CU-MA-English-SEM-III-Indian Writing in Translation-Second review report

MASTER OF ARTS ENGLISH SEMESTER-III INDIAN WRITING IN TRANSLATION MAE-614

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Bawa Pro Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director – IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director – CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Coordinator – Dr. Rupali Arora Coordinator – Dr. Simran Jewandah Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Coordinator – Dr. Raju Kumar Coordinator – Dr. Manisha Malhotra Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Coordinator – Dr. Aman Jindal Coordinator – Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel &TourismManagement) Coordinator – Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Coordinator – Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Coordinator – Dr. Ashita Chadha Coordinator – Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) R. M. Bhagat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Executive Director – Sciences Registrar Prof. (Dr.) Manaswini Acharya Prof. (Dr.) Gurpreet Singh Executive Director – Liberal Arts Director – IDOL © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: TeamLease EdtechLimited www.teamleaseedtech.com CONTACT NO:01133002345 For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning 2 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

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CONTENT Unit - 1: Introduction To Indian Writings In Translation ..................................................... 5 Unit - 2 Girish Karnad: Tuglaq.......................................................................................... 32 Unit – 3 U.R Ananthamurthy: Samskara............................................................................ 55 Unit – 4 Ismat Chugtai: The Quilt ..................................................................................... 89 Unit – 5 Gurdial Singh: A Season Of No Return.............................................................. 108 Unit – 6 Prem Chand: The Shroud................................................................................... 125 Unit – 7: Mahashweta Devi: Draupadi............................................................................. 145 Unit – 8: Faiz Ahmed Faiz “Don’t Ask Me For That Love Again”, “A Prison Evening”, “We Who Were Executed”, “In Search Of Vanished Blood”........................... 166 Unit-9: Namdeo Dhasal. “Hunger”, “I Slew The Seven Horses Of The Chariot Of The Sun” ........................................................................................................................................ 185 Unit – 10: To Introduce Student To The Poetry Of “Nirala” ............................................ 196 4 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT - 1: INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN WRITINGS IN TRANSLATION Structure 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Contribution of different cultures to translation 1.2.1 Oral translation in Ancient India 1.2.2 Arabic and Persian in Medieval India 1.2.3 The Mughals’ Contribution to Translation 1.2.4 European Traders and Translation 1.3 Translation and Governance 1.4 Contribution of India towards Translation and its value 1.5 Translation Theories 1.5.1The sociolinguistic Theory 1.5.2 The Communicative Theory 1.5.3 The Hermeneutic Theory 1.5.4 Linguistic Theory of Translation 1.5.5 Translation and Literary Theory 1.5.6 Translation and Cultural Theory 1.6 Translation: Approaches and Types 1.6.1 Approach-based Classification 1.6.2 Literary Translation 1.6.3 The problem of stylistic Equivalence in literary Translation 1.7 Transference of cultural information 1.8 Observance of literary conventions 1.9Summary 1.10Key words 1.11 Learning Activities 1.12Unit End Questions 1.13 References 5 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: In this Unit we aim at making you familiarize with the nature of literary translation, thatis the translation of stories, poems, etc. After going through this Unit carefully, you will be able to:  make a distinction between literary translation and the translation of scientific andtechnical texts  make a distinction between translation which strictly follows the original text andtranslation which takes liberties with the language-structure of the original textbut conveys the meaning of the text faithfully;  discuss the specific problems of transferring cultural information from the originallanguage to the language into which the text is to be translated;  define the meaning of the special words/expressions generally used in the courseof discussions about literary translation. 1.1 INTRODUCTION India has 5 language families, 14 major writing systems, 400 spoken languages, and 1000s of dialects. We live in a world of continuous communication in different languages—from manuals that accompany gadgets to medicines, and bestsellers. All this is made possible only through the act of translation. Translation is the natural extension of anything verbal and valuable we wish to communicate, and it crosses three bridges—personal, linguistic, and cultural. All intellectual transfers from ancient to the present time depend on people who can move words, sentences, images, and themes from one language world to another. In a multi-lingual society like India, translation is important because it is a form of promoting national understanding of the different regional 'selves' in the country. Through literatures in translation, the development of a certain shared social vision is possible. Translation is necessary for the emotional unshackling and well-being of our country. In this Unit, we shall discuss some general problems of literary translation. This will give us an overview of the field and help us in solving the practical problems. Let us briefly look at some of the areas that we shall discuss. Literary and Scientific-Technical Translation Translation of short stories, poems, pieces of prose and novels poses some special problems. But before discussing these we shall draw a distinction between two major types of texts- literary and scientific-technical and also the difference in nature of their translations. After making such a distinction we shall concentrate only on the translation of literary texts. 6 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literal versus Free Translation A literal translation, or metaphrase, is a word-for-word translation where the target language copies the source exactly. Although often technically correct, literal translations can sound awkward and stiff, causing readers to put effort into working out the actual meaning, if there even is one. Whereas free translation generally implies that the translator is given greater latitude of expression when translating from an original source language to a target language and is more often than not a paraphrase. A free translation aims to convey all of the meaning, but is not constrained by the form of the original at all. So generally speaking, literal translation is a good choice in translation. The first problem that a translator of literary texts faces is that of either translatingthe text literally or translating freely (making changes in the word-order, adding ordeleting words, changing sentence structures or conveying the ideas in theOriginal text. In the first part of this unit, we shall discuss the ways and meansthrough which a translator resolves this dilemma of literal versus free translation. Standard Language and Dialect A standard language (also standard variety, standard dialect, and standard) is a language variety that has undergone substantial codification of grammar and usage and is employed by a population for public communication. Standard languages arise when a certain dialect begins to be used in written form, normally throughout a broader area than that of the dialect itself. Every language has a standard form as well as a number of varieties which differprimarily according to regions in which that particular language is spoken. These varieties are called the dialects of the particular language. The basic difference between Standard language and dialect lies in their usage, a language is written in addition to being spoken, whereas the dialect is only spoken. Now, a writer of stories,poems or pieces of prose, may use either the standard language or one of thedialects. S/ he may even use both within the same story or poem. How does thetranslator of that particular text show this difference in his/ her translation is thesecond major problem of a translator of literary texts? We shall discuss this furtherin Section. Use of Special Sets of Words A writer may use a special set of words in his/ her piece of literary writing and thetranslator will have to find out and use the equivalents of such special sets of words.This is problem number three and will be discussed in Section. Style The writer of a literary text, unlike the writer of a scientific or technical text has thechoice of a number of styles or manners of writing. S/he may, for instance, chooseto write in a formal 7 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

style of communication. or an informal style of communicationor even a colloquial or conversational style of communication. S/ he yay at timesuse more than one of these or all three styles of communication within the same text.How does a translator show such shifts of style or manner of communication? Thisis the fourth major problem and in Section. We shall also discuss thisimportant aspect of literary translation. Culture All stories, poems, novels, are rooted in a specific culture i.e., they are concernedwith a specific way of life. People have their own way of living, eating, dressing andspeaking, which may be quite different from the way of living, eating, dressing,speaking of the group of people who are going to read the story in translation.Transferring information about one culture from the original to the translated text isproblem number five for a translator of literary texts. This is a problem peculiar tothe translation of literary texts. A scientific or technical text generally does notcontain specific information about cultural aspects and hence the translator of ascientific or technical text does not have to transfer such information. Equivalence The effect of Equivalent is discussed elaborately in Translation Studies. It means that the effect created by a translation on its viewers should be same as the effect produced by the original piece of work on the recipients in the source language. When a word or phrase conveys the same thing in both languages, we can term it as equivalence and it’s one of the most reasonable things professional translators give preference to. The cultural information which is 'encoded', that is, expressed in the text by the writer with the help of specific .Now, the languageinto which such a text is being translated may have words which are the exactequivalents of such words as used in the original text. It may, however, also happenthat the language of the translated text which is also called the target language (TL)may not have exact equivalents of the words of the source language (SL). It may however, have words which are more or less similar, differing from the original wordin some features. Sometimes it may also happen that the target language may nothave an equivalent at all of the words used in the source language. That is to saythat the cultural phenomena may be completely absent from the culture of the targetlanguage. We shall look at some of the ways in which the translator reconciles thesedifferent situations of complete similarity, partial similarity or complete dissimilarityof cultural phenomena in Section. Literary Conventions Literary conventions are defining features of particular literary genres, like the novel, story, ballad, sonnet, and play. In other words, it's a cliche, device, or trope that acts as a defining feature of a genre. All Star Wars movies begin with the phrase \"A while ago during a galaxy 8 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

far, far away.\" This helps place the viewer within the context of the Star Wars galaxy. Literary conventions can be aspects of prosody (rhyme and sound), structure (acts in a play), or content (humor in a comedy. The writers of some literary forms have to observe very strict conventions of expression. For example, poets have to observe the conventions of rhyme, rhythm and matter. These conventions of meter may be different in different languages. For example, the convention of writing an Urdu ghazal is quite different from the convention of writing an Englishsuch conventions and write in what's referred to as free verse. Rhyme or similar-sounding line-endings are yet another convention of poetry. However, in same languages poets prefer to write blank verse or poems without formal rhymes. Transferring such conventions along with the content of the poems poses problems of a special kind for the literary translator and will also form a part of our discussion in this Unit. Literary Devices Literary devices are techniques that writers use to precise their ideas and enhance their writing. Literary devices highlight important concepts during a text, strengthen the narrative, and help readers hook up with the characters and themes. These devices serve a good range of purposes in literature. Some might work on an intellectual level; while others have a more emotional effect. Examples of most common Literary Devices are – 1. Simile 2. Metaphor 3. Imagery 4. Symbolism 5. Flashbacks 6. Foreshadowing 7. Motif 8. Allegory 9. Juxtaposition 10. Point of view. Metaphors, also known as direct comparisons, are one of the most common literary devices. Writers use metaphors and similes and symbols which are specific to their cultures. In literature, we find a use of proverbs and idiomatic expressions which are peculiar to the 9 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

writer's culture. These also form an important problem for a literary translator as ways have to be devised to translate these. These are some of the points that we shall discuss at some length in this Unit. We have also given you some short 'exercises. Do complete these as we all know practice makes a person perfect, especially in translation.These are some of the points that we shall discuss at some length in this Unit. Wehave also given you some short 'exercises 1.2 CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT CULTURES TO TRANSLATION 1.2.1 Oral translation in Ancient India India has a strong and vibrant oral culture. Music and literature were in the form of songs and poems which moved from one language/region to another, informally and easily. They were modified and enlarged according to the narrator's wish. That is why there are so many versions of the Bhagavata stories and retellings of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Kathasaritsagar, the Jataka and Hitopadesa are also narratives that inspired the spread of hybrid stories. The clever wife, the foolish priest, and the greedy merchant are figures that appear in the lore of every region.This process of oral translation and transmission has always been our tradition. 1.2.2 Arabic and Persian in Medieval India The Turks who established the Delhi Sultanate in the early thirteenth century introducedArabic and Persian. India 'nativized' both and produced a hybrid language from it, namely Urdu. Thanks to the Arab traders on the Konkan coast and Malabar, there were brands of Tamilized Arabic and mixes of Malayalam and Tulu with Arabic, in South India, long before the thirteenth century. 1.2.3 The Mughals’ Contribution to Translation Under the Mughals, Persian became the court language. The Mughal emperor Akbar set up a translation bureau in India in the sixteenth century. He was genuinely interested in making Indian thought available in Persian. His goal was to promote harmony between the two major religious systems of the day through translation. The first translation of the Ramayana came from a Maulvi named Badayuni (1580). Akbar also initiated to translate The Mahabharata, the Yoga Vasistha, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavad in Persian. So it was through Persian that the West first became acquainted with the language and sacred literature of the Hindus. His great grandson Dara Shikoh went on to translate some major Upanishads. The wisdom of the East was made available through translations prepared by a Mughal prince. 10 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.2.4 European Traders and Translation Europeans only studied Persian language in India. They had strong commercial and trade related relations with Mughal outposts for which Persian was required. The role of people who knew two languages became critical. A person who is able to communicate in two different languages is called as ‘dwibhashi that is, a speaker of two languages. 1.3 TRANSLATION AND GOVERNANCE Early British Translations For the few hundred years, translations of Indian texts into English were prepared by Englishmen in association with Indians. British scholars requested their government to discover, collect, and translate information about the land the East India Company was controlling. The Governor-General Warren Hastings (in office from 1772 to 1785) felt that Hindus should be governed by Hindu laws. He had the lawbooks (dharma shastras) translated from Sanskrit into Persian by Indians. Then Englishmen translated the Persian versions into English. The final texts in Englishtranslation were thus products of Sanskrit sources, mediated by Persian. They were very difficult to appreciate and understand since three languages are involved in the process. The first translation brought into being in this fashion using a 'broker-language' (Persian) between Sanskrit and English, was a legal text originally titled Vivadarnavasetu, which appeared under the name A Code of the Gentoo Laws (1776) and was translated by Nathaniel Halhed. The first complete translation of an Indian work into English was the Bhagavad Gita by Charles Wilkins. The year was 1784 and the publisher was the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Thus, the British administrators translated Indian books into English but side by side they brought English language education into India. Slowly, English grew more important than the other languages. The Bible in Indian Languages Probably the most linguistically influential translations have been those of the Bible which were religious in purpose and literary in practice. Missionary activities and translations of the Bible into different Indian languages led to the preparation of dictionaries and the establishment of printing presses. Missionaries made a study of Indian culture, philosophy and languages in order to develop methods to preach the Gospels. Some of the most important missionaries dedicated to this purpose were Roberto de Nobili (1577-1656) an Italian, Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg (1682- 1719) a German Protestant, and Heinrich Roth (1620-68) who developed the first Sanskrit grammar in Latin in the seventeenth century. All of this was transferred into English. The 11 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

first Western-style dictionary in Kannada was developed by William Carey in 1817, a Serampore missionary and a polyglot. With these tools came the spread of journals, magazines, and newspapers in local languages. These developments led to the growth of print-media and book production. More and more people became literate. This generated a middle- class readership that wanted to read something other than stories and poems about gods and goddesses; they wanted to read about people like themselves. So forms and models found in English literature were quickly adapted by Indian writers during the nineteenth century. In this manner, English, a language that had no geographical base in India, became one of the mediums of our intellectual exchanges andthe means of communication with the outside world. 1.4 CONTRIBUTION OF INDIA TOWARDS TRANSLATION AND ITS VALUE Translation and Modern India Colonial education brought with it the establishment of English literature in India, and great importance was accorded to English studies. This led to another irreversible reality: from the times of Raja Rammohan Roy, well into the twentieth century, Anglicization was viewed as an achievement, and a knowledge of English was equated with progress and modernization. Cultural Domination of English in India The most important face of British superiority in India was the English language, which established its hold over India's cultural world. English literature was not taught as a university subject even in Britain till the late nineteenth century, but was promoted as the symbol of civilization for the Indian colony; its study was institutionalized in India (by 1860 one could get a BA Hons in English from Calcutta University) before it was in England (Oxford University, 1894). When the British introduced English in Indian schools and colleges, they had an imperial plan. They believed that when someone studied English literature, he or she would not be able to help admiring that body of work and would, as a natural extension of this, become admirers of British culture. They were right. For 200 years, Indian languages, literature, and art forms are yet to recover from English domination. Many generations of Indians genuinely believed that Indian literature and culture had nothing to match the scale, delicacy, or greatness of things British. Importance of English Translation from Indian Languages English Translation has helped knit India together as a nation throughout her history. It brought, and still brings languages closer to one another and introduces to one another 12 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

diverse modes of imagination and perception and various regional cultures thus linking lands and communities together. English is not even among the first fifty languages in terms of number of speakers. Yet we study many literary and non-literary works only in their English translation. India is divided into states that were demarcated on the basis of the predominant languages in those regions. The fact is that we live on literary and language islands. Just because most of us feel safe in this island culture does not make it any healthier. We need to reach out of our regional boundaries and access the literatures and knowledge in other parts of India. Of all the languages we use, English is the medium of the widest literary exchange among Indians, and it offers an all- India participation on a scale that no other language can match. What is IWE and What is ILET? There is a difference between Indian writings in English (IWE) and Indian Literatures in English Translation (ILET). Indian Writing in English (IWE), is the body of work by writers in India who write in the English language and whose native or co-native language could be one of the numerous languages of India. ILET is rapidly becoming anindispensable component of literary and cultural studies. Given the multi lingual composition of Indian society and the status of English as one of the two official languages, the state patronage of ILET is inevitable. There is a difference between Indian writings in English (IWE) and Indian Literatures in English Translation (ILET). The Indian writers write in English for readers who’s mental set up can relate only those words that illustrate, match, and affiliate the Indian experiences in English. But Indian writing in English is so attractive to those readers outside India who cannot read our languages but yearn for the exotic and layered flavours of the material aspects of our country. They are under a powerful illusion that these Indian flavours are reaching them in English. 1.5 TRANSLATION – THEORIES Translation is a communicative process that involves linguistic and socio- linguistic factors. When we communicate what someone else has said, we do not always remember the exact words. We paraphrase, retell, substitute and make gestures. While translating, the translator faces many difficulties. Words like karma, may a, roti, and dhoti have no direct equivalents in European languages. Even though in common and simple English words, meanings can change in different cultures. The process of translation can be understood within following theoretical frames. There are six main principal translation theories: sociological, communicational, hermeneutic, linguistic, literary and semiotic. 13 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.5.1the Sociolinguistic Approach According to the sociolinguistic approach to translation, the social context defines what is and is not translatable and what is or is not acceptable through selection, filtering and even censorship. According to this point of view, a translator is inevitably theresult of his or her society: our own sociocultural background influences the way we translate everything. 1.5.2 The Communicative Approach This perspective is referred to as interpretive. Researchers like D. Seleskovitch and M. Lederer developed what they called the “theory of sense,” mainly rely on the experience of conference interpreting. According to this perspective, it is the meaning which should meaning must be translated, not language. Language is nothing just a form of vehicle for the message to be conveyed to the audience and can even can be a hurdle for a reader to understand. This proves why it is always better to deverbalize (instead of transcoding) once we translate. 1.5.3 The Hermeneutic Approach The hermeneutic approach is majorly supported by the work of George Steiner. According to Steiner, translation is any kind of any human communication. In his book After Babel he explains that translation is not a science but an “exact art”. A true and perfect translator should be capable of becoming a writer in order to summarize what the author wants to say to his viewers in the original text. 1.5.4 Linguistic Theory ofTranslation Translation is a process of transferring content and meaning from one language-culture into another. A translator isusually in dilemma to decide the equivalents in the source language and target language. Translators use three approaches to translation depending on the language unit they focus on. They are:  Translation at the level of word (word for word translation)  Translation at the level of sentence, and  Conceptual translation 1.5.5 Translation and Literary Theory A literary text like a poem is unique, complete and original. In translation of literature, problem arises in searching the equivalent textual and literary material of the source language in the target language. Literature incorporates literary as well as metaphorical language. It is important for the translator to decide what part of the language must be reproduced in the TL text. 14 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.5.6 Translation and Cultural Theory Translation involves two different languages and cultures. The translator is one to prioritize certain cultural aspects in the source language text and to what limit it is essential and possible to translate them into the target language text. For example while translating terms like maama, periappa and chitappa, saying \"uncle\" in English will not give the correct meaning in all contexts. Translation has to be faithful to both languages and cultures. 1.6 TRANSLATION: APPROACHES AND TYPES The translator's basic motive is to convey the meaning expressed by the original writer. In such instances, the translator is a just message conveyor. For example, legal translation leaves little room for adaptation and re-writing. Similarly, when it comes to translating insurance contracts, style-related concerns are not important to the translating process; what the reader needs is a translated text that is faithful to the source text in meaning, regardless of the stylistic skills of the translator. Classification of translation can be done according to the approaches and the disciplines. In terms of approaches, the different types of translation are: literal, direct, transliteration, transcreation. In terms of disciplines: literary, non-literary, media, scientific, technical. 1.6.1 Approach-based Classification (a) Literal Translation Literal translation is a translation that follows closely the form of the source language. It is also known as word for word, line by line turning of an author's words from one language into another. This the best option for translating text where the form is as important as the content such as great speeches, autobiographies, literary work. Literal translation is the word for word, line by line turning of an author's words fromone language into another. (b) Transliteration Transliteration refers to the manner in which one reads and pronounces the words andsentences of one language using the letters and special symbols of another language. Transliteration is of great help in the situations where one does not know the script of a language but knows to speak and understand the language, nevertheless. Here are some examples of Roman transliteration used to represent texts of Indian languages, especially Sanskrit. Iswara Eswaraa eesvara spfel prarthana praarthanaa prarthana Rashi rusi rishi. Transliteration is used in situations where the original script is not available to write down a word in that script. 15 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(c) Transcreation Transcreation is a concept used in the field of translation studies to describe the practice of adapting a message from one language to another, while maintaining its intent, style, tone, and context .In instances where word for word translation may not be effective, the concept of transcreation comes into effect. Transcreation is the creative adaptation of source language material in the target language. It adapts the material in a culturally relevant manner in order for it to reach the target at an emotional and intellectual level. Successful transcreation is based on a thorough knowledge of local environment, practices and details specific to a given culture and country. 1.6.2 Literary Translation It deals with the translation of literary texts. The translator cannot take literary language at face value. It has a symbolic value. Translators of literary texts should keep in mind the metaphorical language used in the literary text of the source language and try to retain its value while translating. The translator should aim to convey not just the sense, but the idiom too, for the appeal to remain intact. Translations should give the 'feel'/ essence of the language. Features of Literary Translation Literary translation is undertaken by a translator with the primary aim of makingavailable to the reader in the target language (TL) those literary texts which were written originally in another language (SL) but which according to him/ her ought also, to be read by readers of the target language. Now, texts of creative literature have certain features which distinguish them from other kind of texts, for instance, scientific and technical texts. A translator of literary texts ought to pay due attention 40 these distinguishing features and 'translate' them in an appropriate manner. Let us hook at some of the main differences between the two. Literary Translation versus Scientific and Technical Translation A work of creative translation-a story, poem, novel. play or piece of prose-iswritten with the aim of 'conveying' not only some significant ideas but also 'evoking' a particular 'emotional response'. A story about ghosts, for instance, may fill itsreaders with a sense of fear and also give its readers information about supernatural beings. A piece of creative literature, therefore, appeals to the mind as well as the heart. Scientific translation is the translation of scientific texts, thus a special knowledge will be required. These texts require a deep knowledge of both the source and target languages, aswell as a proper understanding of the subject. ... Collaboration between linguists and subject specialists is really common in this caseIt aims primarily at conveying some information or discussing some facts or phenomena. There is no emotional appeal in such 16 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

pieces of writing. These are generally based on 'cold' logic or .reoccurring. Their appeal is to the mind rather than to the heart. These are, therefore, written generally in what is known as a 'frozen' style of writing. A translator of literary texts ought to keep this distinction in mind while translating. The translation of a poem or a story must try to 'evoke' a similar kind of response in the readers as did the original text. Let us illustrate this through an example. Most poems of Mahadevi Verma, adistinguished poetess of Hindi, are romantic in nature and evoke romantic feelings in their readers whereas the poems of Ramdhari Singh Dinkar, another distinguished poet of Hindi, evoke among their readers feelings of patriotism or loyalty towards one's nation. A translation of Mahadevi Verma's poems will, therefore, 'fail' if it fails to evoke the emotional response of the 'pangs of love'. Similarly, if by reading the translation of the poems of Ramdhari Singh Dinkar, the readers' hearts are not filled with a sense of pride for their motherland, the translation will not be considered appropriate. If the English translations of the stories or novels of Munshi Prem Chand, an outstanding writer of Hindi and Urdu, fail to evoke a response of disgust and anger against certain social evils which the author had successfully elicited from his original readership in Hindi and Urdu, the translation will not be considered 'successful'. A translator of scientific or technical texts, however, has no such responsibility of evoking special emotional responses. His j her primary task is to 'communicate' some significant information and as long as she is able to do the same, the translation is successful. For instance, there may be a text which discusses the effect of sunlight on plants. A translator of such a text, is expected to convey only the information contained in the original without evoking a response of. say, love or hatred, anger or disgust for such effects by the sunlight. The Significance of Manner in Literary Translation Another distinguishing feature of literary writing is that in them both the content and manner in which this content is communicated, are significant. The manner in which an author 'conveys' his/her ideas or emotions is generally known as style. Every piece of literary writing, therefore, has two significant aspects-content and style. Now, style or manner of writing is what distinguishes one writer from another. In other words, two writers may choose to write about the same subject but what will distinguish one from the other will be his or her style of writing. To take an example, both Mahadevi Verma and Jaishankar Prasad, another Romantic poet ofHindi, have written about the pangs of love but their individual manner of writing theirstyle-make them quite different from each other. Style plays as equally important role in distinguishing between story writers too. Translators, therefore, have to pay equal attention to style and content while translating a literary text. In other words, a translator should transfer the contents of 17 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

the text in the SL to the text in the TL in a manner or style appropriate to the styleused by the original author. For example. the prose pieces of Hari ShankarPrasad, a Hindi prose writer, are very serious in content and expressed in a satirical or mock comicmanner. That is to say. his words very often communicate the meaning which is just the opposite of what they literally mean. A translator of Hari ShankarPrasad’stexts must. therefore. 'translate' his satirical style also. Literal versus Free Translation An ideal translation is one which translates all the words of a text and only those nomore. no less. As we have seen, no two languages have exactly similar structures syntactic as well as semantic. That is to say. different languages havedifferent ways of arranging words in order to frame sentences that convey meaning. A word or expression may at times need elaboration in a translation. Alternatively, it may be possible to condense a longer expression into either a single word or shorter expression in a translated version. Let us take some examples to illustrate the difference. Jn Prem Chand's Shatranj ke Khiladi the following sentence occurs: Shatranj Tash,Ganjifa khelne se buddhi tez hoti he. Now, this can be translated literally as 'Playing chess, cards and ganjifa sharpens the intellect'. Here is another sentence from the same text Lukhnow wilasita ke rang me duba hua the.Its literal translation would read like this: 'Lucknow was sunk into the colors of worldly pleasures'. But an expression like 'the colors of worldly pleasures' hardly makes any sense in English. So, we will need a free translation for this sentence: 'Lucknow was immersed in worldly pleasures. We have seen that in some cases literal translation is possible whereas in others we need free translation. The extent to which free translation is necessary will depend, among other things onthe historical relationship between the SL and the TL. That is to say, if these languages have developed from a common 'mother' language or have come in contact with each other for various reasons then they may have structures which are similar. On the other hand, if these languages have descended from different Language 'families' and have had no contact, their structures may be very different. For example, in the Indo-European family of languages, German and Sanskrit are said to have similarities in structure. The difficulties of a translator will be in direct proportion to the linguistic distance and cultural distance between the SL and the TL. If such a distance is negligible or small, a translator can undertake an almost literal translation. However, if the distance is significant or large, s/he may have to resort to making changes in the sentence structure in order to convey the meaning accurately. Cultural distance between the two languages involved in a translation is quite often responsible for a writer resorting to free translation. This is particularly true of culture- bound words or expressions like idioms, phrasal verbs, similes and metaphors which may not have equivalents in the TL. Their translation, then is freer than literal. Let us take another example from Shatranj Ke Khiladi: Aapka Namak Khate he. Now try and think how 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

you would translate this. In an English translation of the story Professor Gurdial Malilc has put it as 'eat your salt' which, as can be seen, is a literal translation. However, the expression is meaningless for a native speaker of English since in the English language they do not use such an expression in the sense that it is used in Hindi. This literal translation, therefore, is inappropriate. Here, a free translation like 'aim beholden to you' may have been more appropriate. To know a balance between literal and free translation has always been a major problem for the translator. However, the aim should be to take minimal liberties with the sentence-structure of the SL without sacrificing the meaning of the original. We h4ve discussed some of the main features of literary translation. Before we move to the next second let us first do this exercise. 1.6.3 The Problem of Stylistic Equivalence in Literary Translation The problem of finding equivalents at the level of style poses a major challenge to atranslator. The style of a writer is the sum total of a number of. features which he or she introduces consciously or unconsciously, at times-into his/ her manner of expression. Some of these features we discuss below. Dialect versus Standard Language A Dialect is the regional variety of language distinguished by features of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation from other regional varieties and constituting together with them a single languageWithin a given speech community, the speech of various groups varies slightly or significantly. That is to say, not all speakers of a particular language speak thelanguage in exactly the same manner. Sometimes there is hardly much differencebetween the speech of various groups and there is no difficulty in understanding oneanother. At times, however, such differences are so large that mutual understandingis as difficult as between speakers of two different languages. Standard Language is the official form of the language. This kind of form of language are always artificially modified at least to some degree. It is the way to use language in official and formal situation as in newspapers or public speeches. Now, for variousreasons, such as economic, political or geographical, the speech of a particular groupbecomes more important in comparison with the speech of other groups. Thisparticular variety is then known as standard language and all other variants as itsdialects. Quite often speakers of a language control not only the standard languagebut also, a number of its dialects, which they use in different situations. That is tosay. speakers use either the standard language or a particular dialect, depending onthe need of the occasion. Like ordinary speakers of a language, a writer of creative literature too may make use of a standard language and its various dialects on different occasions in a particular piece of writing. This shift from the standard language-to a dialect or from a dialect to the standard language or even from one 19 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

dialect to another is not accidental or 'by chance' but deliberate or 'intentional'. .l he writer makes such shiftsin order to create specific effects or to convey some special information. In amultilingual country, like ours, people use not only various dialects of a singlelanguage but sometimes use more than one language. Here is an example from H M, a novel set in the rural background of Bihar. As is apparent. the language is quite different from standard Hindi and for valid reasons too. The character using these words is a political leader who is addressing an audience of illiterate villagers who have not been exposed to standard 'Hindi. The author uses this to show that the speaker speaks in the dialect of the villagers in order to establish rapport with them. The novel is full of many such shifts. Let us take another example. In Prem Chand's most of the narration is in thestandard language, i.e. Khadi Boli. The conversation between Hori and Raisaheb, forinstance is also in standard Hindi. But the conversation between Hori and his wifeDhania is in a dialect-the eastern dialect. This is to show that Raisaheb and Horiare speakers of two different dialects and their conversation is possible only throughthe mediation of the standard language, Hori and his wife, being speakers of thesame dialect do not need the mediation of the standard language. Again, the use ofthe standard language shows social 'distance' between the Raisaheb and Hori. InBhisham Sahani’s Tamas such shifts can be seen between Hindi and Punjabi: twodifferent languages.Such shifts from one language to another or from one dialect to another, significantas they are, ought to be 'reflected' in a translation as well. So a translator is expectedto be proficient in not only the standard language but in a couple of dialects as well.However, a translator from a monolingual society-English, for instance- findsHim/herself in a dilemma when translating a text from a multilingual society-India,for instance-which has language shifts in its speaker's communication strategies. AnEnglish translation of a novel like Mella AAchal will, therefore, be extremely difficultunless, of course, the translator chooses to ignore the dialect of the novel which forma substantial part, to say the least. The Choice of a Special Set of Words The lexicon or word stock of a language comprises at times of sets of words whichhave come from different sources, especially if the language has come in close contact with another language for a prolonged period of time. English language, for instance, has, as a part of its word-stock, a large number of words from French, Germaniclanguages, Celtic and even Hindi. For examples words like bungalow, bandh,gherao, to name some. Take the case of Hindi. Its main word-stock comes from twodifferent sources -Sanskrit and Persian- Arabic. Modern Hindi also uses a largenumber of, words borrowed from English. So widespread is the use of such wordsthat at times a sentence in Hindi may have a number of words from either Englishor Persian-Arabic sources or both.These different sets of words may, at times, be exploited by the speakers of thatlanguage and also its creative writers for different purposes for instance, PremChand uses more sanskritized vocabulary while 20 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

describing something but uses morewords of Persian-Arabic origin in the dialogues between his characters. This is notaccidental but deliberate since he wanted to show that colloquial Hindi very often used words which traced their origin to Persian or Arabic. This distinctive use of different sets of words as well as code mixing (use of words from more than one language within the same sentence) creates yet another problem for the translator who must also reflect such mixing in his/ her translation. However, at times, a translator may simply not be aware of it, let alone 'translating' it. Or alternatively, he/she may be aware of it but may not have the necessary competence in the TL to show such a mix. As we have seen in the case of Prem Chand, for instance, most of his translators into English have either been unaware of this special use of different sets of words or they have ignored this stylistic device on the part of Prem Chand. Formal and Informal Styles Scientific and technical texts are written in a formal style whereas literary textsgenerally, make use of an informal style of writing. To take an example, a textdescribing the use of laser in medicine cannot be written in the same style as a textdealing with the state of mind of a newly married person or an orphaned childHowever, a literary text may make use of both the formal and informal styles whiledealing with different sets of situations. Two colleagues, for instance, do not forcommunicate with each other in the same manner in the office as do two friends in aparty. The former is a formal situation while the latter is not and as such these callfor formal and informal styles of communication respectively. Again, a formal styleof expression also indicates 'distance' or an unequal relationship whereas 'nearness'or equality is expressed through an informal style. We may illustrate this through theexample bf second person pronouns in Hindi which have three different forms:AAP, TUM or TU. In a formal situation we may use an expression like App Sham ko Ghar Aaiye. Whereas in an informal situation one may use the expression like Tu sham ko ghar aa. The third form-TU-is generally used for either children or persons inferior in statusto the speaker or between persons in more intimate relationships. In such a situationthe expression may be TU SHAM KO GHAR AANA. Formal or informal styles also depend on the status of the persons or characters involved. A subordinate, for instance. Cannot use the expression TUM KYA AADESH DETE HO while seeking instructions from his superior or an expression like AAPKI KYA RAI HE while asking for suggestions from one of his close friends. Translators have to keep such distinctions between formal and informal styles in mind while translating, since conventions about their use differ from language to language. In English, for instance, there is no distinction between the forms of second person pronouns for persons having a different status or 'distance' or 'nearness' in their relationship as we have shown in the case of Hindi. Any violation will lead to an effect contrary to the one intended by the author in the SL. 21 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.7 TRANSFERENCE OF CULTURAL INFORMATION As stated earlier, literary texts are rooted in a particular culture and as such they usea large number of words and expressions which are culture-bound. Finding the word conveying the same meaning in Target Language may be quite a difficult exercise for a translator. Atranslator may generally be faced with three different situations while findingequivalents for culture-specific terms. Let us now discuss some of these. Words/Expressions Representing Completely Similar Cultural Items/Phenomena In Shantraj Ke Khiladi there are a number of words which are culture-specific but forwhich it is possible to find equivalents in English. Hakim and Dawakhana are two suchwords which have been translated as 'doctor' and 'drawing room' respectively by thetranslators of the story. However, a translator has to be very careful about apparentequivalents. The word Cheshta in Hindi means 'effort' while the same word inMarathi means 'mischief'. Words/Expressions Representing Partially Similar Cultural Items/Phenomena Words like Chillum culture specific as they are, fall under the category of those wordswhich are partially similar to cultural items/phenomena available in anotherlanguage. It may be loosely translated as 'pipe' but as we know the two are notexactly the same thing. In such cases it may be better to add an explanatory wordor two to the equivalent term, signifying the differentiating feature. For instance, itmay be better to translate Chillum as 'clay pipe' which some translators have done orelse leave it as 'chillum'. Words/Expressions Representing Dissimilar/Unique Cultural Items/Phenomena In this category we find words which are absolutely unique to a culture and it issimply not possible to find an equivalent for them. The Finnish word sauna is onesuch term for which to find an equivalent in another language may be extremelydifficult. Some translators have tried the term 'steam bath' for it but the fact remainsthat neither is there anything like a bath involved in sauna nor does it have anysteam. Let us take some examples from Shantraj Ke Khiladi. Describing various items oftoiletry, Prem Chand uses terms like Ubtan and Missi. There are two ways in which atranslator may overcome this difficulty of finding equivalents for them. Firstly, s/hemay explain them with the help of a phrase or if need be, a full sentence. Forinstance, one of the translators of Prem Chand translates Ubtan as 'paste foranointing the body' and Missi as 'colouring for the teeth'. Another way of dealingwith such words in a translation is to retain the original words/expression in the Translated text and let its meaning 'emerge' from the context. In some cases, an explanatory footnote may be given. The Need/Desirability of Retaining Original Words in Literary Translation 22 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

There is, however, a danger in using the former device namely of letting the meaningemerge from the context. Unless the structure/s forming the context are formulatedvery clearly and precisely, there is a danger that the meaning does not becomeabsolutely clear. As for the latter, namely giving footnotes by way of explanation,too has its limitations. Retention of too many original words in the translated textand explanatory footnotes may adversely affect the rate of 'decodability'. That is tosay, it may interfere with the smooth flow of reading and the translation maybecome monotonous and boring. We have discussed some problems of stylistic equivalence in literary translation. Let us do this short exercise before taking up the next topic. 1.8 OBSERVANCE OF LITERARY CONVENTIONS Such literary conventions are truer of poetry than of any other literary genre.Let us now discuss some of these conventions in poetry. Metrical Verse versus Free Verse Metrical poetry is poetry that has meter. It has a familiar pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. Blank verse refers to poetry written in regular metrical but unrhymed lines. Blank verse is mostly written in iambic pentameter. It is also known as unrhymed iambic pentameter. There is a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line in this type of verse. Each stredded syllables is followed by the unstressed syllables, in this pattern it contains five stressed syllables. Blank verse is considered to be one of the most common and influential forms in English poetry. Many of the English poems have been written in this style. Free verse is the name given to poetry that do not use any strict meter or rhyme scheme. As it has no set meter, poems written in free verse can have lines of any length. It may contain a single word or many words in a line. Although it is has no regular rhyme, rhythm or meter, it still provides artistic expressions. It tends to follow the rhythm of natural speech. Since it does not follow set rules, the poet can give any shape to a poem. Free verse also gives a greater freedom for poets to choose words without bothering about the rhyme and rhythm. It is commonly used in contemporary poetry. The basic difference between blank verse and free verse is that free verse is not written in consistent meter patterns, rhyme, or any other musical pattern on the other hand, blank verse is written in regular metrical patterns. Poems more often than not, with the exception of most modern poetry, are dividedinto precisely measured units which are then put into various patterns-metres-toproduce an intended musical effect. In Hindi, for instance, such units ofmeasurements are called 'maatra' and a word is assigned one or more maatrasdepending on its musical length. However, different languages have different musicalpatterns to express different emotions/feelings. Modern poetry in most languages 23 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

hasshown a tendency to free itself from such metrical patterns. While translatingmetrical poetry, therefore, it is very difficult to 'translate' the metrical patterns of theoriginal poem. Free verse on the other hand is easier to translate, because it is notbound by any such strict metrical patterning. Rhyme versus Blank Verse Poets employ different kinds of rhyme schemes in their poems. That is to say, thereis a similar sound-ending in various lines. Thus in a poem the first and third linesmay rhyme or the second and fourth lines may rhyme. Or, in other cases, the first andfourth lines may rhyme. Sometimes second and third lines may rhyme. There couldbe many more such rhyme patterns. Now, like metrical patterns these soundpatterns or rhymes are also very difficult to 'translate' since most of these lines alsohave definite metrical patterns. Modern poetry has shown a tendency to do awaywith rhyme patterning and use blank verse, which has metre but no rhyme. Musical Patterns That most translators of poetry aim at is the 'translation' of musical patterns ratherthan adhering to the metre-patterns or the rhyme schemes of the original poembecause it is the musical patterns which enhance the emotions. Alliteration, forinstance, is a very common musical device under which a poet repeats a particularsound to create a particular sound effect which in turn creates a particular emotionaleffect evoking a particular 'ras'. The poet Bhushan, for instance, makes use of 't' and'd' sounds more often than other sounds because these sounds are considered more'strong' and 'masculine' and help him in invoking what is known as 'veer ras'. 1.9TREATMENT OF METAPHORS, SIMILES, SYMBOLS AND EXPRESSION Literary texts make extensive use of metaphorsand similes to set up associations between different objects and phenomena. But scientific and technical texts is devoid of this feature. Literarytexts also make use of proverbs and idiomatic expressions quite often for explainingthings or phenomena more effectively and more precisely. Once again, like any otherexpressions referred to above, these metaphors and similes, proverbs and idiomaticexpressions are culture specific. Let us discuss them with the help of concreteexamples. Similes and Metaphors As we know, a simile is a comparison between different terms belonging to differentclasses for the purpose of describing one of them. For example, we say 'as sweet ashoney' or 'white 24 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

as snow'. Broadly speaking a metaphor is also a comparison. Buthere there is no direct comparison as in a simile. Nor are there any connectives suchas 'like' or 'as' used. The writer uses an expression which describes one thing byrotating another. Let us look at some examples. In Hindi, especially poetry, abeautiful face, particularly that of one's beloved, is quite often referred to as a moon,where moon becomes a metaphor for the beloved's beauty: Mera Mehboob, Mera Chand which would literally mean 'my beloved, my moon'. Alternatively, a formal comparison is set up between the face and the moon where it becomes a simile -Chand sa chehra whichliterally means 'a face like a moon'. Let us look at some more examples. An expression like Gaj gamini is a metaphor where the carefree gait or style of walking of a woman is likened to the walk of an elephant. Sometimes the gait is compared to that of a do as well: Hirni Jaisi Chaal is a simile used quite often in Hindi literature. As stated above, metaphors and similes are culture-specific which meanscomparisons between some sets of object/phenomena in two different languagesmay not convey the sharing of a common quality. For instance, in English, referenceto the 'moon' may not convey the concept of a beautiful face. In any case, referring .to the carefree gait of a beautiful woman as the gait of an elephant is certainly nocompliment in English. However, it may sometimes be possible to 'translate' a simileor metaphor literally. For instance, a brave person may be referred to as lion or lionhearted both in Hindi a n d English: Sher-Dil has been shown above, it maynot always be so. A translator of literary texts has, therefore, to be very careful withsuch expressions. Symbols Symbols too are culture-bound. But first, what is a symbol? A symbol is somethingthat stands for something else. Two languages may use the same object to symbolizequite differentat times opposite things/phenomena. An owl, for instance,symbolizes foolishness among speakers of Hindi while for speakers of English and Imany other European languages. It symbolizes wisdom. In English, for instance,green colour symbolizes envy or jealousy while the green colour symbolizes no suchfeelings for speakers of Hindi. Blue symbolizes royalty or aristocracy for speakers ofEnglish while there is no such equivalent colour-symbol in Hindi. Proverbs and Idiomatic Expressions Proverbs are popular, short sayings that state a general truth, give words of adviceor warning. For example: 'it takes two to make a quarrel'. These too are deeply 'rooted in culture. In fact, they are born out of an extraordinary sense of observationof objects and phenomena around us. These at times refer to fables and folk-talesand epics which are a part of the cultural heritage and a r e used by people in themday-today communication for driving home a point instantly and effectively. Aptuse of a proverb is like 'hitting a nail on 25 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

the head' or 'hitting a dart in the bull's eye.’.Authors use such expressions in their creative writings quite often.Since the of a proverb is quite different from the sum of meanings ofindividual words comprising it, proverbs cannot be translated literally. A translatormust either find a proverb in the TL which has a similar meaning, or s/he mustparaphrase the expression. The latter, of course, leads to a dilution of theeffectiveness of the expression. Let us look at some examples from Hindi is a proverb which Hathi Ke Dant Khane Alag or Dikhane ke alag is used very frequently in Hindi. Literally it means that an elephant has two separate sets of teeth-one for eating and another for showing-off. It is used for a person who has double standards-one for public consumption and another for private action. Let us look at another: Sher ka bhai baghera, Wo kude nou, Wo kude Terah is a proverb in Hindi which literally means that a panther is a brother of the lion because while the latter jumps nine lengths, the former jumps thirteen lengths. It refers to a person who out-smarts even the smart ones. Atranslator from Hindi into English may not be able to find a proverb which is theexact equivalent of either of these. Literal translation will obviously not help. S/hemay, therefore, be forced to paraphrase it as we did in explaining the meaning of theabove two proverbs. Idiomatic expressions are also word-structures where the meaning of the expressionis quite different from the literal meaning of the constituting words.Chutki Lena, forinstance, is an expression which occurs in Prem Chands’s: Shatranj Ke khildadi. It means'to have fun at someone's expense', while the literal meaning of the expression isnonsensical 'take snapping of fingers' Aakhen Dikhana is yet another popular idiomatic, expression in Hindi which means 'to show temper' while its literal translation is to show eyes. 1.9 SUMMARY Translation is defined as the transference of meaning from the source language to the targetlanguage Traditionally, translation was seen as an aspect of Linguistics  The items which proved particularly untranslatable were described as culture- specific  A translation of a text meant not just transaction between two languages, but a negotiationbetween two cultures  In translation of literature, difficulty arises in finding the equivalent textual and literarymaterial of the source language in the target language  Language and culture are closely related and both aspects must be considered for translation 26 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 A text in translation, just as any other direct communication text, includes an extra dimension,that of the reader of the text  Transliteration is the process in which a text is reads and words and sentences are pronounced in one language using the letters and special symbols of another language  Transcreation is the creative adaptation of the material in source language material to the target language  Literary translations recreate the ideas and emotions of the text, not just the words, which aremere symbols of the same  For a successful literary translation to be done, socio-cultural background of a language should be properly studied and analysed. 1.10 KEWORDS  Adaptation - translation of the spirit of the text not just the meaning from SL to TL  Bilingual - involving two languages  Computer Assisted Translation - using technology / software for translating contents  Dynamic Equivalence - a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to  Equivalence - referring to words having the same meaning in both the languages.  Formal Equivalence - TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a SL word or phrase. (Nida & Taber)  Free Translation - translation of ideas without any restrictions  Gisting - containing just the main ideas  Idioms - a phrase where the words collectively have a meaning that is different from the dictionary definitions of the individual words.  Literal Translation - word for word translation  Literary Translation - translation of literary works 27 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Localization - the process of translating and adapting the content and the presentation of a text catering to the language and cultural characteristics of the target audience or region parallel text.  Lossless Translation - also called reversible or round-trip translation - no data is lost during decompression.  Lossy Translation - a data encoding method that decompresses the data content, particularly multimedia data. The final output is different from the original as some data are lost in the process.  Machine Translation - the use of computer software to translate text or speechfrom one human language to another.  Metaphrase - the method of turning a text, i.e., word by word and line by line from onelanguage into another. It is not a literal translation.  Multilingual - involving many languages  Phrase to Phrase Translation - translation of a group of words at a time  Source Language (SL) - The language from which a translation is to be made. Usually referredto as L1  Source Language text (SLT) - The text belonging to the source language  Target Language (TL) - the language into which a text, document, etc., is translated. Usually referred to as L2  Target Language Text (TLT) - The text belonging to the target language  Transcreation - translation and recreation of a text in another language, An adaptation of a creative work into another language or culture.  Transcription - converting speech into a written or electronic text document  Translation - a written or spoken rendering of the meaning of a word, speech, book etc., in another language  Transliteration - representation (of a word etc.,) in the closest corresponding letters or characters of a different alphabet or language  Untranslatability - a property of a text, or utterance in SL with no equivalent text or utterance in TL 28 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Word to Word Translation - literal translation. 1.11LEARNING ACITIVITY 1. 1. Perform some research work about the development of Indian writing in translation post-independence. _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 2. Study the difference in the techniques of translation in modern literature. _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 1.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Discuss the contribution of different culture to translation. 2. What are the different theories of translation? 3. How does the treatment of Metaphors, Similes, Symbols and Expressions differ? Give suitable examples. 4. Discuss the contribution of Indian towards translation. 5. Discuss some major challenges faced by the translators. Long Questions 1. Differentiate between Formal and Informal styles of writing. 2. What is your understanding of the term “translation”? 3. What is IWE and ILET? 4. How does literary translation differ from scientific and technical translation? 5. Explain Proverb and Idiomatic expression with suitable examples. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ‘It makes two to quarrel’ is an example of a. Idiom b. Proverb c. Metaphor 29 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. Simile 2. Which of the following is an example of Simile? a. White as a snow b. Hitting a dart on bull’s head c. To have fun on someone else expense d. None of these 3. Which of the following was the court language during Mughals? a. Urdu b. Hindi c. Persian d. Arabic 4. What is the correct translation of the Hindi idiom ‘Aankhendikhana’? a. Show temper b. To control anger c. Having problems in eyes d. None of these 5. In a perfect translation the text retains the same ….. a. Meaning b. Emotions c. Idea d. Both a and b Answers 1-b, 2- a, 3- c, 4-a, 5-d 1.13 REFERENCES Reference’s book  Narang, H.C. \"Transposition of Culture in Literary Translation\", Journal of School of Languages (JSL), Vol. VII, Nos. 1 & 2 (combined), 1982, pp.84-88.  Talgeri, P. and Verma, S.B.- (eds.), Literature in Translation, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1988. 30 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Website  https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-literature  https://www.ancient.eu/Greek_Literature/  https://www.edutry.com/Study-material/  https://www.ancient.eu/aristotle/  https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/  https://www.britannica.com/topic/Poetics  http://ignou.ac.in/  https://www.uoc.ac.in/  http://www.tmv.edu.in/ 31 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT - 2 GIRISH KARNAD: TUGLAQ Structure 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction to Girish Karnad 2.1.1 Early Life 2.1.2 Career 2.1.3 Literature and work 2.1.4 Major Work 2.1.5 Awards and Honours 2.1.6 Activism 2.1.7 Death 2.2 Critical Analysis of Girish Karnad’s “Tuglaq” 2.2.1 The Context 2.2.2 Characters 2.2.3 Plot of the Play 2.2.4 Tuglaq as a Political Allegory 2.2.5 Major Themes and issues 2.3 Summary 2.4 Keyword 2.5 Unit End Questions 2.6 Learning Activity 2.7 References 2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able:  Familiarise the learning of Girish Karnad  Critically analyse Girish Karnad’s Play “Tuglaq”  Answer the examination-oriented questions. 32 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2.1 INTRODUCTION Figure 2.1 Girish Karnad (19 may 1938-10 june2019) 2.1.1Early Life On May 19, 1938, Girish Kanad was born, in a kokani speaking family in a small town of Maharashtra called Matheran. His mother Krishnabai Manikar was a young widow with a son, and belonged to a poor family. She began working as a nurse and cook (general housekeeper) for the bedridden wife of Dr Raghunath Karnad, doctor in the Bombay Medical Service. This was her necessity to earn a living. Krishnabai and Dr Raghunath Karnad got married after few years in a private ceremony, while his first wife was still alive. Because of bigamy (it was legal until 1956 for a Hindu man to have more than one wife) and social prejudice against widow remarriage their marriage became controversial. Under the allowance of the Arya Samaj, a reform organization which tolerates widow remarriage, the wedding was held privately. The third of the four children was Girish born thereafter. Karnad’s initial schooling was done in Marathi, He was exposed to extensive travelling, as his father was transferred to Sirsi in the Kannnada speaking region of Bombay Presidency. He took part in several theater groups and Natak Mandalis (theater troupes). Young Karnad 33 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

was an ardent admirer of Yakshangana and the theater in his village. They shifted to Dharwad in Karnataka when he was fourteen, where he grew up with his two sisters and niece. In 1985, He completed his Bachelor of arts degree in Mathematics and statistics from Karnataka Arts college. Later on he went to England, from where he persuaded his further studies in politics, economics and philosophy. In 1962, he was elected as the president of the Oxford Union. 2.1.2 Career For seven years (1963 -1970) he worked with Oxford University Press Chennai, Later he resigned and took writing as his full-time job. He also got involved with local amateur theatre group called Madras Player. He worked as visiting professor and Fulbright playwright-in-residence at the University of Chicago, from 1987-1988. While he was working at Chicago, Nagamandala had its World Premiere at the Gutherie Theater in Minneapolis based on Karnad’s English Translation of the Kannada originals. The Film and Television Institute of India appointed him as their Director (1974-1975) and Chairperson of the Sangeet Natak Academy, the National Academy Of the performing Arts (1988-1993). He was also appointed as the Director of the Nehru Centre and as Minister of Culture, in the Indian High Commission, London (2000 – 2003). 2.1.3 Literature and Work Many of his plays have been translated in English and other Indian languages which were written in Kannada. Yahati (1961) his first play was written in Kannada which was his adopted language, while his mother tongue was Konkani. The play was a great success and was later translated and staged in many other Indian languages. The play was about the adventures of mythical characters from the Mahabharata. Karnad established himself as one of the most talented play writer in the country. Tughlaq, a convincing allegory based on the Nehruvian era was performed by the National School of Drama. Karnad marked his entry into film making with Samskara in 1970. It was an adaptation of an anti-caste novel in the same name by U.R. Ananthmurthy. He wrote the screenplay and played the lead role in this film. Karnad followed with Vamsha Vriksha (1971), codirected by B.V. Karanth. As a play writer Karnad continued his work. During this period, his works included Hayayadana (1971), which was widely recognized as amongst the most important plays of the post independent India. He continued to figure in film, directing such movies as Kanooru Heggadithi (1999) and acting in Iqbal (2005) and Life Goes On (2009), among others. 34 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

He earned international praise as a playwright, poet, actor, director, critic, and translator. 2.1.4 Major Work Girish Karnad‘s success in the field of contemporary theatre bears testimony to the fact that Indian theatre has revitalized itself through the use of experimental models. His plays are an assertion of the fact that Indian theatre can achieve significant success only by a -return to the roots. His plays are an interesting blend of the classical and the popular elements of Indian theatre. He borrows theatrical techniques both from the Sanskrit and the folk theatres of India. His plays are often considered to be a crucial part of Indian English literature, the consensus being that he himself has translated these plays in to English. Karnad, whose mother tongue was Konkani, wrote almost all his plays in Kannada, which was a second language to him. The English translations of his plays are considered by many to be much better in terms of literary merit than the Kannada originals. Yayati (1961) may be a play about the Chandravamshi king within the Mahabharata who exchanged his decrepitude with the youth of his youngest son, to keep off the curse of premature adulthood. The play may be a reflection of his eclecticism in borrowing elements from playwrights like Anouilh, Sartre, and Eugene O‘Neill. This play established Karnad as a successful playwright, and makes use of the mythic narrative that's so crucial to his plays. The play attracted the eye of the many readers when it first appeared in Kannada. Hayavadana (1971) marked another important achievement in his career as a playwriter. The play is remarkable not just to Karnad‘s theatrical endeavours, but also to the new directions that post-independence Indian theatre was taking in around that time. 2.1.5 Awards and Honours For his exemplary contributions to theatre and art he was awarded many awards In 1970- Rajyotsva Award In 1974- Padam Shree In1992-Padma Bhushan In 1992- Kannada Sahitya Parishad Award In 1999 –Jnanpith Award In 1998- Kalidas Samman He continued to work in film, directing such movies as Kanooru Heggadithi (1999) and acting in Iqbal (2005) and Life Goes On (2009), among others. He earned international praise as a playwright, poet, actor, director, critic, and translator. 35 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2.1.6 Activism He was an advocate of multiculturalism and freedom of thoughts and expression. He was a critic of spiritual fundamentalism. He had publicly condemned the demolition of Babri Masjid in 1992 and later spoke against the attempts to make controversy about the Idgah Maidan in Hubli. He had opposed RSS, BJP and other organizations on several events. He opposed Narendra Modi for the Prime Minister's post within the 2014 parliament elections.] He was one among the 200 writers who put out a letter against hate politics and for “diverse and equal India” during the 2019 general elections. With a tube in his nose, he wore a poster saying \"Me Too Urban Naxal at the first death anniversary of slain journalist Gauri Lankesh Karnad claimed that Tipu Sultan was the best king Karnataka had in 500 years, on a spiritual controversy about the king. Karnad supported the Forum for Communal Harmony. 2.1.7 Death On 10th June 2019, Girish Karnad died in Bengaluru due to multiple organ failure at the age of 81 after prolonged illness. 2.2 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF GIRISH KARNAD’S TUGLAQ 2.2.1 The Context This play was originally written in Kannada (1964) and translated into English (1976) by Alyque Padamsee. It had been first staged at Bhulabhai Auditorium at Mumbai in August 1970 with an excellent success. Tughlaq brought him name and fame directly. The action ofthe play Tughlaq takes place first of beat Delhi within the year 1327, then on the road from Delhi to Daultabad, and lastly five years later, in and round the fort in Daultabad. Girish Karnad started reading history widely, before he wrote Tughlaq. In an interview, Kamad says: once I examine Mohammed-Bin-Tughlaq, I used to be fascinated. How marvelous this was, I thought. Tughlaq was a superb individual yet is taken into account one of the foremost important failures. He tried to introduce policies that seemed today to be farsighted to the aim of genius, because of which he was nick named “Mohammed the mad” then. He ended his career in bloodshed and chaos. It is a representation of 1 of the foremost important but nevertheless neglected periods of Indian history. The reign of the fourteenth century Mughal emperor Muhammad-Bin- Tughlaq remains till date one of the foremost turbulent periods of history. This is often the first and most significant play within the post-independence period to possess engaged with the Sultanate period in Indian history. This era brought an end to the golden age‘of classical Hinduism and introduced Islam as a dominant force. This is often one of the foremost important phases of Islamic imperialism in India, but it 36 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

remains neglected within the national imaginary thanks to the attention given to the later Mughal and British imperialism. Kamad closely sticks to history in his portrayal of Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq and his kingdom, though there is a particular deviation for the sake of artistic and dramatic purposes. Within the very opening scene, he portrays Tughlaq as a generous and charitable king. Tughlaq is shown to simply accept the Kazi’s judgment graciously during which he's held guilty of misappropriating the land of a Hindu, Vishnu Prasad. Tughlaq also sanctions him a grant of 5 hundred silver dinars and a post in Civil Services. Karnad portrays the humanism and idealism of Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq excellently in his play. Within the opening scene, Tughlaq, who is portrayed as a person totally estranged from the society, isn't understood within the proper perspective, because his ideas were far above the reach and comprehension of the folk. There was barren of religious tolerance within the age of Tughlaq. The Hindus and Muslims checked out askance. They were unable to know the broad-minded religious tolerance of Tughlaq. His confidence building measures weren't appreciated. All his attempts to cause an understanding between the 2 varying communities brought distrust. The changes caused by Tughlaq post an excellent threat to the time of honoured conventions. Tughlaq’s frustration at the people’s non-comprehension is convincing. Tughlaq is frustrated because his idealistic dreams could never reach their journey's end, because they lacked the firm support of the people. Karnad also, together with his aesthetic and artistic skill has presented Tughlaq which has great interests for the populace and therefore the political magnates of up to date India. In Tughlaq, a historian may find lapse with reference to the accuracy of the facts of history. In fact, Kamad has made use of the Sultan’s character to suit his theme that an idealist ruler can’t remain idealist if he's ambitious of perpetrating his own power. Karnad mentions some facts of history and places them within the midst of imaginary incidents and situations to dramatize history so as to be of contemporaneous interest. During the reign of Mohammad-Bin-Tughlaq, the Hindus and therefore the Muslims didn't trust each other. The Muslims called the Hindus bloody infidels who deserved to be kicked, and therefore the Hindus suspected the Muslims and will hardly believe that a Muslim ruler was getting to see them prosper and to exempt them from taxes without having his own benefit in sight . Jawaharlal Nehru indeed shared with Tughlaq an over ambitious dream to create an exceptional India. Tughlaq left his rest and sleep to satisfy his dreams but his idealism and vision were probably ahead of times and his subjects couldn't fit into his scheme of things, leading to widespread social, economic and political upheaval and chaos. Tughlaq paradoxically restored to violence and cruelty for the execution of his idealistic plans meant 37 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

for public welfare, the later introduce Tughlaq’s career as bearing a resemblance with the rule of Gandhi in contrast to the sooner phase resembled the Nehru era. Thus, the play demands a reading at two levels - one historical and therefore the other psychological/personal. However, it is often argued that the play isn't only about reading recent Indian history within the light of the period of Tughlaq, but also about the character of subjectivity. it's to be noted that audiences/readers are led repeatedly into the consciousness of Tughlaq and therefore the mind of Tughlaq has an overwhelming presence within the play. The more we watch Tughlaq, the more we discover its multiple layers and its striking significance with contemporary India, starting with the Nehruvian era. Within the historical picture, Karnad created the character of Aziz. The tremendous popularity of Tughlaq and its reception as a classic in Kannada Literature is especially thanks to the contemporary sensitivity. Tughlaq, in fact, enacts an Indian situation of an alien emperor, a dream of cities and empires, subjecting the culture of the people to colonial strain. 2.2.2 Characters Mohammad Bin Tughlaq - The Emperor Tughlaq is the emperor. His character is highly complex and enigmatic throughout the play. He holds all the power after the death of his father and elder brother by an accident as he claims. However, many citizens think that Tughlaq killed both of them for power, as his mother thinks. Tughlaq is aware of this but does not bother initially. He is an idealist and visionary, he puts forward many new laws which the citizens find difficult to accept. He makes rational decisions without thinking about the consequences. Tughlaq is a character who has made enmity with most other characters in the play. He receives negative criticisms throughout the play. He implemented the following rules in his Country: Hindus were exempted from paying tax of Jizia.Hindus were given the right to complain against the King’s Civil Servants for any impunity they suffer. The capital of India was shifted to Delhi from Daulatabad.Introduction of Token Currency. Tughlaq also played a great part in many tragic events in the play. He has murdered several characters in the play. They are: Tughlaq’s Father (to get the throne) Tughlaq’s Brother (The throne would be for the eldest son, so for the throne, he was killed) Sheikh Imam-Udin 38 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

His Step Mother (Punishment for killing Najib, who she thought was a bad influence for her Tughlaq) Shihab-Ud-DinSadar Ratan-Singh’s father (by Tughlaq’s father) His Stepmother- The stepmother is not given a name. She is a good mother and cares for her son even though he is widely criticized for his rational behaviour. She wishes to forget that Tughlaq murdered her husband and son. The stepmother has a varied opinion about Tughlaq’s Friends – Najib and Barani. She finds Barani is a good companion for Tughlaq but realizes that Najib is a bad influence for him. She poisons him, which leads to his death. However, she does not lie about it to Tughlaq. When Tughlaq comes to know the truth, he orders that she should be stoned to death. The stepmother tries to control Tughlaq but becomes the victim to his cruelty Aziz and Azam– Aziz is a character who is present throughout the play. He is a Muslim dhobi. He is a shrewd man who deceives Tughlaq. After the announcement of the law where any citizen may file a complaint against the King for any suffering caused by the Civil Servants; he disguises himself as a Brahmin (Vishnu Prasad). He goes to court saying that he has lost his land. He gets a piece of land, some compensation and a job in Civil Service. He cheats Tughlaq using his law. He appears in the play alongside his friend Aazam. Aazam is Aziz’s friend. He picks pockets and is shocked by what Aziz has done. He along with Aziz manage the crowds of people moving to Daulatabad. They take bribe from the people to end their suffering. If they did not bribe them, then they were left there to suffer. A woman asked for leave to see her sick daughter but she was denied leave as she had no money to bribe them. Both of them threaten Ghiyas-Ud-Din and Aziz ends up killing him. He goes before Tughlaq as Ghiyas-Ud-Din in disguise. The character of Aziz resonates with Tughlaq. However, Aazam is not so much like Aziz though he has a part in the cruelty they have committed. As the riots break out, Aazam is scared and flees the place. Though Aziz believes that they can be with Sultan and loot money. Aazam is murdered. Aziz is questioned by Tughlaq, where he confesses about all his lies. Aziz’s life is spared by Tughlaq. There we can see kindness in Tughlaq, though he has cheated and fooled him. Aziz is a liar and a thief. He takes several disguises (Brahmin, Tughlaq’s Officer, Holy man) and tries to rob money from others. However, in the last scene of the play, he confesses but has lost his companion Aazam. Najib – 39 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Najib is a politician and an advisor to Tughlaq. He is loyal to Tughlaq and is trusted by him. Though Najib is seen as an evil Influence to Tughlaq by his stepmother and Barani (Tughlaq’s friend) Najib has a network of spies to keep him informed of all the movements against Tughlaq. He does not trust anybody. Najib is the planner of many murders that Tughlaq commits. Sheikh-Imam-Uddin – Sheikh Imam Uddin is the biggest opponent of Tughlaq. He criticizes Tughlaq’s foolish acts. He argues that Tughlaq has murdered his father and brother. The citizens trust Imam and he has a big audience. Sheikh is also a noble character, who tries to put forward the truth to the citizens. Later Tughlaq invites him for a meeting to humiliate him though that plan fails. He, later on, plots his death and send him to Ain-ul-Mulk to stop the war. Tughlaq had persuaded him by saying that many Muslims would die in the war and for them to be saved the war had to be stopped. Ain-ul-Mulk’s men think Imam is Tughlaq and is killed. Sihabuddin Shihab-Ud-Din is an administrator and a dependable man. His father is an enemy of Tughlaq. He is misguided by Sheikh Shams-ud-in and Sadar Ratan Singh that Tughlaq has to be killed. Sadar Ratan Singh gains Shihab’s sympathy by saying he is his adopted brother and that his father was killed by Tughlaq. Tughlaq finds this conspiracy, Shihab is killed. Shihab’s honest words are that Tughlaq will be killed one day. Ain-ul-Mulk – Ain-ul-Mulk is a trusted friend and companion of Tughlaq. He is a great champion in chess. He does not appear in the play but has a relevant character in the plot of the play. He is the first person who raises an army against him. He is made the Governor of Deccan by Tughlaq. Nobody suspects him though he is a strong opponent to Tughlaq. Ratansingh – Sadar Ratan Singh is also an opponent to Tughlaq. He is from a royal descend. His father was killed by Tughlaq’s father hence he wants to take vengeance. He is cunning and pretends to be friends with Tughlaq while hating him in secret. He was sent with Sheikh Imam ud-in to meet Ain-ul-Mulk but he escapes. He was killed secretly by Tughlaq’s men. Ghiyas-Ud-Din Abbasid 40 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Figure 2.2. TUGLAQ 'S CHARACTER IN AN ADAPTATION OF ORIGINAL PLAY 2.2.3 Plot Girish Karnad ‘s Tuglaq deals with the last five years of reign of Muhammad Bin Tuglaq. The play writer has crafted and well handled the plot with superb craftsmanship. The action of the play takes place first of beat Delhi within the year 1327, then on the road from Delhi to Daulatabad and lastly in and round the fort at Daulatabad five years later. As the play unwraps, the reader is introduced to the court of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq, a Muslim Sultan (Emperor). Tughlaq declares that he's shifting his capital from Delhi to Daultabad (also referred to as Deogiri). Daultabad is in south India and at an extended distance from Delhi. He has two purposes behind this decision. First, it'll help him to rule over southern a part of India effectively and increase fraternity and unity among Hindus and Muslims as Daultabad may be a Hindu majority city. Second, it'll help him saving his capital against the attacks of Mongols from the north. A man named; Aziz appears within the court. In fact, Aziz has changed his identity from a Muslim to a Hindu with a particular purpose. Tughlaq is documented for Secularism. Despite being a Muslim Sultan, Tughlaq shows an excellent heart towards the Hindus. He wishes himself to be seen as an idealist who wants a unity between Hindus and Muslims. So as to win hearts of Hindus, he favours Hindus more in his decisions and policies. So Aziz takes the name as Vishnu Prasad, a Hindu Brahmin. He has filed a case against the sultan Tughlaq for obtaining his land illegally. He is given a handsome amount on the name of 41 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

land acquisition. Later in his court, He invites the general public to urge settled in Daultabad. He doesn’t force the general public but leave on them at their own will whether to maneuver or to stay there. Aziz, together with his friend Aazam, plans to cheat people and obtain money on the thanks to Daultabad. The scene moves, as now Tughlaq is playing chess in his private chamber. His stepmother appears. She is sort of concerned about his eccentric approach in his administration. it's also revealed that Tughlaq had murdered his father and his brother within the past to urge to the throne during the prayer time. She scolds him for his carelessness towards the uprising led by Ain-ul-Mulk, an old flame of Tughlaq. Ain-ul-Mulk has now became an enemy. he's marching together with his thirty thousand soldiers to attack the state. On the opposite hand, Tughlaq has only six thousand soldiers. If the battle takes place, his defeat is sort of certain. His stepmother asks Ziauddin Barani, a historian of that point, to stay Tughlaq far away from the corporate of foolish advisors and councillors. Sheikh-Imam-Uddin, another notable character, appears on the stage. He doesn’t just like the Sultan in the least. In fact, he provokes the people against Tughlaq for his eccentric decisions. Tughlaq himself is cognizant of the very fact that Sheikh has ill desires against him. Tughlaq calls him and asks him to go to Ain-ul-Mulk with a proposal for peace. Sheikh is asked to be dressed as a royal person and is shipped on an elephant. Tughlaq has done this with an intention. Later news comes that Sheikh-Imam-Uddin is murdered. He was mistaken for Tughlaq by the rivals for his royal dress and riding on elephant. Ratan Singh reveals that it had been Tughlaq’s plot. This incident comes as a primary instance of the dark side of his character. Ratan Singh, Amir’s and Sayyids are getting to murder the Sultan as there's no other way left for them to prevent his foolish acts. They debate about Daultabad city and its Hindu majority population. They persuade Sihabuddin to hitch them. But he hasn’t made up his mind yet. They decide to murder him during the prayer. Later their plan is revealed, all of them are caught and beget death sentence. Tughlaq orders for his or her dead bodies to be hanged publicly. He takes another ridiculous decision to possess currency minted on copper and brass metal. Adding more to his foolishness, he declares that the all coins will have an equal value, regardless of whether the coin is formed of gold, silver, copper or brass. He also announces a ban on prayers. Even people now start naming him as a foolish Sultan. Now Tughlaq wants to move there as early as possible. On the way, many of us die of hunger, diseases and for other reasons. Aziz appears together with his friend Aazam and tells him the way to make others fool and extract money. Now the scene shifts to Daultabad. It's reported that Najib, a confidante and an advisor of Tughlaq, is murdered. His stepmother comes and scolds him that the economy of the state is collapsing because the people have minted such a lot fake currency on copper and brass. 42 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

They need exchanged it for gold and silver coins. So his foolish decision is to be held in charge of this crisis. But Tughlaq is frustrated by Najib's murder. Numerous people, whomever he suspects, are executed. Finally it's revealed that Najib was poisoned by Tughlaq’s stepmother. When Tughlaq involves realize this, He orders to arrest her. She is punished by showering stones on her until she dies. All such decisions are presented because the severe frustrations of his mind. It is announced to the general public that when Ghiyasuddin-Abbasid arrives, the ban on the prayers are going to be lifted. But the people are not any way curious about it as they're dying of hunger. The lifetime of commoner is devastated. But Tughlaq is preparing for Ghiyasuddin-Abbasid’s welcome. Aziz appears and murders Ghiyas-uddin-Abbasid. Now Aziz disguises himself as Ghiyas-uddin-Abbasid with an intention to fudge the Sultan. Aziz manages to deceive Tughlaq together with his new identity. Later Aazam is assassinated and somehow, his true identity is revealed to Tughlaq. Now Aziz tells him everything whatever he had wiped out past to cheat him. The revelation of those facts really impresses Tughlaq. He appoints him on a strong position in his court. Having taken this decision, Tughlaq goes to sleep. When he wakes up, he recognizes himself as he has gone mad. The play ends here. Figure 2.1 Scene from the play 2.2.4 Tughlaq as a Political Allegory Through the technique of establishing analogy between the past and the present, Girish Karnad heightens the relevance of the play for the present time. The play does not merely 43 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

present a picture of the past, but highlights its implications for the present. An analogy is developed between Tughlaq‘s reign in the play and the political situation of the Nehruvian era. This analogy and its appropriateness make the play unique in terms of contemporary relevance. Even after years of its first publication, the play continues to be perceived as being contemporary. One of the critical issues that Karnad addresses in Tulghlaq is the striking gap between political aspirations and its reality. In one of his interviews Karnad comments: ―When I read about Mohammed bin Tughlaq, I was fascinated. How marvellous this was, I thought. Tughlaq was a brilliant individual, yet is regarded as one of the biggest failures. He tried to introduce policies that seem today to be farsighted to the point of genius, but which earned him the nick name \"Mohammed the mad\" then. He ended his career in bloodshed and chaos Karnad's depiction of Tughlaq as one who sought to put aside religious differences in the hopes of embracing secularism is a powerful issue in the drama. Tughlaq states early on that he wishes to see unity between Hindus and Muslims as a significant part of his vision: \"Daulatabad is a city of Hindus and as the capital, it will symbolize the bond between Muslims and Hindus which I wish to develop and strengthen in my kingdom.\" The impracticality of his aspiration collides with reality as Tughlaq fails in his vision. It is because of such a condition that Karnad exposes his propensity to failure. 2.2.5 Major Themes and Issues in the Play Idealistic Leadership Karnad makes Tughlaq an idealist, and establishes that in politics idealism does not pay. It is bound to fail, especially when the idealist is impulsive. Tughlaq is an intelligent man and works meticulously for the people, the idealism of Tughlaq and the subsequent political disillusionment of the period are often compared to those of Nehru era.Sultan‘s character becomes more fascinating because of his paradoxical and complex nature. He is portrayed as ―a dreamer and a man of action, benevolent and cruel, devout and callous.‖ U.R. Anantha Murty remarks: ―Both Tughlaq and his enemies initially appear to be idealists; yet in the pursuit of the ideal, they perpetrate its opposite. The whole play is structured on these opposites: the ideal and the real: the divine aspiration and the deft intrigue. These opposites constitute the main charm of the structure of Tughlaq. Tughlaq promises his Subjects to maintain ―justice, equality, progress and peace -- not just peace but a more purposeful life‖ ―without any consideration of might and weakness, religion or creed. But to a great surprise he could not win the hearts of his public. He wants to give his ―beloved people‖ peace, freedom, justice and progress. He says that his people would witness how justice works in my kingdom - without any consideration of might or weakness, religion or creed. But his ascendancy over the throne of Delhi makes him ―at once a dreamer and a man of action, benevolent and cruel, devout and godless. 44 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Indeed Tughlaq was at first an idealist but as time passed on his idealism failed and he turned to be a shrewd politician, a callous and heartless murderer and intriguer who employed religion for his political motives and even hurled the country into turmoil and troubles. Thus the play ―explores the paradox of pseudo – idealistic Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq, whose reign is regarded as a spectacular failure in India‘s history.‖ As an idealist and visionary, a rationalist and forward-looking emperor Tughlaq tried to introduce his kingdom into an egalitarian society. But he found the circumstances not favourable to rule because the country was divided between Islam and Hinduism. There was much animosity between the Hindus and Muslims. Tughlaq began to make efforts to bring about harmony between the two communities, justice and equality for all for the welfare of his people. He said: ―May this moment burn bright and light up our path towards greater justice, equality, progress and peace – not just peace but a more purposeful life. Tughlaq wanted to be an enlightened and liberal despot and tried hard to find the cooperation of his subjects, which was denied to him due to the bigotry and orthodoxy of his people. The people fail to understand his idealism and reformatory zeal, and condemn him as an enemy of Islam. In fact, he is a devout Muslim with full faith in the Holy Koran but his rationalistic and ideal views are beyond the comprehension of his subjects. ‖ Symbolism The play Tughlaq is noted for its symbols. Four symbols like prayer, sleep, the game of chess and the rose are used to heighten the effect of the play. As P. Bayapa Reddy remarks: ―At the micro level, prayer symbolizes the religious idealism of Tughlaq. At the macro level, it connects man‘s unconscious need for divine protection and guidance in an hour of anguish. In the beginning prayer is made compulsory but later it is banned for a few years and again it is revived. It is reduced to a mockery when the Sultan‘s life is threatened at the time of prayer. Sleep on one level represents the need for rest in man‘s life. At the macro level it becomes symbolic of peace, which eludes man often. The rose is a symbol of the aesthetic and poetic susceptibilities of Tughlaq. It later on becomes a symbol of the withering away of all the dreams and ideals of Tughlaq at the macro level, the game of chess is an ordinary game which is popular in India. It also symbolizes a political game in which an ordinary washer man checkmates the most intelligent and clever politician. Through this symbolist technique, the playwright has succeeded in creating the right political atmosphere ….‖popular in India. It also symbolizes a political game in which an ordinary washer man checkmates the most intelligent and clever politician. Through this symbolist technique, the playwright has succeeded in creating the right political atmosphere. Religious Tolerance as a Political Strategy The Sultan practiced the idea of brother hood, which is an important aspect of human values in Islam, and this in turn annoyed the ecclesiastics because it undermined their political 45 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

interests. The efforts of the Sultan to bridge the difference between Hindus and Muslims invited anger and displeasure of the Mullahs and Maulavis. To unite them, he abolished the jiziya tax and openly declared that both Hindus and Muslims would be treated impartially and would be equal in the eyes of the law. But this made him a suspect both in the eyes of the Hindus and the Muslims. The Old Man in the first scene mocked at the Sultan‘s liberal attitude towards Hindus: ―Beware of the Hindu who embraces you. Before you know what, he‘ll turn Islam into another caste and call the prophet an incarnation of his god….‖ Even Hindus, who were prospering and exempted from jiziya taxes, never trusted on their part. They bore with such insults silently. By temperament Tughlaq was a rationalist and philosopher and he wanted to build up a powerful and united nation. The far-sighted Tughlaq announced his policy to shift the capital by saying that ―this is no mad whim of a tyrant. Tughlaq‘s rash decision to change the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad is a turning point in Tughlaq, which results in untold and inexpressible suffering to the common people. Prayer and religion are vitiated for power and money. Prayer is used to achieve an end and not an end in itself. The word prayer ‘is repeated several times and it reverberates throughout the play. Karnad dexterously shows how prayer affects the ruler and the masses. The powerful, the prosperous and the rulers can pray in peace. The poor who are exploited and empty stomachs cannot even think of prayer. Their prayer is only to earn bread by the sweat of brow. To Tughlaq it was a masquerade to hide his guilty conscience and to the hungry people it was luxury. In the atmosphere of atrociousness, cruelty, killing, sobs and sighs, wailing and tears which India had during the reign of Muhammad, it was very difficult for the people to pray. Disguise Disguise is an important theatrical strategy in the play. It on the one hand undermines the seriousness with which the Sultan‘s plans are made and on the other, mocks at his idealism. The dramatist ironically presents Aziz, the dhobi, who disguises himself as Brahmin, and later appears in the guise of the great grandson of ―His Imperial Holiness Abbasid, the Khalif of Baghdad‖. He is invited by the Sultan to Daultabad to bless the country and to start the banned prayer. An announcement is made so that all the citizens may welcome His Holiness for, ―This is a holy day for - us - a day of joy! And its glory will be crowned by the fact that the Public Prayer, which has been mute in our land these five years, will be started again from next Friday. It is a great ironic act that Tughlaq, the mighty and the most powerful, falls at the feet of Ghiyas-ud-din Abbasid, disguised Aziz. The great and shrewd politician of his time wants to 46 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

seek shelter at the feet of a religious man not knowing the dust of the feet he is taking on his head, is that of a common man. Here the great emperor becomes an object of pity as his dreams of the monarch are shattered. Politics fails and the realm of religion begins to prevail over politics. Karnad succeeds in presenting the common man in disguised is more powerful than the Sultan for the royalty has to bow down to him. The last scene becomes more ironical because the Sultan, who initiates the prayer after five years, falls asleep. Religion-Politics Interface Tughlaq is of great interest as it combines religion and politics of an idealist and visionary Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq. It intends to show that idealism of the ruler will fail and will ruin the idealist. The concepts like secularism, equality and unity in a country like India are very much ahead of the times. In India people still are led away by the saints and religious heads. They believe more their religious leaders than a politician. The fiery speeches of the religious saint swing people this side or that side for the vote. People still are be fooled by them as they were during the reign of Tughlaq. Thus the life of the people is governed and corrupted by the interaction of the saints and the politicians Agony and the Notion of Repentance The innumerable murders that Tughlaq is involved in don‘t bring him peace. They tear him from within. He feels lonely and frustrated. In such torn and wretched state he seeks the shelter of God who can only save him from misery and the ghosts of the murdered. Only He can help him to be a man. For this all of a sudden Tughlaq, the mighty murderer, plunderer and sinner, falls to his knees and clutches his hands to his breast to pray. Girish Kamad is skilled in the art of characterization. His characters are of various kinds. Politicians like Najib, historians like Barani, the religious like saint Imam-uddin and the Khalifa, the thinkers like step mother who gets things done, friend turned foe like Shihab- ud-din, the comic like Aziz and Azam, the idealists like Muhammad and Shihab, the announcers and the Hindu and Muslims-men and women who remain anonymous, play a very important role in forming an opinion of the man hero Tughlaq of the play. He seems to be a visionary king who wishes for the welfare of his people .He nourishes vision of a better world. His study of the great scholars made him a visionary who finds thrilling joy in entertaining vision of new world. The Sultan does not want to waste his life in sleeping. He tells his step mother, “I pray to the Almighty to save me from sleep” It seems that he invests every moment of his life for the benevolence of his kingdom. He plans for this. He orders to shift the capital of his empire from Delhi to Daultabad and launches new copper currency in place of Silver Dinar. Tughlaq’s plans were democratic, not tyrannical when he orders the shifting of his capital from Delhi to Daultabad, he goes to 47 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

his people tells them, “I beg you to realize that this is no mad whim of a tyrant. My ministers and I took this decision after careful thought and discussion” Karnad’s art of characterization is based on the principles of life which is an amalgam of contrasting elements-fire and water, earth and sky etc. Also in the play, we have a number of characters who present this contrast. The Sultan himself is a contrast to all the people of the state-the idealist against the practical human beings, the intellectual and truly spiritual against the earthly matter of fact ones. There is the mother of the Sultan unconcerned about her son as against the step mother of Muhammad who is always concerned about his health and welfare. The passive mother of Muhammad who took him to be guilty of patricide and fratricide is most unlike his step mother who denies believing that Muhammad murdered his father and brother. The mother keeps herself aloof from politics while the step mother is very much in it and gets Najib murdered when she feels that Najib was advising the Sultan against the interest of state and Muhammad. Najib and Barani also are contrasting characters. Najib is a politician while Barani is ahistorian. Barani has faith in courage, honesty and justice. While Najib mocks at thesewords and feels that in dealing with a political problem, these qualities are irrelevant.Najib wanted the present moment to be firmly grasped, but Barani’s ways of thinkingwere different. Najib thought it his job to suspect everybody including the Sultan, butBarani dealt with the people without any prejudice. The contrast in the thinking ofAziz and Azam enhances the interest of the play-Aziz in disguise acts on the orders ofthe Sultan; Azam most unwillingly follows his friend and does disguise himself. Sultan uses his opponents like pawns on the chessboard of politics and unscrupulously kills them. Tughlaq even fails to offer prayer, which is reintroduced after an interval of five years when Ghiyas-ud-din Abbasid disguised Aziz comes to Daultabad to bless him. He falls soundly asleep and gets up when the Muezzin‘s call to prayer fades away. His bloody actions are the result of his intense ambition to establish an idealistic leadership as the norm. The failure of his political methods unnerves him and makes him insane. Tughlaq, being a master intriguer is never at peace with himself. He is a betrayer for whom life brings only restlessness and mental agony. That he has no concerns for human relations, is quite clear from the fact that the near and dear ones fall a prey to his evil designs. He is unable to tolerate any criticism and feels confident that he can never go wrong. Murders don’t taunt him and he easily jokes about killing without any prick of conscience. Tuglaq- A resonance of the Nehruvian times 1964 was the time when Pandit Nehru, who was the first Prime Minister of India, died a heart-broken man when the Chinese betrayed him after the famous ‘Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai’ era. Girish Karnad goes to history for the subject matter of his play and picks up the character of Muhammad Tughlaq as his chief protagonist in it. Karnad’s treatment of the 48 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

character of Muhammad Tughlaq makes appear Tughlaq to be a strong historical character, and creates this character in such a way that Tughlaq gets a historical relevance and fits into the scene of post-independent India in the seventeenth year of its existence. Karnad uses this historical figure to lampoon Nehru for his excessive sympathy of Muslims. It is quite apparent that Karnad is essaying on the Indian political scenario of the contemporary times. On the surface level, one may think that he is talking about the historical character Tughlaq, but beneath the veneer this deceptive simplicity, there lies the truth, the greater truth of the historical character being a caricature of Nehru. The real intention behind the play is not to highlight history but comment upon Nehru and his style of administration. Nehru and many of his actions as the Prime Minister of independent India. Tughlaq is shown as being more sympathetic to the Hindus in the play as a strategy to protect himself as a genuine secularist, and to convince them that they are safe under his reign. In deeper sense, though it is a genuine echo of Nehru’s excessive sympathy for the Muslims under the disguise of secularism. Tughlaq tries to draw a line of demarcation between religion and politics in the play, and the more he attempts to do it, the more they get mingled. The same thing has happened in the Nehruvian era and has continued ever since. Both, religion and politics have been mingled and merged into one another to such an extent that religion is used in modern times for political purposes and politics for the religious purposes. Enmeshed in this is the problem of truth of reality in these two domains. 2.3 SUMMARY  The level, one” is a thirteen scene play set during the reign of Muhammad Bin Tuglaq, written by Girish Karnad in the year1964.  Tuglaq was an idealist. The idealist and idealism do not go hand in hand. The idealist is only a misnomer and one has to face challenges, which he tries to curb down in his own crafty manner. But the idealist like Tughlaq fails in producing any lasting result. His idealism was shattered in the game of politics.  The reason of Tughlaq’s failure can be summed as: All his brilliant ideas were doomed to fail because they were implemented impulsively without weighing all the aspects involved. None of his schemes, however well intentioned, was understood or appreciated by his people and none of them succeeded.  Rulers and politicians use religion as a medium to befool the common man. They pollute religion by misusing it for fulfilling their dirty political motives. But religion cannot be used to serve the end of those who are in power because it preaches morals and expects morality from the people. It stands for virtue, goodness, righteousness 49 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

and moral conduct while politics thrives on intrigue, craftiness, dishonesty and deceit. The case of Tughlaq is no exception.  Both Tughlaq and his enemies appear to be idealists, but in the pursuit of their ideal they continue doing the opposite. The whole play is an exhibition paradoxes .Karnad juxtapose the ideal and real, the longing for divinity and the clever and skilled intrigue, prayed and murder and benevolence and atrocities.  Tughlaq, being a master intriguer is never at peace with himself. He is a betrayer for whom life brings only restlessness and mental agony. That he has no concerns for human relations, is quite clear from the fact that the near and dear ones fall a prey to his evil designs. He is unable to tolerate any criticism and feels confident that he can never go wrong. Murders don’t taunt him and he easily jokes about killing without any prick of conscience.  All the characters of the play are not completely bad or good. They are the mixture of them. They have two sides, including the protagonist Tuglaq. The common people hold contradictory opinion about him. Old Muslims found him anti-Islamic and non- religious. The young thought him to be religious, human and idealist. This ambiguity was so prominent that it was difficult for a critic to say that either he was a cruel and mad or a wise king. So,it’s concluded the he was the mixture of two, who met his tragic end because of this thinking.  The contrast between Islam and Hinduism, between idealism and practice, between the real and the unreal, between loyalty and treachery, between religion and politics along with parallelism make the play interesting and to show that in politics, idealism does not work and their trust does necessarily beget trust. The play is acceptable and holds true for the situation of all generation. 2.4 KEYWORDS  Eccentric- (used about someone or their behaviour) strange or unusual  Benevolence- an act of kindness  Treachery- A behaviour or an action in which someone betrays their country or betrays a person who trusts them  Juxtapose- t o put two people, things, etc. very close together, especially in order to show how they are different  Intrigue- to make somebody very interested and wanting to know more  Unscrupulous- being dishonest, cruel or unfair in order to get what you want 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)