there for lack of the tasks, and the children appear to exclude and another seat. Observers must be cautious not to even antagonize her during the decision-making readily infer, but rather to carefully consider, all process. It is possible that this dynamic is pervasive the possible motives for behavior. Even then, in- in her classroom experiences. This social-emotional ferences must be understood for what they are: climate may have significant implications for conclusions logically drawn from evidence. Infer- Samantha’s behavior, in that she may feel both ences are not facts. Similarly, Mrs. Korn could er- isolated and rejected. That may explain some of roneously assume from Samantha’s reticence in her attention-seeking behavior, her sad affect, and class that she is not prepared, when in actuality even her need to find solace from Mrs. Korn or the Samantha is too shy to participate. school nurse. However, the behavior of her peers does not exonerate Samantha’s own responsibil- One way to learn to distinguish between de- ity to behave appropriately. Clearly, these issues scription and interpretation of behavior is to liter- must be addressed from both an individual and a ally draw a dividing line down the center of a paper. group level. What is actually observed is separated from opin- ions, judgments, and feelings about what is seen. When Mrs. Korn sits back and puts this obser- (See Appendix A for a sample Observation Train- vation in context with her initial concerns, ques- ing Form, which is based upon an observation tions about Samantha’s cognitive abilities are also model developed by A. Axtmann and Leo Pascua inevitable. Samantha seems to have trouble pay- and used at the Rita Gold Center at Teachers Col- ing attention, is a poor listener, and does not offer lege, Columbia University.) Using this form within anything constructive to group efforts. What is not a variety of settings, keeping the focus on the child, known is whether Samantha’s frustrations with and then sharing those observations with col- her peers have contributed to her low academic leagues to obtain feedback, will help to sharpen achievement or if inherent cognitive difficulties one’s recording skills. It does take time to effort- have been the basis for her weak group-learning lessly clarify the differences between objective ob- skills. Perhaps both factors may be relevant here. servation and inference, but once that skill is honed In either case, there is a need to further explore bias will be significantly decreased. We suggest that Samantha’s ability to learn in different contexts: over time, using the Observation Training Form and independently, one-on-one with an adult, and in sharing the results will help to minimize bias in different peer groups. future observations. Figure 3.1 shows how Mrs. Korn might complete the Observation Training Step 4: Assessment/ Form while observing Samantha in her classroom. Recommendations Step 3: Interpretation Looking at the data from multiple perspectives provides a comprehensive assessment and finely When enough information has been gathered tuned recommendations. In Samantha’s case, in- from a variety of sources, the behavior can then be corporating her parents in the process was critical interpreted to determine its meaning. As previ- in illuminating the possible causes of her struggles ously suggested, arriving at this step prematurely in the classroom. In the team meeting, which

30 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom Figure 3.1. Observation Training Form Observer Mrs. Korn Date December 4, 2001 Directions • Note the time at regular intervals (include beginning and • Record child’s name and age. ending time). • Record observer’s name and date. • Describe the context • Record exactly what the child does in the behavioral a) physical setting descriptions column. b) situation • Record your interpretations/inferences. Child’s Name Samantha Child’s Age 8 Context: Physical Setting: Third-grade classroom. Students’ desks arranged in groups of four. My desk is in the front, left-hand corner facing the door. The room contains learning centers and cubbies as well as bulletin boards with students’ completed work. Situation: I have just given the class a set of instructions for the rain forest project. The children are to work in groups of four focusing on one particular rain forest animal. Samantha’s group has been assigned the Howler monkey. There are 24 students in the class at this time. Time Behavioral Descriptions (objective) Interpretations/Inferences (subjective) 9:40 a.m. Samantha sits with her group, looking through her rain Samantha was not paying attention. No one answers 9:41 forest folder, while the other three students discuss how to Samantha’s question directly. She was not part of the 9:41 assign the tasks. decision-making process. 9:42 Samantha’s tone is whiny and demanding. The group is not 9:42 Samantha asks what the different tasks are as Joe is working effectively. speaking. Samantha is told by Joe that she is to report on what the Howler monkey eats. I had not said that to Samantha. Samantha states loudly that she does not want that task. Samantha seeks attention by being oppositional. She is She wants to report on where the Howler monkey lives. unwilling or unable to compromise. Samantha is told that that task was assigned to Robert. Samantha interrupts for the second time. Samantha states that I said she could research where She has a low threshold for frustration and poor impulse Howler monkeys live. Samantha stares at the cubbies while control. Also, poor problem-solving and conflict-resolution Robert says, “No way. That’s my job.” skills. The students in Samantha’s group were not receptive or kind to her. Samantha raises her voice and says, “You have to give me that job. I had it first.” She gets up from her seat and walks to me while I am working with another group. Samantha interrupts me, crying, and says that her group is not being fair to her. included Samantha’s parents, Mrs. Korn, the school individual play therapy or a social skills group to nurse, and the school psychologist, it was revealed explore Samantha’s observed sadness and to better that, during the recent adoption of twin infants into understand her difficulties within the classroom. the family, Samantha had learned she also was adopted. Some of Samantha’s social awkwardness Questions regarding Samantha’s cognitive abili- may be in response to these major changes within ties were raised by observations of performance the family, considering that Samantha did not have within the classroom as well as by the discrepan- any significant trouble with peers in the previous cies between her home and schoolwork. Samantha’s school year. The school psychologist might suggest parents acknowledge that struggle and resistance characterize homework time, and they often com-

Building Observational Skills 31 plete the work for her. Her low frustration tolerance, data and the overall assessment of the particular impulsivity, and limited attention span, which is child and situation. This includes a follow-through seen at home as well as at school, raise questions agreement attesting that all team members are about her learning abilities. A thorough evaluation aware of their responsibilities and ensuring that through a private educational psychologist or the suggestions are implemented. For example, the district’s child study team would indicate the pres- school psychologist might follow up with the par- ence of a learning disability. Given Samantha’s ents by telephone to see if they have any additional chronic physical complaints, which warrant numer- questions or if they need help in finding the nec- ous trips to the nurse, this evaluation should include essary resources. Ideally, the psychologist might a complete medical and a possible neurological observe periodically in Mrs. Korn’s classroom to exam to rule out any pathology. The findings could determine if there have been any improvements have a profound impact on Samantha’s learning with Samantha, her relationships with her peers, and behavior. or the overall classroom tone. Regular team meet- ings would be held to review Samantha’s progress It is important to gauge Samantha’s parents’ and reassess her goals. response to her problems before making recom- mendations such as therapy, an educational evalua- The Challenges of the tion, or even a medical exam. The parents’ Observation Process acceptance and willingness to move forward on these recommendations may take time. Families The overall observation process in a real-life with little prior experience navigating through bu- school setting may present a major challenge. reaucracy may resist the intervention. During ini- Teachers report that there is little or no time for tial meetings with parents, team members may just observation given the rigorousness of the curricu- want to plant a seed or help prioritize which step lum and the special activities that children attend. to take first. Educators need to be patient with Often, teachers are on their own in the classroom, parents and understand the different factors that which makes observation a logistical obstacle. might contribute to their reluctance. They assert that they already feel overwhelmed with their workload and cannot take on another At the same time, Mrs. Korn could help responsibility. Clearly, the administration must Samantha by modifying her work both at school stress the importance of observation for it to be and at home. The purpose of these modifications incorporated into the daily pedagogical routine. would be to create successful academic experiences, Ongoing support and training in the various ob- thereby building on her self-esteem. Mrs. Korn servational methods, skills, and techniques is also might consider pairing Samantha with children recommended. Every teacher needs to develop her who have been friendly to her this school year as own system for documentation. Using clipboards, she recognizes that some children have not been index cards, or a tape recorder are ways to facili- particularly kind or cooperative with Samantha. tate the process. According to her parents, Samantha has shown no difficulties with peers outside school and has many Creating observational opportunities within friends from after-school activities and the neigh- the classroom can be particularly daunting, both borhood. It is possible that Samantha’s social dif- spatially and temporally. Choosing to be a partici- ficulties at school may be a result of not only the pating observer or recording behavior from the group dynamics but also her learning issues. Mrs. periphery present unique problems that can be Korn might consider instituting classroom meetings overcome with practice. Blending into the wood- focusing on promoting positive communication, work is no easy feat for a teacher who is accus- conflict resolution, and building an environment of tomed to interacting with and responding to the mutual support and acceptance. children at all times. At the same time, recording observations while being solely responsible for the Step 5: Intervention/Follow-Through entire class takes organization, finesse, and pa- tience. Within the constraints of being a solo prac- Intervention is the final phase in the observa- titioner, it is imperative to upgrade one’s teaching tional process, when recommendations are carried through observation. out on the basis of interpretation of the collected

32 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom OBSERVATIONAL METHODS When using checklists, teachers can easily gather a great deal of quantifiable data; however, The narrative observation, as illustrated in the those data lacks the detail of the narrative obser- Observation Training Form (Appendix A) is not the vation. An effective checklist is dependent on the only means of recording, and several other obser- quality of the items. Often, checklist items are vation methods will be presented in this section. ambiguous or include two different criteria in one item (e.g., child is happy and friendly at school). Narratives Therefore, teachers will be most successful when they customize the items to be targeted and speci- Narratives or narrative observation is a pre- fic to their needs. As with all observation recording ferred method because of the rich data it yields. methods, repeated observations in varying con- Also known as running records or specimen descrip- texts and times of the day provide a more thor- tions (Bentzen, 2001), narratives document a con- ough picture. tinuous stream of behavior and its naturally occurring context. No preparation is necessary and Two variations of the checklist are frequency observers have flexibility in terms of length, loca- counts and duration records (Bentzen, 2001). The tion, type of behavior, and the number of children frequency count tallies how often the behavior included in the observation. The narrative, which occurs, while the duration record notes the length can also be in paragraph form with interpretations or extent of the behavior. Mrs. Korn might use a at the end, ideally includes a context description frequency count to track how often Samantha en- consisting of two sections: the physical setting and gages in positive and negative interactions with the interpersonal situation (Bentzen, 2001). A de- her peers after she operationally defines these be- tailed narrative of just 1 to 3 minutes can highlight haviors. She would select three intervals during a substantial amount of meaningful behavior. Of the day to collect her data. Figure 3.3 is an example course, behavior patterns can only be discerned of Mrs. Korn’s frequency count of Samantha’s peer when children are observed over a period of time interactions. in various situations. Narratives may be difficult for the unskilled observer and take considerable Rating Scales practice. Appendix B contains an alternative nar- rative report, which provides structure and guid- Rating scales are yet another method of record- ing questions. Observers consider these questions ing observations. Also known as a Likert scale (Rea when focusing on salient behaviors. The questions & Parker, 1997), rating scales qualify observed do not necessarily require answers but are useful behavior by assigning a number value. Typically, when organizing, evaluating, and summarizing rating scales categorize behavior according to a the data in the Narrative Observation Report. 5-, 7-, or 9-point system. The Early Childhood Envi- Some of the questions are not relevant to infant, ronment Rating Scale (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, toddler, and preschool-aged children and there- 2005) is an example of a clear and thorough rating fore should simply be omitted. system, although it does not focus on child behav- ior. As with the checklist, the items are predeter- Checklists mined, making the recording of observations relatively quick and simple. See Figure 3.4 for an Checklists are another observation method com- example of a peer-interaction rating scale. monly used by teachers because they are quick and user friendly. The observer simply notes the pres- Time Sampling and Event Sampling ence or absence of specified behavior. Teachers of- ten use checklists to measure the acquisition of skills There are two additional techniques that enable and concepts and to examine behavior. See Appen- observers to be more efficient in their data collec- dix C for an example of a checklist assessing peer tion: time sampling and event sampling (Bentzen, interactions. Figure 3.2 is an example of the check- 2001). Both time-sampling and event-sampling list using Samantha as the child being observed. methods can be used in conjunction with narratives, checklists, rating scales, and frequency counts. With

Building Observational Skills 33 Figure 3.2. Peer Interaction Checklist N/A Name of Student Samantha Grade/Class 3-B N/A Date of Observation 12/4/01 Observer Mrs. Korn N/A √ Setting √ This observation takes place in the classroom during group-work time on rain forest animals. √ There are three other children in Samantha’s group. Overall Behavior Observed Not Observed Child typically engages in positive interactions with peers. √ Child has developed appropriate and meaningful relationships with peers. √ Child demonstrates tolerance when mildly provoked. √ Comments Samantha easily engages with her peers. She annoys Robert and Joe. Not Observed √ Small Groups Within Classroom Observed √ Child expresses ideas clearly to peers. √ Child demonstrates ability to listen to peers. Child compromises as needed for the group process. Not Observed Comments Samantha has trouble sharing her ideas and listening to others. Unstructured Periods (Lunch, Recess, Snack Time, Transitions) Observed Child finds a place within a group. Child refrains from following those who are misbehaving. Child possesses ability to resolve conflicts peacefully. Comments Although this observation does not focus on unstructured activities, I know from past experience that Samantha has great difficulties during these times. a time-sampling method, observers set the record- Anecdotes ing times and intervals for all observations before- hand. For example, a teacher might decide to record Yet another observational tool frequently used observations once a week for 15 minutes. The time by teachers is the anecdote (Bentzen, 2001). Anec- of observations can be established (e.g., every dotes are a favorite choice because behaviors do Wednesday from 1:00 to 1:15 p.m.) or carried out not have to be recorded as they occur. Teachers can randomly. Event sampling involves selecting a par- jot down an observed behavior at the end of the ticular behavior, event, or academic subject to ob- day, during a special, or whenever they get a free serve and then only recording data during those moment. Anecdotes are short snippets of events occasions. Observers must define what that event that the teacher has determined are worth docu- or behavior is in order to be consistent. Mrs. Korn’s menting. There is tremendous variation involved recording of Samantha’s behavior presented earlier in the subject and length of observations, but teach- in the narrative, checklist, frequency count, and ers may opt to refine their focus as indicated. Most rating scales are actually event-sampling observa- teachers using anecdotes keep a filing system to tions. The focus of each of these observations was easily retrieve observations collected earlier. While specific and only included Samantha’s interactions there are no necessary guidelines for anecdotes, and relationships with peers. They did not describe these observations will be more meaningful later her cognitive, language, or physical development. on if they are dated, if they include a context de-

34 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom Figure 3.3. Peer Interaction Frequency Count Figure 3.4. Peer Interaction Rating Scale Name of Student Samantha Grade/Class 3-B Name of Student Samantha Grade/Class 3-B Date of Observation 12/4/01 Observer Mrs. Korn Date of Observation 12/4/01 Observer Mrs. Korn Positive Interaction with Peers Directions: Rate each item on a scale of 1–5 initiates positive interaction with peers 1 = never 2 = rarely 3 = sometimes 4 = often 5 = always responds when approached by other children cooperates in group activity Overall Behavior Negative Interaction with Peers Child typically engages in positive interactions with peers. uses words to hurt 123 4 5 is physically aggressive disrupts others Child has developed appropriate and meaningful relationships with peers. Positive Interactions Negative Interactions with Peers with Peers 12 3 4 5 Child demonstrates tolerance when mildly provoked. 123 4 5 Recommendations Small Groups Within Classroom During the course of this observation, Samantha repeatedly Child expresses ideas clearly to peers. engaged in negative behavior. This sample is typical of Samantha’s ongoing behavior. She’s got a big problem, and 1 234 5 I need some additional help from the administration. I think she needs psychological counseling. Child demonstrates ability to listen to peers. 1 234 5 Child compromises as needed for the group process. 123 4 5 scription, and if observed behavior is distin- Unstructured Periods (Lunch, Recess, Snack Time, guished from inferences. Figure 3.5 presents two Transitions) anecdotes written by Mrs. Korn. The improvement of the first version is shown in the second version, Child finds a place within a group. in which Mrs. Korn’s objective observations are separated from her subjective inferences. She also 123 4 5 included suggestions for intervention. Child refrains from following those who are misbehaving. OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS 1 2 345 Whichever observational method is chosen, errors are inevitable. The three most common ob- Child has ability to resolve conflicts peacefully and effectively. servational errors are omission, commission, and transmission (Bentzen, 2001). With omission, the 123 4 5 observer leaves out important information. In commission, the observer elaborates on what is Summary of Results believed to have been seen, making assumptions on the data. For example, it may be assumed that Based on what I saw during this observation, Samantha has a child who is walking over to the window is in- tremendous difficulty interacting with her peers. Her inability tending to look outside. However, the child’s real to compromise, resolve conflicts, and work in a group intention was to pass a note to a friend who is sit- interferes with her learning. So much of our class time is spent ting near the window. Finally, in transmission, in groups. Most worrisome is her inability to connect with there is an incorrect sequencing of events when the other children. She doesn’t have any friends. We need to bring observation is reconstructed and the actual facts her parents in right away. are lost. Issues such as rater bias and inferential and emotionally based observations have already been addressed but present ongoing questions for the observer. Making rash conclusions and taking ob- servations out of context are additional problems that compromise the accuracy of the information that has been gathered. An outsider who walks

Building Observational Skills 35 Figure 3.5. Anecdotes Issues of confidentiality can also be extremely difficult in a setting where professionals live in the Version 1 same communities as the schoolchildren. Stairways, 12/4/01 hallways, supermarkets, and other public places are Re: Samantha not venues in which observations and other per- sonal information are shared. A family’s privacy Samantha’s difficulties in getting along with her class- must be respected at all costs. mates were highlighted for me today during small-group work on rain forest animal research. Samantha is in a group SUPERVISORY ISSUES with Joe, Robert, and Amanda. As most of the students were happily engaged, Samantha was purposefully loud Interpersonal relationships between faculty, and disruptive not only to her group, but to the class as administration, and families can have an impact well. She refused to cooperate with her group and kept on the social dynamics within a classroom. Dis- bothering me to help her. Samantha clearly shows that she agreements about disciplinary practice are inevi- is impulsive, self-centered, and unable to compromise. It table given differences in perspectives, values, and should be noted that Amanda, Joe, and Robert demon- philosophy. Not only do parents and teachers strated little tolerance for Samantha’s behavior. While they often have distinct expectations for children’s be- got along just fine with one another, they seem to have havior, but their responses to misbehavior may reached their limit with Samantha. also be inconsistent. Version 2 Mr. Anderson has worked as a first- 12/4/01 grade teacher in his current school for Re: Samantha more than 15 years. He has gained a reputation for being organized, cre- Observations ative, humorous, and a tough discipli- narian. Mr. Anderson proudly I observed Samantha today during small-group work articulates that he is able to “whip kids on rain forest animal research. Samantha is in a group with into shape” and has said to his stu- Joe, Robert, and Amanda. As most of the students were on dents on numerous occasions that he task, Samantha was loud and disruptive not only to her will “ship them out ”or “hang them by group, but to the class as well. She did not cooperate with their britches” if they do not fall into her group and kept coming up to me for help. line. Several children apparently take Mr. Anderson’s comments literally and Inferences have gone home upset. Some parents have called the principal, Dr. Stone, to Samantha clearly shows that she is impulsive, self- complain about Mr. Anderson over centered, and unable to compromise. It should be noted that past few months. Amanda, Joe, and Robert demonstrated little tolerance for Samantha’s behavior. While they got along just fine with Dr. Stone could handle this dilemma in a num- one another, they seem to have reached their limit with ber of ways. She could simply inform Mr. Ander- Samantha. son that there have been phone calls from parents and that he is advised to watch his words more Recommendations carefully. Given the fact that Dr. Stone is new to the school, she might choose to refrain from shar- I certainly want to consider putting Samantha in a ing this information with the hope that these were different group next time to see if there are any children she isolated incidents. After all, Mr. Anderson is a sea- can get along with. In the meantime, I will keep a close eye soned and well-respected teacher. A more effec- on Samantha and keep her within arm’s reach. Perhaps I tive strategy would be for Dr. Stone to observe in can sit in on her group next time and coach her through the the classroom to learn more about Mr. Anderson’s group process. I will also write a note home to let her style of teaching. Ideally, she would meet with parents know of my concerns. into the classroom and sees a behavior without prior knowledge of the child or situation may make certain judgments that are incorrect. Taking into account cultural differences between the ob- server and the child who is being observed is cen- tral to understanding behavior and is another area where mistakes are apt to occur. Insufficient plan- ning, whereby the observer does not have a clear focus on what is to be looked at, may create too wide a lens, leaving in superfluous data. Similarly, having too narrow a focus may bias the observa- tion unnecessarily.

36 Guiding Children’s Behavior: Developmental Discipline in the Classroom Mr. Anderson periodically, as she does with all Other independent strategies for self-reflection the teachers in her school. During such a meeting, are journaling and videotaping oneself. An ongo- Dr. Stone could encourage Mr. Anderson to reflect ing journal in which teachers note their innermost on his own teaching as a way of recognizing and feelings can very useful in illuminating problems. improving his tone. Dr. Stone might offer direct Without a venue for expressing one’s discontent, feedback as well as recommend self-observation anger, and frustrations, a teacher’s practice be- for Mr. Anderson, because self-discovery can be a comes impaired. Personal insights gleaned from powerful learning tool (Glickman, 2002). Given journal entries can contribute to identifying and Mr. Anderson’s years of experience and his excel- solving problems. Ideally, a teacher would share lent teaching record, an effective strategy is to revelations with a colleague who can offer objec- encourage him to take the lead in his own super- tive guidance. Teacher support or supervisory vision. Empowering a teacher to be a researcher, groups can use journaling as a basis for discus- to investigate and then reflect on his own teach- sion. For those teachers who lack collegial assis- ing and interactions, is a component of action re- tance, journals can provide a window into patterns search (Hobson, 1996). and challenges that require attention. Videotaping, too, can be a powerful tool for examining one’s SELF-ASSESSMENT own practice. The Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory (see A similar form, the Student Self-Reflection In- Appendix D) helps teachers assess their tone, lan- ventory (see Appendix E) is useful in helping older guage, relationships with children, and classroom- students, perhaps 8 years and up, to engage in self- management skills. The items on the inventory observation. The primary goal of this inventory is highlight characteristics of teachers who practice for students to become cognizant of their own be- developmental discipline. Although self-assess- havior and then take responsibility. This inventory ment is subjective by nature, the inventory can can be used preventatively by establishing a remind teachers about what constitutes good prac- baseline for behavior, with at-risk children or with tice. By answering the questions as honestly as those already exhibiting negative behavior. The possible, teachers identify their own strengths and Student Self-Reflection Inventory may be adminis- weaknesses. The inventory is particularly useful tered at several points throughout the year to note for teachers who work in schools without common improvement or regression in the children’s devel- planning time and ongoing administrative super- opment. Chris, age 9, is frequently reprimanded by vision. If Mr. Anderson were to complete a Teacher his teacher for calling out and disrupting lessons. Self-Reflection Inventory, he might discover that His teacher asked him to complete a Student Self- he has a tendency to use sarcasm and scare tactics Reflection Inventory in the hope that Chris would to manage classroom behavior. Mr. Anderson gain some insight into his behavior. Figure 3.7 is might realize that his humor, while appreciated by presented to show what Chris’s inventory might some, confuses and even intimidates others. That look like. was never his intent. In many instances, children blame others when In many cases, teachers become defensive they “get in trouble” and do not see how they ac- when they deem an evaluation as critical of them. tually regulate their own actions. Teachers may try However, when individuals are asked to critique to control children’s behavior, usually with unsuc- themselves, they tend to be more honest and, if cessful results. This is simply because one cannot anything, overly critical. A self-reflective inven- control another—adults cannot control young chil- tory can provide an opportunity for genuine self- dren. Teachers can, however, guide and teach ap- appraisal. The Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory propriate behavior and help instill a sense of may be used independently or in the context of self-control and accountability. The Student Self- a supervisory meeting. Figure 3.6 shows an in- Reflection Inventory conveys to children that they ventory as it might have been completed by are capable of looking inward and monitoring Mr. Anderson. themselves. Adults can encourage children to fill out the form either independently or with assis- tance. In both cases, the child would work with a

Building Observational Skills 37 Figure 3.6. Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory Name John Anderson Date of Observation March 17, 2004 Directions: Rate each item. Think about one or two examples to support each answer. 1 = never 2 = rarely 3 = sometimes 4 = often 5 = always Tone 5 Relationships with Children My tone is positive and nonthreatening. 5 I establish relationships with the children in my class. 1 2 34 5 1 2 345 I modulate my voice as a teaching tool. I look at children’s faces and body language to gauge their reactions. 1234 My students understand my humor. 1 2 345 1 234 I use active listening skills with the children. 1 2 345 Comments Comments When it comes to my humor, I tend to interject old-fashioned I typically connect well with my students. Most kids seem to expressions that the kids don’t always get. I don’t want to treat really like me. I suppose there are some kids every year that them as babies, so I don’t talk down to them. But some kids can seem to keep their distance from me. Maybe I can be a little be overly sensitive. intimidating. Language Classroom Management Skills My students understand my vocabulary and the way I use language. I clarify classroom rules and expectations on a regular basis. 1 234 5 1 2 3 45 I state my expectations clearly. I respond consistently with logical consequences. 1 2 3 45 1 2 345 I individualize my responses to each child. I encourage the children to communicate and problem solve. 1 234 5 1 2 345 Comments Comments I think I do a very good job of individualizing the curriculum to Behavior management is not a problem in my class. They know match my kids’ abilities. Maybe I could be more sensitive to what they’re supposed to do. I know I’m firm, but do I come on how some kids are going to interpret what I say. too strong? Reflections and Goals When I seriously reflect, I recognize that my tone and expressions can be confusing and upsetting to some children. I know I’m a good teacher, an excellent teacher, really, but sometimes I should be more warm and fuzzy. My goal for the rest of the school year is to be more cognizant of my students’ developmental levels and sensitivities. I will try to adjust my words accordingly. teacher to explore some of the issues that are raised child and situation. Discipline often fails when and to develop strategies for improvement. teachers do not sufficiently understand the rea- sons for the misbehavior and the interventions CONCLUSION are not specifically targeted. There are no univer- sal discipline methods. In a later chapter, misused Regardless of the method, observation is a discipline strategies such as time-out, forced critical piece of behavior management in school. apologies, and sending children to the principal’s Observation helps to pinpoint the motivation be- office will be discussed. It is through observation hind the behavior, thus enabling a plan of action that educators can go beyond behavior to to be implemented that relates specifically to the truly understand children and to effect positive change at school. On the basis of this chapter, we